AP100: Study Guide

Final Exam (Ch. 14, 16,17,22-25)

Ch. 14: Endocrine System

1. List the functions of the endocrine system.

 Communicates with the body through hormones (chemical signals)

 Helps to regulate metabolic processes (involves carbs, proteins, and fats)
 Plays an important role in growth and reproduction
 Helps regulate water and electrolyte balance
 Helps to meet the demands of infection, trauma, and stress
 Response by the endocrine system is generally slow, but the effects are long-lasting (unlike the
nervous system which is rapid, but achieves short-lived effects).
2. Discuss the role and functions of hormones in the body.

 Hormones are chemical messengers that influence/control the activity of other tissues or organs
 Classified as either protein-based or steroidal (only secreted by the adrenal cortex and sex
glands)
 Travel through ducts via exocrine glands or through the blood endocrine glands in order to reach
their targets; once a target is reached, hormones bind to a receptor outside (membrane receptor)
or inside (intracellular receptor) of the cell; the interaction of the hormone and receptor
stimulates the production of a second messenger which in turn activates enzymes in the cell
 Protein hormones generally bind to membrane receptors and alternately, steroid hormones
generally bind to intracellular receptors within the nucleus of the cell
3. Explain the process by which hormones bind to the receptor sites of specific tissues (targets).

 Each hormone binds to a specific tissue (target tissue or organ)

 Some hormones such as thyroid hormone (TH) or insulin, have many different targets and
therefore, exert widespread or generalized effects
 Other hormones, such as parathyroid hormone (PTH) have less targets and therefore, exert fewer
effects.
4. Explain the three mechanisms that control the secretion of hormones.

 Three mechanisms control the secretion of hormones: negative and positive feedback loops,
biorhythms, and CNS (central nervous system) activity
 In the case of a negative feedback loop, the glands in the body recognize that enough of a steroid
has been secreted and temporarily stop further production
 In the case of a positive feedback loop, an amplified reaction occurs until the cycle is complete
 A biorhythm affects blood levels of hormones by rhythmically altering the hormone’s rate of
secretion (ex. circadian rhythm or menstrual cycle)
 The CNS helps to control the secretion of hormones via activation of the hypothalamus and the
stimulation of the SNS (sympathetic nervous system)(ex. when the body is stressed, the CNS
causes several endocrine glands to secrete stress hormones)
5. Discuss the relationship between the pituitary gland and the hypothalamus.

 The pituitary gland and hypothalamus are connected to one another by a short stalk called the
infundibulum
 The secretions of both the anterior and posterior pituitary gland are dependent on the
hypothalamus
 The anterior pituitary gland (adenohypophysis) and its secretions are controlled by the
“releasing hormones” of the hypothalamus that work to either inhibit or stimulate the release of
hormones by the anterior pituitary gland
 The posterior pituitary gland (neurohypophysis) is made accessible to hypothalamic secretions
and control by way of the hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system (a network of capillaries)
6. Describe the location, regulation, and hormones of the pituitary gland.

 The anterior pituitary gland (adenohypophysis)secretes prolactin, adrenocorticotropic hormone

(ACTH), gonadotropins (Follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone), thyroid-
stimulating hormone (TSH), and growth hormone (GH)
 Remember Pro (prolactin) Athletes (ACTH) Got (gonadotropins) To (TSH) Grow (GH); the
posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis) gland secretes antidiuretic hormone (ADH), and oxytocin
7. Identify the other major endocrine glands and their hormones.

 The thyroid gland secretes T3 and T4, as well as calcitonin

 The parathyroid gland secretes parathyroid hormone (PTH)
 The adrenal gland secretes hormones from two different areas, the adrenal medulla which
secretes catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine), and the adrenal cortex, which
secretes steroids (cortisol, aldosterone, and sex hormones)
 The pancreas releases insulin and glucagon
 The ovaries secrete estrogen and progesterone
 The testes secrete testosterone
 The tiny pineal gland is responsible for secreting melatonin
8. Explain the effects of hyposecretion and hyposecretion.
Growth hormone (Anterior pituitary disorders)
Hyposecretion can cause:

 Dwarfism (in children)

Hypersecretion can cause:

 Gigantism (in children)

 Lantern jaw (in adults)
 Acromegaly (in adults)
T3 and T4 (Thyroid gland disorders)
Hyposecretion can cause:
  Hypothyroidism - disorder that results in slowed metabolic state, slow heart rate, sluggish
peristalsis, constipation, low body temperature, low energy, hair loss, weight gain, and puffy
skin
 Goiter (enlarged thyroid gland) – condition that is due to a lack of iodine in the body
 Cretinism (in infants) - disorder where the baby fails to develop both physically and mentally
 Myxedema - term for hypothyroidism in adults
Hypersecretion can cause:

 Hyperthyroidism – increased metabolic state characterized by increased heart rate, increase

in peristalsis, diarrhea, elevation in body temperature, hyperactivity, weight loss, and mood
swings
 Grave’s disease - hyperthyroid state characterized by bulging eyes (exophthalmos) and
impaired or loss of vision
Cortical hormones (Adrenal gland disorders)
Hyposecretion can cause:

 Addison’s disease – too little steroid production; characterized by a bronzed skin appearance
Hypersecretion can cause:

 Cushing’s disease or syndrome - caused by too much steroid production; characterized by

moon face, buffalo hump, truncal obesity, and virilization (masculinization)
 Pheochromocytoma - benign tumor of the adrenal medulla (hypersecretion of epinephrine
and norepinephrine)
Parathyroid hormone (Parathyroid disorders)
Hyposecretion can cause:

 Hypocalcemia (low calcium levels)

 Tetany (sustained muscle contraction)
 Asphyxiation
 Death
Insulin (Pancreatic disorders)
Hyposecretion can cause:

 Type I (juvenile-onset ) diabetes - characterized by the three P’s: polyuria, polydipsia, and
polyphagia, acidosis (excess of H+ in the blood), and fruity odor to breath
 Type II (adult-onset) diabetes - typically due to being sedentary, older, and obese
Antidiuretic hormone (Pituitary gland disorders)
Hyposecretion can cause:

 Diabetes insipidus - condition caused by a lack of ADH secretion or lack of response by the
kidneys to ADH
Hypersecretion can cause:
  SIADH (syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion)

Key Terms

 Adenohypophysis – anterior pituitary gland

 Neurohypophysis – posterior pituitary gland
 Catecholamines – hormones secreted by the adrenal medulla; includes epinephrine (adrenaline),
norepinephrine (noradrenaline), and dopamine
 Endocrine glands – ductless glands that secrete hormones, usually into the blood for transport
throughout the body
 Hormone – substance secreted by an endocrine gland into the blood
 Tropic hormones – hormones (usually from the anterior gland) that have other endocrine glands
as their targets
 Organ-specific hormones – hormones that are secreted by an organ such as the heart or kidneys
 Lock-and-key mechanism – each hormone (key) fits exactly into its receptor (lock)
 Negative feedback loop -mechanism located by an imbalance in the body (thermostat) that works
to correct the balance
 Positive feedback loop -
 Receptor – sensory structure that responds to a specific stimulus such as light, chemicals, or touch
 Second messenger – intracellular signaling molecules released by the cell in response to exposure
to extracellular signaling molecules
 Steroids – lipid-soluble hormone such as estrogen, testosterone, and cortisol

Ch. 16: Anatomy of the Heart

1. Describe the location of the heart.
The hearts sits in the thoracic cavity within the lower mediastinum, between the two lungs, and behind
the sternum
2. Name the three layers and the covering of the heart.
1. Endocardium (innermost layer that is continuous with the blood vessels that enter and leave the
heart)
2. Myocardium (middle, thickest layer composed of cardiac muscle)
3. Epicardium (outermost, thin layer that helps to form the pericardium)
a. Pericardium (sling-like structure that supports the heart)
3. Explain the function of the heart as two separate pumps.

 The right side of the heart

 o Receives unoxygenated blood from the superior (collects blood from the head and upper
body) and inferior (collects blood from the lower body region) vena cavae
o Pumps blood to the lungs where it is then oxygenated
o Pulmonary circulation describes the path that the blood follows from the right side of the
heart to and through the lungs and back to the left side of the heart
 The left side of the heart
o Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it out to the rest of the body
o Systemic circulation describes the path that blood follows from the left side of the heart
to all of the organs of the body and back to the right side of the heart
4. Identify the four chambers and great vessels of the heart.
1. Right atrium
a. Receives unoxygenated blood from the superior and inferior vena cavae
2. Right ventricle
a. Receives unoxygenated blood from the right atrium
b. Primary function is to pump blood through the pulmonary arteries to the lungs
3. Left atrium
a. Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs through four pulmonary veins
4. Left ventricle
a. Receives oxygenated blood from the left atrium
b. Primary function is to pump blood into the systemic circulation
c. Blood leaves the left ventricle through the aorta (largest artery of the body)
d. Left ventricle has the thickest myocardium because it has to pump blood to the entire
body
5. Great vessels
a. Large blood vessels attached to the heart
b. Include the superior and inferior vena cavae, pulmonary trunk, four pulmonary veins,
and the aorta
5. Explain the functions of the four heart valves.

 The heart has four valves that are further divided into two categories: atrioventricular valves
and semilunar valves
o Atrioventricular valves (located between the atria and the ventricles on each side of the
heart)
o When the ventricles are relaxed, the valves are open and permit the flow of blood from
the atria
o When the ventricles contract, the heart muscle compresses the blood in the ventricles
resulting in pressure that closes the valves
o Closed AV valves prevent the backward flow of blood from the ventricles to the atria
o When blood pushes the valves into a closed position, papillary muscles contract and pull
on the chordae tendineae (fibrous bands) which keeps the cusps from blowing into the
atrium
 The two types of AV valves are the tricuspid valve and bicuspid (mitral) valve
 Tricuspid valve is located between the right atrium and right ventricle
 Bicuspid (mitral) valve is located between the left atrium and left ventricle
o Semilunar valves (exit valves)
  Pulmonic valve (right semilunar valve)
 Located between the right ventricle and the pulmonary trunk
 When the right ventricle contracts (increasing intraventricular pressure),
blood from the ventricle forces the pulmonic valve open; blood then
flows into the pulmonary truck (large vessel that carries blood to the
pulmonary arteries and then the lungs)
 When the right ventricle relaxes, the pulmonic valve snaps shut and
prevents blood from returning to the right ventricle from the pulmonary
trunk
 Aortic valve (left semilunar valve)
 Located between the left ventricle and the aorta
 When the pressure inside the aorta becomes greater than the pressure of
the relaxed ventricle, the aortic valve shuts; the opposite is true when the
pressure is relieved inside the aorta
6. Describe the physiologic basis of the heart sounds.

 Heart sounds are made by vibrations caused by the closure of the valves
 Abnormal heart sounds are called “murmurs”
 S1 is referred to as the first heart sound (“lubb”)
o Caused by the closure of the AV valves at the beginning of ventricular contraction
o Best heard over the apex of the heart
 S2 or the second heart sound (“dupp”)
o Caused by the closure of the semilunar valves at the beginning of ventricular relaxation
o Best heard at the base of the heart

7. Describe blood flow through the heart.

Right side of the heart
1. Deoxygenated blood
2. superior and inferior vena cavae
3. Right atrium
4. Tricuspid valve
5. Right ventricle
6. Pulmonic valve
7. Pulmonary artery
8. Lungs

Left side of the heart

9. Oxygenated blood
10. Pulmonary vein
11. Left atrium
12. Bicuspid (mitral) valve
13. Left ventricle
14. Aortic valve
15. Aorta
16. Body
8. List the vessels that supply blood to the heart.
  Coronary arteries (supply blood to the myocardium, SA node, and AV node)
o Right coronary artery supplies the right side of the heart
o Left coronary artery supplies the left side of the heart
 Left anterior descending artery
 Circumflex artery
 Coronary veins (collect the blood that nourishes the myocardium)
o Coronary sinus
o If coronary blood flow diminishes, the myocardium experiences oxygen deprivation
(ischemia)
o If coronary blood flow becomes completely blocked, the myocardial cells die, causing a
myocardial infarction
9. Identify the major components of the heart’s conduction system.
1. Sinoatrial (SA) node (“pacemaker” – fires cardiac impulses that sets the hate at which the heart
beats)
2. Atrioventricular (AV) node (1. Acts as a path for the cardiac impulse to travel from the
conducting fibers into the bundle of His 2. Slows the cardiac impulse as it moves along the
conducting fibers)
3. Bundle of His (specialized conduction tissue located in the interventricular septum)
4. Right and left bundle branches (send out numerous fibers known as “Purkinje fibers”)
5. Purkinje fibers (distributed throughout the ventricular myocardium; ensure that both ventricles
contract in coordination with one another)
Key Terms

 Aortic valve – semilunar valve located between the left ventricle and aorta
 Atrial conducting fibers – specialized conducting gibers that transmit the cardiac impulse (action
potential) from the SA node in the right atrium to the ventricles; AV node slows the signal
 Atrioventricular valves – cuspid valves located between the atria and the ventricles; include the
tricuspid and bicuspid (mitral) valves
 Atrium – upper chamber of the heart that receives blood from the veins
 Automaticity – ability of the cardiac cells to general their own electrical signals independently of
the CNS
 AV node – part of the cardiac conduction system that acts as a relay station for the electrical
signal coming from the SA node in the right atrium into the ventricles
 Bicuspid valve – AV valve between the left atrium and left ventricle
 Cardiology – study of the heart
 Chordae tendineae – tough fibrous bands of connective tissue that attach the cusps of the AV
valves to the walls of the heart’s ventricles
 Conduction System – specialized tissue in the heart that generates and transmits the electrical
signals (cardiac impulses/action potentials)
 Coronary arteries – deliver oxygenated blood to the heart muscle; right and left coronary arteries
supply their respective side of the heart
 Electrocardiogram (ECG) – graphic recording of the electrical events that occur during the
cardiac cycle
  Great vessels – large blood vessels that carry blood to and away from the heart; aorta, superior
and inferior vena cavae, pulmonary trunk, and pulmonary veins
 Purkinje fibers – fast-conducting fibers located in the ventricular walls; conduct the electrical
impulses from the bundle of His to the ventricular myocardium
 His-Purkinje system – path of specialized conducting cells within the ventricles of the heart;
allows the electrical signals to spread throughout the ventricles rapidly, thereby initiating
myocardial contraction (systole)
 Interatrial septum – septum between the right and left atria
 Interventricular septum - septum between the right and left ventricles
 Pacemaker – specialized conduction tissue located in the upper right atrium; its rate of
depolarization determines the heart rate
 Precordium – area of the anterior chest that overlies the heart
 Rhythmicity – rhythmic beating of the heart
 Semilunar valves – shape resembles a half-moon; located between the ventricles and their
attached vessels; pulmonic valve and aortic valve
 Tricuspid valve – AV valve found between the right atrium and right ventricle
 Ventricle – cavity in an organ, such as the heart

Ch. 17: Function of the Heart

1. Define the cardiac cycle with respect to systole and diastole.

 The cardiac cycle has three stages:

1. Atrial systole (atria contract and pump blood into the ventricles; AV valves open and ventricles
are relaxed)
2. Ventricular systole (ventricles contract; AV valves snap shut; blood pushes semilunar valves
open and allow blood to flow to the pulmonary trunk and aorta)
3. Diastole (brief period; both the atria and ventricles are relaxed; blood flows into the atria and
passively into the ventricles)
2. Describe the autonomic innervation of the heart, including sympathetic and parasympathetic
innervation.
Sympathetic innervation

 Increased SA node activity

 HR increases
 Increases speed that cardiac impulse travels through the His-Purkinje system
 Increases the force of myocardial contraction
 Produces the “fight-or-flight” response
 Can cause circulatory shock
 Can cause tachydysrhythmias
  Epinephrine and adrenalin exert a sympathomimetic effect, whereas beta- and alpha-adrenergic
blockers act against sympathetic activity
Parasympathetic innervation

 Decrease SA node activity

 Increases vagal tone
 Decreases speed of cardiac impulse through the His-Purkinje system
 Exerts no effect on the strength of myocardial contraction because there are no Parasympathetic
(vagal) nerve fibers innervating the ventricular myocardium
 Heart attacks and the medication, digoxin, lead to excess vagal nerve discharge and cause
bradycardia
 Digoxin is a Vagomimetic because it mimics the effects of the parasympathetic nervous system
 Atropine is used to relieve bradycardia because it blocks the effects of vagal nerve stimulation
and increases HR; atropine is referred to as a vagolytic
3. Describe cardiac output (cardiac output = HR x stroke volume) including the following:
Inotropic effect on cardiac output

 Stimulation of the heart muscle by the sympathetic nerves causes a positive inotropic effect
(epinephrine and digoxin also cause a similar effect)
 A negative inotropic effect is associated with a failing heart
Changes in heart rate

 Size (the larger the size of the heart, the slower its rate)
 Gender (women have faster HRs than men)
 Age (younger people have faster HRs)
 Exercise (increases the HR)
 Simulation of the autonomic nerves (increases the HR)
 Pathology (diseases effect the HR)
Changes in stroke volume

 A greater force of contraction can increase stroke volume

 Can be altered in two ways: Starling’s law of the heart and inotropic effect
4. Define preload (end-diastolic volume) and how it effects cardiac output.

 Preload is the amount of blood in the ventricles at the end of diastole

o An increased preload stretches the ventricles, causing a stronger contraction (increases
stroke volume and cardiac output)
o Drugs can affect preload by dilating (decreasing stroke volume) or constricting
(increasing stroke volume) the veins
5. Define afterload and the major factor that determines it.

 Afterload refers to the resistance or opposition to the flow of blood

o A pinched aorta would cause an increased afterload due to the left ventricle having to
work harder to overcome the resistance
 o Drugs can affect afterload by dilating (decreasing stroke volume) or constricting
(increasing stroke volume) the blood vessels
6. Define inotropic, chromotropic, and dromotropic effects.

 Inotropic effect refers to a change in myocardial contractile force achieved without stretching
the muscle fibers (as occurs in Starling’s law)
 Chromotropic effect in a change in HR
 Dromotropic effect is a change in the speed at which the cardiac impulse travels through the
His-Purkinje system
7. Differentiate between left and right-sided heart failure.

 Left heart failure occurs when the left ventricle fails to pump blood into the aorta
o Blood backs up in the lungs
o Heart cannot pump a sufficient amount of blood to the systemic circulation
 Right heart failure occurs when the right ventricle fails
o Blood backs up into the veins that return blood to the right heart
o Blood backs up into the superior vena cava and slow venous drainage from the head
o Causes jugular veins to become distended
o Can cause hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, and digestive symptoms
o The right side of the heart often fails as a consequence of left-sided heart failure
o Chronic lung disease is another common cause

Key Terms

 Cardiac cycle – events that occur in the heart during one heartbeat
 Cardiac output – amount of blood pumped by the heart in 1 minute (5,000 mL); determined by
heart rate and stroke volume
 Cardiac reserve – potential increase in cardiac output above resting cardiac output
 Ejection fraction – percent of the ventricular volume that is pumped or ejected during ventricular
systole (contraction)
 End-diastolic volume – volume of blood in the ventricle at the end of its resting phase (diastole);
also called preload
 Preload – the degree of ventricular myocardial stretch; end-diastolic volume
 Pulmonary edema – fluid accumulation in the lungs
 Starling’s law of the heart – refers to the relation between myocardial stretch and the strength of
myocardial contraction
 Stroke volume – amount of blood that the ventricle pumps in one heartbeat
 Sympathomimetic – a drug or action that resembles the firing of the sympathetic nervous system
 Vagolytic – any drug or action that blocks the action of the vagus nerve
 Vagomimetic – any drug or action that resembles the action of the vagus nerve
Ch. 22: The Respiratory System
1. Describe the structure and function of the organs of the respiratory system.
Upper respiratory tract

 Nose/nasal cavity – helps to warm, moisten, and cleanse the air that is inhaled; contains
olfactory receptors for smell, nasal conchae (increase surface area of the mucous membranes),
and nasal hairs (filter large particles of dust)
 Pharynx (throat) – includes three parts: the nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx; the
oropharynx and laryngopharynx are both part of the digestive and respiratory systems, so their
job is to act as passageways for both food (into the esophagus) and air (into the larynx)
 Larynx (voice box) – has three functions: acts as an air passageway, produces sound (your
voice), and prevents food and foreign objects from entering into respiratory structures; the
epiglottis (flap that covers the trachea) is located at the top of the larynx
 Upper trachea (windpipe) – covered with c-shaped rings that act to keep it open; primary
function is to conduct air to and from the lungs
Lower respiratory tract

 Lower trachea – splits into the right and left bronchi at a point called the carina; the carina is
extremely sensitive and touching it during suctioning can cause vigorous coughing
 Bronchi – cartilaginous structures that branch from the bottom of the trachea; primary bronchi
enter the lungs at a region called the “hilus”
 Bronchioles – tubes of smooth muscle that branch from the bronchi; function is to transport air to
the alveoli
 Alveoli – grape-like, air sacs that form the distal ends of the respiratory passages; alveoli are the
only structures that function to exchange respiratory gases between the outside air and the blood;
if the number of alveoli decreases it will cause atelectasis (patches of airless, collapsed alveoli)
which is usually a complication of pneumonia or lung cancer
2. Trace the movement of air from the nostrils to the alveoli.
Nasal cavities  pharynx  larynx  trachea  bronchi  bronchioles  alveoli
3. Explain why the lungs collapse or expand and the role of pulmonary surfactants.
  The lungs can collapse if the pleural cavity (chest wall) is penetrated; elastic recoil or surface
tension are the two methods in which the lungs can collapse
o Elastic recoil - lungs have lost their elasticity due to too much pressure within the
intrapleural space
o Surface tension - water molecules inside of the alveoli cause them to collapse which
consequently prevents air from entering the cell
 For the lungs to expand, pressure within the intrapleural space must be negative
 Surfactants are detergent-like lipoproteins located on the inner surface of the alveoli; they
function to decrease surface tension by interfering with the electrical attraction of the water
molecules inside the alveoli themselves
4. Discus the three steps of respiration (ventilation/breathing, exchange of oxygen and CO2, transport of
oxygen and CO2) including the following:

 Boyle’s law of ventilation

o The relationship between pressure and volume
o If volume changes, pressure changes
 As lung volume increases on inhalation, intrapulmonic pressure (P2) decreases
and air can flow into the lungs
 As lung volume decreases on exhalation, intrapulmonic pressure (P2) increases,
and air can flow out of the lungs
 How respiratory muscles affect thoracic volume.
o On inhalation, the respiratory muscles, diaphragm (chief muscle of inhalation), and
intercostal muscles contract
 When the diaphragm contracts, it flattens and pulls downward towards the
diaphragm (increases the length of the thoracic cavity)
 When the internal and external intercostal muscles contract, the rib cage moves
up and out (increases width of thoracic cavity)
 Three conditions that make the alveoli well suited for the exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide:
1. Large surface area
2. Thin alveolar and pulmonary capillary walls
3. Short distance between alveoli and pulmonary capillaries
5. List lung volumes and capacities.
Volumes

 Tidal volume (volume of air moved in and out during one respiratory cycle)
 Residual volume (volume of air that remains in the lungs after a forceful exhalation)
 Inspiratory reserve volume (volume of air that can be forcefully inhaled after normal inhalation
has already occurred)
 Expiratory reserve volume (volume of air than ca be forcefully exhaled after normal exhalation
has already occurred)
Capacities

 Vital capacity (maximum volume of air that can be exhaled following maximum inhalation)
  Functional residual capacity (volume of air remaining in the lungs following exhalation during
quiet breathing)
 Total lung capacity (volume of air in the lungs following a maximal inhalation)
6. Discuss the voluntary and involuntary control of breathing including the following:

 The neural and chemical control of breathing.

o Neural (nervous) control of breathing involves the brain stem, particularly the medulla
oblongata (control center for breathing)
 Inhalation occurs when the inspiratory neurons in the medulla oblongata fire,
giving rise to nerve impulses which then travel along the phrenic and intercostal
nerves to the muscles of respiration (contraction of respiratory muscles)
 Exhalation occurs when the expiratory neurons in the medulla oblongata fire and
shut down the respiratory neurons (relaxation of respiratory muscles)
o Chemical control of breathing involves the chemicals of the blood (CO2, hydrogen, and
oxygen)
 Chemoreceptors are activated and stimulate the brain stem
 Central chemoreceptors are located in the CNS
 Peripheral chemoreceptors are located in the walls of the carotid
arteries and walls of the aorta
 Common variations and abnormalities of breathing
o Common disorders
 Influenza (the flu)
 Pharyngitis (sore throat)
 Rhinitis (common cold)
 Sinusitis (acute inflammation of the sinuses)
o Lower respiratory disorders
 Asthma (chronic airway inflammation)
 Bronchiectasis (permanent abnormal dilation of the bronchi)
 Tuberculosis (TB; spread by droplets)
o Restrictive lung disorders
 Pleuritis (inflammation of the pleura)
 Pleural effusion (accumulation of excess fluid between the two pleurae)
 Pneumothorax (accumulation air within the pleural space causing the lung to
collapse)
 Interstitial lung diseases (group of disorders characterized by inflammation and
fibrosis of the lungs)
 Pneumonia (inflammation of lung tissue)
 Acute respiratory stress syndrome (can lead to organ failure and death)
o Chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases
 Emphysema (destruction of the alveoli, obstruction of small airways, and loss of
elasticity of lung tissue)
 Chronic bronchitis (excess of mucus in the bronchi that causes a recurrent and
productive cough)
o Vascular lung disorders
 Pulmonary edema (collection of fluid within the alveolar and interstitial spaces
causing dyspnea, hypoxemia, and respiratory acidosis)
  Pulmonary embolism (lodging of an embolus in the pulmonary arterial
circulation)
 Pulmonary artery hypertension (elevation in pulmonary artery pressure causing
overworking of the right ventricle)

Key Terms

 Alveolus – tiny grapelike sac in the lungs; site of gas exchange (oxygen and CO2) between the air
and the blood
 Bronchial tree – part of the lower respiratory tract that is formed by the bronchioles and alveoli
 Bronchioles – small airway tubes in the respiratory tract that are composed largely of smooth
muscle; connect the bronchi and alveoli
 Bronchus – large airway in the lungs that connects the trachea and bronchioles; there are right and
left bronchi
 Compliance – the degree of stretch of a hollow organ; the change in volume in response to a
change in pressure
 Diaphragm – dome-shaped skeletal muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities;
chief muscle of inspiration (inhalation)
 Epiglottis – cartilage that guards the opening into the larynx; directs food and water into the
esophagus
 Glottis – opening between the vocal cords; an air passage for the respiratory tract
 Intercostal muscles – skeletal muscles located between the ribs
 Intrapleural pressure – pressure within the intrapleural space which must be negative for the lungs
to expand
 Larynx – structure that contains the vocal cords; the voice box
 Upper respiratory tract - located outside of the chest cavity; includes the nose, nasal cavities,
pharynx, larynx, and upper trachea
 Lower respiratory tract – located within the chest cavity; includes the lower trachea, bronchi,
bronchioles, and alveoli
 Partial pressure – pressure exerted by one gas in a gas mixture
 Pharynx – the throat; three parts: nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx
 Phrenic nerve – somatic motor nerve that innervates the diaphragm
 Pleura – serous membrane located in the thoracic cavity; there is a visceral and parietal pleura
 Pleural cavities - thoracic cavities that contain the lungs
 Surface tension – the cohesive force of the molecules at the surface of a fluid
 Surfactant – chemical substance that reduces surface tension, thereby preventing the collapse of
alveoli
 Tidal volume – amount of air inhaled and exhaled during one respiratory cycle
 Trachea – large airway located between the larynx and bronchus; the windpipe
 Vital capacity – the greatest amount of air that can be exhaled following maximal inhalation
 Vocal cords – small bands of muscle within the larynx; their vibration causes voice formation
Ch. 23: Digestive System
1. Describe the basic anatomy and physiology of the digestive system including the following:
The four functions of the digestive system
1. Ingestion
2. Digestion
3. Absorption
4. Elimination
The processes of digestion and absorption

 Carbohydrate digestion
o In order to be absorbed, carbohydrates (glucose) must be broken down into
monosaccharides
o Carbs are digested by enzymes called amylases and disacharrides
 Protein digestion
o In order to be absorbed, proteins must be broken down into smaller peptides and amino
acids
o Proteins are broken down by proteolytic enzymes or proteases
 Fat digestion
o In order to be absorbed, fats must be broken down into fatty acids as glycerol
o Fats are emulsified by bile and then digested by enzymes called lipases

The four layers, nerves, and membranes of the digestive tract

1. Mucosa (innermost layer which consists of the mucous membrane, a small amount of connective
tissue, and smooth muscle)
2. Submucosa (thick layer of connective tissue that lies beneath the mucosa; contains blood vessels,
nerves, glands, and lymphatic vessels)
3. Muscle layer (two layers of smooth muscle)
4. Serosa (outermost lining of the digestive tract; help anchor the digestive organs in place, carry
blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves to the abdominal organs, and help restrict the spread of
infection in the abdominal cavity)
2. Describe the structure and function of the organs and accessory organs of the digestive tract.

 Mouth
o Beginning of the digestive tract
o Also known as the oral cavity
 Teeth
o Chews food (mastication) and begins mechanical digestion
 Tongue
o Facilitates chewing and swallowing by continuously repositioning the food
o Pushes food as a bolus toward the pharynx
 Salivary glands
o Exocrine glands that secrete saliva
 o Saliva (salivary amylase) soften and moistens the food to facilitate swallowing
 Pharynx
o Involved in swallowing (deglutition)
 Esophagus
o Tube that carries food from the pharynx to the stomach
 Stomach
o Regulates the rate at which partially digested food is delivered to the small intestine
o Secretes gastric juices (digestive enzymes, hydrochloric acid, and intrinsic factor)
o Digests food
o Absorbs small quantities of water and dissolved substances
o Secretes gastric hormones
 Small intestine
o Receives chyme from the stomach and bile from the liver
o Contains villi and microvilli that absorb digested food and water
o Moves unabsorbed content to the large intestine
o The process of digestion is completed here
 Large intestine
o Absorbs water and electrolytes
o Synthesizes vitamin K and B
o Temporarily stores waste (feces)
o Eliminates waste from body (defecation)
 Liver
o Largest gland in the body
o Synthesizes plasma proteins
o Stores glucose in the form of glycogen
o Detoxifies metabolites, drugs, and other harmful substances
o Excretes bilirubin, cholesterol, and drugs
o Metabolizes proteins
o Metabolizes fats
o Eats bacteria

3. Explain the physiology of digestion and absorption including the following:

The effects of amylases, proteases, and lipases

 Amylases break down carbohydrates

 Proteases break down proteins
 Lipases break down fats
The role of bile in the digestion of fats

 Bile can split fat globules left over from lipase digestion in a process called emulsification
 Bile salts help absorb fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K)
4. Discuss nutrition concepts including the following:
The five categories of nutrients
 1. Carbohydrates
a. Can be simple or complex
b. Glucose is the simplest carbohydrate and is used as fuel by the body for energy
2. Protein (amino acid)
a. Dietary proteins are complete or incomplete
b. Essential amino acids cannot be synthesized by the body
c. Nonessential amino acids can be synthesized by the body
3. Fats (lipids)
a. Most are triglycerides
b. Can be saturated (butter) or unsaturated (oils)
4. Vitamins
a. Help regulate cell metabolism
b. Can be water soluble (vitamins B and C) or fat soluble (vitamins A, D, E, and K)
5. Minerals
a. Inorganic substances necessary for normal body function
b. Deficiencies can cause serious health problems
The importance of a balanced diet

 A diet high in cholesterol or hat has been linked to coronary artery disease, stroke, diabetes, and
cancer
 Consumption of sugar is a factor in obesity and diabetes mellitus
 Infants who are not feed enough fats may become deficient in the essential components necessary
to develop nervous tissue (causing nerve damage and developmental delays)
 Overnutrition and undernutrition are both examples of malnutrition

Key Terms

 Absorption – taking in of substances across cells or membranes; more specifically, referring to

the movement of digested food from the digestive tract into the blood and lymph
 Alimentary canal – digestive tract
 Amylase – enzyme that digests carbohydrates
 Appendix – worm-shaped outpouching of the wall of the cecum
 Bile – digestive aid secreted by the liver and stored in the gallbladder; emulsifies fats
 Biliary tree – arrangement of ductus that transport bile from the liver to the gallbladder and
duodenum; includes hepatic ducts, cystic duct, and common bile duct
 Cecum – part of the large intestine that connects the ileum of the small intestine and ascending
colon of the large intestine
 Cholecystokinin – hormone secreted by the walls of the duodenum primarily in response to
dietary fat; it stimulates the secretion of bile and digestive enzymes
 Chyle – milky fluid found in the lacteals of the villi; consists of emulsified fats and lymph
 Chyme – paste-like mixture of partially digested food, water, and digestive enzymes that is
formed in the stomach
 Colon – major portion of the large intestine that extends from the cecum to the rectum
 Common bile duct – biliary duct that is formed by the merger of the hepatic duct and cystic duct;
allows bile to flow from the liver and gallbladder into the duodenum
  Deglutition - swallowing
 Digestion – process, mechanical and chemical, of breaking down food into absorbed particles
 Digestive tract – series of organs concerned with the digestion and absorption of food and the
elimination of digestive waste; also called the alimentary canal and GI tract
 Disaccharides – double sugars; sucrose, maltose, and lactose
 Duodenum – first part of the small intestine
 Emulsification – physical breakdown of a large fat globule into many smaller globules
 Enteric nervous system – specialized and unique arrangement of nerves that supply the digestive
tract
 Esophagus – tubelike structure that connects the pharynx to the stomach
 Gallbladder – small pear-shaped organ involved in the concentration and storage of bile
 Gastric juice – thin, watery, acidic fluid secreted by the glands of the stomach; includes water,
hydrochloric acid, some digestive enzymes, and mucus
 Gastrin – hormone secreted by the walls of the stomach in response to the presence of food;
stimulates the secretion of gastric juice
 Gastrointestinal tract – digestive tract
 Glycemic index – scale that ranks food on a scale from 1 to 100 in terms of its effect on blood
glucose levels
 Ileum – distal end of the small intestine
 Jejunum – 2nd or middle part of the small intestine
 Lipase – enzyme that digests fats into fatty acids and glycerol
 Liver lobule – unit of the liver made up of liver cells (hepatocytes) surrounding a central vein
 Mastication – chewing
 Microbiota – group of microorganisms that live harmoniously together in or on a body part;
normal flora
 Mineral – inorganic substance such as sodium or potassium
 Pancreas – organ that has both endocrine and exocrine functions; islets of Langerhans secrete
insulin and glucagon; exocrine glands secrete digestive enzymes
 Peristalsis – rhythmic contract of smooth muscle that propels a substance forward
 Protease – enzyme that digests protein
 Salivary glands – glands that secrete saliva; include the parotid, sublingual, and submandibular
glands
 Secretin – hormone secreted by the walls of the duodenum; stimulates the pancreas to produce
bicarbonate
 Segmentation – alternate contraction and relaxation of small segments of the small intestine
 Stomach – digestive organ located between the esophagus and duodenum
 Villi – finger-like projections that line the intestine; function to absorb digestive end products
 Vitamin – organic substance necessary for normal metabolism
Ch 24: Urinary System
1. List four organs of excretion.
1. Kidney
2. Lungs
3. Intestines
4. Sweat glands
2. Describe the major organs of the urinary system.
 Kidneys
o Form urine from the blood
 Ureters
o Tubes that conduct urine from the kidneys to the bladder
 Bladder
o Acts as a temporary reservoir for urine until it can be eliminated
 Urethra
o Tube that conducts urine from the bladder to the outside of the body for elimination
3. Describe the location, structure, blood supply, nerve supply, and functions of the kidneys.
Location

 On the posterior aspect of the abdominal cavity, behind the peritoneum

 Cushioned by renal fascia, adipose tissue, and lower rib cage
Structure

 Hilum (entrance of the renal vein, renal artery, and ureters)

 Renal cortex
 Renal medulla
o Renal pyramids (made up of stacks of nephron)
 Renal pelvis
o Calyx (cup-like edges that collect the urine formed in the kidney)

Function of the Kidneys

 The filter of our body

 Excretes nitrogenous waste such as:
o Urea
o Uric acid
o Ammonia
o Creatinine
 Regulates blood volume by determining the amount of water to be excreted (by ADH)
 Regulates the electrolyte content in the blood
 Plays a major role in the regulation of acid-base balance (blood pH) by controlling the excretion
of hydrogen ions (H+)
 Plays a role in long-term regulation of blood pressure
 Plays a role in the regulation of RBC production through the secretion of erythropoietin
Blood Supply

 Receives blood from the renal artery, which arises from the abdominal aorta
Nerve Supply

 Renal nerves travel with the renal blood vessels to the kidney
 The nerves are primarily sympathetic nerves that help control blood flow to the kidney and
regulate blood pressure
4. Explain the role of the nephron unit in the formation of urine.
 The nephron unit has two parts: renal tubules (where urine is formed) and blood vessels
o Structure of the renal tubule: Bowman’s capsule, glomerulus, proximal convoluted
tubule, loop of Henle, ascending limb, distal convoluted tubule, collecting duct, renal
medulla (renal medulla), calyx (renal pelvis)
o Blood vessels: renal artery, smaller blood vessels, afferent arteriole, glomerulus,
Bowman’s capsule, efferent arteriole, peritubular capillaries, renal tubules, venules,
larger veins, renal vein
 Urine is formed by three processes: filtration, reabsorption, and secretion
1. Filtration – causes water and dissolved substances to move from the glomeruli into the
tubules
2. Reabsorption – causes water and selective specific to move from the tubules into the
peritubular capillaries; reabsorption occurs mainly in the proximal tubule
3. Secretion – causes small amounts of specific substances (potassium and hydrogen) to
move from the peritubular capillaries into the tubules
5. Describe the hormonal control of water and electrolytes by the kidneys.
 Aldosterone (adrenal cortex)
o Stimulates the reabsorption of sodium and water
o Stimulates the excretion of potassium
o Acts primarily on the distal tubule
 Antidiuretic hormone (posterior pituitary)
o Stimulate the reabsorption of water primarily by the collecting ducts
 Parathyroid hormone (parathyroid gland)
o Stimulates the reabsorption of calcium
o Stimulates the excretion of phosphate
 Calcitonin (thyroid gland)
o Stimulates the excretion of both calcium and phosphate
6. List the normal constituents of urine.
 Water (95%)
 Nitrogen-containing waste
 Electrolytes
7. Describe the structure and function of the ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra.
Ureters
 Two ureters connect the kidneys to the bladder
 Originate in the renal pelvis, and terminate in the bladder
 Long, slender, muscular tubes
 Urine moves along the ureters to the bladder in response to gravity and peristalsis
Urinary bladder
 Functions as a temporary reservoir for urine
 Located below the peritoneal membrane and behind the pubic symphysis
 When full, your bladder rises to the abdominal cavity (making the bladder distended)
 Contains four layers:
o Mucous membrane (innermost layer made up of several layers of epithelium)
o Submucosa (second layer that consists of connective tissue and elastic fibers)
o Detrusor muscle (third layer made up of involuntary muscle)
 o Serosa (outermost layer)
Urethra
 Tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body
 Lined with mucous membranes
 Contains several mucus-secreting glands
 Muscular layer helps to expel urine by contracting

Key Terms
 Aldosterone – mineralocorticoid secreted by the adrenal cortex; stimulates the kidney to reabsorb
sodium and water and to excrete potassium
 Angiotensin II – hormone that elevates blood pressure and stimulates the secretion of aldosterone
by the adrenal cortex
 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) – hormone secreted by the posterior pituitary that stimulates the
collecting duct of the kidney to reabsorb water, thereby decreasing urinary output; aka
vasopressin
 Collecting duct – nephron structure that receives urine from the distal tubule and delivers it to the
renal pelvis
 Converting enzyme – enzyme that activates angiotensin I to angiotensin II
 Creatinine - a nitrogenous waste product excreted by the kidney
 Detrusor muscle – smooth muscle located in the wall of the urinary bladder
 Dialysis – passive transport process that allows small particles to diffuse through a
semipermeable membrane
 Diuresis – increased excretion of urine
 Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) – rate of filtration (pushing) of water and dissolved solute
through the pores of the glomerular membrane
 Glomerulus – tuft of capillaries located in the Bowman’s capsule of the nephron unit of the
kidney
 Juxtaglomerular apparatus – specialized structure in the kidney formed by the distal convoluted
tubule and the afferent arterioles; the renin-secreting cells
 Kidneys – organ of the urinary system that produces urine; contains over 1,000 nephron units
 Loop of Henle – a hairpin looped tubule structure of the nephron unit that receives urine from the
proximal tubule and delivers it to the distal tubule
 Micturition - urination
 Natriuresis – the excretion of sodium into the urine
 Natriuretic peptides – protein hormones that promote the excretion of sodium into the urine;
include atrial natriuretic and brain natriuretic peptides
 Nephron unit – structural and functional unit of the kidney that makes urine
 Nephrotoxic -
 Peritubular capillaries – capillaries that surround the tubular structures of the nephron unit;
primarily concerned with reabsorption and secretion during urine formation
 Renal artery – artery that delivers oxygenated blood to the kidneys
 Renal tubules – tubular part of the nephron unit that helps to make and transport urine; consists of
Bowman’s capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, and
collecting ducts
 Renal vein – vein that carries unoxygenated blood from the kidney to the inferior vena cava
  Renin – enzyme secreted by the kidneys that activates angiotensin
 Specific gravity – the density of urine compared to water
 Trigone – tissue located at the base of the urinary bladder, between the openings of the ureters
and the urethra
 Ureter – tube that conducts urine from the kidney to the urinary bladder
 Urethra – tube that conducts urine from the bladder to the exterior of the body
 Urinary bladder – hollow pelvic organ that receives urine from the kidneys and stores it until it
can be expelled
 Urinary specific gravity – density of urine as compared to water; the greater the solute in the
urine, the higher its specific gravity
 Urine – product of nephron until function of the kidneys; composed mostly of water, waste, and
ions

Ch 25: Water, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance

1. Describe the two main fluid compartments and the composition of body fluids.
Body fluids are found in two main compartments: intracellular and extracellular
Intracellular compartment

 Makes up 63% of body fluid

 Includes the water inside of the cells
Extracellular compartment

 Makes up 37% of body fluid

 Includes the water outside of the cells:
o Interstitial fluid (water between the cells)
o Water within blood vessels (plasma)
 o Water within lymphatic vessels (lymph)
o Transcellular fluid (includes cerebrospinal fluid, aqueous and vitreous humors of the
eyes, synovial joint fluid, serous fluid found in body cavities, and glandular secretions
Body fluid is composed of intracellular and extracellular fluids and contain the following:

 Intracellular fluid
o High concentrations of potassium, phosphate, and magnesium
 Extracellular fluid
o Contains high concentrations of sodium, chloride, and bicarbonate

2. Explain the effects of water imbalance, fluid shift, and fluid spacing.
Water imbalance

 Dehydration is a deficit of water

o Develops when water output exceeds water intake
o Commonly occurs in conditions such as excessive sweating (diaphoresis), vomiting,
diarrhea, and use of diuretics
o Causes skin turgor and tenting (depletion of fluid in the interstitial space), blood volume
and blood pressure to decline, and low-volume (hypovolemic) shock
o Treated by fluid and electrolyte replacement
 Edema is an accumulation of fluid
o Body retains excess water and deposits it in various compartments (can be intracellular
or extracellular)
o Water accumulation can cause pulmonary edema, cerebral edema, pedal edema
o The goal of therapy is to remove excess fluid, relieve the symptoms, and treat the
underlying cause of edema
Fluid shift

 Fluid may shift as part of normal homeostatic mechanisms

 Fluid may also shift as a response to diseases and disorders
 Due to a change in the “pushing” and “pulling” forces that affect the capillaries
o Forces include: capillary filtration pressure, plasma oncotic pressure, lymphatic
drainage, and plasma protein that becomes trapped in interstitial spaces
Fluid spacing

 Refers to the distribution of water in the body

 First spacing (normal distribution)
 Second spacing (accumulation of water in interstitial spaces)
 Third spacing (accumulation of water in places where it is not easily absorbed)
3. List factors that affect electrolyte balance.

 Sodium (chief extracellular cation+)

o Regulated by aldosterone which stimulates the distal tubule and upper collecting duct of
the nephron unit in order to reabsorb sodium
 o Hypernatremia is when a person either absorbs excess sodium or excretes too much
water
 At risk are older patients, patients on prolonged use of diuretics, and
uncontrolled diabetic patients
o Hyponatremia is when a person loses excess sodium or retains too much water
 Blood becomes diluted by excess water
 At risk are persons with heart failure, runners who drink too much water, and
psychiatric patients who “water binge”
 Potassium (chief intracellular cation+)
o Regulated by aldosterone
o The kidney is the primary organ responsible for excreting potassium
o Hyperkalemia is when a person has excess potassium in the blood
 Primary cause is kidney disease
 Emergency situation
 Can be treated through dialysis which lowers plasma levels of potassium
o Hypokalemia is when a person has too little potassium in the blood
 Presents as muscle fatigue, leg cramps, abdominal distention, and altered
cardiac rhythms
 Most common cause is the prolonged use of potassium-wasting diuretics (known
as kaliuretics)
 Can be caused by acidosis which decreases plasma hydrogen by moving it into
the cells; as hydrogen enters the cells, it ejects the potassium
 Treated by the administration of potassium
 Calcium (cation+)
o Necessary for bone/teeth formation, muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission, and
blood clotting
o Parathyroid hormone is the primary regulator
o Hypercalcemia is an excess of calcium in the blood
o Hypocalcemia is a deficit of calcium in the blood
 Magnesium (intracellular cation+)
o Important in the function of the heart, muscles, and nerves
o Hypermagnesia or low magnesium levels, are primarily caused by kidney disease
o Hypomagnesia or high magnesium levels, are primarily seen in critically ill patients
 Chloride (chief extracellular anion-)
o Usually follows sodium
o Changes in chloride plasma levels affect acid-base balance
o Hypochloremia or low chloride levels, increase bicarbonate in the plasma and cause
alkalosis
o Hyperchloremia or high chloride levels, decrease bicarbonate in the plasma and cause
acidosis
 Bicarbonate (anion-)
o Important in acid-base balance
o Alkaline substance that helps remove excess hydrogen from the body

4. List three mechanisms that regulate pH in the body.

 1. Buffer/1st line of defense c
a. Chemical substance that prevents large changes in pH
b. Utilize buffer pairs (one base and one acid) to remove or add hydrogen in order to
maintain normal blood pH
2. Respirations/2nd line of defense
a. Removes acid from the blood through its handling of CO2
b. Changes in respiratory activity as the cause of changes in pH
c. Changes in respiratory activity that correct changes in pH
3. Kidney function/3rd line of defense
a. Regulate pH by reabsorbing or excreting hydrogen as needed
b. Regulate pH by making, reabsorbing, or excreting bicarbonate
c. Patients with kidney failure are usually acidotic
5. Describe the compensatory mechanisms that correct acidosis.
Acidosis

 Decrease in plasma pH below 7.35

Respiratory acidosis

 Caused by any condition that decreases the effectiveness of the respiratory system or prolonged
hypoventilation

 Compensation
o Buffer systems remove some of the excess hydrogen

o Kidneys excrete the excess hydrogen and increases bicarbonate

Metabolic Acidosis

 Decrease in pH caused by non-respiratory conditions

 Compensation
o Buffer systems remove some of the excess hydrogen

o Respiratory system helps remove excess hydrogen through hyperventilation or Kussmaul

respirations
6. Describe the compensatory mechanisms that correct alkalosis.
Alkalosis

 Increase in plasma pH above 7.45

Respiratory Alkalosis

 Develops from hyperventilation and the resulting decrease in plasma CO2 and hydrogen

 Compensation
o Buffers donate hydrogen to the plasma (decreases pH)
 o Kidneys decrease excretion of hydrogen and increase the excretion of bicarbonate

Metabolic Alkalosis

 Increase in pH caused by non-respiratory disorders

 Compensation
o Buffers donate hydrogen (decreasing pH)

o Kidneys decrease the excretion of hydrogen

o Respiratory system hypoventilation increase plasma CO2 and hydrogen (decreases pH)

Key Terms

 Acidosis – condition in which there is excess hydrogen (acid) in body fluids; blood pH is less
than 7.35
 Alkalosis – condition in which there is insufficient hydrogen (acid) in body fluids; blood pH is
greater than 7.45
 Buffer – substance that resists changes in pH; can either remove or add hydrogen, thereby
adjusting the pH as needed
 Dehydration – deficiency of body water
 Electrolyte balance – a normal amount of electrolytes in each fluid compartment
 Extracellular fluid – fluid located outside of the cell; plasma and interstitual fluid
 Hyperkalemia – abnormally high blood potassium level
 Hypernatremia – abnormally high blood sodium level
 Hyperventilation – abnormally rapid, deep breathing
 Hypokalemia – abnormally low blood potassium level
 Hyponatremia – abnormally low blood sodium level
 Hypoventilation – abnormally slow and shallow respiratory rate
 Intake – amount of fluid taken into the body
 Interstitial fluid – fluid located between the cells; tissue fluid
 Intracellular fluid – fluid located within the cells
 Intravascular fluid – fluid found within the blood vessels; blood
 Kaliuretic – refers to the effect of a hormone or drug that causes the elimination of potassium in
the urine
 Kussmaul respirations – increase in the rate and depth of respirations to correct metabolic
acidosis
 Metabolic acidosis – condition in which blood pH decreases below 7.35; cause is nonrespiratory
 Metabolic alkalosis – condition in which blood pH increases above 7.45; cause is nonrespiratory
 Output – quantity that is ejected, such as urinary or cardiac output
 Renal compensation – mechanism used by the kidneys to correct an acid-base imbalance; the
renal compensation of respiratory acidosis is metabolic alkalosis
 Respiratory acidosis – increased hydrogen concentration and decreased pH; caused by
hypoventilation
 Respiratory alkalosis – decreased hydrogen concentration and increased pH; caused by
hyperventilation
 Respiratory compensation – mechanism used by the lungs to correct an acid-base imbalance; the
respiratory compensation for metabolic acidosis is respiratory alkalosis
 Skin turgor – a condition of normal tension within a cell; the degree of elasticity of the skin
 Transcellular fluid – extracellular fluids including cerebrospinal fluid, aqueous and vitreous
humors of the eye, synovial fluid of the joints, serous fluid within the body cavities, and exocrine
gland secretions