THE EFFECTS OF REGENERATIVE FARMING ON HOUSEHOLD FOOD SECURITY IN

KISUMU COUNTY, KENYA.

Owiti Charles Daniel

A Research Proposal Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Master of

Science Degree in Disaster Management and Sustainable Development of Masinde Muliro

University of Science and Technology.

April 2023
 DECLARATION AND APPROVAL
XXXX

This proposal is my original work prepared with no other sources other than those indicated and

has not been presented elsewhere for a degree or any other award.

Sign: ………………………………… Date: ……………………………

Owiti Charles Daniel

CDM/G/200/11

APPROVAL

The undersigned certify that they have read and hereby recommend for acceptance of Masinde

Muliro University of Science and Technology a proposal entitled, “Effectiveness of

regenerative farming on household food security in Kisumu County, Kenya.”

Signature: ………………………………… Date: ……………………………

Prof. Samuel China

Department of Disaster Management and Sustainable Development

Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology.

Signature: ………………………………… Date: ……………………………

Dr Namenya Daniel Naburi

Department of Disaster Management and Sustainable Development

Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology.

i
 DEDICATION

I dedicate this proposal to my family whose valuable time and support made accomplishing the

proposal possible.

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Abba The Almighty for walking with me and leading me throughout the process right

from the inception of the concept until the development and final submission of the proposal. I

am highly indebted to certain people without whom this work would have remained a dream.

Special appreciation goes to my university supervisors Professor Samuel China and Dr Namenya

Daniel Naburi for their tireless, invaluable input and support accorded to me during the entire

development of the proposal. Also special thanks to my family

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 ABSTRACT

About 2.3 billion people in the world do not know where their next meal is coming from. The
goal of ending hunger, which is one of the sustainable development goals, has taken a step
backwards because of this. There are efforts to achieve food security and improved nutrition.
However, due to unsustainable farming practices like those that incorporate monocropping and
the application of expensive chemicals, which lower the soil's capacity to be of superior value,
the efforts to achieve food security prove to be suboptimal. These harmful activities hinder the
increase of soil organic matter and better water retention, which have a significant impact on the
ability to produce a variety of wholesome foods for household food security. The overall
objective of this study is to assess the effects of regenerative farming practices on household
food security in Kisumu County, Kenya. The specific objectives are to (i) X determine the types
and extent of regenerative farming practices in Kisumu County; (ii) examine the status of
household food security in Kisumu County; and (iii) assess the effects of regenerative farming on
food security in Kisumu County. The study will use descriptive survey and correlation research
designs to study the relationship between regenerative farming and household food security. A
study sample of 384 households of regenerative farmers will be used to source primary and
quantitative data. Sampling techniques will comprise XX proportionate sampling for household
respondents, purposive sampling for key informants, and quota sampling for the focus group
discussions. XX Secondary data will be obtained from publications, journals, internet sources,
and newspapers. Descriptive and inferential statistics will be used to analyze quantitative data
using the Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS) Version 20.0 for percentages,
frequencies, and levels of significance, whereas narrative analysis will be used to analyze
qualitative data. Results will be presented using graphs, figures, tables, pie charts, and
discussions. The results of the study will show how to farm in a way that ensures sustainable
food security for households. Second, the results will close a knowledge gap and contribute to
the body of knowledge regarding the viability of resilient farming practises and livestock rearing.
The conclusions will also be applied to sustainable farming policies for local and national
governments.

N/B.: (i) A good trial.

(ii) Always write a proposal in future tense; and you must be consistent.
(iii) Connect sentences with conjunctions to produce a well-connected synopsis, with
smooth flow of ideas
(iv) The research problem not clearly articulated: ―the gap‖ and the ―evidence‖

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION AND APPROVAL ............................................................................................. i

DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................ ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................... iii
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................ v
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................ vii
LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................... viii
LIST OF APPENDICES ................................................................................................................ ix
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ....................................................................... x
OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS ............................................................................... xi
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................. 1
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background of the study ...................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Statement of the problem ..................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Research objectives .............................................................................................................. 4
1.3.1 Overall objective .............................................................................................................. 4
1.3.2 Specific objectives............................................................................................................ 4
1.4 Research questions ............................................................................................................... 5
1.5 Justification and significance of the study ........................................................................... 5
1.6 Scope of the study ................................................................................................................ 6
CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................................ 7
LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................... 7
2.1 The global and regional perspective of trends and types of regenerative farming. ............. 7
2.2 Status of Household Food Security.................................................................................... 13
2.3 Effects of regenerative farming on food security .............................................................. 16
2.4 The Household dietary diversity scores ............................................................................. 21
2.5 System Theory ................................................................................................................... 22
3.6 Conceptual Framework ...................................................................................................... 23
CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................................... 25

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 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .............................................................................................. 25
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 25
3.2 Research design .............................................................................................................. 25
3.3 Study area ....................................................................................................................... 26
3.2.1 Administrative boundaries of the study area .............................................................. 27
3.2.2 Economic activities and livelihoods ........................................................................... 28
3.2.3 Climate........................................................................................................................ 28
3.3 Population of the study ................................................................................................... 29
3.5 Study Population ............................................................................................................ 29
3.6 Sampling strategy and sampling size ............................................................................. 30
3.7 Data Collection methods ................................................................................................ 30
3.7.1 Individual household Questionnaire ........................................................................... 30
3.7.2 Key Informant Interview Guides ................................................................................ 30
3.7.2 Focus Group Discussion Guide .................................................................................. 30
3.7.3 Direct Observation Guide ........................................................................................... 31
3.7.3 Validity and reliability test ......................................................................................... 31
3.7.4 Data Treatment and Analysis ..................................................................................... 31
3.7.5 Data presentation ........................................................................................................ 32
3.8 Assumptions of the Proposed Study............................................................................... 32
3.9 Ethical Considerations of the study ................................................................................ 32
References ..................................................................................................................................... 33

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Summary of the objective, variable indicators and research design ............................. 26

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: The conceptual framework model for regenerative farming on household food

security in Kisumu County, Kenya. .............................................................................................. 24

Figure 3.1: Map of the study area ................................................................................................. 27

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 LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX
I. Questionnaire For Household Farmer's Heads

II. Observation Checklist

III. Key Informant Interview Guide for Government Authorities

IV. Key Informant Interview Guide For CBO/NGOs

V. Focus Group Discussions

VI. Observation Guide

VII. Research Permit

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 LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

CA Conservation Agriculture

RF Regenerative farming

SOM Soil organic matter

SOC Soil Organic Content

GDP Gross domestic product

x
 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS

Agriculture- It entails processing, distribution, retailing, and marketing. External agro-

industrial inputs are at the heart of industrial monoculture. Its key components include

mechanization, feed concentrates, pelleted feed, pharmaceutical chemicals, synthetic fertilizers,

herbicides, pesticides, and improved genetic varieties.

Agroecology- Agroecology has developed as a concept over the past few decades, moving away

from a focus on fields and farms to include the whole of food systems and agriculture. It is

simultaneously a science, a system of practices, and a social movement.

Climate- is the long-term (typically at least 30 years) average of regional or even global

temperature, humidity, and rainfall patterns over specific seasons, years, or decades.

Climate change- a sustained alteration to the typical temperatures and weather patterns

Farming- It is the way of life and the work of those whose occupations entail preparing the

ground, sowing seeds, cultivating food crops and tending to livestock.

Food- is a substance that is primarily made up of proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and vitamins that

are used by a living human body to support life processes, promote growth, and give it energy.

Global warming- is the steady warming of Earth's surface that has been recorded since the pre-

industrial era and is attributed to human activities, particularly mechanized farming, which raises

the levels of greenhouse gases that trap heat in Earth's atmosphere.

Government- the political framework that governs and controls a nation or a community.

Household- A household is a small group of people who share the same living space, pool some

or all of their income and wealth, and consume certain goods and services collectively, most

notably housing and food.

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Household farms- The household farm is a small-scale production system that gives households

crops and livestock that they cannot get from marketplaces, field farming methods,

domestication of livestock, hunting, gathering, fishing, or working for a wage.

Household farmers- a person or family whose liabilities, livelihood, and income are primarily

derived from a family-run farming system.

Manure- solid farm animal waste that is used to improve the soil for crop growth.

Market- a group of infrastructures, social networks, institutions, and systems that make it

possible for people to trade goods and services with each other.

Organic farming- It is a system that does not rely on external agricultural inputs but rather

manages the ecosystem. In their place, site-specific management techniques are used to control

pests and diseases, maintain, and improve long-term soil fertility.

Petrochemical fertilizer- As a result of the fact that they are produced using a lot of petroleum

and other fossil fuels, it is another term for synthetic products. Ammonium nitrate, super

phosphate, and potassium sulphate are a few examples that are frequently used.

Plant protection products- Pesticides which comprise active ingredients such as hazardous

chemicals, pheromones, plant extracts, micro-organisms or viruses for controlling undesired

'pests'. These "pests" may be insects (insecticides), fungi (fungicides), or plants (plant pesticides)

(herbicides).

Regenerative farming- is an alternative framework that offers a set of guidelines and practices

to produce food in harmony with nature and repair the soil from degrading. It is based on

Indigenous wisdom.

xii
Soil health- the ability of soil to work as a vital living system within the limits of ecosystems

and land uses, supporting crop and livestock productivity, keeping or improving the quality of air

and water, and promoting crop and livestock health.

Soil fertility- It's the ability to give plants the nutrients they need and to have good biochemical,

physical, and biological properties, so plants can grow.

Weather- localized atmospheric conditions that last only a few minutes, hours, or days.

xiii
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

When the world committed to ending hunger, food insecurity, and all forms of malnutrition by

2030, it was in a very different place than it is today. At the time, there was a notion that

transformative approaches would speed up past progress on a large scale. This would put the

globe on track to reach its goal (FAO, 2021). Globally, there is growing concern about food

security. It is estimated that more than 1 billion people do not have access to adequate dietary

energy, and at least twice that population experiences micronutrient deficiencies (Barrett, 2010).

Worldwide, 41% of homes with children under 15 face moderate or severe food insecurity, 19%

face severe food insecurity, and 45% report they have not had enough money to buy food in the

last year. The fact that the relationship between food shortages, poverty, and well-being differs

by region is evidence that different regions have different meanings of food insecurity that cover

more than monetary poverty. (Audrey Pereira, 2021). Still, it is hard to get a good idea of

prevalence rates and patterns because food security is hard to measure. Also, food insecurity is

not just a problem in developing countries. It is also a problem in developed countries, where

poverty and inequality are major factors.

In general, the world has not made progress towards ensuring that everyone has access to safe,

sufficient food throughout the year (SDG Target 2.1) and eliminating all types of malnutrition

(SDG Target 2.2). The main factors impeding progress, especially where inequality is high, are

unsustainable farming practices, temperature variability and extremes, unsuitable and

unsustainable research and development technologies for farming, and economic and political

1
slowdowns and downturns. The road to SDG2 has become even more difficult because of the

COVID-19 pandemic.

In 2020, there were 46 million more people suffering from hunger in Africa, almost 57 million

more in Asia, and about 14 million more in Latin America and the Caribbean. The proportion of

malnourished people in 2020 was 768 million (FAO, 2021).

Tools made by USAID for Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance (FANTA) showed that

71.3% of sampled households in Kisumu were either moderately (26.3%) or severely (45.3%)

food insecure. Also, 86% of households had a score of six or less for the variety of foods they

ate, which is a proxy for malnutrition. Despite the promotion of urban agriculture as a food

security response by the government and non-governmental organizations, 85.5% of households

do not grow any of their food in the city (Agong P. O., 2018). In addition to using designated

municipal markets, households also use neighborhood markets and kiosks. Utilizing local

neighborhood shops is a strategic decision that facilitates food accessibility with reduced

transport costs. Informal traders were the source of daily food purchases for 75% of households,

and more than 50% of sampled food retail outlets exist outside the formal-zoned market space.

Food insecurity appears to have been normalized where the diet is limited to key staples, made

up mostly of ugali and sukuma wiki. However, the situation poses very real nutrition and

development challenges (Agong P. O., 2018).

FAO studies on repurposing food and agriculture policy to make healthy meals more affordable

say that farm foods are safer and healthier when farmers use farming methods that help the

environment stay healthy (FAO, 2022). So, promoting sustainable farming practices and making

it easier for small farmers could improve not only food security but also nutrition and the health

of the environment in the city. Also, letting households know about different healthy diets could

2
help break the cycle of poor nutrition and lack of food in these communities. Additionally, the

integration of livestock, bees, and fish and the cultivation of fruits, vegetables, nuts, tubers, trees,

and herbs can support ecological sustainability by boosting biodiversity. Investing in species that

have been forgotten, ignored, or undervalued can help feed households, especially in developing

countries. According to studies, a diverse ecosystem yields an average harvest that is 1.7 times

greater than one from a monoculture and is 79% more productive overall (Frison, 2016). Diverse

cropping systems create different microclimates that are home to helpful organisms like

predators, parasites, pollinators, and soil fauna. These organisms help improve the quality of the

soil and heal the land that has been damaged. Regenerative systems can reverse soil nutrient loss,

restore soil health, fertility, and carbon sequestration, and use water more efficiently due to local

water catchment systems and grazing-based systems.

1.2 Statement of the problem

71.3% of households in Kisumu County are either moderately or severely food insecure. This

means that they do not always have easy access to enough safe food to meet their dietary needs

and preferences (Wagah, 2018). Even though the main goal of food security policy is to increase

food production, only 1% of households get their food from their crop farms, and only 3% get

their food from livestock production. Given those households in Kisumu purchase the majority

of their food from the market, (Agong P. O., 2020) it appears that addressing food insecurity is a

systemic issue that requires more than just providing access to land and assisting households

with food production (Agong P. O., 2020) and (Wagah, 2018).

Kisumu County government, in partnership with the United Kingdom, has as its strategy the

revitalization of agriculture by investing approximately Kshs. 240,035,100 million. The goal of

this strategy is to increase the amount of food grown in Kisumu County (GoK, 2022). But the

3
"climate-smart" approach of farming is the same intensive chemical monocropping system that

has led to low yields and a decline in soil quality and health for decades.

In light of this, regenerative farming, which has the potential to protect and improve soil health

and quality, biodiversity, climate resilience, and water resources and can support the production

of a wide range of safe, wholesome crops and livestock, is recommended (Frison, 2016).

Therefore, this study will assess how effectively regenerative farming ensures food security as an

alternative and independent household practice to farming in Kisumu County to enhance food

production, access, availability, and consumption XXX

1.3 Research objectives

To assess the effects of regenerative farming on household food security in Kisumu County,

research formulation is important to guide the approach and methodologies.

1.3.1 Overall objective

The overall objective of the study is to assess the effectiveness of regenerative farming on

household food security in Kisumu County. XX

1.3.2 Specific objectives

The study will be guided by the following specific objectives:

i. To determine the types and extent of regenerative farming practices in Kisumu County.

ii. To examine the status of household food security in Kisumu County.

iii. To assess the effects of regenerative farming on food security in Kisumu County.

4
1.4 Research questions

The research questions for the study are:

i. What are the types and the extent of regenerative farming practices in Kisumu County?

ii. What is the status of household food security in Kisumu County?

iii. What is the effect of regenerative farming on household food security in Kisumu County?

1.5 Justification and significance of the study

According to the constitutional mandate, households, the Kenyan government, and non-

governmental organizations have all made significant investments in food security over time to

optimize social equity and the livelihood resilience of households. This proposal aims at

gathering data on the effectiveness of regenerative farming on household food security to

identify effective and suitable strategies for mitigating present and future threats to sustainable

food security in Kisumu County.

Based on the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to end hunger in the world by 2030, this

proposal is determined to find out how well regenerative farming helps ensure food security for

households. Kisumu County is located in an area with very poor soils, little precipitation, and

high food insecurity. With a 2.2% population growth rate, the growing population requires

sufficient amounts of fresh, secure, nutrient-dense foods where they are most needed. In light of

this, the study results would help food security stakeholders understand the efficacy of an

alternative farming system that could achieve food security not only in Kisumu County but

throughout the country. This could be replicated in additional nations. This could be used to

better inform policymakers in Kisumu County about farming practices, the importance of soil

nutrients, cultural trends of alternative crops and livestock, and their possible impact on

5
households for effective regenerative farming in light of global warming, health policy, and well-

being. This will be an extremely good addition to the existing knowledge base on farming

practices for sustainable and resilient livelihoods and social equity.

1.6 Scope of the study

The study will be done in Kisumu County to find out how well regenerative farming in

households helps reduce food insecurity and meet the food security of households in the county.

It will primarily target farmers in Kisumu County who practice only regenerative farming. Some

household farmers practice a semblance of regenerative farming while also engaging in

chemical-intensive monocropping. Household farmers will only be selected from Kisumu sub-

counties with active farming, minimal government participation and influence, and where

independent household farmers practice autonomous cultivation. Additionally, data will be

collected from farmers who practice regenerative farming without government policy. The study

population will include regenerative household farmers, the county government of Kisumu

officials in the line ministry of agriculture, livestock, fisheries, and cooperatives, food security,

and non-governmental organizations working with food security. The data will focus on the

effect of regenerative farming on the food security of households. Data will be carried out

between the months of May to August 2023 while the unit of analysis will be focused on

household heads in Kisumu County.

6
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 The global and regional perspective of trends and types of regenerative farming.

According to research, there are many ways to use the term "regenerative farming." These vary

depending on the process for example (using cover crops, integrating farm animals, and

minimizing or preventing tillage), the outcome (improving soil health, carbon sequestration, and

boosting biodiversity), or a combination of both (Peter Newton, 2020).

The processes and outcomes do not share the relationships that exist between water and farming

in a way that promotes regenerative practices. They do not show that the desired outcomes of

"RF and water" depend on the management and optimal levels of two essential soil properties,

readily available moisture and infiltration rate. It does not also indicate that the cautiously

explained and evaluated roles of water in the existing RF literature are frequently missing,

overlooked, vastly oversimplified, or poorly presented. Caution is advised when considering the

amount of water that should be used for soil regeneration activities.

Turning to the more academic literature, Web of Science has found only seven papers with the

words "regenerative agriculture" or "regenerative farming" in the title or abstract in the 30 years

after a paper was published in 1986 (K. Giller, 2021).

The loss of the earth's rich biodiversity and good soil, as well as indigenous knowledge and

seeds, poses a major threat to our ability to do well in the coming decades. As per soil scientists,

if present rates of soil damage (such as carbon reduction, erosion, desertification, and chemical

contaminants) continue, households will not only experience serious harm to their health because

7
of a qualitatively deficient food supply marked by severely reduced nutrition, but we will also

essentially run out of productive land topsoil within five decades (G. Sahu, 2020). It will not be

possible to feed the world without conserving and regenerating the soil. To regenerate and help

rebuild the soil and environment, regenerative farming should be adopted. By rebuilding healthy

soil that can produce high-quality, nutrient-dense food while also boosting the land rather than

degrading it, regenerative farming eventually creates productive farms, healthy households, and

resilient economies (G. Sahu, 2020).

The soil health and crop nutrient density are different on farms that have used chemical

(synthesized fertilizers and herbicides) vs. regenerative practices for five to ten years, according

to data from paired farms across the United States. Regenerative farms have higher soil quality

scores, more organic matter in the soil, as well as their phytochemicals, minerals, and vitamins.

When compared to chemical no-till wheat grown in nearby farms in northern Oregon, the

regenerative cultivars had more micronutrients from minerals. Also, when the unsaturated fatty

acid profiles of beef and pork raised on one of the regenerative farms were compared to those of

a local brand of healthy, chemical-free meat sold at nearby convenience stores, high amounts of

omega-3 fats were found. These comparisons help to show that regenerative farming practices

that build soil can improve the nutrient profile of cultivars and animal foods that are grown with

chemicals (David R. Montgomery, 2022). Still, to use these particular practices, households

working to improve food security need to change their way of thinking, their practices, and how

committed they are. Planners for the agricultural sector at the national level can use these kinds

of systems to help counties become more self-sufficient in terms of farming inputs and the

production of basic food items. This includes putting a real focus on training local extension

specialists, and research and development teams, doing more research on food crops and

8
livestock in areas with few resources, and giving owners of both large and small household farms

information, incentives, and the right technologies.

Another study looked at how regenerative and traditional ways of growing corn affect pest

control, soil conservation, farmer profits, and crop yields across the Northern Plains of the

United States. Regenerative farming systems provided more ecosystem services and profit to

farmers than an input-intensive corn production model. Pests were 10-fold more abundant in

insecticide-treated corn fields than on insecticide-free regenerative farms, indicating that farmers

who proactively design pest-resilient food systems outperform those who react to pests

chemically. Regenerative fields had 29% lower grain production but 78% higher profits than

traditional corn production systems. Profit was positively correlated with the particulate organic

matter of the soil, not yield. These results provide the basis for a dialogue on ecologically based

farming systems that could be used to simultaneously produce food while conserving our natural

resource base (Claire E. LaCanne, 2018).

Smallholder cropping systems are becoming more and more important in the agriculture of

tropical Asia, especially in the developing countries of the area. These units are characterized by

low soil quality, erosion, semi-optimal crop management, and smallholder farming conditions.

To reverse the pattern of productivity loss, the decline of sustainability, and most specifically,

the loss of livelihood, optimized strategies are required. Regenerating soil quality and supporting

agro-based livelihoods can be accomplished through the implementation of agronomic practices

such as introducing organic matter directly to soils, practicing the use of manure, and modelling

forest ecosystems (W. D. costa, 2006).

Alternative production systems that work well in Nepal have found that regenerative agriculture

technology reduces the cost of production through less tillage, less use of agricultural inputs, less

9
labour, and less irrigation. This is done by keeping the soil moist, increasing its water-holding

capacity, and increasing its nutrient value through crop residue, crop rotation, and soil cover,

reducing soil erosion and runoff of the top layer of soil, and increasing soil quality. But the main

problems with regenerative farming are the lack of the right information and tools. Participatory

research on the farmer's field and large-scale demonstrations in all of the country's

agroecological domains are needed to spread the regenerative agricultural practices that have

been found and developed (Soni Kumari Das, 2022).

Conservation agriculture (CA) is used in many parts of sub-Saharan Africa to improve

ecosystem services and fix soils that have been damaged. In a study done in northwest Ghana

from 2010 to 2013, the effects of three tillage techniques—conventional moldboard ploughing

(CT), hand hoeing (MT), and no-tillage (NT)—and three cropping systems—continuous maize,

soybean-maize annual rotation, and soybean/maize intercropping—on soil quality, crop

productivity, and profitability were studied. During the first three growing seasons of the

researcher-managed mother trial, there were no clear differences between the tillage and

cropping systems in how much maize and soybeans were grown. After four years, conservation

agriculture methods kept the soil's levels of organic carbon and total nitrogen higher than

traditional tillage methods. Crop rotation increased yields most for conventionally ploughed

maize, which grew 41% more than hand-hoed maize and 49% more than no-tillage maize. When

compared to no-tillage cropping systems, conventional ploughing cropping systems increased

maize and soybean yields by 23–39%. According to a partial budget analysis, no-tillage systems

are 20–29% less expensive than conventional ploughing practices for growing maize or soybeans

and provide higher labour returns. Due to improved crop yield, increased economic resilience,

and trends toward improving soil quality, the implementation of conservation agriculture

10
practices such as no-tillage, crop rotation, intercropping of maize and soybeans, and crop residue

retention will eventually present a win-win situation. The biggest challenge is still maintaining

enough biomass on the field (J. Naab, 2017). The biggest challenge remains to produce enough

biomass and keep it on the field.

The term "Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration,‖ refers to a collection of practices that

farmers implement to encourage the growth of native trees on farmland. It is believed that

FMNR will have many beneficial effects, such as increased food security productivity thanks to

an improvement in soil quality and livestock feed, increased livelihood resilience,

and environmental benefits. It is highly promoted in Africa as a cost-effective way of restoring

degraded land, which overcomes the crisis of low success rates associated with tree planting in

arid and semi-arid areas. This is because it can be done without cutting down any trees (S.

Chomba, 2020). Large-scale farmer-managed natural regeneration of woody species in Africa

can help achieve ambitious forest restoration targets but requires a scaling-up strategy based on

experience in the West African Sahel.

In resource-conserving agriculture, there have been 286 interventions on 37 million hectares in

57 poor countries that have increased crop yields on 12.6 million farms by an average of 79%.

All crops showed water use efficiency gains, with the highest improvement in rainfed crops.

Potential carbon sequestered amounted to 0.35 t C ha (-1) y(-1). Of projects with pesticide data,

77% resulted in a decline in pesticide use while yields grew by 42%. However, it is uncertain

whether these approaches can meet future food needs. Furthermore, there was the deliberate

selection of "best practice" examples, actively encouraged by varied CA projects, as opposed to

both "spontaneous" adoption among farmers and trial plots. However, there is empirical evidence

11
on the impacts of certification on environmental outcomes in sub-Saharan Africa (J. N. Pretty,

2006).

In the Trans Nzoia district of Kenya's Western Region, the soil is very worn down, acidic, and

not good for growing crops. This is because crops have been grown on the soil repeatedly

without the nutrients being replenished. The issue of soil fertility has been addressed by small-

scale farmers in many ways, including fallowing, the use of fertilizers and organic manures, and

the planting of leguminous trees. Farmers who planted leguminous trees alongside FYM and

compost reported lower annual fertilizer input with higher output. Soil acidity was solely caused

by inorganic fertilizers, and this input had to be increased annually (A.O. Nekesa, 2007).

Climate models predict that as the climate changes, temperatures will rise, rain patterns will

change, and there will be more and stronger extreme weather events. Many development experts

have suggested agroforestry, or the deliberate integration of trees into the cropping system, as a

potential strategy to help farmers lessen their susceptibility to climate change. Field research in

western Kenya shows that households are not able to handle climate-related risks sustainably

right now. Farmers know this and think that the best way to deal with sudden temperature

changes is to raise their overall standard of living. Agroforestry is one potential strategy for

raising farmers' quality of life. We discover that participation in agroforestry raises households'

overall standard of living through modifications in farm productivity, off-farm earnings, wealth,

and the climate changes of their farm by contrasting them with a control group of nearby

farmers. We conclude that agroforestry methods can be used to help household farmers become

less vulnerable to climate-related risks as a useful component of a larger development strategy

(Tannis Thorlakson, 2012).

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2.2 Status of Household Food Security

Around the world, approximately 720 million to 811 million people experienced hunger in 2020,

an increase of 161 million from the previous year. 2.4 billion people, or more than 30 per cent of

the global total, experienced moderate to severe food insecurity. Stunting affected 149.2 million

children under the age of five, down from 24.4% in 2015. Wasting affected 45.4 million children

in 2020, or 6.7 per cent of children under the age of 5. The percentage of countries with high

food costs increased significantly from 16 per cent in 2019 to 47 per cent in 2020 (Nations,

2022).

Over 500 million people around the world have trouble getting enough food regularly, and most

of them live in developing countries. By 2050, the world's population is expected to be over 9

billion, so food security and buffer supplies will need to keep going up to keep up with rising

demand and deal with changes in food production and prices. To meet the average daily caloric

needs of the world's population in 2050, food production will need to rise by 70%, according to

estimates. Also, the limited availability and high cost of the resources used to make food, like

land, water, human labour, and capital, make it clear that something needs to be done. The need

for agricultural innovation is harder to meet when there are problems like rising temperatures and

a lack of natural resources (Dilrukshi Hashini Galhena, 2013).

Countries all over the world are taking different steps to deal with rising demand and prevent

famine and food insecurity. This is especially true in emerging economies, where hunger and

food shortages are more common. Because of this, household farms are often talked about to

improve food security and nutrition in the home by bridging access, availability, and food

utilization. Household farms have been around for a long time in many developing countries

around the world. They are an important part of the local food system and farming.

13
For safety, convenience, and special maintenance, household farms are typically found close to

the home. Households work on land that is not used for big household businesses and live on

land that is not used for farming. Household farms have low costs and easy-to-use practices.

They also have species that are well-suited to their environment and related to each other.

Household farming typically refers to the cultivation of a small plot of land that may be nearby

or easily accessible from the family home. A mixed cropping system, which includes fruit and

vegetables, field crops, spices, indigenous trees, herbal remedies, medicinal plants, and also

livestock that can be used as an additional source of food and income, can be used to describe

home farms.

In Third World countries, the main goals of agricultural development are to make more food and

give household farmers a more resilient way to make a living. Most of the plans that have been

made to reach these goals will not work because they are based on the idea that small-scale

farmers with few resources will be able to switch from growing basic foods using methods that

involve multiple crops to growing high-tech monocrops for export. Future farming systems can

be made to make better use of the production resources that are already on the farm, such as

better nitrogen fixation, more production of total organic matter, integrated pest management,

genetic tolerance to pests and stress conditions, and higher levels of biological activity. A farm's

cropping and livestock businesses can work well together, and the right information and

management skills can replace expensive inputs. Plans for food production at the national level

should include a variety of strategies and options for farmers with different amounts of resources

(Charles A. Francis, 2009). Urban food production should be seen as a potential contributor to

regenerative agriculture, so long as the methods employed are 'regenerative'. To reduce fossil

14
fuel use and preserve soil quality, integrated design approaches such as permaculture and the

circular economy should be incorporated into existing urban infrastructure (Rhodes, 2017).

Kisumu County has a lot of ongoing problems that make it hard for them to grow food. 80

percent of the food (maize, potatoes, red onions, vegetables, dairy, rice, eggs, and bananas) that

the 300,000 households in the county eat is imported from countries as far away as Uganda and

Tanzania (K’Owuor, 2022). Even fish comes from China. Lake Victoria was a major source of

fish, but their numbers have dwindled. Communities in the county have historically relied on

subsistence farming, livestock raising, and fishing as their main economic activities. Commercial

farming only came about recently as a result of interactions with nearby farming communities

(Abagusii, Abaluhya, Abasuba, and Kuria). At Kisumu City's Jubilee Market, traders complain

about the lack of food in the area and about middlemen from outside the country who take

advantage of food shortages to import food and make a lot of money (K’Owuor, 2022). Food

prices go up because there is a high demand for food and a low supply, meaning that traders

make less money and consumers pay more for food.

Seventy-one percent of the Kisumu households that were sampled were found to be moderately

or severely food insecure, with few options for what to eat. Even though the main goal of food

security policy is to increase food production, only 1% of households said they got their food

from farms, and only 3% said they got their food from their livestock in the past year. Most of

the food came from the market, which suggests that food insecurity is a systemic problem that

needs more than giving people access to land and helping them grow food in cities (Wagah,

2018).

Due to urban sprawl, households on the edges of cities were less likely to have enough food than

those in the middle of cities. Because city markets were put in places that were harder for poor

15
people to get to, there were more informal food sales in the city. The price of food is higher due

to far-off production sources and a bad road system. Over 65% of the people live in informal

settlements, which are not good places to live because they do not have good places to cook or

store food. The lack of water, sanitary conditions, and energy in households and markets was

found to hurt food security. Unemployment exacerbated food insecurity. Thirty per cent of

residents aged 20 and above were unemployed. 67 per cent purchased more than 75 per cent of

all the food eaten from the market. When tackling food insecurity, it is crucial to take the entire

system into account because urban systems have an impact on the food system in Kisumu

County (Agong P. O., 2020).

2.3 Effects of regenerative farming on food security

Reviewing studies from different countries shows that the amount and mix of social and cultural

effects of home farming vary from place to place. Household farms not only make sure that

families have enough food and nutrition in different social, economic, and political situations,

but they also improve human and family health, give women more energy, promote social justice

and fairness, and keep indigenous knowledge and culture alive.

The most important social benefit of household farms is that they directly improve the food

security of households by making food more available, easy to get to, and more readily used. In

both rural and urban areas, people keep home farms so that fresh plant and animal foods are easy

to get. All the time, food from home farms helps a family's energy and nutrition needs in a big

way. In Kutowinangun, Indonesia, households got 18% of their calories and 14% of their protein

from their farms. Studies on Javanese home farms that were done later show a direct link

between successful home farms and the nutritional status of households. They also show that

households eat more food when they produce more food at home. Javanese experiences

16
illustrating the potential of home farms to add to households' food supply and nutrition, as well

as their eminence as multi-storied agroecosystems in the tropics, heightened global attention

towards home farms (Dilrukshi Hashini Galhena, 2013).

Foods from home farms include horticultural crops, roots, tubers, and animal products. Other

plants from the gardens were used as spices, herbs, medicines, and animal feed. Even though

home farms are not usually thought of as a place to grow staple crops, Pacific Islanders get most

of their staple root crops from them. Similar reports were found from Nepal, the Yucatan

Peninsula, Bangladesh, Peru, Ghana, and Zimbabwe. Resource-poor families often depended

more on household farms for their food staples and secondary staples than those endowed with a

fair amount of assets and resources, such as land and capital (Dilrukshi Hashini Galhena, 2013).

For poor and marginalized households unable to afford expensive animal products to fulfil their

nutritional needs, household farms offer an affordable source of nutritious food. Through

farming, households can have better access to a diversity of crop and animal food items that lead

to an overall increase in dietary intake and boost the bioavailability and absorption of essential

nutrients.

Household farms make it easy to get a variety of safe, fresh, healthy foods for the household

every day, so more than half of the vegetables, fruits, tubers, and yams in those homes came

from the farm. Several studies back up this idea by finding that, while household farms add

calories, they also add a lot of proteins, vitamins, and minerals to a diet based on staples, making

it healthier and more balanced, especially for growing children and mothers. Plants from the

farms are also used as seasonings, teas, and condiments, especially spices and herbs. Recently,

countries like Bangladesh have been successful in increasing the availability and consumption of

17
vitamin A-rich food items through national home farming programs (Dilrukshi Hashini Galhena,

2013).

Also, when livestock and poultry are part of home farming, milk, eggs, and meat from animals

raised at home are the main and, in many cases, the only source of animal protein. In some

places, households also grow mushrooms and keep bees. Small freshwater fishponds are

sometimes added to farms to increase the amount of protein and other nutrients available to the

family.

Evidence from all over the world shows that household farms can be a flexible way to deal with

food insecurity in a variety of difficult situations (Dilrukshi Hashini Galhena, 2013). Because of

this, many government and nongovernment organizations support them. As a result, household

farms can significantly increase a country's food production, which has helped to lower "hidden

hunger" and diseases brought on by a lack of micronutrients. Household farms provide a small

but continuous flow of subsistence foods for the household in an attempt to assess the dynamics

of household farm evolution in Java and Sulawesi, Indonesia (Dilrukshi Hashini Galhena, 2013).

Also, household farms provide the main source of staple food for households in heavily degraded

and densely populated areas with limited croplands.

Household farms can provide food for low-income and resource-poor households because they

can be set up and kept going with little or no land and just a few other things. A study of

household farms in Cuba shows that they were used as a way to make households more resilient

and make sure they had food even though the economy was bad, and the country was politically

isolated. Cuban households got their basic staple foods (rice and beans) through rations, but they

relied on their household farm to get other fruits and vegetables to add variety to the household

diet and make up for food shortages (Dilrukshi Hashini Galhena, 2013). They provide a reliable

18
and easy way for the household to get food, fibre, and fuel and are seen as a strong food system

in places where there are a lot of people and not enough resources. In Lima, the capital of Peru,

households living in slums have benefited from household farms because it has made it easier for

them to get carbohydrates and nutrient-rich vegetables and fruits that are too expensive for them

to buy (Dilrukshi Hashini Galhena, 2013).

Researchers look at data from households to find out what caused food shortages in Portugal

between 2004 and 2012. They also look at how the production of goods for home use is related

to food security. It was found that food security is better when households make their food and

that the 2008 financial crisis did not hurt this (Sequeira, 2016).

According to the Global Hunger Index, the lack of political stability has made hunger and

poverty worse in countries where there are wars. Disasters caused by the environment can also

have terrible effects on households and stop food production systems from working. Even though

there are only a few published narratives, household farms have been proposed as an option for

food and nutritional security in disaster, conflict, and other post-crisis situations. Household

farms that grow enset and coffee are part of an integrated farming system that not only gives

Ethiopian families food to eat and other things to eat, especially during famines but is also their

main source of income (Dilrukshi Hashini Galhena, 2013).

Tajikistan gained its independence from the Soviet Union in 1991, but a civil war broke out soon

after. During the time after the Soviet Union fell, civil war, a drop in farming, and drought made

it hard for Tajik families to get enough food. This trend continues, and household farms continue

to significantly supplement household food security and sustenance (Dilrukshi Hashini Galhena,

2013). In recent years, several countries transitioning towards peace and stability and those that

19
are recovering from natural disasters have been adopting policies that support household farms to

reduce the prevalence and severity of household food insecurity.

In a place where there has been a conflict, aid and reconciliation mechanisms work best and have

the most positive effects on the environment, society, and economy when there is a cultural or

traditional tie between the households that need help and the intervention. So, household farm

projects are a good idea because farming at home is something that most households do every

day, especially for women, in most countries. When managed well, household farms are also a

four-in-one solution to the food and nutrition problem. They make more food available to the

household, make it easier for the household to get food on a physical, economic, and social level,

give the household a wider range of nutrients, and protect the household from running out of

food.

Finding safe farmland, not having enough knowledge and experience about farming and taking

care of livestock were found to be the most difficult parts of growing food at the household level

(Robin Kortright, 2010).

A varied study found a different interesting effect. A study compared the food security of

households in Vihiga and Migori districts, which are in Western Kenya and Nyanza provinces,

respectively, and have different biophysical, socioeconomic, and ethnocultural features. Three

types of vulnerability in household food security were identified based on both off-farm income

and the self-sufficiency of staple food production. Traditional vegetables are widely grown and

consumed daily, along with the staple maize meal, contributing to micronutrient intake.

However, no direct link between agrobiodiversity and household food security has been found.

Therefore, the role of agrobiodiversity by itself, and more specifically, the diversity of traditional

leafy vegetables, may be overrated (B. M. Figueroa, 2008).

20
2.4 The Household dietary diversity scores

Food biodiversity is the variety of plants, livestock, and other living things that are used as food,

including genetic resources provided by ecosystems, between species, and within individual

species. By extending any or all of the dietary diversity types of food in the questionnaire, data

on food biodiversity could be gathered (FAO, 2011).

Since it is not location-, population-, or culture-specific, it must be modified before being used in

the field.

The past 24 hours are used as the reference period by FAO. Each 24-hour recall period can be

used to track progress or focus interventions while also providing a population-level assessment

of the diet. The FAO chose the 24-hour recall period because it is less prone to recall error, is

easier for the respondent, and also matches the recall period employed in numerous studies on

dietary diversity. Additionally, a twenty-four-hour recall period makes it simpler to analyze

dietary diversity data than longer recall periods (FAO, 2011).

It is becoming more common practice to eat snacks and meals outside the home, even in

developing nations. If any member of the household ate anything away from the house, that is

the last question on the survey. This inquiry is included to gather data on the acquisition and

utilization of snacks and meals made away from the house.

Consumption patterns may differ from normal ones during festive times. It is advised against

using the questionnaire during public holidays, celebrations, or times like Ramadan because it is

highly probable that food consumption will not be representative of a typical diet during these

times.

The goal of this type of inquiry can be to find out if yesterday was a holiday or feast day where

people in the house ate special foods or more or less food than usual. Sometimes it is beneficial

21
to know the main source of food sourcing for the entire diet or particular food types (cereals,

fruits, or vegetables). Could you please describe the main source of food for your household (the

responses listed below can be used for each food group of interest)? (Code examples include.) 1

= Self-produced, gathered, hunted, and fished 2 = bought, 3 = borrowed, bartered, traded for

labour, or received as a gift from friends or family 4 = Food assistance 5= Other.

Fortified foods are not taken into consideration in the questionnaire. However, it can be useful to

obtain information on the local availability and use of fortified foods, particularly those fortified

with iron or vitamin A. (FAO, 2011)

2.5 System Theory

Systems theory is the study of how different systems work together to make a bigger, more

complicated system. This multidisciplinary field's central tenet is that the whole is greater than

the entirety of its parts. It provides explanations and hypotheses for events that take place in

complex systems, but which do not appear to be feasible in any one system. This is called

"emergent behaviour," and applying systems theory means looking at how all the systems work

together to make a complex system or whole and how this gives us a result that none of the

individual properties could have made on their own without a change in their environment

(Introduction to Systems Theory in Social Work, 2020).

Food yields alone do not ensure food security. It involves more than just the government giving

farmers subsidies and having available land. It also does not depend on the availability of

markets, rain, or seeds of superior quality or fertile soil. Therefore, achieving food security

requires more holistic approaches that consider empowering communities to take ownership of

their food systems and promoting sustainable practices that support long-term food security.

Understanding the interdependence of these factors is crucial to ensuring food security for all.

22
3.6 Conceptual Framework

Regenerative farming focuses on restoring soil health to enable food diversity and security, but it

requires significant capital and labour investment, research and training, and fair government

policy support. It involves the use of natural resources and practices to reduce carbon emissions,

increase the biodiversity of crops for food, promote livestock welfare, and increase tree cover.

By adopting regenerative farming practices, households can improve the overall health of their

land while contributing to a more sustainable food system. With proper research, training, and an

enabling environment, households can benefit from the long-term rewards of self-reliance in

food production.

xxxx

23
Independent variable Dependent variable

Regenerative farming
principles

i. Reduce soil Household food security

disturbance.
ii. Diversify indigenous i. Household dietary
crops. diversity score (24hr
iii. Cover the soil with recall period)
diversified (indigenous) ii. Primary source of food
crops. procurement
iv. Keep roots in the soil. iii. Consumption of
v. Integrate adaptable fortified foods
livestock as much as
farmer potential.
vi. Agroforestry.

Intervening variables
i. Global warming.
ii. Deficiencies in enabling environments.
iii. Resources, experiences and capacities.
iv. Inappropriate institutional models of RD&E and
development
v. Change in farmer philosophy, commitment,
practice.
vi. Changing priorities for agronomic research

Figure 2.1: The conceptual framework model for regenerative farming on household food

security in Kisumu County, Kenya.

N/B

24
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter describes the research methods to be used to gather, analyze and report data on the

effects of regenerative farming on household food production in Kisumu County. The research

design, study area, study population, sampling procedure, sample size, data collection methods,

reliability and validity, data analysis and presentation, ethical consideration, and study

limitations have all been described in this chapter.

3.2 Research design

According to Kothari (Kothari, 2004), a research design is the conceptual structure within which

research is conducted. The study will use descriptive survey and correlation research designs to

study the relationship between regenerative farming and household food security.

25
 Table 3.1 Summary of the objective, variable indicators and research design

Specific Objective Research Variable Research Design

i. To determine the types and i. Use of indigenous Descriptive survey
extent of regenerative knowledge and correlation
ii. No use of chemicals
farming practices in
Kisumu County

ii. To examine the status of i. Household dietary diversity Descriptive survey

household food security in score (24hr recall period) and correlation
Kisumu County ii. The primary source of food
procurement
iii. Consumption of fortified foods

iii. To assess the effects of i. Reduced soil disturbance.

regenerative farming on ii. Diversification of indigenous Descriptive survey
food security in Kisumu crops. and correlation
County iii. Covered soil with diversified
(indigenous) crops.
iv. Crops have roots in the soil.
v. Integrated adaptable livestock
present.
vi. Trees planted

3.3 Study area

The county of Kisumu is situated in the western part of Kenya. The county has a total area of

2,085.9 km2. Kisumu County is located between latitudes 00° 20' south and 00° 50' south and

longitudes 330° 20' east and 350° 20' east. Kisumu County is made up of 2085.4 km2 of land and

567 km2 of water, making up 0.36% of Kenya's total land area of 580,367 km2 (GoK, 2022).

The reason Kisumu County was selected is that it is situated in a region with unusually deficient

soils, has fairly modest precipitation, and has high food insecurity. With a 2.2% population

growth rate, the growing population requires sufficient amounts of fresh, secure, nutrient-dense

foods where they are most needed.

26
Figure 1: Map of the study area

Source: Researcher (2023)

3.2.1 Administrative boundaries of the study area

It has 8 sub-counties. Kisumu East 141.6 km2, Kisumu West 209.0 km2, Kisumu Central 36.8

km2, Seme 267.7 km2, Nyando 446.1 km2, Muhoroni 657.5 km2, Nyakach 326.7 km2. (GoK,

2022). Siaya County to the west, Vihiga County to the north, Nandi County to the northeast, and

Kericho County to the east are Kisumu County's immediate neighbours. Its southern neighbour is

Nyamira County, and its southern neighbour is Homa Bay County. The new sub-county is

Kadibo.

27
3.2.2 Economic activities and livelihoods

The principal economic activities of Kisumu dwellers are commerce, farming, and fishing (GoK,

2022). The Luo community, which predominates, is part of a diverse background in the county

that includes both urban and rural environments as well as a wide range of ethnic, racial, and

cultural backgrounds. The county's advantageous location provides Kenya with access to the rest

of the African area known as the Great Lakes. It is situated on Lake Victoria's shores and acts as

the primary commercial and transportation centre for western Kenya and the rest of East Africa.

In the Kano Plains, rice is grown under irrigation. The majority of irrigation water comes from

the Nyando River, whose annual floods not only displace a large number of people but also

deposit a lot of fertile silt across the plain. The Kano Plains' northern and eastern outskirts are

also home to some of Kenya's most productive sugarcane fields. Towns like Kibos, Miwani, and

Chemelil are centres of sugarcane production. Maize, beans, sweet potatoes, poultry, and fresh

vegetables are also produced in Kisumu County.

3.2.3 Climate

The climate of the whole county is modified by the presence of Lake Victoria. The county has an

annual relief rainfall that ranges between 1200 mm and 1300 mm in different sectors. The rain

mainly falls in two seasons. Kisumu is known for its thunderstorms, which are the major type of

precipitation and normally occur in the mid-afternoon during the rainy season. The climate is

important as most of the agriculture practised is rain-fed, and hence changes in the climate

greatly impact agricultural productivity. The temperature of the surrounding towns and regions

can vary greatly. On the western side, which includes the constituencies of Kisumu West and

Seme, temperatures tend to be cooler than in the adjacent lake basin. The weather in Maseno

Division and Nyahera Division is known to be temperate. Kisumu is warm all year, with an

28
average annual temperature of 23 degrees Celsius. The temperature ranges between 20 and 35

degrees Celsius, rarely falling below 19 degrees Celsius. Throughout the year, the humidity is

relatively high.

XX

3.3 Population of the study

The population of the County according to the 2019 Kenya Population and Housing Census was

1,155, 574 persons with a Poverty Index (KIHBS 2015/16), of 60% (GoK, 2022). The County's

average population density according to the 2019 Kenya Population and Housing Census stands

at 554 per sq. kilometer against the national average of 82 per sq. kilometer. The most densely

populated Sub-County as per the 2019 Kenya Population and Housing Census is Kisumu Central

at 4,737 persons per square km (GoK, 2022). The county can benefit from the youthful

population through investment in skillful education and training that targets entrepreneurship and

job creation. The creation of meaningful job opportunities through the provision of adequate

investment opportunities and investment climate will translate the youthful population into a

powerful workforce able positively to contribute to the country’s development.

3.5 Study Population

The study will target household heads in Kisumu County rural area residents engaged in

regenerative farming activities. The unit of observation is households, and the unit of analysis is

the farmer's household heads. Others in the population of interest who will serve as key

informants for the study are the County Government Agricultural Officers, and Representatives

of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) such as One Acre Fund involved in farming

technologies or advocacy for farmers' household heads engaged in regenerative farming

activities.

29
3.6 Sampling strategy and sampling size

Sampling techniques will comprise proportionate sampling for household respondents, purposive

sampling for key informants, and quota sampling for the focus group discussions.

3.7 Data Collection methods

Data will be gathered from primary sources using both quantitative and qualitative tools. A pre-

coded semi-structured individual questionnaire (Appendix I), key informant interview guides

(Appendix II), a focus group discussion guide (Appendix III), and an observation guide

(Appendix IV) are among the primary data tools.

3.7.1 Individual household Questionnaire

The 384 households in the study area will be surveyed using a semi-structured, pre-coded

questionnaire. The tool will be written in English, but it will be administered in Kiswahili or the

local dialect. The questionnaire is divided into sections based on the study objectives.

3.7.2 Key Informant Interview Guides

Key informant interview guides will be used to conduct in-depth interviews with the informants.

The tools will include probing questions organized around themes that correspond to the study's

specific objectives.

3.7.2 Focus Group Discussion Guide

For households in the area who do not use regenerative technologies and instead rely on

chemical-based farming, a focus group discussion guide will not be used. This is intended to

capture the voice of those who are involved in regenerative farming and to collect qualitative

data on the reasons for uptake. This will provide valuable information for discussion and will add

weight value to the policy recommendations that will be made at the end of the study. Each focus

group will have 7-13 participants drawn from the community's study cluster.

30
3.7.3 Direct Observation Guide

A guide will be used to observe various aspects of regenerative farming in practice in the study

area.

3.7.3 Validity and reliability test

The instruments' validity will be determined by research experts at Masinde Muliro University of

Science and Technology. Corrections and advice will be given where deficiencies were

identified, and new ideas are incorporated into the instruments, improving instrument validity.

To ensure the reliability and validity of the data collection instruments, a pilot study will be

conducted in Kadibo Sub County. The goal of validity is to ensure that the tool is measuring

what it is supposed to measure. It is also about how well the results of data analysis represent the

phenomenon under investigation. The pilot sample will be 10% of the total study sample size of

38 farmers.

XXX

3.7.4 Data Treatment and Analysis

Data from quantitative and qualitative tools will be analyzed and presented concurrently, based

on the study's specific objectives. First, the quantitative data will be cleaned by ensuring that all

questionnaires are correctly filled out. This will be done while still in the field so that any errors

that may have occurred during the exercise can be corrected. The data will then be entered into

Microsoft Word and descriptive statistics will be generated. Qualitative data will be entered into

Microsoft Word and organized by content, based on the specific objectives' themes and subjected

to explanatory method of analysis and discussions. Along with the quantitative data for the

variable, the data will be presented in quotes and paraphrased.

31
3.7.5 Data presentation

Analyzed data in frequencies and percentages will be presented using graphs, figures, pie charts,

tables, percentages, frequencies and cross-tabulations. The frequencies will be converted to

percentages and graphed and charted.

3.8 Assumptions of the Proposed Study

The study makes the following assumptions.

i. Households have various alternative farming practices to produce their food for

household food security.

ii. A direct relationship exists between regenerative farming and the uptake of regenerative

farming practices among farmers.

iii. Regenerative farming is effective in meeting household food security among farmers

despite ecological, political, research, development and training challenges.

3.9 Ethical Considerations of the study

The study will be conducted with objectivity. The researcher will seek permission to conduct the

study from Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology's Directorate of Post

Graduate study. A research permit will also be obtained from the National Council for Science,

Technology, and Innovation (NACOSTI), which will provide letters to the County

Commissioner of Kisumu and the County Director of Education requesting additional

authorization to conduct the study.

32
For confidentiality, agricultural authorities at the sub-county level may be reticent to disclose

information that appears to cast doubt on their ability to carry out their responsibilities to the

citizenry. This will be overcome by guaranteeing them anonymity to protect their identities.

Respondents may be unwilling to disclose existing food insecurity in their households because of

the stigma associated with being unable to provide for one's family. They will be assured of

anonymity and encouraged that the aggregate findings will be used to inform policy action that

will empower them.

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APPENDICES
Appendix I 1: QUESTIONNAIRE

37
APPENDIX II 1: KEY INFORMANT INTERVIEW GUIDE

38
APPENDIX III: FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION GUIDE

39
APPENDIX IV: OBSERVATION GUIDE

40
APPENDIX V: WORKPLAN
The work plan and budget for the proposed study are presented in the tables that follow.
Work Plan for the Study
Activity January
and
February March April June July August September
Developing
research topic
Writing Research
Proposal

Designing
research Tools

Proposal review/
Research Proposal
Defense

Data collection

Data cleaning,
entry, and
analysis

41
 Thesis Writing
and Submission

Thesis defence
and Corrections
Completion

APPENDIX VI: Budget

ACTIVITY AMOUNT IN
KSHS.
Proposal writing and Presentation.
 Documentation
(Approximately 5,000/= per set of 6 proposals x 3 revisions) 15,000/=
 Logistics (travel and accommodation and
communication) for consultations and seminar 20,000/=
presentation

Production of Field Tools

 Individual Questionnaires (5 pages x 5/- per page 2,500/=
x 100
 FGD Guides, KII Guides, Direct Observation 500/=
Guides
Subtotal 38,000/=
Piloting Costs
 Transport costs to the pilot site (return) 10, 000/=
 Per diem for 2 assistants & Researcher for one day @
ksh.3000/= each 3,000/=
 Field guides for one day @1000/= each x 2guides 2,000/=

Sub total 20,000/=

Data Collection Costs)
 Transport Costs 10,000/=

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 Per Diem Costs (2,000/= per person per day x 3 days x 4 24,000/=
persons) 26,000/=
 Research assistants’ Service Fees and Field Guide Fees

Sub total 60,000/=

Data Analysis and Presentation of Preliminary Findings
 Clerical services for data entry 5,000/=
 Communication, Transport& Travel for consultations and
seminar presentation 25,000/=
 Thesis documentation (2 drafts and final sets) 30,000/=
Sub total 60,000/=
TOTAL 178,000/=
17,800/=
195,800/=

XXXX

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