52

Voices of Mexico /April • June, 1995

From painters to
involved. Thus an age-old tradition
had to adjust to the new conditions
imposed by the Conquest.
At least some cultures of late
pre-Columbian Mesoamerica

scribes: tlacullos included a personage known by the

Náhuatl language groups as the
tlacuilo (from the Náhuatl verb
tlacuiloa: to paint or write). The

in the 16th t'acudo was part official, associated

with the ruling class, and part artisan,
since in order to record events he had
to apply his experience and expertise

century so as to reproduce the models

established in semantic codices
hallowed by tradition. Of high
aesthetic quality, his designs
systematically and precisely
Elsa L. Rea López* combined figures, phonemes and
colors to represent oral language.

I
n 1582 the noble lady (cihuapilli) and asked city officials to send her a The knowledge and practice of
María de Guzmán, a native of the scribe so she could make her will. writing were imparted in the
011ac neighborhood (tlaxilacalli) Sixty years after the Spanish Conquest cahnecac, schools for nobles which
in Xochimilco, was gravely ill this legal act had become part of specialized in training future priests,
For space rcasons the cditors have everyday life, based on a fascinating political leaders (tlatoani) or teachers
eliminated some of the footnotes from the cultural transformation. at the calmecac itself. Future tlacuilos
original text. Indian scribes, like their Spanish always carne from the nobility, since
counterparts, acquired prime being the son of lords or priests was a
Wc thank the National Archives for providing
us with photographs for this article.
importante during the Colonial era. prerequisite for attending the
The adoption of Spain's legal cahnecac. This type of specialized
* Ethnohistorian, Center for Rcscarch and procedures meant that Indians now education was apparently not provided
Advanccd Studies in Social Anthropology needed to leave a written record of all to the lower classes. While martial arts
(CIESAS).
the legal affairs in which they were were taught to lower-class boys in
schools called telpochcalli (from
o o 0100000100 c telpuchtli: young boy), it is unknown
o
o whether they were also instructed in
reading and writing.
„Idr.,,,,,Uty+shm, 7 L In the cahnecac, the tlamatimine
(wise teachers) taught the correct use
e
A..., of language, how to decipher texts
o
1
conserved by tradition,' as well as
fi o
o their own method for using painting to
P. O
write such texts. These teachers were
o responsible for the study and
o
o conservation of history, theory and
science, since it was they who
possessed the "red and black ink"
contained in books and were in charge
• • 31 eug of transmitting this wisdom. Sahagún
"Ph~?
0 000000000 00000 writes of these texts:
****IN 41.41 '"'""l i I I Key among them those called tonalpohuali,
Plan of house in Xochimilco, 1613.
tonalamat/, Aqui:amad and temicamatl.
Voices of Mexico /April • June, 1995 53

...they were called divine songs, through a number of stages of cultural

IX31A1 d 1 • 1 ON3ld 3H
the verses of which were written and intellectual training, whereas
in their books in characters: and skilled painting was more a question
the), also taught Indian astrologv, of manual and aesthetic practice that
and the interpretation of dreams required lesser studies.
and how to count the years. 2 The details of the pre-Hispanic
The young nobles educated in the tlacuilo profession remain an enigma,
calmecac specialized in different and what we do know about this
religious, governmental or social personage is the result of inference. In
functions. Those who showed an his 1959 study of Mexican manuscript

)
aptitude for painting were more painting, Donald Robertson posed a
intensively trained in writing, since number of questions regarding these
they could use the skills learned at scribes: whether they worked at honre,
these schools in order to write about in government buildings or in the
history, religion, mythology, etc. temples; whether they necessarily
Some tlacuilos may have belonged to the priesthood or included
specialized in writing about issues laymen working for particular
governmental offices; how they Coco of a rms umferred on the lord of
related to particular requirements of Santiago Tlatelolco kv Spanish King
the complex Aztec civilization. learned their trade, and what methods Carlos V, 1550.
Motolinía reponed that there were five they used to join it.4
key books of ancient knowledge: Another scholar, Pedro the semblance of the gods. You
The first speaks of time and the Carrasco, stressed the difficulty of should know that my forefathers
years. The second, of the days determining whether, in Aztec and 1 never possessed any
and the feasts held throughout the society, a given specialized activity science other }han our trade of
year. The third, of dreams and the occupied all of an artisan's (in this painting and drawing these
tricks, vanities and omens in case the tlacuilo's) time, or if this characters, and their place was
which the) , believed. The fourth is activity was combined with farming to be painters of past kings, and
of baptism and the narres they for the artisan's own consumption. the), painted what the) , were
gave to children. The fifth speaks We can nevertheless assume that ordered to depict. And thus, 1 do
of the rites and ceremonies and —thanks to their specialized functions not know anything about what
augmries the) , used in matrimony. 3 and membership in the social elite- you are asking me to do, and i f 1
There were probably tlacuilos tlacuilos were not obliged to earn their said yes 1 would be lying.
with special knowledge on the correct keep by farming the land, producing That there were tlacuilos of both
way to handle each of these books. handicrafts or going to war, as were sexes is attested to by the Telleriano
Due to lack of information, we society's other members. It has been Remensis codex, which shows a
cannot say whether the state also used definitely established that they were woman tlacuila. While no information
tlacuilos to officialize communication exempt from paying tribute, as were is available on how women learned
of minor juridical affairs to the the calpuleque (residents of specific the trade, the likelihood is that they
population in general, or what kind of neighborhoods), singers, warriors who practiced it from childhood as
specialization was required if this was distinguished themselves in baffle, and members of painter-scribe families. It
indeed the case. What is alear is that young people. is also possible that codex painting
the tlacuilo's role as scribe took The scribe's trade was passed on was taught in the schools for women,
precedence over his role as painter, from father to son. It is useful to recall called ichpochcalli (from
since to become a scribe one had to go what one tlacuilo said when Emperor ichpochpiltontli, maiden or girl).
Moctezuma ordered him to paint the It has so far been impossible to
2 newly arrived Spaniards: identify tlacuilos with specific
Fray Bernardino de Sahagún, Historia
general de las cosas de la Nueva España Powerfid lord, 1 should not tell individuals' narres. Their work was
(General History of the Things of New you something which is untrue, anonymous; no matter how important
Spain), Mexico City, Porrúa, 1979, p. 329. nor deceive you, since you are or complex a codex or mural, the
3 Fray Toribio de Benavente Motolinía, author's name was never referred to.
Historia de los indios de la Nueva España This is particularly strange from a
(History of the Indians of New Spain), 4 Donald Robertson, Mexican Manuscript
Painting of the Ea•ly Colonial Period, New Western point of view, given that
Mexico City, Salvador Chávez Hayhde,
1941, p. 5. }laven, Yak University Press, 1959, p. 25. considerable creativity was involved.
 V oices of Mexico /April June, 1995

assent was established in 537, and in

538 the testimonial admissibility of
documents was defined. On the basis
of the Justinian decrees, the scribe
played a significant role in the
evolution of legal systems, as his work
was delineated through custom and
the adaptation of relevant law to
different locations, social changes and
the needs of the moment. 6
The scribe's profession was
transmitted to the Americas, as an
indispensable element in any legal
activity. Thus scribes played a basic
role from the first expeditions through
the various stages of the Conquest and
the Colonial era. Among the first
documents signed by a scribe in New
Map of the Batiño Hacienda (Coyoacán), 1722. Spain were the "Military and Civil
Ordinances of Tlaxcala" (1520).
During the Colonial period
Just as there were good tlacuilos the tlacuilo in 16th-century New Spain viceroys, governors and town councils
who had the gift of combining aesthetic (as Mexico was known in Colonial provisionally appointed scribes,
harmony with economy of expression, times), had a very different history. subject to approval by the Spanish
there were also mediocre ones. In Book The original Middle Ages scribe Crown. While lberian-born Spaniards
X of his classic work, Sahagún noted: was a weak figure with very little occupied these posts in the early
The painter knows his trade, social prestige, at the service and Colonial period, over time they were
knows how to use colors, to draw under the protection of feudal lords replaced by criollos ("Spaniards" born
and sketch images with charcoal or municipal councils. His trade has in the Americas).
and make a good mixture of been the subject of scarce historical There were different classes of
colors; he knows how to mix them attention, although various laws and scribes, exercising the profession in
very well. The good painter has a civil ordinances —some as early as accordance with their given legal
good hand and grace in painting, the 4th and 5th centuries A.D.— laid title. The most important of these
carefidlv considers what he has to out the rules to be observed by were Royal Scribe, Public Scribe,
paint, shades the paintings well would-be scribes. Public Scribe of the Number, notary
and knows how to make shadows, The profession was defined by the of belongings of persons deceased,
distance and foliage. following events: In the year 317 mining scribes —and there were
The bad painter is of bad and Constantine established the validity of many more, in line with the
foolish temperament and thus is documents written by scribes, as well intricacies of governmental and
difficult and easily angered; he as the possibility of contesting their institutional policy in the colony.
does not fidfill expectations for the authenticity; in 378 Valente Graciano Indeed, each Colonial institution
work at hand, does not give luster y Valentino reiterated such included a specialized person for
to what he paints, shades poorly, documents' validity. In 472 Emperor each particular kind of clerking.
and does not bring measure and León I, known as "the Great," issued Those who wrote the many
proportion to what he paints, since decrees regarding the evidential value varieties of documents produced in the
he paints it rapidly. 5 of documents made by scribes. In "king's house" were considered royal
medieval Constantinople, Justinian's
The Spanish tradition: scribes and legislative work Novellae, Corpus 6
The different Latin names given to scribes
notaries luris Civilis provided systematic can be found in several of these laws:
The Spanish trade of scribe, the great norms for scribes' activity, and in the tabellio, tabularis, scriba, cursor,
tradition which combined with that of logographus, amanuensis, grafarius,
year 528 he issued what carne to be
librarius, scribanus, cognitor, actuarios,
known as the "Justinian Regulation of exeptor, libetenses, refrendarios,
5 Sahagún, Historia general..., p. 554. Scriveners' Documents." Notarial consellarius and notarios.