r/IGCSE

Resources
Topical Notes by Chapter for
Cambridge IGCSE

Biology (0610)

Authored by
Veda

1st edition, for examination until 2025

© r/IGCSE Resources 2024

Characteristies
Movement
runorgan,ims!YatnreinanEErdan:ORaction made by organism causing fertile offspring
change of position / Place Binomial
naming system
reactions thattake place -way to make classification standard
Respiration -
chemical
thatbreak down nutrient molecules and
in cells
-
Scientific name-consists of Genus and Species

GenusSpecies
release energy for metabolism.
captartswith
lowerforan erere

Sensitivity -

abithersensetimeininterrace
-
Scientific
for humans!
name

appropriate responses Why do we

classify organisms?
-
to
identify those at risk of extinction

Growth -
permanent increase in size and
-

to understand evolutionary relationships

dry mass by
or both.
increase in cell number How do we
classify organisms?
By studying morphology, anatomy!
its

Reproduction -
process thatmakes more of Morphology:Study of form or outward appearance oforganisms
Anatomy:study of internal structure
same kind of organism by dissection.
Sequences of DNAand amino acids in
-

proteins are

Excretion
a more accurate way of classification.
removal from organisms of
metabolism, Each species has its
products unique number of chromosomes
- -

waste of
and sequence of bases in DNA it
toxic materials and excess substances making different
from other species (humans have 46

min
chromosomes)

Nutrition - taking in materials for

energy, and development.
growth
-organism with recentancestors have DNA
similiar than distant
that's more

All
living things classify under. Viruses Dichotomous

kingdom, phylum, Class, order, Genus, Species

-
Have central core ofRNASDNA keys
Surrounded
by protein coat. -used to identify organisms
All
living things have certain features in common like:
-No nucleus,

organelles
cytoplasm, cell
or cell
membrane early
made of
contrasting
-presense of cytoplasm, cell membrane, DNA (genetic material) -
Do not feed, excrete, respire or
Dichotomous means I
grow. branches)
Ribosomes (in
cytoplasm) floating freely attached to
-

or -
Virus PARTICLES are NOT
cells!!
membranes called
rough endoplasmic reticulum. Do reproduce, buti nside
-

cells of
(Ribosomes make the proteins 8 living organism using materials
enzymes involved in respiration) from hostcell.

Whittaker's Five kingdom Scheme:

Animal, Plant, Fungus, Prokaryote, Protocist

Animal Plant. Fungus Prokaryote Protoctist.

·Multicellular
·multicellular organisestates unicellular
-
Unicellular
-madeupofthread
-

cell wall made

up of cellulose
like
hypei n Bacteria and -chromosomes enclosed in
algae a
-

Divided into vertebrates and contains chloroplasts membrane to form a

nuclear
with
chlorophyll.
many nucleiare distributed throughout chromosomes
not
organized into a
-

arthropods! can make their

-

own food
the
cytoplasm in their hyphae.
videdinto
ferns by flowering plantsin
VERTEBRATES. 8 Mushrooms
-
Each bacterial cell contains a single
-

Eg:Amoeba
Eg:Yeast
-

chromosome, consisting circular

of DNA
Landplants

vergesensameroutinesylema
strands.
knee
.

So the
zygote directly becomes the fern plant
Fern plants have
sporangia, which makes spores
FLOWERING PLANTS.

Yayananda
n8Marla,
*
ARTHROPODS on
Chapter 2:Organization of the
organism
Eukaryotic cells:have nucleus
Cell Structure in bacterial cells.
-

3 membrane bound
organelles

cell structures in both animal cell wall cell membrane

·

cytoplasm
·
ribosomes
and plant cells both. ·
Circular DNA:DNA
notin
nucleus,
outside in cytoplasm and is in a
cell membrane:selective control of what loop
goes into
and out of cell ·
Plasmids:little rings of DNA, contain
material extra DNA
-
nucleus:carries genetic I
them move around
-

cytoplasm:jelly like substance where all chemical ·flagella:helps Flagella (Plural)

reactions take place Flagellum (Singular)

-
-

ribosomes:site of protein synthesis

mitochondria:
specialized cells adaptations ↑

Site of derobic Ciliated cells:allow movement

-
neurons / nerve cells:conduction of
respiration of mucus in impulses
-longtoreachdifferent partsofthe her
the trachea and bronchi bog

Chigh metabolism cells -Domes nerve a s

need lots of mitochondria

-

axon is fatty sheath that insulates cell and speeds up nerve

to release energy) impulse

Cell structure in plants only.

cell wall:Structural Root hair cells Red blood cells
supportfor plants
A

increase surface area Transportoxygen in blood

*
Chloroplasts:Site
-

to
maximise absorption
of
photosynthesis
in plants -

walls are thin -biconcave shape for

Central Permant vacuoles:stores/isolates increased surface area by
harmfull materials, no chloroplasts needed flexibility
-

contains
haemoglobin
-

which joins with

-

Some animal cells

stores small nutrients oxygen to transport
can have -contains no nucleus to increase oxygen capacity
vacuoles but maintains water balance in cell
they're not
central
and most structural support
likely temporary. by applying
turgor pressure

Palisade
mesophyll cells
>

allow for photosynthesis to occur sperm and agg cells

-
column shape to maximise
sunlight absorption
and fit
many in
same layer
-contains
many chloroplasts to maximise
photo
Synthesis
-

Head contains haploid -

Lots of
nucleus
cytoplasm for
with
genetic info nutrients and growth of
acrosome contains
digestive embryo
enzymes to penetrate egg cell membrane
-

midorswimmingandto-after changes
fertilization so that
fertization no more sperms can enter
-
tail allows cell to swim

of
Levels
organization. size of specimens -

·
cell
- tissue
A
I

M
Image
Actual size
size

Magnification
-Mumm =1000
organ
-basic functional
and structural uniti n
Groups of
similiar
cells of made from
different tissues
organisations with
structure related functions
living organisms working on same
to perform
specific together to perform
working
-

magnification has no units!

function function functions

Example:
cells in body need to
divide 2000mm actual size

Logon1000CmN
min
to
-

allow for
growth repair
-new cells are produced 50mm imge size
through division of
existing cells
e
magnification =?
 inruinruni anin nainiYr
.

rhines
-
membrane.
i
Diffusion

Net movement
*
na goes down

water
of
concentration gradientdiffuse through
hair cells.

OSMOSiS
-

dissolved salts

molecules Plantcells in different Animal cells in different

root
the steeper the
from high to
gradient (big difference
low) the faster

Importance
the diffusion.

of
from high water potential solutions.Osmosis
(dilutes to solutions.
if
lower water potential (Concentrated) animal cell is in water, excess
-

if plantc ell is
placed in distilled plants gain
-

water (Purified
water enters cell
by osmosis and if
water
through
through partially permeable membrane water) water molecules
move from distilled water into
plant cells.
water isn'texpelled, cell will burst.
osmosis from soil to roots

(This is haemolysis) If plantcell vacuoles

ion neitbureauofcementinsure
-

arent
ifanimal cell is in saltsolution,
dilute solution has full, cell will become
-

-
water flaccid. If
more water
potential in cytoplasmosmoses out and cell
becomes all the calls in leaf become
and concentrated solution has on elastic cell wall. Shrinked (Crenated) flaccid
whole leaf drops and plant
w ilts.
less water potential
plantsneedwater
to
stay firmthe
if plantc ell is in saltsolution with
both
-
occurs in plants animal cells low water potential, water moves from cell
stainabon-cells in animal
body are
to solution, cell becomes
-water moves in and out of cell membrane plasmolysed Isotonic:similiar amount by liquid which has
surrounded
to blood
of sugars/salts same concentrationa s the

Hypotonic:less sugars
liquid inside cells
and salts than blood
(Tissue fluid:liquid outside cells)

Active transport
* the movement particles
of through cell membrane Importance of Active transport.
from lower concentration to
high concentration using energy *
uptake of glucose by
accquired from respiration. epithelial cells in the villiof
-
Carrier proteins pick up specific molecules and take them small intestines and by kidney
through cell membrane
against concentration gradient. tubules in the nephrons
-
substance combines with carrier molecule,
using energy * uptake of ions from soil water
from respiration, carriers are given kinetic energy needed
needed to and move substance membrane
by roothair cells in plants
change through

min
Chapter 4:Biological moleculeS Fats
* Carbon, oxygen and Hydrogen
-most fats clipids) in the
Proteins body
carbohydrates. are made up of
triglycerides.
Carbon, All
* contain Carbon, basic unitof fatis 1glycerol
oxygen, Hydrogen and
-

*
oxygen and Hydrogen
molecule
Nitrogen, some contain small amounts of chemically bonded with
Long chains of simple sugars
-

other elements like

3 fatty acid chains.
Glucose is sulphur.
simple sugar (Monosaccharide)
-

a
chain of amino acids
-Lipids are divided into fats
Long
-

When lots of Glucose join RTP)

-

<Solid and oils (liquid

together starch, 20 differentamino
at at

glycogen
-

or cellulose can form depending on acids RTP).

structure, these are
-

Same basic structure for all

polysaccharides.

·
proteins but
the 'R' is different for each one.
amino acids can be arranged in
many
88888 8 8 8 o 8 ag 8o88888888888888008800
-

gigoo
re
differentpatterns resulting to lots of
differing
proteins H

*N-G-
ias nice. Bein
Glycogen
w a r e e
R
a General amino GLYCEROL + 3FATTYACIDS Triglyceride
.
=

acid structure

Structure of DNA
molecule.
DeoxyriboNucleic Acid (DNAS
min
and
-
molecule contains the instruction for growth
development of all organisms.
-

consists oftwo strands of DNAwound dround each

Other in whati s called a double helix.
-

The individual units inside DNAare

called nucleotides

⑧
forms the
backbone
Of a
phosphate -
4. Base
strand of
DNA
Deoxyribose e (A, T, 20rG)

(A), Cytosine (C),

4
There are differentbases, Adenine
Thymine (T) and Guanine (G).
-bases always pair in the same way:
* Adenine
always with
thymine (A-T)
* Cytosine always with guanine (2-G)

Iodine solution test for Benedict's solution testfor Biuret test for Ethanol emulsion test for DCPIP testfor
PROTEINS.
STARCH. REDUCING SUGARS. FATS AND OILS. VITAMIN C
add drops of biuret solution
-

add Benedicts solution Food sample mixed with 2cm3 add 1cm3 of DCPIP
Start) to food sample)
- - -

add drops of iodine solution (blue colour (blue at

at start) to the sample solution of ethanol and shaken Solution (Blue start)
corange-brown atstart) to
food sample.
in the at
positive testshow colour
test change
-

t ube. to test tube

-positive testw ill make iodine colour ethanol (clear I colourless at
bath for violet/purple
-

to
-
Heat at600-700 in water add small amount of
change
-

to blue-black
Sminutes
-

negative testremains denim-Start) is added to equal volume

food sample (as solution)
-

negative test
w ill show blue. of cold water
no colour -

take test tube

positive test
w ill show
change outs observe colour
-

testwill showd
-A positive
positive test
orange or blue dye disappearing
-

brick red
cloudy emulsion forming
negative test
blue-green test will
-

or
yellow
-

negative
green. show no change to

blue colour.
·

. it
itnh
substrate:Substance on which the acts upon
enzyme

solution

Enzymes specific shape, held in

·
are proteins and have place by bonds

important for active site's shape

·
This is e nsures
as it substrate can fitand reaction can occur

·If pH is too low and too high, the bond thatholds amino acid to make enzyme mightbreak

This will lead to

change shape
of atactive site (Denaturation) or reduce rate of
activity
beyond optimum would lead to denaturation.

temperatures don't denature

min
·
Low

enzymes, they just work slower.

Investigating Enzyme actions.

Investigating effectof temperature Investigating effectof pH level

On
Amylase. On
Amylase.
 Of
LimitingFactorsin
-

↳
Chorophys. use and
storage
ProteanMaterialisnhighenergeoxiae
supply thatrestricts life processes
the process in which plants chlorophyll is a
green pigment thatis found in
synthesise Carbohydrate
·

chloroplasts within plant cells.

can be used to: the

at time.
End product:Glucose and
Oxygen
·

Convertto starch molecules and used as

-

energy store

-Lightintensiteconcentration
phloem

LIGHT INTENSITY

Identifying Leaf Structures in a

uncroPaseit
·

·
Stomata

·
spongy mesophyll

How
photosynthesizing Cells obtain CO2? airsparbundles (xylem Phloe i
·

Atmosphere air spaces around spongy

-

↳Features adaptations
cross section and cell of
mesophyll -> leaf mesophyll cells
-

I structures descriptions
a leaf ->
chloroplast

Investigating the need for Investigating the Rate of Investigating Gas Exchange.
Chlorophyll,Light 3 CO2. Photosynthesis
plants faster rate than
· are
photosynthesizing at
respiring atday
So neti ntake ofc arbon dioxide is found and outputo f
net
oxygen.
Chlorophyll. · Plants used are
usually floded or Cabomba- seaweed!
·
Asphotosynthesis occurs, oxygen will release into water
· bubbles per minute can be counted to record rate
Leafs can'tbe tested for more accurate
experiment would
·
glucose as its
measure volume of the
quickly used. But starch is a reliable indicator
oxygen.
Starch is stored in chloroplasts where -
This practical can be used to:
photosynthesis occurs.

I n the experiment, Ethanol is flammable

so its best to use an electric water bath #1:investigate effect of

changing light intensity

Emreexperimentabovecan be usedtheplantneedsto bedestarched for can see

· we can

exchange using
investigate the effecto f light on the netgas
pHindicator like hydrogen carbonate indicator
The leafs can be tested for starch withiodine and this will prove that light is
necessary #2:investigate effect of ·
Carbon dioxide is an acidic gas when in water
for photosynthesis production of starch.

changing temperature
carbon dioxide.
One plant is placed in sodium
hydroxide to
absorb carbon dioxide from surrounding air.
#3:investigate effect of

otherplantisplacedinbesarwithbeer changing carbon dioxide

concentration
Chapter 7:HUMan Nutrition organs.
agestine system
Salivary glands
Diets and deficiences.
a balanced dietn eeds proper amount protein
sugars
Digestive System. associated
organs
Balanced diet is
of carbs, protein, lipids, vitamins, minerals
food pyramid!
Vegetable
raary
PrOCeSSES, small
[
and

dietary fibre and also water!

carene intestines
Ingestion:taking in of substances
large
like food
[
water intestines

digestion:the breakdown offood

Finefines
absorption:movement of nutrients from assimilation:uptake and use of
the intestines into the blood nutrients
by the cell
egestion:removal of
undigested food inform of faeces

scurvy. Rickets
Functions of
-
Vitamin C
deficiency
-
Vitamin D
Vitamin D is needed
deficiency organs in digestive system.
to absorb calcium
-

·
lack ofvitamin (for 3 months in
into and calcium is
diet. body key componentfor
bones and teeth.
symptoms:
Anemia
* & tooth loss
symptoms.
* Bone pain
* Exhaustion * Gum ulceration
* Lack of bone growth
*
Swelling 8 Limb pain
-

scurry was
commonly seen in * soft, weak bones (deformities)
15th
Sailors between 18th
centuary
-

Vitamin D comes from exposure,

sunlight
-

Long sea
journey led to no source and also in foods like fish,eggs, butter.
off resh fruits -treatment for rickets is to consume foods that
-

Scurvy can be treated with oral or are rich in calcium 3 Vitamin D, also vitamin D

intravenous (injected)
vitamin C Supplements can be prescribed

min
PHYSICALDIGESTION. CHEMICALDIGESTION. RPTION.
-

breakdown of food into smaller pieces without -

breakdown of food into smaller molecules that

-

absorption is the movement

digested
of

chemical change to the food molecules can be absorbed used by body. foodmoleculesfromthedigestivesystem,itto
<fatty acids 3 glycerol).
-
this process increases the surface area of food ENZYMES IN DIGESTION. -

Nutrients are absorbed in the

small intestines

to make iteasier for enzymes to

digestin chemical proteases. -Water'sabsorbed not ation488%)
amylase happens in small intestines.

reducedin tenanceease
and secreted in the
produced in the mouth, pancreas and then
Teeth.
-

secreted into the duodenum.

a AAATION
OF SMALL INTESTINES.
ileum is

amassagesareintosmallersugars hereaspecigestsincerian intoaminoandin

long and
highly folded
-

and has
-

teeth are used for chewing thatincreases surface

Surface with millions of villiso it's for
of the food so iti s adapted
area more exposed to saliva and absorption.
digested from maltose to these
digestive juices allowing Trypsin adaptations massive
other glucose produced in
food to be broken down
-

with the pancreases

-

Secreted into the

enzyme
surfacearea ofileum allowing oneret Babin
maltase.
duodenum where itb reaks down
quicker. amylase protein in alkaline
conditions.
different teeth have differentfunction, Starch Maltose
Glucose 3
->

trypsinare of atease!!
-> pepsin type Microvillion the surface of
- -

a
eg:canine
-

to villus and increases

teeth are embedded into

bone gums
riph tear food,
to chew the
incissor to bite
food.
and cut and
premolar/molars
maltase
Protein

polypeptidecaptide
aminoacias surfacearequestsmall allows for fastd iffuse the
The ileum is well supplied with
Lipdseds
a
-

network of
blood capillaries thata re
stomach.
used to transport
glucose, amino acids
away from small intestines.

-Lipaseenzymes are producedinthepancrease

and secreted into the duoden see -Lacteal runs
through the centre ofv illus to
the stomach
lining contains muscles which transportfatty
-

acids, glycerol away from the

small intestines in the
contract to
physically squeeze and mix the food Lymph.

WithstrongadigestivenicethingarepresentWhiteene
Lip aSe

Lipids Glycerol 8
acids
3 fatty

Hydrochloric Acid.
Bile. of fluids and this is known
A stomach produces alot a
gastric
liver produces bile, bile is stored in the
-

gallbladder juices.

Bileisenalineapplenutralizeshydrochloric acidfromstomaare A
Hydrochloric
acid is one t hese
of fluids
bilebreaks large fatdroplets into smaller
-

droplets. This process is

emulsification, large surface areo flipids allows
lipase to acid pH for
chemically break down lipids. Emulsification doesn't
AThe acid kills bacteria and gives enzymes to
chemically change the substance, it
simply makes it smaller whichis still work in the stomach.
apartofphysical/mechanical
digestion.
Low pH denatures in bacterial cells and that
enzymes
-

makes the cell out reactions to

unable to carry any cell

maintain life
-

Eg:pepsin has 2pH level

Hydrochloric acid ensures condition in stomach is within optimum

-

to work atthe fastest

to allow
enzymes like pepsin r ate.
Ensen:
-

emirisortingne
min

in
root cells
hair translocation
-
-

The soluble products of photosynthesis are

Horsonanarewinglesandteensions ofepidermiscellatethe Sugars (mainly sucrose) and amino acids

phloem tubes which are made up of

This happens because soil has
living cells
higher water potential than
in roofh air cells so water osmoses into cell.
Cytoplasm
·
roofh air cells have increased surface
area t he absorption
of
in the end cell walls
of water
by osmosis and mineral ions active transport.
(Sieve plates) and allow easy
by
Osmosis causes into
-

water to pass roothair

cells
root cortexand into
through the
xylem vessels:
the phloem, from regions of production to regions
-Once water into itis carried
gets xylem, up to leaves where of storage or use, is called translocation
e nters
it
mesophyll cells

So the PATHWAY OFWATER is:

Transport in the phloem goes in
many different
directions
root hair cell -> rootc ortex
cells -xylem - leaf mesophyll cells depending on developmentb utusually
for dissolved foods its always source to sink
(where its stored or used).
Investigating water movement
in Plants. During winter, when plant has no leaves, phloem transports dissolved sucrose B
investigated by placing plant like amino acids from
Pathway can be a
storage organs to other parts to be used for respiration in plant.
*

beaker ofw ater with coloured water (food dye)

Celery into
During growth period (Spring), storage organs (roots) would be the source and
* After few hours
you can see leaves celery turning into
of
growing areas ofthe plant would be the sinks.
colour t he
of water
proving water is taken up.

Aftertheplanthas grownsummers,leaveswillphotosynthesfortheenter
·

* Ifcross-section is certain areas t he stalk is

cut, only of

stained with colour, these are the xylem vessels.

1 needed again.

transpiration
-
theelect
investigate emperaturatewilting
spiration a
* Water travels up xylem from roots to the ·in the experiment, shoot is underwater to prevent
leaves to replace water thatis lostby air entering xylem.
transpiration.
removecapillarytubetoletair
bubble to for the
Transpiration
· is the loss of water vapour
from leaves by evaporation
surface of spongy mesophyll followed by
of water from the further the bubble travels
Period, the faster transpiration is
in the same time

occuring. wilting healthy

Plant
diffusion ofwater vapour through stomata. plant
Experimental setup for testing the
·
such as:
·
xylem is adapted in ways * if more water evaporates from the
effect of
lightintensity.
Bancethatedliseedsoince"was"form
leaves than thati s available in the soil
continue to

·temperaturein
to move to roots by osmosis,
wilting
will occur
-

Lignin strengthens plant to help itwithstand the

pressure of water movement

transpiration 4 T his
* is when cells are not full of
in
xylem only takes place in one direction
movement
·
Wind Speed: water, so strenght of cell wall can't
from roots to leaves (phloem goes differentdirections).
wind speed supportp lantand itstarts to
collapse
Transpiration Functions. transpiration 4
transport mineral ions
-

provide water to keep cells turgid

water loss.
vapour
ranmoreenactedeach onFeetnsion:
provide water for
photosynthesis
-

-keeping leaves cool evaporative

cooling) place from surfaces of
to * Evaporation takes
continuous columns of water. cells.
1 spongy mesophyll
11 1 1 1 1 1 1 In 11 is transpiration
-watermovesthrough"yemincontinuous
stream at
* the many interconnecting air spaces

&
cells? Stomata create large surface

Traneairdesignagecontestinerestwaterwasnearergn
between
area

* evaporation can
rapidly happen when
water is pulled up the xylem leaves quicker. Stomata are open
mimini
nining
heart
-
Tr a n s p o r tm ent i n g
meaning itc an'ttravel fast.
By returning blood to the heart after going through the lungs
its pressure can be raised

the cells can be

respiration faster and

again before sending to body, meaning
supplied
more
with
oxygen
frequently.
and glucose they need for
carry ox 49 enated blood
thick muscular walls

high pressure

back flow due

thick so
are
leaky
surrounding
and

cells.

narrow arterioles and then

they

to low
(except pulmonary artery).
containing elastic
have a

pressure

organ and capillaries widen to venules and finally veins

from the organs, veins carry blood back to the heart.

organ ventureinvein waterartery

Lung
kidney
Liver
pulmonaryarethe
hepatic
pulmonary

hepatic
↳ hepatic portal reinserts deoxygenated blood from
a

gut
fibres, narrow
fastf low of blood.

and

substancescandiffuseinandhasissue filedin

capillaries
speed of blood flow

a
as
they
and

Renal vein
walls

pass

vein

vein
lumen to maintain

to prevent
is slow.

through
as
the

they move

to liver.

ARTERIOLES AND VENULES.

-

as arteries divide more as

they getfurther from hearta nd
they get

blood
min
narrower and narrow vessels thatc onnect capillaries are called
artery to
arterioles. Veins also get narrower and narrow vessels that connect
capillaries to reins are called venules.

COMPONENTS OFBLOOD: ·
RBC.
transport oxygen for respiration, oxygen is
carried in the form of
oxynaemoglobin
WBC
defend body against infections by pathogens by
carrying out phagocytosis and antibody production. heart
PLATELETS.
Help blood clot Blood is pumped towards the heartveins and away from the
PLASMA. heart in arteries, the two sides of the heart are separated by a

transport carbon dioxide, nutrients, urea, muscle wall called septum, heart is made ofm uscle tissue which
mineral ions, hormones and heat
energy.
are supplied with blood
by coronary arteries

ventricles are thicker than atria as they pump blood outs o they
IDENTIFYING RED 8 WHITE BLOOD CELLS. need to generate higher pressure, left ventricle has thicker muscle
wall than right as itn eeds to pumpblood to the whole body but

right only pumps blood to lungs. Septum separates left right to

prevent
mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
values prevent backflow of blood, two sets of values:
Atrioventricular values:Separate atrium ventricles
Right side is tricuspid-left side is Bichspid value.
values open when atria contracts? Close when ventricle contracts
semilunar values:Prevent backflow from
artery to ventricles
from right ventricle to
lungs Pulmonary value, left to body-aortic
-

value these two arteries are the

only two that contain values
these values OPEN when ventricle contracts shutwhen relax.
BLOOD CLOTTING TYPES OFWHITE BLOOD CELLS. Deoxygenated blood from body flows into right atria via the
platelets are fragments ofc ell which are involved in WBC is part of
vena cava, as
right atria is filled, itcontracts and blood is pushed
has been
body's immunesystem and there is two
through tricuspid value into rightventricle. Walls of ventricle contracteffect ofphysical
blood
clotting and
forming scabs where skin main types of WBC:
phagocytes and lymphocytes blood travels to lungs after passing pulmonary value. 38 xygenated
cut or punctured.
PHAGOCYTES. blood returns to lefta trium through pulmonary vein, then blood activity o n heart

blood prevents continued/alot

of blood loss when carry phagocytosis by engulfing, digesting pathogens
out passes bicuspid value into the leftventricle and the left ventricle Heart activity can be monitored using an ECG [electro cardiogram)
clotting
pushes blood into aorta and then iti s transported all over the measuring the pulse rate or listening to sound values opening of

wounded. Scab formation seals the wound and prevents

body, the aortic value (Semilunar) Prevents backflow. I closing using a stethoscope.
entry of microorganisms thatc ause infections. Heart rate is measured in beats per minute (bpm).
in place till the new skin under it.

RAtricuspid*Pulmonary pulmonary AbicuseLVeeB

the scan remains grows Increased physical activity results in increased heartbreathing
rate. This is to ensure sufficient blood is taken to muscles with
need to also be removed
nutrientsb oxygen waste products
faster and also the oxygen debt needs to be repaid
heart beats faster to ensure extra oxygen is still being
vena cava delivered and lactic acid build up is being broken down.
-

phagocytes have sensitive surfaces thatcan detect

chemicals produced by pathogenic cells,when the
phagocyte muscle cells need their own blood supplied by
comes in contactw ith pathogen, they engulf ita nd release supply, this is the
heart
colouratly
digestive enzymes to
digest it. phagocytes can be identifyed coronary arteries. If one of these artery is partially or
completely
under microscope

cytoplasm.
by their multilobed nucleus and
granular
blocked by fatty deposits called 'plaques' (caused by cholestrol), the disease
arteries aren'te lastic so
they can't accommodate blood being forced to reduce risk ofCHD:
LYMPHOCYTES. to CORONARY HEART DISEASE.
leading Quit
smoking
-

diet-reduce animal fatw ill

Produce antibodies to destroy pathogenic pains called anging. reduce
cells and Partial blockage:restricted blood flow results in severe chest Cholestrol
levels, help loss weight
antitoxins to neutralize toxins released by pathogens. leads to heartattack.

Ienterserear
complete blockage:cells in area can'trespire, heartwont contract,
platelets release chemicals thatcause soluble
Theycanbe identifiedundermicroscope bylarge andthe
coronary
-

to convert into insoluble fibrin and non-granular cytoplasm. disease

Heart
fibrinogen proteins
RBC
form an insoluble mesh across the wound, trapping
a clot.
and forming
-clot dries out and develops into a scab to protect
that
wound againstbacteria may enter.
Chapter 10:Diseases and
Immunity

↳
pathogens and barriers. controlling of spread
Pathogen:Disease-causing organism. disease
pathogens are passed from one hostt o another so they cause transmissible diseases

they can be passed by: simplestway to preventdisease is to stop pathogens from spreading
Direct contactdirectfrom one hostt o another via
body fluids (blood/semen) eg:HIV. this includes simple measures such as good hygiene, effective sanitation waste

Indirect contactthe host 3 is carried in to others. disposal to

safely discard pathogens.
pathogen leaves some other
way

3 main
body defences.
·
Mechanical barriers structures thatm ake itdifficultfor pathogen to enter

parts of body
skin:covers all

If
nosehair:make itdifficult for
pathogen lungs
a
large amount of population is vaccinated, itprotects entire population
-

to enter

a chemical barriers substances thatare produced to trap or kill pathogen

as there will be
very few places for the
pathogens to breed.
This is called herd
MucUS:Pathogen gets trapped and removed. immunity
-

If less people are vaccinated itleaves population atr isk of mass infection,
hydrochloric acid to kill any
stomach acid:contains pathogens this increases number of infections.
* cells white blood cells work to prevent pathogen replication Herd
immunity prevents epidemics/pandemics from occuring in populations.
-

Phagocytosis:engulf digestpathogens -

Mostchildren are vaccinated after birth to keep vaccinated population high,

production ofantibodies: Clump pathogens release chemicals to signal that this aims to eradicate diseases, an example would be small pox.
these cells mustb e destroyed.

vacinations
antigens and antibodies vaccinations
give protection againstspecific diseases
and boost body's

All cells have proteins and other substances projecting from cell membrane, these are called antigens defence againstinfection level of population protection depends on the
and are specific to thattype of cell. proportion of people vaccinated. Vaccines introduce dead or altered forms of the
Lymphocytes read antigens and recognise foreign antigens, they can then make antibodies
disease which have specific antigens to our
body. In their weakened state,
which have
complementary shape to pathogen cell surface. illness butc an
Antibodies attach to antigens cause agglutination (Clump together); this makes ith arder for
Pathogens can'tcause provoke system. Lymphocytes produce
immune

Pathogenic cells to move, and

simultaneously chemicals are released by phagocytes to destroy complementary antibodies and memory cells are also created. Since memory cells
Pathogenic cells. are produced, if live
pathogen enters, body quickly responds and immunity is long lasting.
Initial response of lymphocyte encountering pathogen making antibodies takes a few days
and after antibodies are made for firstt ime,
memory cells are also made to retain
instructions for antibody; next time antibodies are made faster become immune.
Butt his won'twork for all pathogens as they can mutates
change antigens.

passure covera active immunity

8
immunity cholera causes diarrhoea
·

Making antibodies and

developing memory cells for future is active

beeastfeeding. Seawatertreesfromtheanswhichmayleadandhath immunity

in which active immune response
Passive
immunity is a fastactivity, shortterm by oral
rehydration therapy which is a drink with small two ways happens:
amountof saltand sugar. infected by pathogens
defences againsta
pathogen by antibodies one infection thatcauses diarrhoed is vibrio cholerde -body is
vaccination
acquired from
-

another individual bacteria, which causes cholera

Active
immunity is slow
acting I provides long-lasting immunity.
antibodies pass from mother to infant via S
breastmilk, this is importantc ause babies

need to fightinfections fill they are older and

notes:
extra

min
stronger.

doesn'tm ake its

The body own antibodies
1.Bacteria attaches to small intestines
or
memory cells in passive
immunity.
toxin
2.
they produce a

3. toxin stimulates intestine to release chloride ions

lining cells
4. Chloride builds in lumen of small intestine Blowers water potential
5. water moves outo f cells into lumen (osmosis)
6. large amountof
watery loss through watery faeces.
7. blood contains to little chloride ions water.
Chapter 11. Gas humans
S

Exchange in
gas exchange surfaces.
the breathing system.
-

large surface area:to allow faster diffusion

-

-
thin walls:to ensure diffusion is easier
-

Good ventilation with air:so diffusion gradientis

maintained.
-

Good blood supply:to maintain high

diffusion is faster.
so
concentration gradient INTERCOSTAL MUSCLES
muscles can only pull not push so
-

there is two sets of intercostal

muscles to move rib up and down.

> ↳ CART ILAGE IN TRACHEA

↳ Internal
External intercostal muscles

thereis rings ofcartillage aroundtracheawasthe

while breathing
and keep them open
-
if not present, sides will collapse inward when air pressure drops.

3 PRESSURE CHANGES

in
VOLUME
abdomen and

amanawinnin
thin sheet ofm uscle thatseparates chestcavity from
Diaphgram:
responsible for
controlling ventilation in the lungs.
Diaphgram contracts -

increased volume
-

decreased air pressure -

air inhaled.

Difference:
Internal 3 External intercostal muscles are antagonistic pairs
When
you inhale:
External intercostal muscles contract, pull rib up out, which leads to

increased volume decreased pressure and air drawn in

When rate of gas exchange is increased (eg:during physical activity), the

internal intercostal muscles will pull ribs down and in to decrease volume 3
force air out, this is forced exhalation and ita llows volume of
greater gases
to be exchanged.

it.
-

Boiling tube Awill remain clear.

B will be
Boiling tube cloudy

breathing - a

frequency depth of protection for

breathing
breathing
* Excercise increases and
this:number of breaths in a minute should be counted at
-to
investigate
restbefore exercise, as well as
measuring chestexpansion over 5 breaths using tape system
measure around chest, after exercise repeatthese steps, the frequency, depth
Passages
* down to the lungs are lined with ciliated
increases. cells
epithelial
these cells have hairs on the end of them thatbeat
*
tiny
this is because cells need more demand while
oxygen to meet
energy exercising and push mucus up the passage towards the nose and
if demand isn'tmet, cells respire
and
anaerobically producing lactic acid which mustbe throat where it's removed.

removed because it decrease pH in cells 3 denature enzymes so lactic acid musta mucus is made by goblet cells
may
mucus traps particles, pathogens like bacteria viruses
'repaying the oxygen
* or
be oxidised and this is known as debt
and dust which prevents them from
getting to lungs.
The ittakes to return to normal
longer breathing, the more lactic acid is

produced and the greater the oxygen debt to be repaid.

min
Chapter 12:Respiration
Respiration:chemical process thatinvolves the breakdown of nutrient
molecules (Glucose) in order to release stored within the bonds
energy
of these molecules.

oxygen (derobically)
Respiration can take place with or withoutoxygen

canaerobically). Much less energy is released for each glucose molecule

broken down
anaerobically compared to
aerobically.
Respiration occurs in all
living cells. Mostof the chemical reactions in
derobic respiration take place in the mitochondria.

Humans need
energy to do the
following things:
contract muscles

min
-

Synthesize protein
-

Cell division
-
Growth
-
active transport
-
nerve impulses
-
maintain a constant internal body temperature

aerobic.
anaerobic
-

Doesn'trequire oxygen and is defined as the chemical reactions in cells

Requires Oxygen and is defined as the chemical reactions in cells
-

that break down nutrient molecules to release

energy without
oxygen.
thatuse oxygen to breakdown nutrient molecules to release energy
-

Itis
incomplete breakdown ofglucose and releases small amount
of
compared to
aerobic, for use in cell energy,
Complete breakdown of glucose to release large amounto f processes
energy for
-

use in cell processes.

-

different products are produced based on

type organism.
of

Itproduces carbon dioxide and water as well as useful ANIMALS.

releasing
-

cellular
energy. muscles havehigh demandfor energy and glucose broken down withoutoxygen will
word equation: energy is still stored in lactic acid
-

bonds so less
energy is released.
Glucose Oxygen + > Carbon dioxide + Water Glucose, Lactic Acid
word equation!
-

Balanced Chemical equation. Y EAST

C6H1206 602
+
>6(02 6H20 +

-used in bread making cause carbon dioxide makes bread

rise and
where ethanol been alcoholic nature
yeasti n brewing
gives and the Carbon dioxide been fizz.
gives
Glucose, Alcohol + Carbon dioxide-word equation

CH1z00 s2CCHSOH +2CO2

~balanced chemical
equation.

oftemperative
the effect the
repaying oxygen
on respiration debt
builds up
-

-time taken for methylene blue to

discolour is proportional to the rate of during vigourous exercise, Lactic Acid in muscle cells and lowers
respiration ofyeast cells in suspension. the pH level of cell (more acidic) this could cause those in cells to be
enzymes
-
controlled variables:dye volume, yeastsuspension volume, glucose concentration denatured,so lactic acid is excreted into the blood, blood passes by the liver and

temperature 8PH. the lactic acid is oxidised in liver cells (Lactic acid reacts with oxygen).
Hydrogens released faster by the reaction, DCPIP accepts hydrogens faster
-

are the waste products of lactic acid oxidation is Carbon dioxide and water, this is
untill all DCPIP molecules less time taken to
are reduced
meaning become
why we breathe
heavily and heartrate is high even after exercise, the lactic acid
colourless.
needs to be transported to liver!
This process is called
'repaying the
oxygen debt
Chapter 13:Excretion in humans
humans have
organs specifically for the removal of excretory products.
-

These are the

kidneys and the lungs, as well as the liver.
excretionis the removal of waste substances of metabolic
reactions,
-

toxic materials and substances in excess

requirements.
-

Carbon dioxide mustbe excreted as itcan dissolve in water to become

acidic slower pH of the cells.
-this can reduce enzyme activity in body which is essential to control
the rate of metabolism.

too much carbon dioxide is toxic!

-

Urea is also toxic in higher concentrations,so itmustbe excreted.

the kidneys nephrons reabsorption

-

AKA:Kidney
of each tubules or
kidney contains million structures called Nephrons
-

REABSORPTION OFGLUCOSE
is located in the back
-
the
kidney renal tubules.
Nephrons startin the cortexof the
after the glomerular filtrate enters the bowman's capsule,
glucose is the first
the abdomen and have two important kidney and down into the medulla
loop and back
-

Up the cortex.
substance to be reabsorbed atthe proximal (first) convoluted tubule.
functions in the body: -

nephrons drain into the innermost part of the kidney and the
Contents oft he urine is this process takes place by active transport.

for this aloto f mitochondria to provide

↳ collected there before itf lows into the ureter to the bladder for
-

The nephron is
adapted by having energy
Regulate water content of the blood. storage.
for active transport of glucose.

(vital to maintainblood pressure). -

reabsorption of glucose Can'th appen anywhere else in nephron as the proximal

convoluted tubule is the place where gates thatfacilitate active
only is transport
↳ excrete the toxic waste products of
they found.
people with diabetes can'tc ontrol their blood glucose levels and
they are

metabolism (Urea)3 substances in excess. often very high, meaning nota ll

glucose is filtered outof bloods can be
reabsorbed.
-

Since there is nowhere else for glucose to be reabsorbed, iti s excreted in urine

and doctors can testurine to find out if person is diabetic.

Arterioles branch off the form

renal
artery and lead to each nephron, where
they
a knot of capillaries (Glomerus) Sitting inside the cup shaped Bowman's capsule.

capillaries getnarrower as they getfurther into the glomerus which increases pressure
on the blood (butblood here
already has high pressure as itdirectly from renal
artery which

is connected to the aorta.)

smaller molecules in blood will be forced outo f the capillaries and into Bowman's capsule
REABSORPTION OFWATER AND SALTS.
where they form the filtrate (mix water, salts, glucose
of burea). This process is
As the filtrate drips through the ofhence,
loop
called ULTRA FILTERATION. necessary salts are

reabsorbed back into blood by diffusion.

some of the substances in the fitrate is useful and will be reabsorbed back into follows
As salts are reabsorbed back into blood, water by osmosis.
blood further down the nephron.
is also reabsorbed from the
water
collecting duct in different amounts
WATER:reabsorbed atloop h ence
of 3 collecting duct
depending how much water is needed by body atthattime.
SALTS:Loop of neute
GLUCOSE:Proximal (first) convoluted
UREA:not reabsorbed excreted.
-

Urea dissolves in blood, and is taken to

role of
liver excretion kidney for
-

in excretion and small amounts of urea

-

many digested food molecules absorbed in blood in small is also excreted in sweat.

intestine is carried to liver for assimilation Urea levels causes:

High
(food molecule converted to other molecules
needed). -

cell death
including amino acids, used to build proteins like
fibrinogen
-

reduced response to
-

which is a protein found in blood insulin

plasma for blood leading to diabetes
-

Excess amino acids absorbed

clotting.
in the blood that
aren't
-

deposits inside blood vessels.

needed to make proteins can'tbe
stored, so they are broken
down in the process called deamination.
in liver splitup the
Enzymes amino acid molecules
-

part of molecule
-

carbon is turned into

and this is stored.
containing glycogen
-

is
other partwith

very toxic so this is

nitrogen is converted into ammonia which
immediately converted to urea which is less toxic.
min
 Chapter 14: Coordination and Response

-innin
nervous system.
on Berature agptorcens
responding
groups
to specific stimuli:light, sound in

·nprdermenwidrhuur sesKerUS?(NYSEoninsobearersboutinebrandonesPinaene
Reflexarc:neural reflex
GYE.
THE

pathway thatc ontrols a

Reflex action:means of automatically and rapidly integrating and coordinating stimuliwith the responses
of effectors (muscles glands).

synapse suction
between two neuros e

·cheimukensremimelessnesseaseagunentear smiter
on the next neuron
·
an impulse is then stimulated in the neuron

synapes ensure that impulses travel in only one direction

IntangI
ACCOMODATION
The function oft he eye in focusing on near 3 distant objects

normones The way the lens bringing fine focusing is called accommodation.
ligaments are attachthe
Thelensiselastic andshape changes
when suspensory

Hormones are a chemical substance, produced by a gland and carried

by the blood, which alters the these changes happen by contractions relaxion of cilliary muscles
activity ofo ne or more specific targetorgans.
Endocrine glands and the hormones
they secrete:
·
adrenal glands secrete adrenaline
·
Pancreas secretes insulin and glucagon
·
testes secrete testosterone
· ovaries secrete destrogen

Adrenaline is the hormone secreted in flight or fightsituations and ithas effects such as: RODS AND CONES
increased breathing rate and pupil diameter.
increased concentration of glucose in blood (will deliver glucose for respiration)
increased heart rate censure muscles are well prepared for high levels ofactivity).
cones distinguish between different c olours in brightlight
endocrine system uses chemical
signaling, nervous system uses electrical signaling. There is 3 types of cone cells sensitive to differentc olours of light (blue, red, green)
system has very fastspeed of transmission endocrine system is slower. Fovea is found
Nervous area in retina on which almosta ll cone cells are
The duration of effecti n nervous short (till nerve impulse stop) and endocrine duration ofe ffect rod cells are found all over retina, other than area where optic nerve attaches to reting
is
system very system's
(until hormone is broken down). this are is called a blind spot.
is longer

min
homeostasis
Trophic responses
Monetuskeeps intestantanaterranenvironment
can function
ensure
involuntary movemento forganism in response to environmental stimuli
body properly. Gravitropism:responsein which plantg row away/towards
gravity.
phototropism:response in which parts of plantgrow towards/away from direction of lightsource
SunSistaNmonethatis secreted whenbloodglucose istoohigh,thisisattherarein ↑
positive tropism:towards stimulus
to avoid this, insulin converts glucose to
glycogen in
livers muscles, insulin decreases blood glucose concentration. negative tropism:away from stimulus
Negative feedback Plantshoots have positive phototrophic negative gravitrophic response
occurswhenconditionsinbodychangefrom
normal normal side the
lideal and returns back to
hormone called
something falls, system increases it.
level of
plants respond to stimuliby producing growth Auxin, itc ontrols direction
ensure condition stays normal/ideal.
constantcycle to ofgrowth ofr oots or stems.

plants control their growth chemically.

BodNose, evensunronedbynegativefeedback
↳ mechanism with production ofi nsulin and glucagon.
both hormones are produced in pancreas ·
Auxin is made in shoott ip
insulin isproduced when blood glucose rises stimulates liver and muscle cells to converte xcess
glucose into

glycogen to be stored.
Auxindiffusesthroughplantfromshootto lights gravityin
·

into
Glucagon is produced when glucose drops stimulates liver and muscle cells to converts tored glycogen glucose to
be released into the blood.
·
Auxin stimulates cell elongation.
TYPE 1DIABGTES.
condition where insulin secreting cells in pancreas are a ble to
not produce insulin, this means
glucose
levels will be too high. It is treated by injecting insulin.
their levels of
physical activity and diet will affecta mountof insulin needed.

skin homeostasis.
maintaining temperature is controlled by the brain which contains receptors sensitive to temperature of blood.
brain via
skin also has temperature receptors, itsends impulses to sensory neurons, brain responds by sending
impulse to effectors in skin to maintain optimum temperature.(37) so thatenzymes in body don'td enature.
acts as insulation.
Fatty tissue
vasoconstriction:when cold, blood in capillaries slow down 3 arterioles getnarrower to reduce heatl oss from blood.
vasodilation:when hot, blood in capillaries increases, capillaries get wider, this cools body as blood flows faster B
more heatis lostby radiation.
Chapter 15: Dru
93 Antibiotics.

meuriaiemthre
for the
antibiotics are used

Pubstance
treatment of bacterial infections
chemical substances made certain fungi
taken into the by
orbacteria that affect the
working of
body thatmodifies or affects the bacterial cells either by disrupting the
function
by preventing them
structure or or

inner
from
reproducing
antibiotics (Prokaryotes) cells
target bacterial

specifically. They don't harm animal cells.

metabolism.

Antibiotic use 3 Resistance.

-

antibiotics are widely overused

commonly prescribed antibiotics are

less effective due to:

not needed
over
usage when
-

failing to complete prescribed course

-
Use of antibiotics in farming.
Antibiotic resistance is increasing and these
bacteria are called superbugs. Eg.MRSA
to prevent antibiotic resistance is by:
only using antibiotic when necessary and ensure
thatthe entire prescribed course is completed.

Bacteria. virus.
some bacteria is resistant antibiotics can kill bacteria but not
to antibiotics which reduces virus.
their efficiency. Virus don'thave cell walls that can be
attacked by antibiotics.
Chapter 16:Reproduction

innnnnnnnnnnnnhire reprint
mi n i seen
i in
n i m pendi
i nmi n i
i nc
aunifn
orme
iere
Reproduction thatd oesn'tinvolve sexcells or fertilisation.
only one parentis required, offsprings are
genetically identical to parent
and to each other (clones).

in lack of
genetic
ffect
variation
a population due to
to variation.

arm
meanmomentimn
min

iniMama
init
many
mininiti
Adaptive features ofS perm:

ageneratoW.Merrytogete
·

AndivestretureSaviegnBesteafterfertilizationin aihentOdaMtsD,ncarorayenetegrowmondeevens bygaininggene

inpenetrable barrier so no more sperms enter egg.

and from placenta via the umbilical cord.

mother's blood collects waste (CO2, Urea etc) 3 are removed from fetus

in in
toxins.

and affectt he fetus.

· ini
cance
FSH

CH
n. .m wi
ezi n
m ami
".
Tiri i i i i i i i,hinumans
in progesteron
in in
causes

(follicle-stimulating

(luteinising
released
to
by pituary gland
produce
lining to break down.
hormones):released
and causes egg to startmaturing, stimulates ovaries to release
oestrogen
hormone):if destrogen reaches peak, LH is
to make ovulation occurs stimulate ovary

progesterone.
by pituary gland
spread of
-Limiting
STI3 HIV is controlled
number of sexual partners

having unprotected
-not
by:
sex (use condoms).

-Getting testedeccasionalcation programme in

the
in an
ami n i
isimme
3 translation.
ana base sequence
to amino acid

for specific protein.

base code DNA
into RNA Proteins are made by ribosomes with sequence of
Alleles are different versions of particular
gene, alleles give Transcription:rewriting
amino acids controlled by sequence of bases in DNA.
all organisms their characteristics.
translation:Using RNAto build amino acid into
canttravel outo f nucleus cause iti s too
sequence.
DNA
big
therefore, sequence of bases determine
in DNA Protein synthesis.

. m.e ."mari.im. . i. . . . . .
m e n . . .
of amino acid thatm ake specific
sequence
a
gene coding for protein remains
· in nucleus

(mRNA) is a
·

messenger RNA copy ofa gene

i s
ni i
n n
i t
mRNA
molecules are made in the nucleus ?

in
·

move to cytoplasm of cell

ribosomes
passes through

i t
· mRNA

at
by the sequence of bases in mRNA.

Anessentingstreets,energies

min
each chromosome making the total 46 chromosomes.
nucleus:nucleus with of chromosomes
Haploid single set

diploid nucleus:nucleus with 2 sets of chromosomes

disanaplace"hatecarsisintenan C
-

i m m
meloanclear
divisiongiving
identical
rise to
codominance and
sex linked
genetically cells.

characteristies.

it
meanalleles

mean
b
snows possible combinations for testc ross can be used to find out
From this, ratio can be worked out. genotype oforganism showing
Pedigree diagrams. dominanta llele is capital recessive
is dominant phenotype.
lower case, domin ant is cross unknown individual with
always written
Pedigree diagrams:trace pattern of inheritance of specific first. individual showing the recessive
characteristic through generations can be used to predict iT, tt -homozygous. Phenotype if individual
-

showing
probability of inheriting genetic disorder. it -

heterozygous. recessivephenotype, then its

males are squares, fernales are circles individual affected genotype mustbe homozygous
usually, to Construct:
recessive.
-
determine parental genotype. phenotype in
ratio of offspring can
-

Selectl etters with clear difference tell if unknown individual is

between upper 3 lower case eg: Bb homozygous dominanto r heterozygous.

splitalleles and putin punnett
square
-

gives probability ofdifferent outcomes

from monohybrid crosses.

Monohybrid cross.
hybrid of two homozygous
which resultin
genotypes
opposite phenotype of
certain genetic trait.

(TT3 tt give it)

Chapter 10:Variation and Selection

nine
virin
anarranges
features
adaptive
tennison
in
native,Fasturerepinbearilyfunctional featuresofanorganism increase that is

minine
man
in

nowisphenotypicvariationcausedieinorenvironment
in
plants adapted to live in extreme
dry
Genetic conditions with adaptations like:

Discontinuous variation is caused by genetic variation

only. Thickwaxycuticlebarrierstoreevaekorationinrgain one
Genes decide whatcharacteristic is inherited 3 environmentd ecides on how itdevelops.
small leques-reduce surface area for evaporation

Environmental. extensive shallow roofs large water absorption fast

-

thickened leaves/stem- more water stored

factors Leaf rolled reduced transpiration cause covered

caused by environmental lifestyle
-

are like climate, diet, and accidents.

in hairs that preventair movement.

mutation selection
natural
↳ random Genetic changes to base sequence of DNAare called mutations Individuals with bestadaptive features are mostlikely to survives reproduce and this is
natural selection. Individuals show ofvariation due to
range genes and they produce more
-

They usually have no effecto n phenotype, rarely mutations lead to development of new alleles
offspring than environmentc an support and this causes competition 3 struggle for survival
and they have small effecto n organism. Individuals thatare mostsuited to environment have more chance for survival 3 reproduction
and alleles with these characteristics are passed to offspring athigher rate and more

-Occasionally, gives survival advantage over other individuals in species.

new allele individuals have better adapted variations in characteristics.

Mutation also lead to harmful changes thathave

big effects like sickle cell and mid This is Charles Darwin's theory for natural selection known as 'survival of the fittest?

Mutations happen
spontaneously continuously by frequency is increased by exposure chance mutations lead to less snails
having
to Gamma rays, X-rays 3 ultraviolet
rays (ionising radiation damaging bonds cause changes white shells, white shelled snails survive longer.
white shelled snails are better camouflaged, less likely
in base sequences, and certain types c hemicals
of
(eg: tar in tobacco
to be seen predators and more chance to reproduce
increased mutation rates can cause cells to become cancerous. by
since
they survive longer.
source of Genetic variations. over generations, process is repeated till majority
form to of snails have white shells
Mutations new allele through changes DNA

Meiosis new allele combinations form through segregation (separation of alleles (

Partnerships for sexual If environment doesn'tchange, selection doesn't

Random
mating reproduction
Random fertilization egg combinations reproduction. change. This favours individuals with same characteristics
sperm during sexual
as their parents.

Ifenvironmentchangeschancemutateferentor teristics a

Individuals will survive longer, reproduce more and have

I selection
artificial differents etof alleles thatp ass onto their offsprings.
change in characteristics
brings evolution.

bred change in adaptive features of population

Evolution: over

Selective breeding is when selected individuals with desireable characteristis are together.
time o f natural
as result selection.
a tural selection leads to process
N of adaptation and
nota ll offspring show desired features so
offspring with desired features are also bred
together
is repeated for till a new breed is formed which
evolution occurs, 3 organisms are better suited to their environment.
the process many succesive
generations reliably shows features.

ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANT BACTERIA

Chapter 19:Organisms their Environment
Fringen its
food
runneranenergog
brainst
chains and

food webs in is in n emical

energy in organisms. Energy is eventually transferred back to the environment. eg:heat.

Food web is a network
of
interconnected food chains.
show connection between organism as
-

animals rarely existon justone food

ofnumber
pyramids source.
-
show transfer energy
of in
ecosystem.
in population for animals
↳
Changes b
biomass plants happens by overharvesting
source of all energy in food chain is food species or introduction foreign
of

Pyramid of numbers shows how many Pyramid of biomass shows how much mass the
energy from the sun. habitat human impacts.
light species to -

organisms atthattrophic level, width ofe ach creatures ateach level would have withoutincluding
represents number of organism.
box water
(Only dry mass). The arrows in food chain show the
Pyramids of number doesn'talways have to Itshould Always be
pyramid shaped.
be pyramid-shaped. Size of organism is this is because, mass of has to transfer of energy from one trophic level
organisms
important. decrease as we move up food chain. to the next.
Rules when
drawing pyramids ofn umber: eg:impossible for 1kg crop to feed 50kg insects
change trophic level of organisms pyramids of biomass give better idea ofquantity
* You can't
Energy is transferred from one
organism
it.
mustb e same order as food chain.
of plant/animal ateach levels better way of to the next
by ingesting
* the
larger an organism is, the less of them Representing interdependance. food
A chain shows transfer ofenergy from
available (usual case).
with producer.
one organism to next, starting

e
mannii
jimini
ntient
The carbon
cycles.
cycle.
min ·

in order to allow
there is a finite amount of carbon and itn eeds to be recycled
new
organisms to be made/grow. Itis more efficient within crop food chain for
carbon is taken outo f
atmosphere as carbon dioxide by plants for photosynthesis. humans to be herbivores rather than carnivores.

itis passed onto other organisms by feeding * In reality we feed animals on plants we
carbon is returned to atmosphere in form of carbon dioxide as resulto f respiration can'te at or ones that are too widely distributed
in animals. to collect. eg:Grass? Algae.
if plants/animals die in conditions where decomposing microorganisms are not
t urns into fossil fuels.
present the carbon in their bodies won't convert and it
when fossil fuels are burned (combustion) Carbon combines with
oxygen Carbon dioxide is
released.
increased fossil fuels usage leads to increased carbon dioxide, mass deforestation leads to
loss ofproducers to take in carbon dioxide 3 trees burnt down is more carbon dioxide released

into the air.

The
Nitrogen
nitrogen cycle.
is an elementr equired to make proteins,neither plants or animals can absorb itf rom air
population: group of organisms from same species living
community: all populations of differentspecies in an ecosystem.
in same area ats ame time.

Theres two ways in which nitrogen is taken out a ir

of converted into
something easy to absorb:
Ecosystem: unitcontaining communityof organisms; their environment, interacting together.
Nitrogen fixing bacteria take N2 b change iti nto nitrates in the soil.
living organisms compete for food, water 3 living space, population growth is controlled
-
-

-Lightning can "Fix N2 gas-splits bonds turns them into nitrous oxides thatd issolve invainwater.

in them to make
by:
plants absorb nitrates in soil I use
nitrogen proteins, animals eat plants get ·
FOOd SUPPly
nitrogen from proteins in plant. Waste (faeces) returns nitrogen back into soil as ammonium ·
Predation
compound. ·
Disease
plants cantabsorb ammonium compounds type of
so second soil bacteria,
nitrifying bacteria, POPULATION GROWTH CURVE
convert ammonium compounds to nitrites then to nitrates

Another helpful bacteria is unhelpful canaerobic bacteria called denitrifying bacteria found in this is a sigmoid growth curve. Ith as 4 distinctphases:
(lack of oxygen soil)
poor soil
Lag phase: Organisms adapting to environment, in this
these bacteria take nitrates in soil convert back to Ne
gas,farmers reduce these bacteria by Phase there is less organisms so less reproduction happens.
soil.
ploughing, turning over
phase (exponential phase):food supply abundant, birth
Log
rate rapid, death rate low, growth is exponential.

stationary phase:Population levels outdue to factor in

environmentbecoming limited, birth death rates equal.
Death phase:population decrease, due to:short food supply,
metabolic wastes by population built up to toxic levels.

Organism in natural environmenta re unlikely to show sigmoid growth curve as

they
are affected by many other factors eg:
changing light/ temperature
Predators
disease
immigration 3 emigration
Chapter 20:Human influences on ecosystems

Mil s
food supply the of
importance biodiversity
ensuring I

BIODIVERSITY
Making food production intensive means producing itefficiently with finite number of differents pecies that live in an area.
resources, modern technology increased food supply substantially by:
farm more land. Human activities force biodiversity down, high biodiversity is needed
Agricultural machinery improved efficiency able to
· -

fertilizers thatimprove for stable ecosystems. Habitatdestruction is major cause of biodiversity

·
chemical yield.
·
insecticides herbicides kill pests weeds which lead to less damaged crops. IOSS.
·
Selective breeding reliably-

produce high yields. REASONS FOR HABITAT DESTRUCTION

·
increased area for housing, crop 3 livestock production
·
extraction n atural
of resources
·
freshwater marine pollution-littering waste disposal

DEFORESTATION.
clearing of trees (on a
large scale).
if trees are replanted, itc an be a sustainable practice.
trees are cleared for different land use purposes.

inthat Deforestation is
·
Extinction of
a severe

species
example of habitatdestruction as it leads to:

monocultures increase pestpopulations, farmers spray pesticides/insecticides but

min
· Loss of soil
this leads to:
·
harmless insects killed
·
Flooding
·
persistentc hemicals fed to food chain
·
Carbon dioxide increase in atmosphere.
pests become resistant
may
·

- - -

pollution
water sustainability.
ataneaterwater
Sustainable resource is something thatis produced Forestn eeded for paper 3 wood for timber
as
rapidly as iti s used so itdoesn'tr un out. trees must be replanted when the mature trees are

fertile Fossil fuels (Coal, oil, gas) are non renewable cut. Wood is sustainable by introduction of several
and causes increased growth algae.
of
they need to be conserved
by reducing amount used
schemes and monitoring of logging companies.
Education helps keep companies aware of issues.
algal bloom blocks
sunlight so water and finding sustainable replacements.
atbottom die B algae
nutrients will be too
competition for

high. When all algae

fossil fuelsaredenergysourcerawaking. materia for
Fish stocks are
of fish caught and
managed by controlling number 3 size
controlling time of year that
plastic, paper glass and metal can be
recycled. Certainfish are
dies, decomposed bacteria increases caught
resources like fish forests can be harvested
b use up dissolved oxygen, and aquatic

organisms eg:fish, die due to notbeing

sustainably so
they won'trun out. Restocking settingfish breedsoffspring goofthe
that arent produced sustainably to avoid them.
able to breathe.
Sustainable developmentprovides for the needs
increasing population withoutenvironmental harm.
of
For this to be done, conflicting demands mustbe balanced:

beplentiliseGergesmanPlanSeanAmesoneelse
For sustainable development:People need to cooperate
at local, national 3 international levels in planning B
managing resources.

endangered reasons for

is conservation
other
pollution. species atr isk of
extinction are
Maintaing/increasing biodiversity
endangered. ·reducing extinction
meaning their population is
critically low which may be
due tO: protecting vulnerable ecosystems
PlasticPollyaque to their non-degradeability in
·hunterchange maintaing ecosystem functions:nutrient
in marine habitats: cycling, resource provision of food,
drugs,
animals eato r stuck in the
get plastic ·Pollution fuel and
genes.
when plastic degrades, itreleases toxins -
habitat loss
when degraded into small pieces ite nters food chain.
- introduction of non-native species conservation techniques to maintain
biodiversity
very
on land:
endangered species can be helped
· Artificial insemination (AI)
plastic is buried in landfills as itbreaks down, toxins are released by conservation measures
of be produced
into soils land is good for crops or
grazing animals. Such as: allows
large number
offspring to
without need for conventional sexual intercourse.
education programmes
breeding programmes
Airpollutes
-used in captive
captive breeding programmes
that contain sulfur, creates sulto r ·monitoring' legal protection · In vitro fertilization (IVF)
dioxide and itatmosphere itc ombines with oxygen become sulfur
to seed banks -
for plants -used in captive breeding programmes
trioxide which dissolves in water droplets in clouds becomes acid rain. allows with known alleles to be used in
if there isn'tenough gametes
Methanes carbon dioxide.
·
genetic variation, remaining ensuring nextgeneration remains biodiverse.
organisms are allsimiliar and won'th ave
both
gases insulate earth 3 higher levels of these gases led to
adaptations
to survive in case of environment
changes. Risk to a species.
global warming and climate change, human activity increased the

amountofthesegasescases Scientific reasons for conservation:- if population declines, species

moral, cultural will have reduced
carbon dioxidein genetic variation.

keeping livestock generates methane gas

reducingextinctthe ecosystem likely by
-this leaves species more to be harmed
-

Global warming melts permafrostt hat releases more methane. is environmental changes.
nutrient
-

protecting our future food supply maintaing -

Species is less resilient and at greater risk of

cycle source of medicinal drugs and fuels. extinction.

 Biotechnology 3 Genetic
Chapz -
Modification

init
modification.
genetic
bacteira in biotechnology Genetic modification is changing the genetic material of an
organism

other by removing, changing inserting individual genes from

or another
·

Microorganisms can be used humans to produce foods and

by organism.

horirieanisrmirsaceievringearestmanageariceoarctsmbegenetica"in
useful substances -
mostcommon
microorganisms used in
biotechnology is bacteria. the

they
·
are useful because they are
producing complex
capable of
processofenticmodificationthe
molecules and they can reproduce rapidly,meaning chemicals they human protein.
can produce will also
rapidly increase.
iisolationofDNAmakinghumansee
·
they also have less ethical concerns over manipulation and growth
when using them to
grow large numbers in labratories.
forminsteadplasmid DNA
with same restrictive
enzymes forming
complementary sticky ends.

BacterachalanBossessesmayofhiranFern"s** oneit
·

3. Inserting human DNAinto bacterial

Plasmid DNAusing DNA
ligase to form a
recombinant plasmid.

4. Insert recombinant plasmid into

Bacteria

it
energetingwear source,inanintensemain terin
biotechnology
"ato?"a testos

organismsarea nadt icnusinanaestheterohilkeaninanantdremeartehreatsinPresetPrere

thiscausesconcernsastoo muchlandis usedsugar even ifoxygensee ·
insertion of genes to crops to make resistant to insectpests

available this is used in bread making where yeast is mixed with flour
esist herbicides
and water and respires to produce Carbon dioxide,this CO2 is caught in
the breads causes itt o rise insertion of genes to crops to improve nutritional quality
choppingfruitsbeforesqueezinghelpsreleasedlot morevicebutthisdoes
it

Advantages and
itbreaks, chemicalcalledpectin inplantcell wallsoncethePectin
is broken

disadvantages of

isinthe
genetically modifying crops
like maize, soya rice!

for higher temperatures.

min

glucose syrup provided as food source to allow respiration.

Pencillin was the firsta ntibiotic discovered
by alexander fleming in 1928 when
-the
fungal biomass is harvested 3 purified
to produce mycoprotein.
he noticed bacteriahasbeenkilledbysomeevenataloneingredienicilliummould -

Mycoprotein is a protein rich food suitable for vegetarians.

Insulin.

ermtenersgrowif;meetorganismashearemuchfermentersisanetinternation The gene for human

which then
purified for medical
insulin has been inserted into bacteria
produces human insulin which can be collected and
use to treatdiabetic
people.

Industrial Fermenter
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