Psychological Assessment (Handouts)

Prepared by: Gallardo, Caraan, and Fresnoza

INTELLIGENCE AND ITS MEASUREMENT

What is Intelligence?

We may define intelligence as a multifaceted capacity that manifests itself in different ways across the life span. In
general, intelligence includes the abilities to:
■ acquire and apply knowledge
■ reason logically
■ plan effectively
■ infer perceptively
■ make sound judgments and solve problems
■ grasp and visualize concepts
■ pay attention
■ be intuitive
■ find the right words and thoughts with facility
■ cope with, adjust to, and make the most of new situations

• Controversy surrounding the definition of intelligence is not new. In a symposium published in the Journal
of Educational Psychology in 1921, seventeen of the country’s leading psychologists addressed the following
questions: (1) What is intelligence? (2) How can it best be measured in group tests? and (3) What should be
the next steps in the research?
• Spearman (1927, p. 14) would reflect: “In truth, intelligence has become . . . a word with so many meanings
that finally it has none.”
• Galton (1883) believed that the most intelligent persons were those equipped with the best sensory
abilities. Following this logic, tests of visual acuity or hearing ability are, in a sense, tests of intelligence.
Galton attempted to measure this sort of intelligence in many of the sensorimotor and other perception-
related tests he devised.
• In papers critical of Galton’s approach to intellectual assessment, Binet and a colleague called for more
complex measurements of intellectual ability Galton had viewed intelligence as a number of distinct
processes or abilities that could be assessed only by separate tests. In contrast, Binet argued that when one
solves a particular problem, the abilities used cannot be separated because they interact to produce the
solution. This statement suggests that according to Binet, when an individual solves a specific problem, they
utilize a combination of abilities or cognitive processes that work together and interact with each other to
produce the solution. He emphasized the integrated nature of cognitive functioning, suggesting that various
abilities such as memory, reasoning, attention, and perception collaborate synergistically to achieve a
solution to a problem. This perspective highlights the complexity and interconnectedness of cognitive
processes involved in problem-solving tasks.
• Weschler (1958) stated that intelligence, operationally defined, is the aggregate or global capacity of the
individual to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with his environment. It is aggregate
or global because it is composed of elements or abilities which, though not entirely independent, are
qualitatively differentiable. Wechsler added that there are non-intellective factors that must be taken into
account when assessing intelligence (Kaufman, 1990).
 • For Piaget (1954, 1971), intelligence may be conceived of as a kind of evolving biological adaptation to the
outside world. As cognitive skills are gained, adaptation (at a symbolic level) increases, and mental trial and
error replaces physical trial and error.

Perspective on Intelligence
• Interactionism refers to the complex concept by which heredity and environment are presumed to interact
and influence the development of one’s intelligence. refers to interactionism as a theoretical perspective in
psychology that suggests both heredity (genetic factors) and environment (external influences) interact and
jointly influence the development of an individual's intelligence. In other words, according to interactionism,
intelligence is not solely determined by either genetic factors or environmental influences but arises from
the interplay between the two.
• Thurstone (1938) developed and published the Primary Mental Abilities (PMA) test, which consisted of
separate tests, each designed to measure one PMA: verbal meaning, perceptual speed, reasoning, number
facility, rote memory, word fluency, and spatial relations. Although the test was not widely used, this early
model of multiple abilities inspired other theorists and test developers to explore various components of
intelligence and ways to measure them.
• In factor-analytic theories, the focus is squarely on identifying the ability or groups of abilities deemed to
constitute intelligence. Factor analysis is a group of statistical techniques designed to determine the
existence of underlying relationships between sets of variables, including test scores.
• In information-processing theories, the focus is on identifying the specific mental processes that constitute
intelligence.
• Factor analysis
• short questionnaire that factor analysis can be used to summarize.
o On a scale of 1 to 5, compared to other children his or her age, my child:
▪ 1. gets in fights frequently at school
▪ 2. is defiant to adults
▪ 3. is very impulsive
▪ 4. has stomachaches frequently
▪ 5. is anxious about many things
▪ 6. appears sad much of the time
o Note that all of the perfect 1.00 correlations in this table are used to emphasize the fact that each
item correlates perfectly with itself. In the analysis of the data, the software would ignore these
correlations and analyze only all of the correlations below this diagonal “line of demarcation” of
1.00 correlations.
o Using the set of correlation coefficients presented in Table 1, factor analysis suggests that there are
two factors measured by this behavior rating scale. The logic of factor analysis suggests that the
reason Items 1 through 3 have high correlations with each other is that each has a high correlation
with the first factor. Similarly, Items 4 through 6 have high correlations with each other because
they have high correlations with the second factor. The correlations of the items with the
 hypothesized factors are called factor loadings. The factor loadings for this hypothetical example
are presented in Table 2.

o In this case, Factor 1 could receive any number of names, such as Conduct Problems, Acting Out,
or Externalizing Behaviors. Factor 2 might also go by various names, such as Mood Problems,
Negative Affectivity, or Internalizing Behaviors. Thus, the problems on this behavior rating scale
can be summarized fairly efficiently with just two scores.
o Spearman (1927) conceived of the basis of the g (general intelligence) factor as some type of
general electrochemical mental energy available to the brain for problem solving. In addition, it
was associated with facility in thinking of one’s own experience and in making observations and
extracting principles. It was g rather than s (specific to a single intellectual activity only) that was
assumed to afford the best prediction of overall intelligence. Abstract-reasoning As Spearman and
his students continued their research, they acknowledged the existence of an intermediate class
of factors common to a group of activities but not to all. This class of factors, called group factors,
is neither as general as. g nor as specific as s. Examples of these broad group factors include
linguistic, mechanical, and arithmetical abilities. For example, in intelligence testing, the concept of
general intelligence (g factor) represents a group factor that accounts for the common variance
observed across various cognitive tasks. Similarly, in personality assessment, factors such as
extraversion, conscientiousness, and neuroticism represent group factors that capture broad
dimensions of personality traits.
o Many multiple-factor models of intelligence have been proposed. Some of these models, such as
that developed by Guilford (1967), have sought to explain mental activities by deemphasizing, if
not eliminating, any reference to g. Thurstone (1938) initially conceived of intelligence as being
composed of seven “primary abilities.” However, after designing tests to measure these abilities
and noting a moderate correlation between the tests, Thurstone became convinced it was difficult,
if not impossible, to develop an intelligence test that did not tap g. Gardner (1983, 1994) developed
a theory of multiple (seven, actually) intelligences: logical-mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic,
linguistic, musical, spatial, interpersonal, and intrapersonal.
o Cattell, the theory postulated the existence of two major types of cognitive abilities: crystallized
intelligence and fluid intelligence. The abilities that make up crystallized intelligence (symbolized
Gc) include acquired skills and knowledge that are dependent on exposure to a particular culture
as well as on formal and informal education (vocabulary, for example). Retrieval of information and
application of general knowledge are conceived of as elements of crystallized intelligence. The
abilities that make up fluid intelligence (symbolized Gf) are nonverbal, relatively culture-free, and
independent of specific instruction (such as memory for digits).
• The information-processing view Another approach to conceptualizing intelligence derives from the work
of the Russian neuropsychologist Aleksandr Luria (1966a, 1966b, 1970, 1973, 1980). This focuses on the
 mechanisms by which information is processed—how information is processed, rather than what is
processed. Two basic types of information-processing styles, simultaneous and successive
• simultaneous (or parallel) processing, information is integrated all at one time.
• successive (or sequential) processing, each bit of information is individually processed in sequence. As its
name implies, sequential processing is logical and analytic in nature; piece by piece and one piece.
• The history of the current version of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales can be traced to Stanford
University, and the 1916 publication of an English translation of the Binet-Simon test authored by Lewis
Terman It was the first published intelligence test to provide organized and detailed administration and
scoring instructions. It was also the first American test to employ the concept of IQ. And it was the first test
to introduce the concept of an alternate item, an item to be substituted for a regular item under specified
conditions (such as the situation in which the examiner failed to properly administer the regular item).
• The ratio IQ is the ratio of the test taker’s mental age divided by his or her chronological age, multiplied by
100 to eliminate decimals. As illustrated by the formula for its computation, those were the days, now long
gone, when an IQ (for intelligence quotient) really was a quotient:
• ratio IQ = mental age/ chronological age × 100
• A child whose mental age and chronological age were equal would thus have an IQ of 100.
• After the examiner has established a rapport with the test taker, the examination formally begins with an
item from what is called a routing test. A routing test may be defined as a task used to direct or route the
examinee to a particular level of questions. A purpose of the routing test, then, is to direct an examinee to
test items that have a high probability of being at an optimal level of difficulty.
• The routing tests, as well as many of the other subtests, contain teaching items, which are designed to
illustrate the task required and assure the examiner that the examinee understands.
• floor refers to the lowest level of the items on a subtest.
• The highest-level item of the subtest is the ceiling.
• basal level, or a base-level criterion that must be met for testing on the subtest to continue.
• Ceiling level is said to have been reached and testing is discontinued.
• Testing the limits is a procedure that involves administering test items beyond the level at which the test
manual dictates discontinuance
• The Wechsler tests. In the early 1930s,
psychologist David Wechsler’s employer,
Bellevue Hospital in Manhattan, needed an
instrument for evaluating the intellectual
capacity of its multilingual, multinational, and
multicultural clients. This new test, now referred
to as the Wechsler-Bellevue 1 (W-B 1), borrowed
from existing tests in format though not in
content.
• Unlike the most popular individually administered intelligence test of the time, the Stanford-Binet, the W-B
1 was a point scale, not an age scale. The items were classified by subtests rather than by age. The test was
organized into six verbal subtests and five performance subtests, and all the items in each test were arranged
in order of increasing difficulty. Like the W-B, the WAIS was organized into Verbal and Performance scales.
Scoring yielded a Verbal IQ, a Performance IQ, and a Full Scale IQ.
• A core subtest is one that is administered to obtain a composite score. Under usual circumstances, a
supplemental subtest (also sometimes referred to as an optional subtest) is used for purposes such as
providing additional clinical information or extending the number of abilities or processes sampled.
• The WAIS-IV contains ten core subtests (Block Design, Similarities, Digit Span, Matrix Reasoning, Vocabulary,
Arithmetic, Symbol Search, Visual Puzzles, Information, and Coding) and five supplemental subtests (Letter-
 Number Sequencing, Figure Weights, Comprehension, Cancellation, and Picture Completion). Longtime
users of previous versions of the Wechsler series of adult tests will note the absence of four subtests (Picture
Arrangement, Object Assembly, Coding Recall, and Coding Copy-Digit Symbol) and the addition of three new
subtests (Visual Puzzles, Figure Weights, and Cancellation). Visual Puzzles and Figure Weights are both timed
subtests scored on the WAIS-IV Perceptual Reasoning Scale. In Visual Puzzles, the assessee’s task is to
identify the parts that went into making a stimulus design.

• Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC): This test is designed for children aged 6 to 16 years old and
is similar in structure to the WAIS. It also assesses various cognitive abilities, including verbal
comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed.
• Both the WAIS and WISC are individually administered tests, meaning they are administered one-on-one by
a trained examiner. The examiner presents the test items and records the individual's responses. The tests
typically take several hours to complete and are conducted in a quiet, distraction-free environment. During
the testing session, the examiner provides instructions for each subtest and ensures that the individual
understands the task before proceeding. After completing all subtests, the examiner scores the responses
and calculates the individual's IQ scores and other relevant measures of cognitive functioning based on
standardized procedures provided in the test manual.
• Short forms of intelligence tests. The term short form refers to a test that has been abbreviated in length,
typically to reduce the time needed for test administration, scoring, and interpretation.
GROUP TEST INTELLIGENCE
• Army Alpha test. This test would be administered to Army recruits who could read. It contained tasks such
as general information questions, analogies, and scrambled sentences to reassemble.
• Army Beta test, designed for administration to foreign-born recruits with poor knowledge of English or to
illiterate recruits.
• Today, group tests are still administered to prospective recruits, primarily for screening purposes. In general,
we may define a screening tool as an instrument or procedure used to identify a particular trait or
constellation of traits at a gross or imprecise level.
ISSUES IN THE ASSESSMENT OF INTELLIGENCE
• Culture and measured intelligence
• The Flynn effect – Introduced by Jay R. Flynn. Today, group tests are still administered to prospective
recruits, primarily for screening purposes. In general, we may define a screening tool as an instrument or
procedure used to identify a particular trait or constellation of traits at a gross or imprecise level.
• The construct Validity of test of intelligence - The evaluation of a test’s construct validity proceeds on the
assumption that one knows in advance exactly what the test is supposed to measure. For intelligence tests,
it is essential to understand how the test developer defined intelligence. If, for example, intelligence was
defined in a particular intelligence test as Spearman’s g, then we would expect factor analysis of this test to
yield a single large common factor. Such a factor would indicate that the different questions or tasks on the
test largely reflected the same underlying characteristic (intelligence, or g).