Unit 4

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INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

COURSE MATERIAL
SUBJECT NAME: EMBEDDED SYSTEMS UNIT-IV SUBJECT CODE: SEC1320
EMBEDDED PROGRAMMING
Programming in assembly language (ALP) vs High Level Language - C Program Elements:-

Macros and functions, Use of Date Types, Structure, Pointers, Function Calls - Concepts of
Embedded Programming in C++- Objected Oriented Programming, Embedded Programming
in C++,‘C’ Program compilers - Cross compiler – Program level performance analysis -
Software performance optimization – Program validation and testing.
4.1 SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING IN ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE (ALP) AND IN HIGH

LEVEL LANGUAGE ‘C’
4.2 PROGRAM ELEMENTS: MACROS AND FUNCTIONS
4.3 Use of Data Types
4.4 Use of Data Structures: Queues, Stacks, Lists and Trees
4.5 Use of Pointers, NULL Pointers
4.6 Use of Function Calls
4.7 Objected Oriented Programming
4.8 Embedded Programming in C++
4.9 C Program compilers and cross compilers
4.10 Program level performance analysis
4.11 Software Performance Optimization
4.12 Program Validation and testing.
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4.1 SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING IN ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE

(ALP) AND IN HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGE ‘C’
Assembly language coding of an application has the following advantages:

1. It gives a precise control of the processor internal devices and full use of processor
specific features in its instruction set and its addressing modes.
2. The machine codes are compact. This is because the codes for declaring the
conditions, rules, and data type do not exist. The system thus needs a smaller
memory. Excess memory needed does not depend on the programmer data type
selection and rule-declarations. It is also not the compiler specific and library
functions specific.
3. Device driver codes may need only a few assembly instructions. For example,
consider a small-embedded system, a timer device in a microwave oven or an
automatic washing machine or an automatic chocolate vending machine. Assembly
codes for these can be compact and precise,
and are conveniently written.
It becomes convenient to develop the source files in C or C++ or Java for complex
systems because of the following advantages of high-level languages for such systems.
1. The development cycle is short for complex systems due to the use of functions
(procedures),standard library functions, modular programming approach and top
down design. Application programs are structured to ensure that the software is
based on sound software engineering principles.
(a) Let us recall Example 4.8 of a UART serial line device driver. Direct use of this
function makes the repetitive coding redundant as this device is used in many
systems. We simply change some of the arguments (for the variables) passed
when needed and use it at another instance of the device use.
(b) Should the square root codes be written again whenever the square root of
another value (argument) is to be taken? The use of the standard library
function, square root ( ), saves the programmer time for coding. New sets of
library functions exist in an embedded system specific C or C++ compiler.
Exemplary functions are the delay ( ), wait ( ) and sleep ( ).
(c) Modular programming approach is an approach in which the building blocks
are reusablesoftware components. Consider an analogy to an IC (Integrated
Circuit). Just as an IC has several circuits integrated into one, similarly a
building block may call several functions and library functions. A module
should however, be well tested. It must have a well-defined goal and the well-
defined data inputs and outputs. It should have only one calling procedure.
There should be one return point from it. It should not affect any data other
than that which is targeted. [Data Encapsulation.] It must return (report) error
conditions encountered during its execution.
(d) Bottom up design is a design approach in which programming is first done for
the sub-modules of the specific and distinct sets of actions. An example of the
modules for specific sets of actions is a program for a software timer,
RTCSWT:: run. Programs for delay, counting, finding time intervals and many
applications can be written. Then the final program is designed. The approach

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to this way of designing a program is to first code the basic functional modules
and then use these to build a bigger module.
(e) Top-Down design is another programming approach in which the main
program is first designed, then its modules, sub-modules, and finally, the
functions.
2. Data type declarations provide programming eas e. For example, there are four
types ofintegers, int, unsigned int, short and long. When dealing with positive only
values, we declare a variable as unsigned int. For example, numTicks (Number of
Ticks of a clock before the timeout) has to be unsigned. We need a signed integer,
int (32 bit) in arithmetical calculations. An integer can also be declared as data
type, short (16 bit) or long (64 bit).To manipulate the text and strings for a
character, another data type is char. Each data type is an abstraction forthe
methods to use, to manipulate, to represent, and for a set of permissible operations.
3. Type checking makes the program less prone to error. For example, type checking
does notpermit subtraction, multiplication and division on the char data types.
Further, it lets + be used for concatenation. [For example, micro + controller
concatenates into microcontroller, where micro is an array of char values and
controller is another array of char values.]
4. Control Structures (for examples, while, do - while, break and for) andConditional
Statements(for examples, if, if- else, else - if and switch - case) make the program-
flow path design tasks simple.
5. Portability of non-processor specific codes exists. Therefore, when the hardware
changes,only the modules for the device drivers and device management,
initialization and locator modules [Section 2.5.2] and initial boot up record data
need modifications.
170 Embedded Systems
Additional advantages of C as a high level languages are as follows:

1. It is a language between low (assembly) and high level language. Inserting the
assembly language codes in between is called in-line assembly. A direct hardware
control is thus also feasible by in-line assembly, and the complex part of the
program can be in high-level language. Example 4.5 showed the use of in-line
assembly codes in C for a Port A Driver Program.
!
High level language programming makes the program development cycle short,
enables use of the modular programming approach and lets us follow sound software
engineering principles. It facilitates the program development with ‘Bottom up
design’ and ‘top down design’ approaches. Embedded system programmers have
long preferred C for the following reasons: (i) The feature of embedding assembly
codes using in-line assembly. (ii) Readily available modules in C compilers for the
embedded system and library codes that can directly port into the system-
programmer codes.
4.2 PROGRAM ELEMENTS: MACROS AND

FUNCTIONS

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Table 4.1 lists these elements and gives their uses.
Table 4.1
Uses of the Various Sets of Instructions as the Program Elements
Saves Feasibility
Program Uses context of
nesti
Element on the stack ng one
before its withi anoth
start n er
and
retrieves
them on
return
Executes a named small collection of

Macro codes. No None
Executes a named set of codes with Yes, can
function values passed by Yes call
the calling program through its another
arguments. Also returns function
a data object when it is not declared as and can also
void. It has the be
context saving and retrieving overheads. interrupted.
Declarations of functions and data types,
Main- typedef and No None
either (i) Executes a named set of codes,
function calls a set of
functions, and calls on the Interrupts the
ISRs or (ii)
starts an OS Kernel.

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Saves Feasibility
Program Uses context of
nestin
Element on the stack g one
before its withi anoth
start n er
and retrieves
them on
return
Yes
Reentrant Refer Section 5.4. 6 (ii) Yes to
anoth
function er
reentrant
functi
on
only
Declarations of functions and data types,
Interrupt typedef, and Yes To higher
Executes a named set of codes. Must be priorit
Service short so that y
other sources of interrupts are also sourc
Routine or serviced within the es
Device deadlines. Must be either a reentrant
Driver routine or must
have a solution to the shared data
problem.
Refer Section 8.2. Must either be a
Task reentrant routine or Yes None
must have a solution to the shared data
problem.
A function that calls itself. It must be a
Recursive reentrant Yes Yes
function also. Most often its use is
function avoided in
embedded systems due to memory
constraints. [Stack
grows after each recursive call and its
may choke
the memory space availability.]
Preprocessor Macros: A macro is a collection of codes that is defined in a program by a

name. Itdiffers from a function in the sense that once a macro is defined by a name, the
compiler puts the corresponding codes for it at every place where that macro name
appears. The ‘enable_Maskable_Intr ( )’ and ‘disable_Maskable_Intr ( )’ are the macros
in Example 4.5. [The pair of brackets is optional. If it is present, it improves readability
as it distinguishes a macro from a constant]. Whenever the name enable_Maskable_Intr
appears, the compiler places the codes designed for it. Macros, called test macros or test
vectors are also designed and used for debugging a system. [Refer Section 7.6.3.]

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How does a macro differ from a function? The codes for a function are compiled once
only. On calling that function, the processor has to save the context, and on return restore
the context. Further, a function may return nothing (void declaration case) or return a
Boolean value, or an integer or any primitive or reference type of data. [Primitive means
similar to an integer or character. Reference type means similar to an array or structure.]
The enable_PortA_Intr ( ) and disable_PortA_Intr ( ) are the function calls in Example
4.5. [The brackets are now not optional]. Macros are used for short codes only. This is
because, if a function call is used instead of macro, the overheads (context saving and
other actions on function call and return) will take a time, T overheads that is the same order
of magnitude as the time, Texec for execution of short codes within a function. We use a
function when the Toverheads<< Texec, and a macro when Toverheads ~= or > Texec.
! Macros and functions are used in C programs. Functions are used when the
requirement is that the codes should be compiled once only. However, on calling a
function, the processor has to save the context, and on return, restore the context.
Further, a function may return nothing (void declaration case) or return a Boolean
value, or an integer or any primitive or reference type of data. Macros are used when
short functional codes are to be inserted in a number of places or functions.
4.3 Use of Data Types

Whenever a data is named, it will have the address(es) allocated at the memory. The
number of addresses allocated depends upon the data type. ‘C’ allows the following
primitive data types. The char (8 bit) for characters, byte (8 bit), unsigned short (16 bit),
short (16 bit), unsigned int (32 bit), int (32 bit),long double (64 bit), float (32 bit) and
double (64 bit). [Certain compilers do not take the ‘byte’ as a data type definition. The
‘char’ is then used instead of ‘byte’. Most C compilers do not take a Boolean variable as
data type. As in second line of Example 4.6, typedefis used to create a Boolean type
variable in the C program.]
A data type appropriate for the hardware is used. For example, a 16-bit timer can have
only the unsigned short data type, and its range can be from 0 to 65535 only. The typedef
is also used. It is made clear by the following example. A compiler version may not
process the declaration as an unsigned byte. The ‘unsigned character’ can then be used as
a data type. It can then be declared as follows:
typedef unsigned character portAdata
#define Pbyte portAdata Pbyte = 0xF1
4.4 Use of Data Structures: Queues, Stacks, Lists and Trees

Marks (or grades) of a student in the different subjects studied in a semester are put in a
proper table. The table in the mark-sheet shows them in an organised way. When there is
a large amount of data, it must be organised properly. A data structure is a way of
organising large amounts of data. A data element can then be identified and accessed with
the help of a few pointers and/or indices and/or functions. [The reader may refer to a
standard textbook for the data structure algorithms in C and C++. For example, “Data
Structures and Algorithms in C++” by Adam Drozdek from Brooks/Cole Thomson
Learning (2001).]
A data structure is an important element of any program. Section 2.5. defines and
describes a few important data structures, stack, one-dimensional array, queue, circular
queue, pipe, a table (two dimensional array), lookup table, hash table and list. Figures 2.3
to 2.5 showed different data struc-tures and how it is put in the memory blocks in an
organised way. Any data structure element can be retrieved.
Sections 5.5, 5.6 and 5.7 describe separately three data structures in detail: the queues,
stacks and lists, respectively. Table 5.2 gives the uses and show exemplary uses of
queues, stacks, arrays, lists and trees.
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Table 5.2
Uses of the Various Data Structures in a Program Element
Data
Example (s) of its
Structure Definition and when used use
It is a structure with a series of elements with (1) Print buffer. Each

Queue the first character is
element waiting for an operation. An to be printed in FIFO
operation can be done mode.
only in the first in first out (FIFO) mode. It is (2) Frames on a network
used when [Each
an element is not to be accessible by any frame also has a queue of
index and pointer a stream
directly, but only through the FIFO. An of bytes.] Each byte
element can be has to be
inserted only at the end in the series of sent for receiving as a
elements waiting for FIFO.
an operation. There are two pointers, one for (3) Image frames in a
deleting after sequence.
the operation and other for inserting. Both [These have to be
increment after processed
an operation. as a FIFO.]
It is a structure with a series of elements with (1) Pushing of
Stack its last variables on
element waiting for an operation. An interrupt or call to
operation can be done another
only in the last in first out (LIFO) mode. It is function. (2)
used when an Retrieving the
element is not to be accessible by any index or pushed data onto a
pointer stack.
directly, but only through the LIFO. An
element can be
pushed (inserted) only at the top in the series
of elements
still waiting for an operation. There is only
one pointer used
for pop (deleting) after the operation as well
as for push
(inserting). Pointers increment or decrement
after an
operation. It depends on insertion or deletion.
It is a structure with a series of elements with ts = 12 * s(1); Total
Array (one each element salary, ts is
dimension accessible by an identifier name and an index. 12 times the first month
al Its element salary.
vector) can be used and operated easily. It is used when each element
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marks_weight [4] =
of the structure is to be given a distinct marks_weight [0];
identity by an index Weight of
for easy operation. Index stars from 0 and is marks in the subject with
+ve integers. index 4
is assigned the same
as in the
subject with index 0.
It is a structure with a series of elements each Handling a matrix or
Multi- having another tensor.
dimension sub-series of elements. Each element is Consider a pixel in an
al accessible by image
identifier name and two or more indices. It is frame. Consider
array used when Quarter-CIF
every element of the structure is to be given a image pixel in 144 x
distinct 176 size
identity by two or more indices for easy image frame. [Recall
operation. The Section
dimension of an array equals the number of 1.2.7.] pixel [108, 88]
indices that are will
needed to distinctly identify an array-element. represent a pixel at
Indices start 108-th
horizontal row and
from 0 and are +ve integers. 88-th
vertical column. #See
following
note also.
Each element has a pointer to its next element. A series of tasks
List Only the first which are
element is identifiable and it is done by list- active Each task has
top pointer pointer for
(Header). No other element is identifiable and the next task. Another
hence is not example
accessible directly. By going through the first is a menu that point to
element, and a
then consecutively through all the succeeding
elements, an submenu.
element can be read, or read and deleted, or
can be added to
a neighbouring element or replaced by another
element.

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Data
Structur
e Definition and when used Example (s) of its use
There is a root element. It has two or more An example is a

Tree branches each directory. It has
having a daughter element. Each daughter number of file-folders.
element has two or Each file-
more daughter elements. The last one does not folder has a number of
have other file
daughters. Only the root element is identifiable folders and so on In the
and it is done end is a
by the treetop pointer (Header). No other
element is file.
identifiable and hence is not accessible
directly. By traversing
the root element, then proceeding continuously
through all
the succeeding daughters, a tree element can
be read or read
and deleted, or can be added to another
daughter or replaced
by another element. A tree has data elements
arranged as
branches. The last daughter, called node has no
further
daughters. A binary tree is a tree with a
maximum of two
daughters (branches) in each element.
4.5 Use of Pointers, NULL Pointers

Pointers are powerful tools when used correctly and according to certain basic principles.
Exemplary uses are as follows. Let a byte each be stored at a memory address.
1. Let a port A in system have a buffer register that stores a byte. Now a program
using a pointer declares the byte at port A as follows: ‘unsigned byte *portA’. [or
Pbyte *portA.] The * means ‘the contents at’. This declaration means that there is a
pointer and an unsigned byte for portA, The compiler will reserve one memory
address for that byte. Consider ‘unsigned short *timer1’. A pointer timer1 will
point to two bytes, and the compiler will reserve two memory addresses for
contents of timer1.
2. Consider declarations as follows. void *portAdata; The void means the undefined
data type for portAdata. The compiler will allocate for the *portAdata without any
type check.
3. A pointer can be assigned a constant fixed address as in Example 4.5. Recall two
preprocessor directives: ‘# define portA (volatile unsigned byte *) 0x1000’ and ‘#
define PIOC (volatile unsigned byte *) 0x1001’. Alternatively, the addresses in a
function can be assigned as follows. ‘volatile unsigned byte * portA = (unsigned
byte *) 0x1000’ and ‘volatile unsigned byte *PIOC = (unsigned byte *) 0x1001’.

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An instruction, ‘portA ++;’ will make the portA pointer point to the next address
and to which is the PIOC.
4. Consider, unsigned byte portAdata; unsigned byte *portA = &portAdata. The first
statement directs the compiler to allocate one memory address for portAdata
because there is a byte each at an address. The & (ampersand sign) means ‘at the
address of’. This declaration means the positive number of 8 bits (byte) pointed by
portA is replaced by the byte at the address of portAdata. The right side of the
expression evaluates the contained byte from the address, and the left side puts that
byte at the pointed address. Since the right side variable portAdata is not a declared
pointer, the ampersand sign is kept to point to its address so that the right side
pointer gets the contents (bits) from that address. [Note: The equality sign in a
program statement means ‘is replaced by’].
5. Consider two statements, ‘unsigned short *timer1;’ and ‘timer1++;’. The second
statement adds 0x0002 in the address of timer1. Why? timer1 ++ means point to
next address, and unsigned short declaration allocated two addresses for timer1.
[timer1 ++; or timer1 +=1 or timer = timer +1; will have identical actions.]
Therefore, the next address is 0x0002 more than the address of timer1 that was
originally defined. Had the declaration been ‘unsigned int’ (in case of 32 bit timer),
the second statement would have incremented the address by 0x0004.
When the index increments by 1 in case of an array of characters, the pointer to the
previous element actually increments by 1, and thus the address will increment by
0x0004 in case of an array of integers. For array data type, * is never put before the
identifier name, but an index is put within a pair of square brackets after the
identifier. Consider a declaration, ‘unsigned charportAMessageString [80];’. The
port A message is a string, which is an array of 80 characters.Now,
portAMessageString is itself a pointer to an address without the star sign before it.
[Note: Array is therefore known as a reference data type.] However,
*portAMessageString will now refer to all the 80 characters in the string.
portAMessageString [20] will refer to the twentieth element (character) in the
string. Assume that there is a list of RTCSWT (Real Time Clock interrupts
triggered Software Timers) timers that are active at an instant. The top of the list
can be pointed as ‘*RTCSWT_List.top’ using the pointer. RTCSWT_List.top is
now the pointer to the top of the contents in a memory for a list of the active
RTCSWTs. Consider the statement ‘RTCSWT_List.top ++;’ It increments this
pointer in a loop. It will not point to the next top of another object in the list
(another RTCSWT) but to some address that depends on the memory addresses
allocated to an item in the RTCSWT_List. Let ListNow be a pointer within the
memory block of the list top element. A statement ‘*RTCSWT_List. ListNow
=*RTCSWT_List.top;’ will do the following. RTCSWT_List pointer is now
replaced byRTCSWT list-top pointer and now points to the next list element
(object). [Note: RTCSWT_List.top ++ for pointer to the next list-object can only be
used when RTCSWT_List elements are placed in an array. This is because an array
is analogous to consecutively located elements of the list at the memory. Recall
Table 5.2.]
6. A NULL pointer declares as following: ‘#define NULL (void*) 0x0000’. [We can
assign any address instead of 0x0000 that is not in use in a given hardware.] NULL
pointer is very useful. Consider a statement: ‘while (* RTCSWT_List. ListNow -
>state != NULL) { numRunning++;’. When a pointer to ListNow in a list of
software timers that are running at present is notNULL, then only execute the set of
statements in the given pair of opening and closing curly braces. One of the
important uses of the NULL pointer is in a list. The last element to point to the end
of a list, or to no more contents in a queue or empty stack, queue or list.

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4.6 Use of Function Calls

Table 4.1 gives the meanings of the various sets of instructions in the C program. There
are functions and a special function for starting the program execution, ‘void main
(void)’. Given below are the steps to be followed when using a function in the program.
1. Declaring a function: Just as each variable has to have a declaration, each function
must be
declared. Consider an example. Declare a function as follows: ‘intrun (int
indexRTCSWT,
unsigned int maxLength, unsigned int numTicks, SWT_Type swtType,
SWT_Action swtAction, boolean loadEnable);’. Here int specifies the returned data
type. The run is the function name. There are arguments inside the brackets. Data
type of each argument is also declared. A modifier is needed to specify the data
type of the returned element (variable or object) from any function. Here, the data
type is specified as an integer. [A modifier for specifying the returned element may
be also be static, volatile, interrupt and extern.]
2. Defining the statements in the function: Just as each variable has to be given the
contents orvalue, each function must have its statements. Consider the statements
of the function ‘run’. These are within a pair of curly braces as follows: ‘int
RTCSWT:: run (int indexRTCSWT,unsigned int maxLength, unsigned int numTicks,
SWT_Type swtType, SWT_Action swtAction, boolean loadEnable) {...};’. The last
statement in a function is for the return and may also befor returning an element.
3. Call to a function: Consider an example:‘if (delay_F = = true &&
SWTDelayIEnable = = true)ISR_Delay ( );’. There is a call on fulfilling a
condition. The call can occur several times and can be repeatedly made. On each
call, the values of the arguments given within the pair of bracket pass for use in the
function statements.
(i) Passing the Values (elements)

The values are copied into the arguments of the functions. When the function is executed
in this way, it does not change a variable’s value at thecalled program. A function can
only use the copied values in its own variables through the arguments. Consider a
statement, ‘run (int indexRTCSWT, unsigned int maxLength, unsigned int numTicks,
SWT_Type swtType, SWT_Action swtAction, booleanloadEnable) {...}’. Function ‘run’
arguments indexRTCSWT, maxLength, numTick, swtType, and loadEnable original values
in the calling program during execution of the codes will remain unchanged.The
advantage is that the same values are present on return from the function. The arguments
that are passed by the values are saved temporarily on a stack and retrieved on return
from the function.
(ii) Reentrant Function
Reentrant function is usable by the several tasks and routines synchronously (at the same
time). This is because all its argument values are retrievable from the stack. A function is
calledreentrant func-tion when the following three conditions are satisfied.
1. All the arguments pass the values and none of the argument is a pointer (address)
whenever a calling function calls that function. There is no pointer as an argument
in the above example offunction ‘run’.
2. When an operation is not atomic, that function should not operate on any variable,
which is declared outside the function or which an interrupt service routine uses or
which is a global variable but passed by reference and not passed by value as an
argument into the function. [The value of such a variable or variables, which is not
local, does not save on the stack when there is call to another program.]

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Recall Section 2.1 for understanding atomic operation. The following is an

example that clarifies it further. Assume that at a server (software), there is a 32 bit
variable count to count the number of clients (software) needing service. There is
no option except to declare the count as a global variable that shares with all
clients. Each client on a connection to a server sends a call to increment the count.
The implementation by the assembly code for increment at that memory location is
non-atomic when (i) the processor is of eight bits, and (ii) the server-compiler
design is such that it does not account for the possibility of interrupt in-between the
four instructions that implement the increment of 32-bit count on 8-bit processor.
There will be a wrong value with the server after an instance when interrupt occurs
midway during implementing an increment of count.
3. That function does not call any other function that is not itself Reentrant. Let
RTI_Count be aglobal declaration. Consider an ISR, ISR_RTI. Let an ‘RTI_Count
++;’ instruction be where the RTI_Count is variable for counts on a real-time
clock interrupt. Here ISR_RTI is a not a Reentrant routine because the second
condition may not be fulfilled in the given processor hardware. There is no
precaution that may be taken here by the programmer against shared data problems
at the address of the RTI_Count because there may be no operation that modifies
RTI_Counts in any other routine or function than the IST_RTI. But if there is
another operation that modifies the RTI_Count the shared-data problem will arise.
[Refer to Section 8.2.1 for a solution.]
(iii) Passing the References
When an argument value to a function passes through a pointer, the function can change
this value. On returning from this function, the new value will be available in the calling
program or another function called by this function. [There is no saving on stack of a
value that either (a) passes through a pointerin the function-arguments or (b) operates in
the function as a global variable or (c) operates through a variable declared outside the
function block.]4.7 Multiple Function Calls in Cyclic Order in the Main
One of the most common methods is for the multiple function-calls to be made in a cyclic
order in an infinite loop of the main. Recall the 64 kbps network problem of Example 4.1.
Let us design the C codes given in Example 5.3 for an infinite loop for this problem.
Example 5.4 shows how the multiple function callsare defined in the main for execution
in the cyclic orders. Figure 5.1 shows the model adopted here.

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Figure 5.1
Programming Model for multiple function calls in ‘main ( )’ function.

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Embedded Systems
Example 5.4
typedef unsigned char int8bit;
# define int8bit boolean
# define false 0
# define true 1
void main (void) {
/* The Declarations of all variables, pointers, functions here and also initializations
here */
unsigned char *portAdata;
boolean charAFlag;
boolean checkPortAChar ( );
void inPortA (unsigned char *);
void decipherPortAData (unsigned char *);
void encryptPortAData (unsigned char *);
void outPortB (unsigned char *);
.
while (true) {
/* Codes that repeatedly execute */
/* Function for availability check of a character
at port A*/ while (charAFlag != true)
checkPortAChar ( );
/* Function for reading PortA character*/
inPortA (unsigned char *portAdata);
/* Function for deciphering */
decipherPortAData (unsigned char *portAdata);
/* Function for encoding */
encryptPortAData (unsigned char *portAdata);
/* Function for retransmit output to PortB*/
outPort B (unsigned char *portAdata);
};
}
4.8 Function Pointers, Function Queues and Interrupt Service

Routines Queues
Let the * sign not be put before a function name, but there are arguments within the pair
of brackets, and the statements for those executed on a call for the function. The
statements are inside a pair of the curly braces. Consider a declaration in the Example
5.4, ‘boolean checkPortAChar ( );’.‘checkPortAChar’ is a function, which returns a
Boolean value. Now, checkPortAChar is itself a pointer to the starting address of the
statements of the function inside the curly braces without the star sign before it. The
program counter will fetch the address of checkPortAChar, and CPU sequentially
executes the function-statements from here.

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Now, let the * sign be put before the function. ‘* checkPortAChar’ will now refer to all
the compiled form statements in the memory that are specified within the curly braces.
Consider a declaration in the example, ‘void inPortA (unsigned char *);’.
1. inPortAmeans a pointer to the statements of the function. Inside the bracket, there
is anunsigned character pointed by some pointer.
2. *inPortA will refer to all the compiled form statements of inPortA.
3. (* inPortA) will refer to calls to the statements of inPortA.
4. What will a statement, ‘void create (void (*inPortA) (unsigned char *), void
*portAStack, unsigned char port Apriority);’ mean?
(a) First modifier ‘void’ means create function does not return any thing.
(b) ‘create’ is another function.
(c) Consider the argument of this function ‘void (*inPortA) (unsigned char
*portAdata)’. (*inPortA) means call the statements of inportA the argument of
which is ‘unsigned char *portAdata’.
(d) The second argument of create function is a pointer for the portA stack at the
memory.
(e) The third argument of create function is a byte that defines the portA priority.
An important lesson to be remembered from above discussion is that a returning data
type specifi-cation (for example, void) followed by ‘(*functionName)
(functionArguments)’ calls the statements of the functionName using the
functionArguments, and on a return it returns the specified data object. We can thus use
the function pointer for invoking a call to the function.
When there are multiple ISRs, a high priority interrupt service routine is executed first
and the lowest priority, last. [Refer Section 4.6.4.] It is possible that function calls and
statements in any of the higher priority interrupts may block the execution of low priority
ISR within the deadline. How is the deadline problem for low priority routines to be
solved? One solution is by using the function pointers in the routines, and forming a
queue for them. The functions are then executed at a later stage. [Refer to exemplary
codes in Section 5.5.3].
! Pointers are needed in number of situations, for example, port bit manipulation and
read or write. Software designers must learn the uses of pointers in depth. An
innovative concept is use of function queues and the queues of the function pointers
built by the ISRs. It reduces significantly the ISR latency periods. Each device ISR
is therefore able to execute within its stipulated deadline.
4.7 Objected Oriented Programming

An objected oriented languageis used when there is a need for re-usability of the defined
object or set of objects that are common within a program or between the many
applications. When a large pro-gram is to be made, an object-oriented language offers
many advantages. Data encapsulation, designof reusable software components and
inheritance are the advantages derived from the OOPs.
An object-oriented language provides for defining the objects and methods that
manipulate the objects without modifying their definitions. It provides for the data and
methods for encapsulation. An object can be characterised by the following:
1. An identity (a reference to a memory block that holds its state and behavior).
2. A state (its data, property, fields and attributes).
3. A behavior (method or methods that can manipulate the state of the object).
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In a procedure-based language, like FORTRAN, COBOL, Pascal and C, large

programs are split into simpler functional blocks and statements. In an object-oriented
language like Smalltalk, C++ or Java, logical groups (also known as classes) are first
made. Each group defines the data and the methods of using the data. A set of these
groups then gives an application program. Each group has internal user-level fields for
the data and the methods of processing that data at these fields. Each group can then
create many objects by copying the group and making it functional. Each object is
functional. Each object can interact with other objects to process the user’s data. The
language pro-vides for formation of classes by the definition of a group of objects having
similar attributes and common behavior. A class creates the objects. An object is an
instance of a class.
5.8.2 Embedded Programming in C++

1. What are programming advantages of C++?
C++ is an object oriented Program (OOP) language, which in addition, supports the
procedure ori-ented codes of C. Program coding in C++ codes provides the advantage of
objected oriented program-ming as well as the advantage of C and in-line assembly.
Programming concepts for embedded pro-gramming in C++ are as follows:
(i) A class binds all the member functions together for creating objects. The objects
will have memory allocation as well as default assignments to its variables that are
not declaredstatic. Let us assume that each software timer that gets the count input
from a real time clock is an object. Now consider the codes for a C++ class
RTCSWT. A number of software timer objects can be created as the instances of
RTCSWT.
(ii) A class can derive (inherit) from another class also. Creating a child class from
RTCSWT as a parent class creates a new application of the RTCSWT.
(iii) Methods (C functions) can have same name in the inherited class. This is
calledmethodoverloading. Methods can have the same name as well as the same
number and type ofarguments in the inherited class. This is called method
overriding. These are the two significant features that are extremely useful in a
large program.
(iv Operators in C++ can be overloaded like in method overloading. Recall the
) following statements
and expressions in Example 5.8. The operators ++ and ! are overloaded to perform
a set of
operations. [Usually the++ operator is used for post-increment and pre-increment
and the !
operator is used for a not operation.]
const OrderedList & operator ++ ( ) {if (ListNow != NULL) ListNow = ListNow -
> pNext;
return *this;}
boolean int OrderedList & operator ! ( ) const {return (ListNow != NULL) ;};
[Java does not support operator overloading, except for the + operator. It is used for
summation as well string-concatenation.]
There is struct that binds all the member functions together in C. But a C++ class has
object features. It can be extended and child classes can be derived from it. A number of
child classes can be derived from a common class. This feature is called polymorphism.
A class can be declared as public or private. The data and methods access is restricted
when a class is declared private. Struct does not have these features.
2. What are then the disadvantages of C++ ?

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Program codes become lengthy, particularly when certain features of the standard C++ are
used.
Examples of these features are as follows:
(a) Template.
(b) Multiple Inheritance (Deriving a class from many parents).
(c) Exceptional handling.
(d) Virtual base classes.
(e) Classes for IO Streams. [Two library functions are cin (for character (s) in) and
cout (for character (s) out). The I/O stream class library provides for the input and
output streams of characters (bytes). It supports pipes, sockets and file management
features. Refer to Section 8.3 for the use of these in inter task communications.]
3. Can optimization codes be used in Embedded C++ programs to eliminate the
disadvan-tages?
Embedded system codes can be optimised when using an OOP language by the following
(a) Declare private as many classes as possible. It helps in optimising the generated
codes.
(b) Use char, int and boolean (scalar data types) in place of the objects (reference data
types) as arguments and use local variables as much as feasible.
(c) Recover memory already used once by changing the reference to an object to
NULL.
A special compiler for an embedded system can facilitate the disabling of specific
features provided in C++. Embedded C++ is a version of C++ that provides for a
selective disabling of the above features so that there is a less runtime overhead and less
runtime library. The solutions for the library functions are available and ported in C
directly. The IO stream library functions in an embedded C++ compiler are also
reentrant. So using embedded C++ compilers or the special compilers make the C++ a
signifi-cantly more powerful coding language than C for embedded systems.
GNU C/C++ compilers (called gcc) find extensive use in the C++ environment in
embedded soft-ware development. Embedded C++ is a new programming tool with a
compiler that provides a small runtime library. It satisfies small runtime RAM needs by
selectively de-configuring features like, tem-plate, multiple inheritance, virtual base class,
etc. when there is a less runtime overhead and when the less runtime library using
solutions are available. Selectively removed (de-configured) features couldbe template,
run time type identification, multiple Inheritance, exceptional handling, virtual base
classes, IO streams and foundation classes. [Examples of foundation classes are GUIs
(graphic user interfaces). Exemplary GUIs are the buttons, checkboxes or radios.]
An embedded system C++ compiler (other than gcc) is Diab compiler from Diab Data. It
also provides the target (embedded system processor) specific optimisation of the codes.
[Section 5.12] The run-time analysis tools check the expected run time error and give a
profile that is visually interactive.
! Embedded C++ is a C++ version, which makes large program development simpler
by providing object-oriented programming (OOP) features of using an object, which
binds state and behavior and which is defined by an instance of a class. We use
objects in a way that minimises memory needs and run-time overheads in the
system. Embedded system programmers use C ++ due to the OOP features of
software re-usability, extendibility, polymorphism, function overriding and
overloading along portability of C codes and in-line assembly codes. C++ also
provides for overloading of operators. A compiler, gcc, is popularly used for
embedded C++ codes compila-tion. Diab compiler has two special features: (i)

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processor specific code optimisation and (ii) Run time analysis tools for finding
expected run-time errors.
Object Oriented Programming

An object oriented language is used when there is a need for re-usability of the
defined object or set of object that are common within a program or between many
applications. When a large program is to be made an object oriented programming language
offers many advantages. Data encapsulations, design of reusable software components and
inheritance are the advantages derived from the OOPs.
An object oriented language provides for defining the objects and methods that
manipulate the objects without modifying their definitions. It provides for the data and the
methods for encapsulation. An object can be characterized by the following;
1. An identity
2. A state
3. A behavior
In a procedure Based Language likeFORTRAN, COBOL, Pascal and C, large programs

are split into simpler functional blocks and statements. In an object oriented language like
small talk, C++ or java logical groups are first made. Each group defines the data and the
methods of using the data. Each group has internal user level fields for the data and the
methods of processing that data at these fields. Each group can then create many objects to
process the user data. The language provides the formation of classes by the definition of a
group of objects having similar attributes and common behavior. A class creates the objects.
An object is an instance of a class
4.8 Embedded Programming in C++
C++ is an object oriented language which in addition supports the procedure
oriented codes of C. program coding in C++ codes provides the advantage of object oriented
programming as well as the advantage of C and in-line assembly. Programming concepts for
embedded programming in C++ are as follows;
i. A class binds all the member function together for creating objects. The objects will
have memory allocation as well as default assignments to its variables that are not
declared static. Let us assume that each software timer that gets the count input from a
real time clock is an objet. A number of software timer objects can be created as the
instances of RTCSWT
ii. A class can derive from another class also. Creating a child class from RTCSWT as a
parent class creates a new application of the RTCSWT
iii. Methods can have same name in the inherited class. This is called method
overloading. Methods can have the same name aswell as the same number and type of
arguments in the inherited class. This is called method overriding. These are the two
significant features that are extremely useful in a large program
iv. Operators in C++ can be overloaded like in method overloading. There is ‘struct’ that
binds all the member function together in C. but a C++ class has object features. It
can be extended and child classes can be derived from it. A number of child classes
can be derived from a common class. This feature is called polymorphism. A class
can be declared as private or public. The data and methods access is restricted when a
class is declared as private. ‘struct’ does not have these features

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Disadvantages of C++
Program codes become lengthy particularly when certain features of the standard C++
are used. Example of these features are as follows;
a. Template
b. Multiple inheritance
c. Exceptional handling
d. Virtual base classes
e. Classes for IO streams
Embedded system codes can be optimized when using the OOP language
i. Declare private as many classes as possible. It helps in optimizing the generated codes
ii. Use ‘char’, int and Boolean in place of the objects as arguments and use local
variables as much as feasible
iii. Recover memory already used once by changing the reference to an object to NULL
A Special compiler for an embedded system can facilitate the disabling of specific
features provided in C++. The solution for the library functions are available and ported
in C directly. The IO stream library function is an embedded C++ compiler are also
reentrant. So using embedded C++ compilers or the special compilers make the C++
significantly more powerful coding language than C for embedded systems
4.9 C Program compilers and cross compilers
Two compilers are needed. One is c program compiler and the other one is cross
compiler. Compiler is for the host computer which does the development and design and
also the testing and debugging.
The second compiler is the cross compiler. The cross compiler runs on the host but
develops the machine codes for a targeted system. There is a popular free ware called
GNU. A GNU compiler is configurable both as host compiler as well as cross compiler.
A compiler generates an object file. For compilation of the host alone the compiler can be
turbo C, turbo C++ and Borland C++. The target system specific or multi choice cross
compilers that are available commercially may be used. These are available for most of
the embedded systems, microprocessor and microcontrollers. The host runs the cross
compilers that offer an integrated development environment. It means that a target system
can emulate and simulate the application system on the host.
Use of appropriate compilers and cross compilers is essential in any embedded
software development
4.10 Program level performance analysis

Performance analysis is a measure of the success or failure of a project using various
parameters. It helps in developing a positive culture of project management that yields
excellent results.
A good program performance typically needs:
proper management of stakeholders


an effective strategy for program process

good execution

strong program teams

change management

managed risks

alignment with the overall organization's strategy

Metrics for a Program Performance Analysis

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The components making up a program performance analysis are not universal; they
depend on the organization's industry, strategy, and environment. But we'll cover the basic
idea. There are a variety of metrics to perform, and planned values should be estimated
beforehand.
Return on Investment
Using a return on investment metric, a monetary value is attached to all the data
relating to the net benefits of the project. Where B represents net benefits and C represent
costs,
Return on Investment (ROI) = B/C x 100
These benefits can be in the form of savings on costs, profit contributions, surplus in
quantity of output and monetized quality improvements. Cost can be for maintenance, design
and development, resources, project management improvement costs, traveling expenditures,
training, and overhead. The outcome of the metric will be a percentage returning the rate of
return on the investment.
Productivity
A productivity metric measures the amount of output produced per unit of the input.
Basically, is the program generating its money's worth? A common way to measure
productivity is to calculate the revenue per employee. Dividing the revenue per employee by
the main salary per employee will get you a 'productivity ratio'. Other forms of productivity
could be the lines of codes written per employee or the number of projects completed per
employee.
Cost of Quality
Cost of quality represents the money lost due to defective goods or offering of
services. It is calculated by dividing the cost of quality by the actual cost. Total materials,
labour and overhead costs are directly linked to imperfections concerning the processes for
delivery of services or products falling short of expectations. Some examples are damage to
reputation, scrapping rejects, rework, inspection, repeat jobs, loss of customers, replacements
and refunds.
Cost Performance
Cost performance is a metric representing the cost efficiency of the program. It is
calculated by dividing the earned value of the project by the actual costs incurred in its
accomplishment. Once an organization is able to forecast its costs accurately, it is able to
reliably allocate capital, decrease financial risk and minimize the cost of capital.
Schedule Performance Index (SPI)
The schedule performance index (SPI) represents a ratio of the originally authorized,
full duration to the actual final project duration.
SPI= Earned value/Planned value
The ability to achieve time-to-market windows for a project is dependent on the
ability to forecast the project's schedule accurately. A small variant of this metric is the SPI
Standard Deviation, which facilitates the assessment of the schedule estimations accuracy.
Customer Satisfaction
The customer satisfaction metric represents an estimation of how pleased customers
are based on their expectations. The customer satisfaction index is made up of hard measures
like customer use or buying behavior and soft measures like customers' feelings or opinions.
This index is weighted according to how important the individual values are in
achieving the entire customer satisfaction. An example might be lost and repeat customers
(30%), sales from existing customers (15%), customer satisfaction interview results (20%),
market share (15%), project-specific surveys (10%), and returns/complaints (10%).
Requirements Performance
Requirements performance is a parameter that includes:
 quality requirements - performance, usability and durability.
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 functional requirements - the ability of the product achieving the expected function.
4.11 Software Performance Optimization

Performance Optimization of a programs and software is the process modifying a
software system to make it work more efficiently and execute more rapidly.
Performance optimization is a key in having an efficiently functional application and
is done by monitoring and analyzing the performance of an application and identifying ways
to improve it.
Performance optimization generally focuses on improving just one or two aspect of
the system’s performance, e.g execution time, memory usage, disk space, bandwidth etc. This
will usually require a trade-off where one aspect is implemented at the expense of others. For
example increasing the size of cache improves run-time performance, but also increases the
memory consumption.
Levels of Optimization
Design Level
 The design of the system may be optimized to make best use of the available resources,
given goals, and expected load.
 The architectural design of a system plays a major role and overwhelmingly affects the
system’s performance.
 For example a system that is network latency can be optimized to minimize network
requests, ideally making a single request rather than multiple requests.
Algorithms and Data Structures
 The algorithm and data structures plays a very key role and is crucial to the system’s
performance.
 To ensure a system is optimized, we should make sure the algorithms are constant O(1),
logarithmic O(log n), linear O(n), or log-linear O(n log n).
 Quadratic complexity algorithms O(n2) fail to scale
 Abstract data types are more efficient for system optimizations
Source code level
 On implementation of algorithms, the source code choices are also quite crucial on
system optimization.
Build level
 Disabling un-required software features during the build process can effective in
optimizing for specific processor models.
NB: Optimization often reduces readability and introduces codes or technologies that are
used to improve performance, this may complicate the systems making them harder to
maintain and debug, hence it is advised to perform optimization at the end of the
development stage.
Client-side and server-side Optimization
Applications are a mixture of server-side and client-side code. Your application can
have performance problems on either side or both needs to be optimized.
Client-side relates to how the performance is seen on the web browser or the user
interface. This includes initial page load time, downloading all of the resources, JavaScript
that runs in the browser, images load time etc.
Server-side relates to how long it takes to run on the server to execute requests.
Optimizing the performance on the server generally revolves around optimizing things like
database queries and other application dependencies.
Client-side Performance Optimization
Below are some ways to optimize performance on the client side:

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1. Caching and Content Delivery Networks

 Content delivery networks are a smart way to handle static files like JavaScript, CSS, and
image files which do not change.
 Examples of cdns; cloudflare, Amazon AWS, MaxCDN, Fastly e.t.c
2. Bundle and Minification
 Bundling files together and producing fewer files improves performance
 Minifying the files and removing all unnecessary characters e.g white spaces also
improves performance
3. Optimizing image usage
 Most images can be optimized and made smaller
 Also if you are using several small icons it is better to just use Icon fonts eg. font
awesome.
4. Removing duplicate code JavaScript and CSS
 Removing the duplicate code reduces the size of the files hence better performance.
5. Using a minimalistic styling Framework
 This helps with the styling aspect and as the styling framework has already been
optimized and minified for better performance it should be effective in keeping the
performance of your system optimal.
4.12 Program validation and testing

Validation testing in software engineering is in place to determine if the existing system
complies with the system requirements and performs the dedicated functions for which it is
designed along with meeting the goals and needs of the organisation. The software verification
and validation testing is the process after the validation testing stage is secondary to
verification testing.
Importance of validation testing
 To ensure customer satisfaction
 To be confident about the product
 To fulfil the client’s requirement until the optimum capacity
 Software acceptance from the end-user
Whenever any particular software is tested then the main motive is to check the quality
against the defects being found. The developers fix the bugs and the software is rechecked to
make sure that absolutely no bugs are left out in that. This not only shoots the product’s
quality but also its user acceptance.
The point of programming testing is to quantify the nature of programming as far as

various deformities found in it, the number of tests run and the framework secured by the
tests. At the point when bugs or deformities are found with the assistance of testing, the bugs
are logged and the development group fixes them.
When the bugs are fixed, testing is repeated in order to guarantee that they are for sure
fixed and no new imperfections have been presented in the product. With the whole cycle, the
nature of the product increments.
Phases of validation testing process
 Define Requirements– Mapping out the plan for the requirement gathering process.
This will not only include planning out the entire process beforehand but also
mapping out the exact requirements that are needed.
 Team Selection– To get a qualified, knowledgeable and skilled team onboard. The
team selection process involves selecting the individuals as per their past capacity and
technical tuning so that they can easily attune themselves to the nature of the bug.
 Maintaining Documentation– Any form of testing requires voluminous user
specification documentation along with several release cases, test cases and manuals
that have to be jolted down so that they are no confusion even in case of an exit of any
core member of the team.
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 Validation Report– The software is evaluated as per user specifications and a proper
validation report is submitted in order to cross-check the evaluations along with
getting an estimated date and round -off for the bug removal and for the system to
start functioning properly.
 Incorporation of changes–Incorporate the changes that have been validated in the
last stage.
Types of validation testing
Validation testing types a V-shaped testing pattern, which includes its variations and all the
activities that it consists of are:
1. Unit Testing – It is an important type of validation testing. The point of the unit testing is
to search for bugs in the product segment. Simultaneously, it additionally confirms crafted by
modules and articles which can be tried independently.
2. Integration testing -This is a significant piece of the validation model wherein the
interaction between, where the association between the various interfaces of the pertaining
component is tried. Alongside the communication between the various pieces of the
framework, the connection of the framework with the PC working framework, document
framework, equipment, and some other programming framework it may cooperate with, is
likewise tried.
3. System testing – System testing is done when the whole programming framework is
prepared. The principal worry of framework testing is to confirm the framework against the
predefined necessities. While doing the tests, the tester isn’t worried about the internals of the
framework however checks if the framework acts according to desires.
4. User acceptance testing – During this testing, the tester actually needs to think like the
customer and test the product concerning client needs, prerequisites, business forms and
decide if the product can be given over to the customer or not.

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SATHYABAMA

INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Programming in assembly language (ALP) vs High Level Language - C Program Elements:-

4.1 SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING IN ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE (ALP) AND IN HIGH

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4.1 SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING IN ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE

Assembly language coding of an application has the following advantages:

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Additional advantages of C as a high level languages are as follows:

4.2 PROGRAM ELEMENTS: MACROS AND

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Table 4.1 lists these elements and gives their uses.

Executes a named small collection of

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Preprocessor Macros: A macro is a collection of codes that is defined in a program by a

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4.3 Use of Data Types

4.4 Use of Data Structures: Queues, Stacks, Lists and Trees

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It is a structure with a series of elements with (1) Print buffer. Each

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There is a root element. It has two or more An example is a

4.5 Use of Pointers, NULL Pointers

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4.6 Use of Function Calls

(i) Passing the Values (elements)

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Recall Section 2.1 for understanding atomic operation. The following is an

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4.8 Function Pointers, Function Queues and Interrupt Service

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4.7 Objected Oriented Programming

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In a procedure-based language, like FORTRAN, COBOL, Pascal and C, large

5.8.2 Embedded Programming in C++

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Object Oriented Programming

In a procedure Based Language likeFORTRAN, COBOL, Pascal and C, large programs

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