See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/351580485

Cultural Entrepreneurship: A Review of the Literature

Article in SSRN Electronic Journal · January 2020

DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.3824265

CITATION READS

1 159

2 authors:

Nevena Dobreva Stanislav H Ivanov

24 PUBLICATIONS 15 CITATIONS
Varna University of Management
236 PUBLICATIONS 5,685 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

ROBOTS, ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND SERVICE AUTOMATION IN TRAVEL, TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY View project

POLITICAL ECONOMY OF TOURISM View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Stanislav H Ivanov on 18 May 2022.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Tourism & Management Studies, 16(4), 2020, 23-34, https://doi.org/10.18089/tms.2020.160402

Cultural entrepreneurship: a review of the literature

Empreendedorismo cultural: uma revisão da literatura

Nevena Dobreva
Varna University of Management, 13A Oborishte str., 9000 Varna, Bulgaria, nevena.dobreva@vumk.eu

Stanislav Ivanov
Varna University of Management, 13A Oborishte str., 9000 Varna, Bulgaria, stanislav.ivanov@vumk.eu

Received: 05.07.2020; Revisions required: 11.08.2020; Accepted: 29.09.2020

Abstract Resumo
This paper provides a comprehensive review of Scopus-indexed English Este artigo fornece uma revisão abrangente das publicações em inglês
language publications on entrepreneurship in cultural and creative indexadas pela Scopus sobre empreendedorismo nas indústrias culturais
industries and the arts, identifies research gaps, and gives directions for e criativas e nas artes, identifica lacunas de investigação e fornece
future research. The paper analyses 131 publications published in the orientações para pesquisas futuras. O artigo analisa 131 publicações
period 1982 – 2019 through quantitative analysis of frequencies, cross- publicadas no período de 1982 a 2019 através de análise quantitativa de
tables, and Chi-square test, and qualitative thematic analysis of the frequências, tabelas cruzadas e teste do Qui-quadrado, assim como
publications. Eight research domains were identified: 'Characteristics análise temática qualitativa das publicações. Oito domínios de
and motivation of entrepreneurs', 'Business models', 'Audience investigação foram identificados: 'Características e motivação dos
development', 'Use of information and communication technologies', empreendedores', 'Modelos de negócio', 'Desenvolvimento de públicos',
'Urban development', 'Public policy', 'Incubators and clusters' and 'Uso de tecnologias de informação e comunicação', 'Desenvolvimento
'Entrepreneurial education'. Findings show that two-thirds of the urbano', 'Políticas públicas', 'Incubadoras e clusters' e 'Educação
papers are based on empirical research, most of which is conducted in empreendedora'. Os resultados mostram que dois terços dos artigos são
the U.K. From a managerial perspective, the conclusions are that baseados em pesquisas empíricas, a maioria das quais conduzida no Reino
cultural entrepreneur is gradually becoming a central figure in Unido. De uma perspectiva gerencial, as conclusões são que o
contemporary cultural processes that has the potential to fulfil market empreendedor cultural está gradualmente se tornando uma figura
and audience needs, fill the emerging business niches, and contribute central nos processos culturais contemporâneos que têm o potencial de
to the revitalisation of cities and regions. It identifies research gaps and atender às necessidades do mercado e do público, preencher os nichos
formulates directions for future research. de negócios emergentes e contribuir para a revitalização de cidades e
regiões. São identificadas lacunas de investigação e dadas pistas para
Keywords: Cultural entrepreneurship, cultural industries, creative pesquisas futuras.
industries, arts, literature review.
Palavras-chave: Empreendedorismo cultural, indústrias culturais,
indústrias criativas, artes, revisão de literatura.

1. Introduction Soublière, 2017). This paper looks into the narrow approach to
cultural entrepreneurship, which considers the entrepreneurial
1.1 Rationale and research background
practices in the cultural sector and offers the first systematic
Cultural entrepreneurship is a relatively new discipline in review of research on the topic.
management and cultural studies. The concept was introduced
Cultural entrepreneurship can be defined as the specific activity
by Paul Dimaggio in 1982. He defines this practice as 'the
of establishing cultural businesses and bringing to market
creation of an organisational form that members of the elite
cultural and creative products and services that encompass a
could control and govern' (Dimaggio, 1982, p. 35) and analyses
cultural value but also have the potential to generate financial
the processes of forming institutions of high culture in the 19th
revenues. Most of the academic literature is primarily focused
century Boston. In the next 20 years, little attention was paid to
on the specific characteristics of cultural entrepreneurs and
the specific practice of entrepreneurship in culture and the arts.
their motivation to start their ventures. The publications cover
However, the interest in cultural entrepreneurship has been
a wide range of subsectors. However, different definitions and
increasing since the 2000s. At the present moment, we can
the scope of cultural and creative industries make their
determine two main avenues of the perception of cultural
distinction difficult to determine. In general, culture as a sector
entrepreneurship. The first one is entrepreneurial activities in
includes a wide set of subsectors, e.g. traditional arts
the fields of cultural and creative industries and the arts. In this
(performing arts, visual arts, and classical music), cultural
sense, culture is perceived as a sector, and the focus is on
heritage, film, DVD and video, music, radio and television,
economic and social forms which are defined as the cultural
books and press, new media, photography, architecture,
sector (Spilling, 1991), i.e. cultural industries, creative
design, digital arts, and videogames (COM (2010) 183 Final). In
industries, and traditional arts. The second perception of
the last five years, the interest in the business models employed
cultural entrepreneurship views culture as an aspect of all
by cultural entrepreneurs, public policies for stimulating these
sectors, and the focus is on how entrepreneurs deploy cultural
practices, and the role of cultural entrepreneurship for urban
resources for the legitimation of their ventures (Gehman &
development is growing (Metze, 2009; Phillips, 2010; Lindkvist,

23
 Dobreva, N. & Ivanov, S. (2020). Tourism & Management Studies, 16(4), 23-34

2013; Ratten & Ferreira, 2017). Besides, the need for (2001), as the process of storytelling that functions to identify
implementing cultural entrepreneurship as an academic and legitimate new ventures, because it falls outside the
discipline, it has been recognised as an essential tool for entrepreneurial practices in cultural industries, creative
boosting cultural and creative industries (Rae, 2004; Carey & industries, and the arts, except if these sectors are the subject
Naudin, 2006; Gangi, 2015). of the research.

The focus of the paper is on the evolvement of the academic The final dataset included 131 relevant publications, listed in
literature in regards to entrepreneurship in cultural industries, Appendix 1, starting from the first one in the field by Dimaggio
creative industries, and the arts. The contribution of the paper (1982) to the most recent ones available in Scopus until the end
is in the comprehensive summary of relevant publications in the of 2019. Only the most important and relevant publications are
field of cultural entrepreneurship, published in Scopus, the cited throughout the paper.
critical evaluation of the state of the research and the
2.2 Data analysis
identification of future research directions.
Data analysis included quantitative and qualitative thematic
1.2 Purpose
analysis of publications. The quantitative data analysis involved
This paper sets two primary goals. Firstly, it aims at providing a frequencies, cross-tabulations, and Chi-square test to identify
comprehensive review of research on entrepreneurship in differences in the distribution patterns of publications by a
cultural and creative industries, and the arts by using the period of publication. For every publication in the dataset, the
Scopus database to adjudicate where the field is going and what following characteristics were retrieved to be used for the
ground it covers. Secondly, based on the performed analysis of analysis: type of publication (conference paper, journal article,
available publications, this paper will identify research gaps and book chapter or book), publication year, and full reference. The
give directions for future research. full text of the publication was read, and the paper was
classified in the following categories:
2. Methodology
 Sector focus - the authors identified three main categories
2.1 Data collection
(cultural industries, creative industries, and the arts), in
The data collection was performed from November 2019 to which the authors of a publication relate their research and
January 2020. The Scopus database served as the main source whether there is a focus on one specific sector in these
of data. Only publications in the English language were categories. One publication can be classified in more than
considered. The authors implemented an extensive search in one category because of the different scope of cultural and
the database by using a combination of keywords in the title, creative industries in nation-states. For instance, in the U.K.,
abstract, and keywords of the publications: the term 'creative industries' is primarily used and covers
the domain of cultural industries and the arts.
Search words 1: 'Cultural entrepreneurship' – results: 123
 Research methodology - research approach applied in the
Search words 2: 'Arts entrepreneurship' – results: 49 publication. Two categories are used: empirical or
Search words 3: 'Entrepreneurship' and 'cultural industries' – conceptual research.
results: 32  Country of focus - the country in which data was collected,
Search words 4: 'Entrepreneurship' and 'creative industries' – if empirical research was conducted.
results: 41  Research domain - the qualitative thematic analysis
identified eight broad research domains of the topics of
Search words 5: 'Entrepreneurship in the arts' – results: 4
publications: 1) Characteristics and motivation of
Search words 6: 'Creative entrepreneurship' – results: 167
entrepreneurs, 2) Business models, 3) Audience
The search resulted in 416 publications. Twenty-seven of them development, 4) Use of information and communication
were not in the English language, and 59 were duplicates. The technologies, 5) Urban development, 6) Public policy, 7)
authors read the titles and abstracts of all publications, which Incubators and clusters and 8) Entrepreneurial education.
had appeared in the search results. If a paper was considered The domains were not predetermined before the start of
relevant for the research, the full text was obtained. The criteria the analysis but rather emerged during the thematic
for relevancy included: the publication to be theoretical or analysis of the papers.
empirical research on entrepreneurial practices in the field of
3. Findings
the arts, cultural and creative industries. In that way, the
research on the culture of entrepreneurs (as a behavioural This section presents the quantitative and qualitative results of
phenomenon); publications, in which cultural entrepreneurship the study. Although the research domains emerged during the
is only mentioned, without investigating the topic, or thematic analysis of the papers, the presentation of findings will
considering creativity as an independent skill or ability, were start with the quantitative results because they provide a
not included in the final dataset. The paper does not examine general overview of the findings, similar to previous studies
cultural entrepreneurship as defined by Lounsbury and Glynn

24
 Dobreva, N., & Ivanov, S. (2020). Tourism & Management Studies, 16(4), 23-34

(e.g. Ivanov et al., 2019). The qualitative findings will delve df=4, p=0.011 – see Table 1), while most of them (19.1%) have
deeper into the analysis of publications by the research domain. the U.K. as an empirical context (see Table 2). Cultural
entrepreneurship has also attracted the attention of
3.1 Quantitative analysis – general overview
researchers not only in Germany, Sweden, the Netherlands, and
Tables 1-3 present the quantitative results of the research. the USA but also in less developed countries such as Uganda
Table 1 indicates that while cultural entrepreneurship has and Zambia (one paper for each country). As a whole, the
received little attention until the end of the 20th century with geographic coverage of publications is quite broad and includes
only four papers in the field, it has gained momentum after 41 countries (Table 2). Concerning the research domain, much
2001. 62 out of 131 papers in the field (that is 47.3%) were of the research has been directed towards the 'Characteristics
published in the last four years (i.e. since 2016), clearly and motivation of entrepreneurs' (67 out of 131 publications),
indicating the importance of cultural entrepreneurship as a 'Business models' (31 papers), and 'Entrepreneurial education'
research field. Journal articles dominate the types of (24 papers). 'Public policy' (22 papers) and 'Urban development'
publications (76.3% of all publications). Looking at the sector (18 papers) have received less attention, while 'Use of
focus, we see that creative industries received slightly greater information and communication technologies' (8 publications),
attention (57.3% of the papers) compared to the arts (38.2%) 'Incubators and clusters' (5 papers), and 'Audience
and cultural industries (36.6%), while 30.5% of the papers deal development' (3 papers) have been largely neglected. No
with a specific sector (e.g. film, music, videogames, performing significant differences were found in the distribution of
arts, fashion). Empirical papers predominate (72.5%) compared publications in the various research domains by sector focus or
to conceptual ones, especially since 2011 (χ2=13.076, N=134, type of research (Table 3).

Table 1 - Number of publications by a period of publication, type of publication, sector focus, research domain, and type of
research
Period of publication Total
Share of total
1982- 2001 - 2006 - 2011- 2016 - Chi-square
publications
2000 2005 2010 2015 2019
Total number of publications 5 2 18 44 62 131 100.00%
Conference paper 0 0 0 1 2 3 2.29% χ2=20.497
Publication Journal article 5 2 13 25 55 100 76.34% (N=131,
type Book chapter 0 0 4 15 3 22 16.79% df=12,
Book 0 0 1 3 2 6 4.58% p=0.058)
Cultural industries in general 3 1 3 21 20 48 36.64% χ2=9.231
Creative industries in general 1 2 12 26 34 75 57.25% (N=213,
Sector focus 1
Arts in general 2 0 6 20 22 50 38.17% df=12,
Specific sector 2 0 6 11 21 40 30.53% p=0.683)
Urban development 0 0 2 8 8 18 13.74%
Audience development 0 0 0 1 2 3 2.29%
Use of ICT 0 0 3 2 3 8 6.11%
χ2=13.029
Entrepreneurial education 1 1 5 7 10 24 18.32%
Research (N=178,
Public policy 0 0 5 8 9 22 16.79%
domains 2 df=28,
Business models 1 1 3 11 15 31 23.66%
`p=0.993)
Incubators and clusters 0 0 1 2 2 5 3.82%
Characteristics and motivation of
3 1 8 20 35 67 51.15%
entrepreneurs
Empirical 3 1 10 27 54 95 72.52% χ2=13.076
Type of
3
(N=134, df=4,
research Conceptual 2 1 9 18 9 39 29.77%
p=0.011)
Notes: 1. One paper can focus on more than one tourism sector; 2. One paper can be classified in more than one research domain; 3. More than one
type of research can be applied in a book.

Table 2 - Number of publications by a period of publication and country of focus

Period of publication Total Share of total
1982-2000 2001-2005 2006-2010 2011-2015 2016-2019 publications
Total number of publications 5 2 18 44 62 131 100.00%
Australia 0 0 0 0 1 1 0.76%
Bangladesh 0 0 0 0 1 1 0.76%
Country of focus
Belgium 0 0 0 0 1 1 0.76%
(in alphabetical
Brazil 0 0 0 0 1 1 0.76%
order)
Canada 1 0 0 1 0 2 1.53%
China 0 0 2 2 2 6 4.58%

25
 Dobreva, N. & Ivanov, S. (2020). Tourism & Management Studies, 16(4), 23-34

Period of publication Total Share of total

1982-2000 2001-2005 2006-2010 2011-2015 2016-2019 publications
Croatia 0 0 0 0 1 1 0.76%
Czech republic 0 0 0 2 2 4 3.05%
Denmark 0 0 2 0 2 4 3.05%
Estonia 0 0 0 2 0 2 1.53%
Finland 0 0 3 3 1 7 5.34%
France 0 0 0 0 1 1 0.76%
Germany 0 0 1 3 7 11 8.40%
Ghana 0 0 0 0 1 1 0.76%
Greece 0 0 0 0 3 3 2.29%
Hungary 0 0 0 0 1 1 0.76%
Iceland 0 0 2 0 0 2 1.53%
India 0 0 0 0 2 2 1.53%
Indonesia 0 0 0 1 5 6 4.58%
Ireland 0 0 2 0 0 2 1.53%
Israel 0 0 0 1 0 1 0.76%
Italy 0 0 0 1 3 4 3.05%
Japan 0 0 3 0 0 3 2.29%
Latvia 0 0 0 2 0 2 1.53%
Netherlands 0 0 1 1 6 8 6.11%
New Zealand 0 0 1 1 0 2 1.53%
Norway 0 0 2 0 3 5 3.82%
Poland 0 0 0 0 1 1 0.76%
Portugal 0 0 0 0 6 6 4.58%
Romania 0 0 0 1 0 1 0.76%
Russia 0 0 1 1 2 4 3.05%
Singapore 0 0 2 0 0 2 1.53%
South Africa 0 0 0 1 2 3 2.29%
South Korea 0 0 2 0 0 2 1.53%
Spain 0 0 0 0 3 3 2.29%
Sweden 0 0 2 4 3 9 6.87%
Taiwan 0 0 2 1 4 7 5.34%
Uganda 0 0 0 0 1 1 0.76%
UK 2 1 3 7 12 25 19.08%
USA 0 0 1 2 5 8 6.11%
Zambia 0 0 0 0 1 1 0.76%
Not applicable or not 2 1 7 17 6 33
25.19%
specified 1
Notes: 1. Not applicable (if conceptual paper) or not specified (if empirical paper but the country is not mentioned); 2. One paper can have an
empirical focus on more than one country.

Table 3 - Number of publications by research domain, sector focus, and type of research
Research domains Total Chi-square
Incubators Characteristics and
Urban Audience Use of Entrepreneurial Public Business
and motivation of
development development ICTs education policy models
clusters entrepreneurs
Total number of
18 3 8 24 22 31 5 67 131
publications
Cultural
industries in 10 2 3 3 10 10 1 28 48
general
Creative χ2=20.105
Sector industries in 11 2 6 14 16 15 3 41 75 (N=213,
focus general df=21,
Arts in p=0.515)
10 1 1 9 6 13 2 21 50
general
Specific
3 2 3 6 1 11 0 22 40
sector
Empirical 12 1 3 19 15 21 4 51 95 χ2=9.378
Type of (N=134,
research Conceptual 7 2 6 6 9 11 1 18 39 df=7,
p=0.227)
Notes: 1. One paper can focus on more than one tourism sector; 2. One paper can be classified in more than one research domain; 3. More than one type of
research can be applied in a book.

26
 Dobreva, N. & Ivanov, S. (2020). Tourism & Management Studies, 16(4), 23-34

3.2 Qualitative thematic analysis of research domains overcoming obstacles (Amolo & Beharry-Ramraj, 2015),
blurring the boundaries between work and personal life
The qualitative thematic analysis identified eight research
(Bridgstock, 2013; Werthes et al., 2018), showing passion and
domains in the field of cultural entrepreneurship that are
commitment to artistic content, persuasive, prudent and
elaborated below. Each publication is analysed in relation to
exhibiting courage, hope and faith in what they are doing
one or more research domains depending on its focus.
(Klamer, 2011), risk-taking (Wardani et al., 2017), showing high
3.2.1 Characteristics and motivation of entrepreneurs tolerance of ambiguity, perseverance, self-reliance,
autonomy, and creativity (Bhansing et al., 2018; Werthes et al.,
The characteristics and motivation of cultural entrepreneurs
2018). Kohn and Wewel (2018) in their recent empirical
seem to be the most prominent theme among scholars. Paul
research on cultural entrepreneurs in Germany, find that they
Dimaggio published the earliest article on cultural
are usually younger and better educated compared to the
entrepreneurship, in which he introduces the new figure of the
entrepreneurs in other business sectors.
cultural capitalist – a person who invests the profits gained
through the management of industrial enterprises for the Other important assets for cultural entrepreneurs revealed in
foundation and maintenance of a cultural institution the academic literature are the significance of place and social
(DiMaggio, 1982). Until recently, little attention has been networking (Heebels & Van Aalst, 2010; Lange, 2011; Naudin,
devoted to the formation of this new economic and cultural 2017). The place is a precondition for the creation of networks
actor who takes the risk of starting a cultural enterprise. The of cultural workers and entrepreneurs. Coulson (2012)
academic interest in the figure of the cultural entrepreneur has describes the networking as 'an essential entrepreneurial skill'
gradually risen mainly because of the revealed potential of for cultural and creative entrepreneurs, while Konrad (2013)
cultural and creative industries as economically important adds that it is 'perhaps the most important element in the
sectors. Furthermore, the creative dimension of this type of entrepreneurial behaviour'. Unlike entrepreneurs in other
entrepreneurship is gradually entering the academic discourse business sectors, cultural and creative entrepreneurs seek
(Mazzoni & Lazzeretti, 2018). cooperation with others. They spontaneously build networks
which could be characterised by friendship, cooperation,
Cultural entrepreneurs seem to be different in comparison to
support, collaboration, learning opportunities (Coulson, 2012),
those in other economic sectors. The difference is in
creating an identity and gaining experiences (Heebels & Van
contextual and sectoral features, the nature of artistic work,
Aalst, 2010), as well as spaces in which they prefer to combine
and specific cultural values employed by cultural
their talent, co-create and inspire each other (De Klerk, 2015).
entrepreneurs. Klamer (2011) determines that the creative
However, networking can serve in more conventional ways as
process is the 'moral attribute' of the cultural entrepreneurs,
contacting cultural gatekeepers, building up a reputation,
while economics is only an instrument for realising cultural
finding employees, funding, and creating market
values. For Scott (2012) the term' cultural entrepreneur' is
opportunities.
understood as the combination of three elements: creating
new cultural products, orientation towards accessing Cultural entrepreneurs are driven by complex motives. Their
opportunities to produce an identity and social trajectory, and motivation, desire, and experience are determinants for
finding ways of doing so without significant economic starting an entrepreneurial or self-managed career (Amolo &
resourses. The most distinguishing characteristic of cultural Beharry-Ramraj, 2015). The motivation for most of the cultural
entrepreneurs appears to be personal involvement in the entrepreneurs is making a decent living (Phillips, 2010;
creative process. Coulson, 2012), building social reputation and career
achievement (Chen, Chang & Lo, 2015) than solely financial
Another major observation is that cultural entrepreneurs in
success. They prefer to engage in activities, which align with
many sectors are reluctant to label themselves as entrepreneurs
their career aspirations and identities (Scott, 2012). Cultural
(Werthes, Mauer, & Brettel, 2018; Haynes & Marshall, 2018)
entrepreneurs with an artistic background are triggered by
because they do not want to set the emphasis on the economic
intrinsic motivation as artistic fulfilment and growth, creation
dimensions of their work at the expense of the cultural values
of beauty, the challenge of creating something new
they deliver. They frequently have to negotiate the risks
(Bridgstock, 2013), and passion for work (Bhansing et al., 2018;
associated with the maintenance of a high level of autonomy in
Gregory & Rogerson, 2018). Some cultural entrepreneurs
their cultural practices (Naudin, 2017). They sometimes are
decide to start a business because of the frustration in their
'pushed' (Oakley, 2014), 'pulled' (Bridgstock, 2013), or take the
sector and identified the market gap as an opportunity for
risk by the 'necessity of choice' (Banks et al., 2000) to become
innovation (Gregory & Rogerson, 2018). Cultural and creative
entrepreneurs. The uncertain and project-based work in cultural
entrepreneurs are passionate about their work and eager to
and creative industries influences the decision of cultural
achieve self-realisation (Wright, Marsh & McArdle, 2019),
workers to start their entrepreneurial initiative.
which may lead to unprofitable self-exploitation (Oakley,
Scholars describe cultural entrepreneurs as people who are 2014; Werthes et al., 2018). They are continually trying to find
breaking the rules and crossing boundaries (Spilling, 1991), a balance between artistic, financial, and self-development

27
 Dobreva, N. & Ivanov, S. (2020). Tourism & Management Studies, 16(4), 23-34

needs (Werthes et al., 2018). The long-standing contradiction standing relations with clients, colleagues, and gatekeepers, as
between art and business that persists in the minds of cultural well as, keep the opportunities for new collaborations and
entrepreneurs explains their attitude and distinctive cultural projects open and receive needed training and
behaviour in the decisions they make about their cultural mentoring.
businesses.
Other distinctive features of the employed business models by
3.2.2 Business models cultural entrepreneurs identified in the academic literature are
the cultural value and symbolic knowledge that their projects
Another research domain of exploration of cultural
contextualise. The risk and uncertainty of the prevalence of
entrepreneurship is the business models employed in realising
these intangible assets are one of the peculiarities of the
entrepreneurial endeavours. Cultural entrepreneurs act in a
cultural entrepreneurs' business models (Fontainha & Lazzaro,
constantly changing environment, mainly because of the rapid
2019). Therefore, intellectual property is a primary concern
development of new technologies, changing tastes of the
(Banks et al., 2000; Calvo et al., 2017), because of its economic
audiences, and unpredictable transformations in value chains.
importance in the realisation of cultural products.
In this environment, they stand in a unique situation with
respect to risk and social trust. Risk management and trust The research on the business formation of cultural
development are identified as central features in the organisations also includes the area of non-profit
establishment and development of cultural businesses (Banks organisations, especially in traditional art sectors (performing
et al., 2000). New technologies have brought more complex arts, visual arts, classical music). According to Preece (2011),
artistic and cultural markets (Benghozi & Paris, 2014), in which art organisations in the non-profit sector are formed out of 'a
the new ways of design, production, and distribution make sense of calling', transformed into an organisational mission,
available new business models and open niches for new which has to balance artistic, managerial, and political logic
players in the value chains. (Lindqvist & Hjorth, 2015). These organisations struggle with
the costs of maintaining their activities, positioning in the
Cultural entrepreneurs can generate new jobs, economic
value chain, and the necessity of networking. The most
growth, and promote social cohesion and a sense of belonging
important factors for arts organisations are developing
(Wilson & Stokes, 2002). They provide new models of work and
audiences, financial resources, venues, the quality of artistic
creative production, which are built on technological advances
work (Preece, 2011), and supporting policy (Cheung Leung,
and their incorporation in people's lives. Cultural entrepreneurs
2013; Volintiru & Miron, 2015; Petrová, 2019).
are seen as more 'independent' in character (Wilson & Stokes,
2002; Walzer, 2017), driven by their own belief. The new model 3.2.3 Audience development
of work, according to Wilson and Stokes (2002), consists of four
The topic of audience development concerning cultural
key ingredients: blurring boundaries between consumption and
entrepreneurship appears to be underexplored. The rapid
production and between work and non-work, combination of
changes in contemporary society, mainly globalisation and
individualistic values with collaborative working and
new information and communication technologies, have
involvement in the wider creative community. All of these
situated the audiences in the centre of cultural production,
ingredients contribute to the uncertainty in cultural and creative
transforming them into users, co-creators, prosumers, etc. The
industries, but at the same time, cultural entrepreneurs show a
new participatory culture and user-generated content suggest
higher degree of introducing market novelties and product or
that the audience more frequently interacts and co-creates
soft innovations (Kohn & Wewel, 2018).
with the artist, and it is no longer a passive recipient of the
Benghozi and Paris (2014, p. 79) characterised the cultural content. As Knudsen et al. (2014) point out, the
environment with 'unstable business models and different question today is not whether the audience participates but to
bases from one sector to another' in which cultural what extends it participates and engages.
entrepreneurs have to continually search for new products,
In the new situation, cultural entrepreneurs can reach their
innovations, new business models and new ways of value
audience directly through digital media and without using the
creation to be successful over a long time (Warren & Fuller,
traditional intermediaries, and interact with geographically
2010; Walzer, 2017). Cultural entrepreneurs appear to be
dispersed audiences. The independent artists have become
highly adaptive by creating networks, clusters, and informal
sufficient not only in the cultural production by accessing the
infrastructures in big cities. Some scholars (Banks et al., 2000;
needed technological tools, but in distribution, promotion,
Wilson & Stokes, 2002; Haans & van Witteloostujin, 2018)
marketing, and audience building (Meissner, 2016; Walzer,
point out that many cultural firms prefer to remain small or
2017). For many cultural sectors, new technologies have
medium size (especially those in core cultural industries),
allowed the creation and sharing of artworks to happen
concerning infrastructural risk, problems in administration and
outside mainstream media establishments. For instance,
management, unwillingness to trade ownership for equity, etc.
Meissner (2016) explores the audience building in
By developing networks, which are both social and
independent filmmaking and finds out that the internet has
professional, cultural entrepreneurs maintain strong and long-
allowed entrepreneurs to build their audience without using

28
 Dobreva, N. & Ivanov, S. (2020). Tourism & Management Studies, 16(4), 23-34

sale agents, broadcasters, and distribution companies. By acknowledging that creators and producers can distribute
However, the internet has not 'turned audience building their content directly to consumers, Benghozi and Paris
upside down' (Meissner, 2016, p. 82). The new technologies (2014) identify various new intermediation patterns, which
have made possible the overcoming of some intermediaries, alter the cultural sectors and challenge their traditional
cheaper reach to the audience, but do not change the hierarchies. These new intermediations are the driver of the
fundamental principles in audience building (Meissner, 2016). reorganising cultural industries by introducing new forms of
Today, cultural entrepreneurs have new means to promote entrepreneurship and new economic terms (Benghozi &
themselves and their work, attract a global audience, interact Paris, 2014). For instance, traditional intermediaries as
directly with their audience, and turn them in advisers and bookstores and music stores have given way to new online
partners in creating cultural products by using digital media. In aggregation platforms and search engines. By opening new
that regard, audience development is a significant element in niches, cultural entrepreneurs test innovative business
the area of cultural entrepreneurship, and further research is models not only in content production but also in making the
required for identifying the changing conditions and new modes content available to a larger, even global audience. The
of interactions between cultural entrepreneurs and their turbulent changes in the digital realm have a direct influence
audiences. on cultural entrepreneurial practices, and further empirical
research could give more light on different strategies of
3.2.4 Use of the information and communication
entrepreneurs in coping with the new challenges.
technologies
3.2.5 Urban development
Another topic that needs further research is the role of new
information and communication technologies for cultural Scholars and policymakers have recognised the importance of
entrepreneurship. The rapid technological development has culture and the arts for the economic development of cities
radically changed how cultural and creative businesses operate. and regions. Cultural entrepreneurship could be seen as the
On the one hand, digital technologies have a significant impact focal point between culture and business and has a significant
on the growth of cultural and creative industries (Ó Cinnéide & role for regional development and planning (Ratten & Ferreira,
Henry, 2007) by changing the structure of value chains in cultural 2017) and the enrichment of the quality of life in cities. Hence,
sectors (Benghozi & Paris, 2014), introducing new niches and the importance of regional studies of cultural
giving rise to a new generation of independent entrepreneurs entrepreneurship has been enhanced by creativity-based
(Walzer, 2017). On the other hand, new technologies policies for regional and urban economic development (Qian
fundamentally transform the ways in which cultural products & Liu, 2018).
are created, distributed, and consumed, and increase the
Ratten and Ferreira (2017) point out that the innovative
audience participation in these processes and user-generated
potential of regions depends on their ability to boost cultural
content (Knudsen et al., 2014) significantly. Cultural
entrepreneurship. The place increases the chances for new
entrepreneurs constantly absorb new technologies in their work
and innovative collaborations by bringing together different
(Ó Cinnéide & Henry, 2007) and create new possibilities, which
ideas and knowledge (Lindkvist, 2013) and can become a
can challenge or even disrupt the existing industry patterns
creative environment that inspires new cultural businesses to
(Warren & Fullen, 2010). The use of information and
be established (Gregory & Rogerson, 2018). Go et al. (2014)
communication technologies turns to be viable in every aspect
examine the role of cultural entrepreneurship for place
of cultural business, and the availability of production devices
branding as it offers a new course for the revitalisation of local
becomes a prominent way to transform artists into
communities and positively influences local economies. Loy
entrepreneurs.
(2014) argues that cultural entrepreneurs are foundational
Scholars have gradually started exploring different aspects of and key stakeholders in shaping place and place branding
the changes caused by new technologies to the behaviour of initiatives. On the one hand, cultural entrepreneurs usually
artists and producers. For instance, Walzer (2017) investigates start their initiatives in big cities where they can develop
the independent music industries and finds out that the relationships and networks with each other and find an
availability of sophisticated technological tools has allowed audience for their products. On the other hand, they can
independent producers, artists, and musicians to develop their change the dynamics of the cities and bring more value to local
recording and promotion skills and offer new cooperative communities, as well as to contribute to a sustainable
business models. The migration to the so-called 'bedroom economy and quality of life.
studios' has changed the music industry by making
Policymakers have gradually started using the discourse of
independent artists capable of producing high-quality sound
cultural entrepreneurship in urban regeneration initiatives,
and generating profits without using a major label to support
especially for industrial sites, as this is the case in the
them (Walzer, 2017). Independent artists have more options
Netherlands (Metze, 2009). As Metze (2009) shows, the
to not only produce and distribute their artworks but to learn
dominant discourse of entrepreneurship primarily concerns
and upgrade their production and business skills through tools
the economic value of the location and advocates the building
available online and communities of collaboration.

29
 Dobreva, N. & Ivanov, S. (2020). Tourism & Management Studies, 16(4), 23-34

of business offices and centres. However, the discourse of foundation for future economic growth' (Philips, 2010, p. 6).
cultural entrepreneurship offers an alternative interpretation One of the major issues in the domain of public policy is the
and aligns entrepreneurship with the cultural value that artists tensions and controversial relationship between cultural
deliver to society. The regeneration of industrial sites by policies and economic development. Arts and culture have a
inviting artists and cultural businesses have the potential to special place in people's lives because of the spiritual,
generate new business models, which bring more investments, intellectual, and emotional meanings that they bring. As a
lower costs and more added value in the long-term. meeting point, cultural entrepreneurship could contribute to
Furthermore, Phillips (2010) suggests that every city has the economic development, but finding the balance between
potential to become a creative city if it finds the proper cultural values and economic goals is a key challenge for
balance between, on the one hand, the private sector and the policymakers.
market and, on the other, the public sector and government
3.2.7 Clusters and incubators
involvement. In this regard, cultural entrepreneurship needs
to be defined by policymakers in the strategic planning of Clusters and incubators in cultural and creative industries and
cities. the arts have a significant role for cultural entrepreneurs and
the development of their business ideas into successful
3.2.6 Public policy
organisations. As mentioned, networking is one of the key
The research on cultural entrepreneurship is related to the instruments for cultural entrepreneurs to find new
important domain of public policy. The support, which local opportunities for work, collaborations, and partnerships. For
authorities and national governments can provide, is crucial for cultural entrepreneurs, the place where they are situated has
the development of all sectors of cultural and creative a special meaning because it provides space for social
industries. The recognition of their role for economic interactions, proximity to other creative individuals, and the
development, social cohesion, and everyday life has brought exchange of ideas. In that regard, formulations of clusters in
new policy measures for stimulating cultural and creative cultural and creative industries are beneficial for branding the
entrepreneurship around the world. The selected publications in city, urban regeneration of industrial areas, stimulating
this domain cover a wide range of countries, which shows that creativity and economic development. As Heebels and Van
the topic is vital for the practice of cultural entrepreneurship. Aalst (2010, p. 347) point out, 'clusters facilitate an
unintentional coming together of gossip, ideas, pieces of
Ó Cinnéide and Henry (2007) point as main reasons behind
advice, and strategic information'. Clusters can be seen as not
the governments' involvement in supporting cultural and
only an economic instrument for the conduct of urban policy
creative industries, the central role of these sectors for
but as authentic locations and environments which meet
everyday life, their growth because of new technologies and
cultural entrepreneurs' desires and needs.
globalisation, their potential for exports, international
partnerships and foreign investments, and their capacity to Art and creative incubators are another new organisational
absorb new technologies to add value to their products. form used by cultural entrepreneurs. Incubators provide
However, in many countries, there are different issues, which support for entrepreneurs, artists, and organisations to
policymakers have to deal with. Haans and van develop their business and artistic ideas into products and
Witteloostuijn (2018) show that depending on the cultural or services. The value that incubators create is delivered in three
creative sector, the growth expectations in the aspect of job ways: premises, knowledge, and networks (Franco et al.,
creation differ, and policymakers should focus on sectors' 2018). The different services of art and creative incubators
specifics in providing funds and support to cultural include providing facilities, consultations and office services,
entrepreneurs. The most pressing problems are the need for training and mentoring, funding, and sponsorship. They can
highly skilled workers, better access to finance, promoting include not only for-profit start-ups but also non-profit
cultural and creative industries to reach high export levels, organisations and individuals. In that way, they serve cultural,
and the protection of intellectual property rights (Ó Cinnéide economic, and community development (Essig, 2018).
& Henry, 2007). Furthermore, Lazzeretti and Vecco (2018) Incubators can be seen as 'platforms' because they can be
encounter the risk of receiving insufficient support from the found not only at a specific place but also in the virtual space
industry policy and actions because cultural and creative (Essig, 2014). Further research on these new organisational
industries are outside the main sectors. forms could have practical implications, as Essig (2018) points
out, their added value or impact should be tracked over time.
Cultural entrepreneurship is also connected to new policy
Such research will help with the creation of better services for
agendas for facilitating a knowledge-based or creative
new cultural businesses, give needed data and
economy and the concept of the creative city. The knowledge
recommendations for policymakers for their urban strategies,
economy and the prominence of the role of creativity for
and measure the impact of creative clusters and incubators for
economic development have become motivators for many
community, entrepreneurs, and economies.
policymakers to produce strategies, which aim at promoting
the arts as a means 'to help establish a new economic

30
 Dobreva, N. & Ivanov, S. (2020). Tourism & Management Studies, 16(4), 23-34

3.2.8 Entrepreneurial education entrepreneurial activities in project-based work, and

acknowledging the local creative industry. Universities can
Research on cultural entrepreneurship includes the domain of
form a clearer idea among students about the realities of the
entrepreneurial education. The topic is recognised as an
market by close collaboration with external organisations,
important element for the competitiveness of cultural and
practitioners, and industry.
creative industries in the light of the economic significance of
these sectors (Rae, 2004), the big percentage of micro and Beckman (2007) delineates two main streams concerning
small businesses (Larso, Saphiranti, & Wulansari, 2012) and entrepreneurship education in the U.S.: entrepreneurship as
self-employment (Carey & Naudin, 2006; Küttim, Arvola, & 'new venture creation' and as 'being enterprising'. Bridgstock
Venesaar, 2011). In some countries, entrepreneurial education (2013) further builds on these presumptions by presenting a
in these sectors is encouraged by the government, as in the set of skills corresponding to these streams and suggests a
case in the U.K. (Carey & Naudin, 2006). third sense of arts entrepreneurship, which relates to
employability and the need for developing skills related to
The academic research on entrepreneurship education in
career self-management. Schediwy, Loots and Bhansing (2018)
cultural sectors could be categorised into two main traditions.
empirically test Bridgstock's conceptualisation of arts
Essig (2017) shows that the prevailing discourse in U.S. higher
entrepreneurship education among music students in the
education adopts a narrower term' art entrepreneurship' in
Netherlands and discover positive attitudes of students to the
comparison to Europe and Australia, where the term' cultural
three approaches to entrepreneurial education. Cultural
entrepreneurship' has been conceived and developed earlier.
entrepreneurial learning is becoming an important topic
The differences in the two approaches are around the
among scholars, and new educational programs are about to
distinction between organisational leadership in Europe and
emerge. A close look and evaluation of these programs are
individual artistic behaviour in the U.S. In Europe, cultural
crucial for boosting cultural entrepreneurship.
entrepreneurship tends to be offered through management or
business programs, as Thom (2017) confirms through an 4. Conclusion
empirical study that art entrepreneurship education of fine art
This paper contributes to the body of research literature
students is in a poor state and it is not implemented at higher
through the quantitative and qualitative analysis of
education institutions in the U.K. and Germany. In contrast, in
publications on cultural entrepreneurship. A total of 131
the U.S. art entrepreneurship curriculum has developed from
English language publications were identified via Scopus,
within arts disciplines and is offered through arts and liberal
published during the period 1982-2019. Findings show that the
arts units (Essig, 2017). The major issues are the definition of
number of publications on cultural entrepreneurship is
what entrepreneurship means in respect to art education
increasing, especially since 2006; empirical publications
(Bridgstock, 2013) and overcoming misperceptions about the
dominate, and the geographic scope of countries is very broad.
value of the training on entrepreneurship among students and
Furthermore, eight research domains emerged from the
faculty (Gangi, 2015). In the last years, more research
thematic analysis of the literature, namely: 'Characteristics
originates from South-East Asia, particularly Indonesia, with a
and motivation of entrepreneurs', 'Business models',
focus on entrepreneurial learning for creative industries and
'Audience development', 'Use of information and
the use of new information and communication technologies.
communication technologies', 'Urban development', 'Public
Regarding cultural entrepreneurship education, scholars policy', 'Incubators and clusters' and 'Entrepreneurial
confirm the need for combining education and experience education'.
(Küttim, Venesaar & Kolbre, 2011; Rae, 2012; Setiadi,
The main limitation of the paper is that only English-language
Duparmin & Samidjo, 2018). One of the earliest empirical
publications in Scopus were included in the analysis. The
researches (Raffo, Lovatt, Banks & O'Connor, 2000) shows that
authors acknowledge that there might be other relevant
entrepreneurial learning in cultural industries is most
English-language publications not indexed in Scopus or
productive when it includes "doing" and reflecting "on doing"
published in languages other than English that might be
in the concrete sectors and developing appropriate social and
included in future studies.
cultural capital. Rae's research (2004) on creative industries
offers a practical model for entrepreneurial learning, which From a theoretical perspective, the quantitative analysis
encompasses three key domains: personal and social indicated that research domains such as 'Incubators and
emergence (developing of personal and social identity as an clusters', 'Audience development', and 'Use of information and
entrepreneur), contextual learning (recognising social and communication technologies' are underresearched. In the
industry opportunities and gaining experience), and the contemporary competitive world, these domains are
negotiated enterprise (understanding of enterprise identity, preconditions for the success of entrepreneurial practices in
practices, and credibility within wider networks). Carey and cultural and creative industries and the arts. Incubators and
Naudin (2006) point out that the role of higher education is to clusters have a direct impact on the formation of new
provide entrepreneurial spirit among students in creative entrepreneurial start-ups in cities and regions, which have the
industries programs by creating attitudes, presenting potential to transform these places by offering a wide variety

31
 Dobreva, N. & Ivanov, S. (2020). Tourism & Management Studies, 16(4), 23-34

of new and innovative cultural and creative products and Benghozi, P. & Paris, T. (2014). The cultural economy in the digital age:
services. The use of information and communication A revolution in intermediation? City, Culture and Society, 7(2), 75-80.
doi: 10.1016/j.ccs.2015.12.005
technologies in different stages of realising cultural products
Bhansing, P., Hitters, E. & Wijngaarden, Y. (2018). Passion Inspires:
or services (e.g. production, aggregation, distribution, and Motivations of Creative Entrepreneurs in Creative Business Centres in
consumption) opens new opportunities for a restructuring of the Netherlands. Journal of Entrepreneurship, 27(1), 1-24. doi:
value chains, giving more freedom to entrepreneurs and artists 10.1177/0971355717738589
to innovate and make possible easier access to a larger Bridgstock, R. (2013). Not a dirty word: Arts entrepreneurship and
higher education. Arts and Humanities in Higher Education, 12(2-3),
audience. More research on audience creation and
122-137. doi: 10.1177/1474022212465725
development is needed for a better understanding of the
Calvo, N., Perez, B., Varela-Candamio, L. & Novo-Corti, I. (2017).
constantly changing tastes and behaviours of contemporary Stimulating creative entrepreneurial initiatives: a flow diagram for
users and consumers, which will have a practical implication strategic planning. Technology Analysis and Strategic Management,
29(4), 425-441. doi: 10.1080/09537325.2016.1215421
on improving the performance of cultural entrepreneurial
start-ups and established cultural organisations. Carey, C. & Naudin, A. (2006). Enterprise curriculum for creative
industries students: An exploration of current attitudes and issues.
From a managerial perspective, the cultural entrepreneur is Education and Training, 48(7), 518-531. doi:
10.1108/00400910610705908
gradually becoming a central figure in contemporary cultural
Cheung Leung, C. (2013). The development of cultural
processes who has the potential to fulfil the market and entrepreneurship: Case studies of four community orchestras in Hong
audience needs, fill the emerging business niches, and Kong. Asian Education and Development Studies, 2(3), 275-294. doi:
contribute to the revitalisation of cities and regions. 10.1108/AEDS-05-2013-0032
Globalisation, participatory culture, and digital technologies Coulson, S. (2012). Collaborating in a competitive world: Musicians'
working lives and understandings of entrepreneurship. Work,
have evoked the need for new business models and
Employment and Society, 26(2), 246-261. doi:
organisational forms, more interactive experiences for 10.1177/0950017011432919
audiences and creative approaches in every stage of realisation De Klerk, S. (2015). The creative industries: An entrepreneurial
of cultural products and services. Modern technologies (e.g. bricolage perspective. Management Decision, 53(4), 828-842. doi:
virtual, augmented and mixed realities, robots) can be utilised to 10.1108/MD-03-2014-0169
create new cultural products/experiences by not only newly Dimaggio, P. (1982). Cultural entrepreneurship in nineteenth-century
Boston: The creation of an organizational base for high culture in
incubated start-ups, but also already established cultural America. Media, Culture & Society, 4(1), 33-50. doi:
institutions. New organisational forms as clusters and 10.1177/016344378200400104
incubators, as well as, consistent urban policies, can have a Essig, L. (2014). Arts incubators: A typology. Journal of Arts
positive impact on economic growth and social cohesion of cities Management Law and Society, 44(3), 169-180. doi:
10.1080/10632921.2014.936076
and countries. Furthermore, cultural entrepreneurs experience
Essig, L. (2017). Same or different? The “cultural entrepreneurship”
difficulties in finding the balance between cultural and economic
and “arts entrepreneurship” constructs in European and US higher
values, which evokes tailor-made support from nation-states. education. Cultural Trends, 26(2), 125-137. doi:
10.1080/09548963.2017.1323842
From a policy perspective, governments need to stimulate
Essig, L. (2018). Value creation by and evaluation of US arts incubators.
cultural entrepreneurship to revitalise urban development and International Journal of Arts Management, 20(2), 32-45.
improve the quality of life of their communities. This needs to European Commission (2010). Green Paper. Unlocking the Potential of
happen on various levels. Governments should encounter Cultural and Creative Industries, COM (2010) 183 Final.
contemporary challenges in front of cultural organisations and Fontainha, E. & Lazzaro, E. (2019). Cultural and creative entrepreneurs
provide a legal environment that stimulates private in financial crises: Sailing against the tide? Scientific Annals of
Economics and Business, 66 (Special issue), 73-89. doi: 10.2478/saeb-
entrepreneurship and private-public partnerships in cultural
2019-0022
industries. Additionally, education in cultural
Franco, M. Haase, H. & Correia, S. (2018). Exploring Factors in the
entrepreneurship will provide graduates with relevant Success of Creative Incubators: a Cultural Entrepreneurship
knowledge and skills to establish competitive companies. Perspective. Journal of the Knowledge Economy, 9(1), 239-262. doi:
10.1007/s13132-015-0338-4
References Gangi, J. (2015). The Synergies of Artistic and Entrepreneurial Action.
Journal of Arts Management Law and Society, 45(4), 247-254. doi:
Amolo, J. & Beharry-Ramraj, A. (2015). Emerging entrepreneurs and
10.1080/10632921.2015.1088912
the creative merchantry with reference to i heart market in Durban,
South Africa. Problems and Perspectives in Management, 13(3), 132- Gehman, J. & Soublière, J. (2017). Cultural entrepreneurship: from
140. making culture to cultural making. Innovation: Management, Policy
and Practice, 19(1), 61-73. doi: 10.1080/14479338.2016.1268521
Banks, M., Lovatt, A., O'Connor, J. & Raffo, C. (2000). Risk and trust in
the cultural industries. Geoforum, 31(4), 453-464. doi: 10.1016/S0016- Go, F., Lemmetyinen, A. & Hakala, U. (Eds.). (2014). Harnessing Place
7185(00)00008-7 Branding Through Cultural Entrepreneurship. London, UK: Palgrave
Macmillan. doi: 10.1057/9781137465160
Beckman, G. (2007). "Adventuring" arts entrepreneurship curricula in
higher education: An examination of present efforts, obstacles, and Gregory, J. & Rogerson, C. (2018). Creative industries in Central
best practices. Journal of Arts Management Law and Society, 37 (2), Johannesburg: Entrepreneurs, organisation and locational choice.
87-112. doi: 10.3200/JAML.37.2.87-112 African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure, 7(4), 1-13.

32
 Dobreva, N. & Ivanov, S. (2020). Tourism & Management Studies, 16(4), 23-34

Haans, R. & van Witteloostuijn, A. (2018). Expected job creation across Metze, T. (2009). Discursive power in deliberations: A case of
the cultural industries: a sectoral division and its implications for redevelopment for the creative economy in the Netherlands. Policy
cultural policy. International Journal of Cultural Policy, 24(1), 45-67. and Society, 28(3), 241-251. doi: 10.1016/j.polsoc.2009.08.006
doi: 10.1080/10286632.2015.1128420 Naudin, A. (2017). Cultural Entrepreneurship: The Cultural Worker's
Haynes, J. & Marshall, L. (2018). Reluctant entrepreneurs: musicians Experience of Entrepreneurship. New York, NY and Abington, PA:
and entrepreneurship in the ‘new’ music industry. British Journal of Routledge. doi: 10.4324/9781315444680
Sociology, 69(2), 459-482. doi: 10.1111/1468-4446.12286 Oakley, K. (2014). Good work? Rethinking cultural entrepreneurship.
Heebels, B. & Van Aalst, I. (2010). Creative clusters in Berlin: In C. Bilton & S. Cummings (Eds.), Handbook of Management and
Entrepreneurship and the quality of place in Prenzlauer Berg and Creativity (pp. 145-159). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Edgar. doi:
Kreuzberg. Geografiska Annaler, Series B: Human Geography, 92(4), 10.4337/9781781000977.00018
347-363. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-0467.2010.00357.x Ó Cinnéide, B. & Henry, C. (2007). Entrepreneurship features of
Ivanov, S., Gretzel, U., Berezina, K., Sigala, M., & Webster, C. (2019). creative industries: The Irish music and dance sector. In C. Henry (Ed.),
Progress on robotics in hospitality and tourism: a review of the Entrepreneurship in the Creative Industries: An International
literature. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Technology, 10(4), 489- Perspective (pp. 72-86). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Edgar.
521. https://doi.org/10.1108/JHTT-08-2018-0087. Petrová, P. (2019). Cultural entrepreneurship illustrated on the non-
Klamer, A. (2011). Cultural entrepreneurship. Review of Austrian profit arts sector in the Czech Republic. Central European Business
Economics, 24(2), 141-156. doi: 10.1007/s11138-011-0144-6 Review, 8(2), 56-74. doi: 10.18267/j.cebr.209
Knudsen, B. Christensen, D. & Blenker, P. (2014). Enterprising Phillips, R. (2010). Arts entrepreneurship and economic development:
Initiatives in the Experience Economy: Transforming Social Worlds. Can every city be "Austintatious"? Foundations and Trends in
London, UK and New York, NY: Routledge. Entrepreneurship, 6(4), 239-313. doi: 10.1561/0300000039
Kohn, K. & Wewel, S. (2018). Skills, scope and success: An empirical Preece, S. (2011). Performing arts entrepreneurship: Toward a
look at the start-up process in creative industries in Germany. research agenda. Journal of Arts Management Law and Society, 41(2),
Creativity and Innovation Management, 27(3), 295-318. doi: 103-120. doi: 10.1080/10632921.2011.573445
10.1111/caim.12279 Qian, N & Liu, S. (2018). Cultural entrepreneurship in U.S. cities.
Küttim, M., Arvola, K. & Venesaar, U. (2011). Development of creative Journal of Urban Affairs, 40(8), 1043-1065. doi:
entrepreneurship: Opinion of managers from Estonia, Latvia, Finland 10.1080/07352166.2018.1468223
and Sweden. Business: Theory and Practice, 12(4), 369-378. doi: Rae, D. (2004). Entrepreneurial learning: A practical model from the
10.3846/btp.2011.38 creative industries. Education + Training, 46, 492-500. doi:
Küttim, M., Venesaar, U. & Kolbre, E. (2011). Enterpreneurs' human 10.1108/00400910410569614
capital in creative industries: A case of Baltic sea region countries. Raffo, C., Lovatt, A., Banks, M. & O’Connor, J. (2000). Teaching and
Actual Problems of Economics, 126(12), 381-390. learning entrepreneurship for micro and small businesses in the
Lange, B. (2011). Professionalization in space: Social-spatial strategies cultural industries sector. Education + Training, 42(6), 356-365. doi:
of culturepreneurs in Berlin. Entrepreneurship and Regional 10.1108/00400910010353653
Development, 23(3-4), 259-279. doi: 10.1080/08985620903233978 Ratten, V. & Ferreira, J. (2017). Future research directions for cultural
Larso, D., Saphiranti, D. & Wulansari, A. (2012). Educating technology- entrepreneurship and regional development. International Journal of
based entrepreneurs: The development of an MBA Program in Creative Entrepreneurship and Innovation Management, 21(3), 163-169.
and Cultural Entrepreneurship. 2012 Proceedings of Portland International Schediwy, L., Loots, E., & Bhansing, P. (2018). With their feet on the
Center for Management of Engineering and Technology: Technology ground: a quantitative study of music students’ attitudes towards
Management for Emerging Technologies, PICMET'12, 879-884. entrepreneurship education. Journal of Education and Work, 31(7-8),
Lazzeretti, L. & Vecco, M. (Eds.). (2018). Creative Industries and 611-627. doi: 10.1080/13639080.2018.1562160
Entrepreneurship: Paradigms in Transition from a Global Perspective. Scott, M. (2012). Cultural entrepreneurs, cultural entrepreneurship:
Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar. doi: 10.4337/9781786435927 Music producers mobilising and converting Bourdieu's alternative
Lindkvist, L. (2013). Cultural entrepreneurship and creative points of capitals. Poetics, 40(3), 237-255. doi: 10.1016/j.poetic.2012.03.002
intersection: The Island of furillen. In L. Lindeborg & L. Lindkvist (Eds.), Spilling, O. (1991). Entrepreneurship in a cultural perspective.
The Value of Arts and Culture for Regional Development: A Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, 3(1), 33-48. doi:
Scandinavian Perspective (pp. 284-302). New York, NY: Routledge. doi: 10.1080/08985629100000003
10.4324/9780203385654
Thom, M. (2017). The rough journey into arts entrepreneurship: Why
Lindkvist, L. & Hjorth, D. (2015). Organizing cultural projects through arts entrepreneurship education is still in its infancy in the UK and
legitimising as cultural entrepreneurship. International Journal of Germany. Education and Training, 59(7-8), 720-739. doi: 10.1108/ET-
Managing Projects in Business, 8(4), 696-714. doi: 10.1108/IJMPB-07- 01-2016-0015
2015-0064
Volintiru, C. & Miron, D. (2015). Business environment and creative
Lounsbury, M. & Glynn, M. (2001). Cultural entrepreneurship: stories, industries in Romania. Amfiteatru Economic, 17(38), 358-369.
legitimacy, and the acquisition of resources. Strategic Management
Journal, 22, 545-564. doi: 10.1002/smj.188 Walzer, D. (2017). Independent music production: how individuality,
technology and creative entrepreneurship influence contemporary
Loy, A. (2014). Cultural entrepreneurs as foundations of place brands. music industry practices. Creative Industries Journal, 10(1), 21-39. doi:
In F. Go, A. Lemmetyinen & U. Hakala (Eds.), Harnessing Place Branding 10.1080/17510694.2016.1247626
Through Cultural Entrepreneurship (pp. 48-64). London, UK: Palgrave
Macmillan. doi: 10.1057/9781137465160.0025 Wardani, D., Setyowibowo, F., Sabandi, M. & Noviani, L. (2017). The
model to increase the entrepreneurial performance in creative
Mazzoni, L. & Lazzeretti, L. (2018). In search of creative industries using entrepreneurial orientation and social capital
entrepreneurship: An exploratory analysis. In L. Lazzeretti, & M. Vecco development approach. Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences and
(Eds.), Creative Industries and Entrepreneurship: Paradigms in Humanities, 25(September), 85-98.
Transition from a Global Perspective (pp. 58-75). Cheltenham, UK:
Edward Edgar. Warren, L. & Fuller, T. (2010). Capturing the dynamics of co-production
and collaboration in the digital economy. Leonardo, 43(2), 200-201.
Meissner, N. (2016). New Indies in old skins: the online audience doi: 10.1162/leon.2010.43.2.200
building for The Hunt for Gollum. Journal of Media Practice, 17(1), 69-
85. doi: 10.1080/14682753.2016.1159436

33
 Dobreva, N. & Ivanov, S. (2020). Tourism & Management Studies, 16(4), 23-34

Werthes, D., Mauer, R. & Brettel, M. (2018). Cultural and creative

entrepreneurs: understanding the role of entrepreneurial identity.
International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour and Research,
24(1), 290-314. doi: 10.1108/IJEBR-07-2016-0215
Wilson, N. & Stokes, D. (2002). Cultural Entrepreneurs and Creating
Exchange. Journal of Research in Marketing and Entrepreneurship,
4(1), 37-52. doi: 10.1108/14715200280001465
Wright, A., Marsh, D. & McArdle, L. (2019). A Darker Side of Creative
Entrepreneurship. Design Journal, 22 (1), 177-188. doi:
10.1080/14606925.2019.1595856

34

View publication stats