Three dimensional Dynamics of Rigid Body

Many engineering components and system do not have a simple planar

motion and need analysis in three dimensions.

Inclusion of the third dimension adds complexity to the kinematic / kinetic

relationships due to addition of third component of vector for
representation of force, linear velocity, linear acceleration, and linear
momentum.

The third dimension also results in two additional components for vectors
representing angular quantities including moments of forces, angular
velocity, angular acceleration, and angular momentum.

Moments and Products of Inertia

For the kinetic analysis of three-dimensional motion, it is sometimes

necessary to calculate six inertial quantities. These terms are called the
moments and products of inertia.

Moment of Inertia Consider the rigid body shown in Figure. The moment
of inertia for a differential mass dm of the body about any one of the three
coordinate axes is defined as the product of the mass of the element and
the square of the shortest distance from the axis to the element.

The moment of inertia Ixx for the body can be determined by integrating
the differential expression over the entire mass of the body.

The moment of inertia is always a positive quantity.

The product of inertia for a differential element dm with respect to a set of

two orthogonal planes is defined as:

‘the product of the mass of the element and the perpendicular (or
shortest) distances from the planes to the element’.

The product of inertia dIxy for the element is therefore

By integrating over the entire mass

Unlike the moment of inertia, which is always positive, the product of

inertia may be positive, negative, or zero.

The result depends on the algebraic signs of the two defining coordinates,
which vary independently from one another.

If either one or both of the orthogonal planes are planes of symmetry for
the mass, the product of inertia with respect to these planes will be zero.
This means, on one side of the plane, the product of inertia for the
element will be positive, while on the other side the product of inertia of
the corresponding element will be negative, the sum therefore will be
zero.

Examples of this are shown in Figures. In first case, the y-z plane is a
plane of symmetry, and hence Ixy = Ixz = 0.

Calculation of Iyz will not be zero since all elements of mass have only
positive y and z coordinates.

For the cylinder (b) with the coordinate axes shown Ixy = Iyz = Izx = 0.

Angular Momentum

Consider the rigid body which has a mass m and center of mass at G.
The X, Y, Z coordinate system represents an inertial frame of reference,
and hence, its axes are fixed or translate with a constant velocity.

The angular momentum as measured from this reference, suppose, is

determined relative to the arbitrary point A.

The position vectors rA and ρA are drawn from the origin of coordinates to
point A and from A to the ith particle of the body.

If the particle’s mass is mi, the angular momentum about point A is

where vi represents the particle’s velocity measured from the X, Y, Z
coordinate system. If the body has an angular velocity ω at the instant
considered, vi may be related to the velocity of A by applying equation

Calculation of total moment of the body requires integration. As mi → dm,

Moment about Fixed Point O

If ‘A’ is a fixed point O on the body, then vA = 0 and equation reduces to

 (1)

Moment about Center of Mass G

If ‘A’ is located at the center of mass G of the body, then ρAdm = 0 and

(2)

Equations (1) and (2) both are of the form

For expressing angular momentum in terms of its scalar components, it is

convenient to choose a second set of x, y, z axes having an arbitrary
orientation relative to the X, Y, Z axes.

Expressing H, ρ, and ω in terms of x, y, z components, we have

Expanding the cross products and combining terms yields

Equating the respective i, j, k components and recognizing that the

integrals represent the moments and products of inertia, we obtain

(A)

These equations can be simplified if the x, y, z coordinate axes are

oriented such that they become principal axes of inertia for the body
at the point.

When these axes are used, the products of inertia Ixy = Iyz = Izx = 0,

(B)

Equations of Motion, Equations of Translational Motion

The translational motion of a body is defined in terms of the acceleration
of the body’s mass center, which is measured from an inertial X, Y, Z
reference.

The equation of translational motion for the body can be written in vector
form as:
Equations of Rotational Motion

The equation states that the sum of the moments of all the external forces
acting on a system of particles (contained in a rigid body) about a fixed
point O is equal to the time rate of change of the total angular momentum
of the body about point O.

When moments of the external forces acting on the particles are summed
about the system’s mass center G, a similar equation can be derived.

If these quantities are computed about x, y, z axes that are rotating with
an angular velocity Ω that is different from the body’s angular velocity ω,
then the time derivative dH/dt, must account for the rotation of the x, y, z
axes as measured from the inertial X, Y, Z axes.

(3)

Here (𝐻́ )xyz is the time rate of change of H measured from the x, y, z
reference. Three possibilities for rotational speeds are:

(i) x, y, z axes are non-rotating i.e. Ω = 0. However, the body may

have a rotation ω about these axes.
(ii) x, y, z axes are rotating such that Ω = ω. Equations (3) become

(4)

Expressing each of these vector equations as three scalar equations

and solving with equations (A) yields following
If the x, y, z axes are chosen as principal axes of inertia, the products of
inertia are zero and Ixx = Ix, etc., and the above equations become

(5)

This set of equations is known as the Euler equations of motion. The

equations apply only for moments summed about either point O or G.

In above equations 𝜔̇𝑥 , 𝜔̇𝑦 and 𝜔̇𝑧 represent the time derivatives of the
magnitudes of the x, y, z components of ω as observed from x, y, z.

(iii) x, y, z axes are having motion Ω ≠ ω. This is suitable for the

analysis of spinning tops and gyroscopes which are
symmetrical about their spinning axes.

Using vector equation (3) three scalar equations can be written. After
solving with equation (A) and keeping the products of inertia as zero
following equations are obtained

(6)

Here Ωx, Ωy and Ωz represent the x, y, z components of Ω, measured from

the inertial frame of reference, and 𝜔̇𝑥 , 𝜔̇𝑦 , 𝜔̇𝑧 must be determined
relative to the x, y, z axes that have the rotation.

Gyroscopic Motion

This motion occurs whenever the axis about which a body is spinning is
itself rotating about another axis.

Gyroscope is a spinning wheel or disc in which the axis of rotation is

assumed to achieve / maintain a certain orientation.

The most common example of gyroscopic motion occurs when the axis of
a rotor spinning at constant speed turns (precesses) about another axis at
a steady rate.

Consider a symmetrical rotor spinning about the z-axis with a large

angular velocity ω, known as the spin velocity.

If two forces F are applied to the rotor axle to form a couple M whose
vector is directed along the x-axis, we will find that the rotor shaft rotates
in the x-z plane about the y-axis with an angular velocity Ω known as the
precession velocity.

To derive equations of gyroscopic motion consider a body (e.g. a top)

which is symmetrical about an axis and rotating about a fixed point.
The body’s motion is analyzed using Euler angles ϕ, θ, ψ. To define
position of the top, a second set of x, y, z axes is fixed in the top.

Starting with the X, Y, Z and x, y, z axes in coincidence, the final position

of the top can be determined by rotating the top in three steps i.e. about:

(i) the Z (or z) axis through an angle ϕ.

(ii) the x axis through an angle θ.
(iii) the z axis through an angle ψ.
The angular-velocity components 𝜙,̇ 𝜃̇ , 𝜓̇ are known as the precession,
nutation, and spin velocity, respectively

The positive directions of these velocities are shown in Figure below. The
three velocity vectors are not all perpendicular to one another; however,
ω of the top can still be expressed in terms of these three components.

Since the body (top) is symmetric with respect to the z or spin axis, there
is no need to spin the x, y, z axes i.e. x, y, z axis follow the body in
precession and nutation only.

Therefore Ω = ωp + ωn. The angular velocity of the body is

(7)
The angular velocity of the axes is

(8)

Solving equations (6-8) yields

(9)

Each moment summation applies only at the fixed point O or the center
of mass G of the body.

A special / simplified case is of steady precession which occurs when the

nutation angle θ, precession 𝜙̇ and spin 𝜓̇ velocities are constant.

(10)

But 𝜔𝑧 = 𝜙̇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝜓̇. Equation (10) becomes

(11)

The effect of spin 𝜓̇ can be noticed on the moment from equation (11). If
the spinning rotor is set such that θ = 90 (as shown in Figure), the
equation reduces to:

From the figure it can be seen that Ωy and ωz act along their respective
positive axes and therefore are mutually perpendicular.

In the Figure one can expect the rotor to fall down under the influence of
gravity.

However, this is not the case, provided the product IzΩyωz is correctly
chosen to counterbalance the moment Mx = WrG of the rotor’s weight
about O.

The spinning of the gyro within the frame of a toy gyroscope produces
angular momentum HO, which is changing direction as the frame
precesses ωp about the vertical axis.
The gyroscope does not fall down since the moment of its weight W
about the support is balanced by the HO.

This unusual phenomenon of rigid-body motion is often referred to as the

gyroscopic effect.

The gyroscopic effect can also be understood by studying the working of

a gyroscope, sometimes referred to as a gyro.

A gyro is a rotor which spins at a very high rate about its axis of
symmetry. This rate of spin is considerably greater than its precessional
rate of rotation about the vertical axis i.e. Ωy << ωz

The angular momentum of the gyro can thus be assumed directed along
its axis of spin and equation can be written as:

where HO = Izωz from equation (B)

When a gyro is mounted in gimbal rings, it becomes free of external
moments and its axis retains a fixed direction in space regardless
of the rotation of the structure to which it is attached.

In this way, it is used (as gyro compass) for inertial guidance systems and
for other directional control devices.

Thus, gyro’s angular momentum H does not precess but, maintains its
same fixed orientation along the axis of spin when the shaft is rotated.

The gyroscope effect is also of significant importance in the design of

shafts and bearings for rotors which are subjected to forced precessions.
`The large gear has a mass of 5 kg and a radius of gyration of
kz = 75 mm. Gears B and C each have a mass of 200 g and a
radius of gyration about the axis of their connecting shaft of 15
mm. If the gears are in mesh and C has an angular velocity of
15 j rad/s. Determine the total angular momentum for the
system of three gears about point A.

Solution:
Large Gear:

The large gear has a moment of inertia about the 𝑧 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 which is given by

𝐼𝑧 = 𝑚𝑘𝑧2 = (5)(0.075)2 [kg m2 ]

The angular velocity of larger gear can be obtained by equating the tangential velocity at the pitch point:

40 × 15 = 100 × 𝜔𝑧

⇒ 𝜔𝑧 = 6 [rad⁄s]

The angular momentum 𝑯𝟏 can be determined as:

̂ = (5)(0.075)2 × 6𝑘̂ = 0.16875 𝑘̂ [kg m2 ⁄𝑠]

𝑯𝟏 = 𝐼𝑥 𝜔𝑥 𝒊̂ + 𝐼𝑦 𝜔𝑦 𝒋̂ + 𝐼𝑧 𝜔𝑧 𝒌

Gear B:

Gear B will have the same angular velocity magnitude as of Gear C i.e., 15 rad/s.

The moment of inertia of gear B about its axis of rotation(one of the principal axes) is (0.2)(0.015)2 kg m2 .

The magnitude of angular momentum of gear B is given by the product

(0.2)(0.015)2 × 15 = 6.75(10−4 ) kg m2 ⁄𝑠.

In the rectangular form it can be written as

𝑯𝑩 = −6.75(10−4 ) sin(45) 𝒊̂ − 6.75(10−4 ) cos(45) 𝒋̂

𝑯𝑩 = −4.77(10−4 )𝒊̂ − 4.77(10−4 )𝒋̂

Gear C:

Gear C has an angular velocity of 15 rad/s directed towards positive 𝑦-axis.

The moment of inertia of gear C about its axis of rotation(one of the principal axes) is (0.2)(0.015)2 kg m2 .

The magnitude of angular momentum of gear C is given by the product

(0.2)(0.015)2 × 15 = 6.75(10−4 )[kg m2 ⁄𝑠 ].

In the rectangular form it can be written as:

𝑯𝑪 = 6.75(10−4 ) 𝒋̂ [kg m2⁄𝑠 ]

The total angular momentum of the system of gears is the vector sum of the angular momentum of
individual gears
 𝑯 = 𝑯𝟏 + 𝑯𝑩 + 𝑯𝑪

̂ ) + (−4.77(10−4 )𝒊̂ − 4.77(10−4 )𝒋̂) + (6.75(10−4 ) 𝒋̂)

⇒ 𝐻 = (0.16875 𝒌

̂ [kg m2 ⁄𝑠 ]
⇒ 𝐻 = −4.77(10−4 )𝒊̂ + 1.98(10−4 ) 𝒋̂ + 0.16875 𝒌 𝐴𝑛𝑠.

The 200-kg satellite has its center of mass at point G. Its

radii of gyration about the z’, x’, y’ axes are 300, 500, 500
mm respectively. At the instant shown, the satellite rotates
about the x’, y’, z’ and axes with the angular velocity
shown, and its center of mass G has a velocity given
below. Determine the angular momentum of the satellite
about point A at this instant.

Solution:
The angular momentum of the satellite about point A can be determined using the relation
𝑯𝑨 = 𝝆𝑮⁄𝑨 × 𝑚𝒗𝑮 + 𝑯𝑮 → (𝟏)
Where,
̂
𝝆𝑮⁄𝑨 = 0.8𝒌
̂
𝒗𝑮 = −250𝒊̂ + 200𝒋̂ + 120𝒌
𝒊̂ 𝒋̂ ̂
𝒌
The term 𝝆𝑮⁄𝑨 × 𝑚𝒗𝑮 = 200 | 0 0 0.8 | = 200(−0.8(200𝒊 + 250𝒋̂)) = −3200𝒊 − 40000𝒋̂
−250 200 120
For Angular Momentum 𝑯𝑮 :

The angular momentum 𝑯𝑮 is given by

̂
𝑯𝑮 = 𝐼𝑥 ′ 𝜔𝑥′ 𝒊̂ + 𝐼𝑦′ 𝜔𝑦′ 𝒋̂ + 𝐼𝑧′ 𝜔𝑧′ 𝒌
̂
= 200(0.5)2 (600)𝒊̂ + 200(0.5)2 (−300)𝒋̂ + 200(0.3)2 (1250)𝒌
̂
= 30000𝒊̂ − 15000𝒋̂ + 22500𝒌
Substitute in equation (𝟏)
̂
(𝟏) ⇒ 𝑯𝑨 = 𝝆𝑮⁄𝑨 × 𝑚𝒗𝑮 + 𝑯𝑮 = −3200𝒊 − 40000𝒋̂ + 30000𝒊̂ − 15000𝒋̂ + 22500𝒌

̂
⇒ 𝑯𝑨 = 26800𝒊̂ − 65000𝒋̂ + 22500𝒌 𝑨𝒏𝒔.
The gear shown in Figure has a mass of 10 kg and is
mounted at an angle of 10° with the rotating shaft having
negligible mass. If Iz= 0.1 kg.m2, Ix = Iy = 0.05 kg.m2, and
the shaft is rotating with a constant angular velocity of ω =
30 rad/s, determine the components of reaction that the
thrust bearing A and journal bearing B exert on the shaft at
the instant shown.

Solution:
• At the given instant the 𝑥𝑦𝑧 axes are the principal axes of inertia.
• The origin of 𝑥𝑦𝑧 is at mass center 𝐺 of the gear.
• The 𝑥𝑦𝑧 axes rotate with the gear 𝛀 = 𝝎 such that they remain
the principal axes of inertia at any instant.
• The angular velocity vector 𝝎 as seen from 𝑥𝑦𝑧 axes at any 𝝎
instant of time is given by
̂
𝝎 = 0 𝒊̂ − 30 sin(10°) 𝒋̂ + 30 cos(10°) 𝒌
• The time rate of change of 𝝎 as seen from 𝑥𝑦𝑧 is zero at any
instant of time.
̂
𝝎̇ = 0 𝒊̂ + 0𝒋̂ + 0𝒌

• The Euler equation of motion becomes

∑𝑀𝑥 = 𝐼𝑥 𝜔̇ 𝑥 − (𝐼𝑦 − 𝐼𝑧 )𝜔𝑦 𝜔𝑧
−0.2𝐴𝑦 + 0.25𝐵𝑦 = −(0.05 − 0.1)(−30 sin(10°))(30 cos(10°))
−0.2𝐴𝑦 + 0.25𝐵𝑦 = −7.695

∑𝑀𝑦 = 𝐼𝑦 𝜔̇ 𝑦 − (𝐼𝑧 − 𝐼𝑥 )𝜔𝑧 𝜔𝑥

0.2𝐴𝑥 cos(10) − 0.25𝐵𝑥 cos(10) = 0
0.2𝐴𝑥 − 0.25𝐵𝑥 = 0

∑𝑀𝑧 = 𝐼𝑧 𝜔̇ 𝑧 − (𝐼𝑥 − 𝐼𝑦 )𝜔𝑥 𝜔𝑦

0.2𝐴𝑥 sin(10) − 0.25𝐵𝑥 sin(10) = 0
0.2𝐴𝑥 − 0.25𝐵𝑥 = 0

• The summation of forces yields

∑𝐹𝑋 = 𝑚(𝑎𝐺 )𝑋 ⇒ 𝐴𝑋 + 𝐵𝑋 = 0
)
∑𝐹𝑌 = 𝑚(𝑎𝐺 𝑌 ⇒ 𝐴𝑌 + 𝐵𝑌 − 10(9.81) = 0
∑𝐹𝑍 = 𝑚(𝑎𝐺 )𝑍 ⇒ 𝐴𝑍 = 0

• Solving the system of equation yields

𝐴𝑋 = 0, 𝐴𝑌 = 71.6 N, 𝐴𝑍 = 0, 𝐵𝑋 = 0, 𝐵𝑌 = 26.5 N 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
The 1-kg disk shown in Figure spins about its axis with a
constant angular velocity ωD = 70 rad/s. The block at B has a
mass of 2 kg, and by adjusting its position s one can change
the precession of the disk about its supporting pivot at O while
the shaft remains horizontal. Determine the position s that will
enable the disk to have a constant precession ωp = 0.5 rad/s
about the pivot. Neglect the weight of the shaft.

Solution:
• Assumptions: Steady Precession
o Nutation angle constant at 𝜃 = 90°
o Precession is constant at 𝜙̇ = 0.5 rads⁄s
o Spin is constant at 𝜓̇ = −70 rads⁄s
• Angular velocity of 𝑥𝑦𝑧 is given by
o 𝛀 = 𝜙̇𝑗̂ = 0.5𝑗̂ [rads⁄s]
• Angular velocity of disk is given by
o 𝛚 = 𝜓̇𝑘̂ = −70𝑘̂ [rads⁄s]
• Equation of rotational motion yields
∑𝑀𝑥 = 𝐼𝑧 Ω𝑦 𝜔𝑧
1
0.2 × 9.81 − 𝑠 × 19.62 = (1)(0.05)2 × 0.5 × (−70)
2
𝑠 = 0.1022 m = 102.2 mm 𝐴𝑛𝑠.

𝑍, 𝑦

19.62N
𝑧

9.81N 𝑋, 𝑥
The 1-lb top has a center of gravity at point G. If it spins
about its axis of symmetry and precesses about the
vertical axis at constant rates of ωs = 60 rad/s and ωp =
10 rad/s, respectively, determine the steady state angle
θ. The radius of gyration of the top about the z axis is kz =
1 in., and about the x and y axes it is kx = ky = 4 in.

Solution:
• Assumptions: Steady Precession
o Nutation angle constant at 𝜃 = constant
o Precession is constant at 𝜙̇ = −10 rads⁄s
o Spin is constant at 𝜓̇ = 60 rads⁄s
• For Steady precession, using equation 21-30

3 1 4 2 1 1 2
−(1) ( ) sin 𝜃 = − ( ) ( ) × (−10)2 × sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 + ( ) ( ) × (−10) × sin 𝜃 (−10 cos 𝜃 + 60)
12 32.2 12 32.2 12

−0.25 = −0.345 cos 𝜃 − 2.156(10−3 )(−10 cos 𝜃 + 60)

𝜃 = 68.10° 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
The turbine rotor in a ship’s power plant has a mass of 1000 kg, with center of mass at G and a radius of
gyration of 200 mm. The rotor shaft is mounted in bearings A and B with its axis in the horizontal direction
and turns counterclockwise at a speed of 5000 rev/ min when viewed from the stern.
Determine the vertical components of the bearing reactions at A and B if the ship is making a turn to port
(left) of 400-m radius at a speed of 25 knots (1 knot = 0.514 m /s). Does the bow of the ship tend to rise or
fall because of the gyroscopic action?

𝛀
Solution:
• The summation of force in the vertical directions yields
𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 = 8910
• For Steady precession, at 𝜃 = 90°
∑𝑀 = 𝐼𝛺𝑝
Where,
▪ ∑𝑀 is the summation of moments in the
9810 N
direction of 𝛀 × 𝒑
∑𝑀 = −0.6𝑅𝐴 + 0.9𝑅𝐵
▪ 𝐼 is the moment of inertia in the direction of spin 𝒑
𝐼 = (1000)(0.2)2 = 40 kg m2
▪ 𝛺 is the precession velocity and can be determined using tangential velocity (𝑣 = 25 knots)
and the radius of turn (𝑟 = 400m)
𝑣 25 × 0.514
Ω= = = 0.032125 rads⁄s
𝑟 400
▪ 𝑝 is the spin velocity
2𝜋
𝑝 = 5000 × = 523.6 rads⁄s
60
Substituting in the above equation would results
−0.6𝑅𝐴 + 0.9𝑅𝐵 = 40 × 0.032125 × 523.6 = 672.826
• Solving the force and moment equation
𝑅𝐴 = 5437.4 N, 𝑅𝐵 = 4372.6 N 𝐴𝑛𝑠.

• The direction of moment needed to support the precession of the turbine is outward as shown below.
Consequently, for the ship, the reaction moment will be inward and cause the bow of the ship to fall.