Ancient History 2015c

Ancient History
A Framework for the

Bible
John Stevenson
© John Stevenson, 2015
All rights reserved
220.9
Redeemer Publishing
Hollywood, FL
www.RedeemerPublishing.com
Unless otherwise noted,

Scripture quotations taken from the New American Standard Bible®,
Copyright © 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973,
1975, 1977, 1993, 1995 by The Lockman Foundation
Used by permission. (www.Lockman.org)
Other books by John Stevenson:
Doctrines of the Bible: Outlines in Systematic Theology

Facing the Flames: A Fire Fighter’s Meditations on the
Spiritual Life
First Corinthians: Striving for Unity
Ecclesiastes: A Spiritual Journey
Ephesians: The Wealth & Walk of the Christian
Galatians: Our Freedom in Christ
Genesis: The Book of Beginnings, Volume 1
Hebrews: The Supremacy of the Savior
Historical Books of the Old Testament: One God, One
People, One Land
James: A Faith that Works
Joshua, Judges, and Ruth: Victory, Defeat, and Hope in an
Age of Heroes
Luke: In the Footsteps of the Savior
Mark: The Servant Who Came to Save
Preaching from the Minor Prophets to a Postmodern
Congregation
Romans: The Radical Righteousness of God
A Survey of the Old Testament: The Bible Jesus Used
To Paula
my beloved wife,
who believed in this
book
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Genesis and Other Creation Accounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
The Flood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Early Mesopotamia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
The Patriarchs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Egypt: The Land of the Nile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Israel in Egypt and the Wilderness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Israel’s Conquest of Canaan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
The Judges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Israel in the Days of the Monarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
The Northern Kingdom of Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
The Southern Kingdom of Judah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Mesopotamia in the Age of the Empires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Israel in the Persian Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
The Aegean World and the Greeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
The Intertestamental Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
The Life and Times of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
The New Testament Church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
The War of the Jews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
Free Powerpoints and videos of related lectures
are available on
the John Stevenson Bible Study Page at
http://JohnStevenson.net
INTRODUCTION
The Bible is a historical book. Rather than being a “once upon a time”
fairytale, it is rooted in history. Ernst Renan once said that “all history is
incomprehensible without Christ.” But it is also true that both Christ and the
Scriptures are equally incomprehensible without the historical backdrop
against which they are framed.
There is a sense in which history is “His story.” Since we have all been
created by God and are made in His image, the story of mankind is the story
of God’s plan for man being carried out. This means that the Christian has
a reason for the study of all of history. But when it comes to the study of that
portion of history in which the Bible has its historical and cultural setting, the
Christian has even greater motivation for such a study.
1. To Aid us in Understanding the Bible.
Each book of the Bible was written to a particular audience.

• Genesis is written to Israelites who have come out of Egypt.
• Judges is written to Israelites living under the monarchy of
Israel.
• Chronicles is written to post-exilic Jews returning to the land.
• The epistles are written to various churches throughout the
Roman Empire.
In each case, the human author of the book assumes a certain amount
of a prior knowledge. He assumes that he can speak of various
geographic or cultural areas and that they will be known and
understood and applied by his readers.
Our problem is that we are reading ancient Scriptures from a 21st

century vantage point. A study of Biblical archaeology helps us to
step into the sandals of the original readers and to interpret the
Scriptures properly. It is only then that we will be able to apply the
truths of the Scriptures rightly in our day.
2. To Affirm the Scriptural Narrative.
The Bible’s historical accuracy has long been the source of attack.
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Introduction
These attacks have not abated in recent years; they have escalated in
intensity. One of the necessary fields of Biblical apologetics will be
the defense of the historical veracity of the Bible. The battlefield for
this conflict will be the arena of Biblical archaeology.
Make no mistake, this is no easy conflict. There are many

archaeologists who reject the Bible out of hand, going so far as to
deny the historicity of the patriarchs, the Exodus event and the
existence of David or Solomon and their kingdoms.
At the same time, we must realize that there are many things in the
Bible which are not substantiated in current Biblical archaeology.
That is because we have only found a small fraction of the remains of
antiquity. The absence of evidence is not evidence of absence. This
has been proven time and time again as new finds have substantiated
areas which were previously thought to be in error.
3. To Aid us in the Work of Bible Translation and Interpretation.
Language is not a constant. It is always changing. One has only to

pick up a King James Bible to see how much the English language
has changed over the past 400 years. What is true of the English
language is also true of the languages in which the Bible was written.
a. The Old Testament was written primarily in Hebrew with a

few chapters in Daniel being penned in Aramaic. Modern
Hebrew has gone through some changes and there are a
number of words in the Old Testament which are “hapax
legomenon” - words which appear only once and which
appear nowhere else.
How are we to determine the meanings of such words? It is

the field of archaeology which provides assistance.
Archaeological writings give us other examples of the usage
of certain words and are a great help in interpreting the Bible.
b. The New Testament is written in Koine Greek. The Greek of

the New Testament is very different from the modern Greek
which is spoken today. Fortunately, we have a great deal of
examples of Koine Greek to compare with our New
Testament vocabulary.
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Introduction
Understanding the Bible is not simply a case of gaining a correct

translation. The world and culture of the Scriptures were far removed
from our own and that means it is an easy thing to misunderstand the
message of the Bible because it comes wearing cultural trappings that
are foreign to us.
THE SCOPE OF BIBLICAL HISTORY

The lands of the Bible go far beyond the tiny borders of the land of Israel.
The story of the Bible begins in Mesopotamia, the land between the Tigris
and Euphrates Rivers. By the end of the New Testament, our horizons have
been stretched westward all the way to Spain. This means that we could
divide Biblical History into two distinct parts:
1. Old Testament History.
The lands of the Old Testament

would be those around the
Fertile Crescent. This is a large
band of relatively fertile land
stretching from the Persian Gulf
northward along the courses of
the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers
and then south along the Levant.
Though known as the “Fertile
Crescent,” much of these lands
can only be considered fertile
when compared to the surrounding deserts.
2. New Testament History.
Although still centered

in the land of Palestine,
our focus in the New
Testament turns its
attention westward. The
story of Acts and the
Epistles is a movement
from Jerusalem to
Rome.
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Introduction
Between these two periods is a time known as the “Silent Years.” It is a

period when there were no prophets in Israel. But it is not a period which is
silent with reference to history.
Old Testament New Testament

1600+ Years of History 400 “Silent Years” 70-90 Years of History
Centered on the Fertile Centered on the
Crescent Mediterranean World
The Jewish writings known as the “Apocrypha” and specifically the books of
Maccabees were written during this 400 period. The books of Maccabees are
an excellent resource in filling in for us the historical details of what took
place in Israel between the close of the Old Testament Scriptures and the
beginning of the New Testament.
MILESTONES IN THE HISTORY OF

BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY
We would be hard pressed to talk about Bible History apart from the field of
archaeology. It is through the field of archaeology that a great deal of our
information can be checked, verified, and understood.
1. The Rosetta Stone.
Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Egypt in 1798.

He was hoping to cut England’s supply line to
her holdings in India. It was an ill-fated
expedition for Napoleon and for France, but
it also marks the beginning of modern
archaeology. Napoleon had brought with him
175 scholars made up of linguists, botanists,
naturalists, artists and historians. Though
Napoleon left the following year in defeat,
this group of scholars eventually succeeded in
publishing their findings in the 36-volume
study entitled, “Description of Egypt.”
In August 1799, just two months before Napoleon would abandon his
4
Introduction
army to escape back to France, a French soldier digging a trench at

the fort of St Julien near Rosetta came across a dark red granite stone
covered with writing.
It was a dark, irregular-shaped stone
Height 44 inches 111 centimeters

Width 32 inches 81 centimeters
Thickness 10 inches 25 centimeters
One side was polished and inscribed with a text in three different
scripts of writing, though they comprised only two languages.
Hieroglyphs 14 These were Egyptian symbols in which

lines each symbol would represent a syllable.
Demotic 32 A shorthand form of hieroglyphics
lines written from right to left like Hebrew,
this form of writing dated to 700 B.C.
and ultimately developed into the
Coptic script.
Greek 54 The commemoration of the coronation
lines of King Ptolemy 5th in the year 196
B.C.
No one living in that day was able to read either the hieroglyphs or
the demotic. The Greek, on the other hand, was easily readable. It
was evidently a stella of commemoration of the advent of one of the
Ptolemies to the throne of Egypt. The Ptolemies were a line of Greek
kings who ruled over Egypt from the days of Alexander to Cleopatra
(she was the last of the Ptolemies).
As the spoils of war, the Rosetta Stone ended up in the British

Museum where it resides to this day. But it was copied and those
copies were distributed and made available to all scholars. It was left
to a young French scholar to break its secret.
Scholars had recognized immediately that all three inscriptions were

differing translations of the same message since the last line of the
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Introduction
Greek text read: “Written in sacred and native and Greek characters.”
Jean Francois Champollion was familiar with Coptic and was able to
use his knowledge of that language to decipher the mystery of the
Egyptian hieroglyphs. His work was aided by Thomas Yong, an
English scholar who had concluded that the symbol representing
Ptolemy was phonetic. It had been assumed in the past that
hieroglyphics were “picture-writings” in which each symbol
represented a single word or concept. Thus a picture of a pig might
mean “dirty man” or a lion’s front paws might stand for “strength.”
But this proved not to be the case.
There were actually three types of hieroglyphs:
a. Pictures: Some symbols did indeed represent a single word or

concept. For example, a picture of a man with a stick stood
for the verb, “to beat.”
b. Related Sounds: Some pictures came to stand for things

which they sounded like. It would be like drawing a picture
of a train in order to communicate the idea of “training
(teaching) a student.” An actual example is the Egyptian
word wr. It is the word for a swallow (bird). The
hieroglyphic is a picture of a swallow. But it is also the word
for “great.”
c. Syllable Sounds: The symbol for “swallow” came to be used

whenever the Egyptians were writing a word which had the
sound wr as one of its syllables.
2. The Behistun Inscription.
In 1833 British officer Sir Henry Rawlinson traveled to Persia to

organize the Shah’s army. There he came across a Persian inscription
located high up a cliff wall on the Rock of Behistun in western Iran.
The rock stands above a spring of water on the caravan route between
Ecbatana and Babylon; it is the last peak of a long narrow range of
mountains. Today the small village of Behistun lies around the
spring.
In 1842, Rawlinson succeeded in climbing the wall and copying a

portion of the inscription. It was painstaking work and a portion of
6
Introduction
the inscription was inaccessible. It was not until 1847 that he

returned with a Kurdish boy who succeeded in spanning the rest of
the precipice and making a paper mache imprint of the rest of the
inscription. The inscription is composed in three languages:
a. Old Persian.
b. Elamite.
c. Akkadian.
All three languages are written with cuneiform characters. An

Aramaic version of the inscription was later discovered at
Elephantine in Upper Egypt.
It was ultimately determined that the pictorial relief was of King

Darius of Persia. The scene represents Darius receiving the
submission of a group of rebels. The king’s left foot is placed on the
neck of one of his enemies.
Rawlinson managed to decipher the Persian part of the inscription.

This was then used to make the first translations of the other two
languages. Thus the Behistun Inscription is to cuneiform was the
Rosetta Stone is the Egyptian hieroglyphics.
3. Moabite Stone.
Made of black basalt, this stela

was discovered by a French
Anglican medical missionary by
the name of F.A. Klein in 1868 in
the ruins of the ancient city of
Divon in modern Jordan on the
east side of the Dead Sea. Klein
was unable to read the
inscription, but recognized it as
being valuable.
The inscription parallels Biblical

history as it relates the events
described in 2 Kings 1 and 3,
though it relates these same
events from the Moabite perspective. The stone measures as follows:
7
Introduction
Tall 3 feet, 8½ inches 113 centimeters

Wide 2 feet, 3½ inches 70 centimeters
Thick 1 foot, 1¾ inches 40 centimeters
Approximate Date: 830 B.C.
39 Lines of Writing
The French consul in Jerusalem commissioned an Arab to make a

squeeze of the stela by pressing wet paper into the characters of the
inscription. While he was doing this, he was attacked by Bedouin and
forced to flee. In his haste to escape, the squeeze was torn into
several pieces.
When the Turkish authorities tried to take the stone, the Bedouin
responded by setting a fire under the stone to heat it up and then
pouring cold water over it, thereby breaking it into fragments. About
two-thirds of the pieces were recovered and those, along with the
squeeze that had been made before the stela was destroyed, allowed
all but the last line to be reconstructed. There are a total of 34 lines,
written in Moabite, a language almost identical to Hebrew.
Origins Erected by King Mesha at Dibon

Discovery Seen by Clermont Ganneau and Rev. F. A. Klein
in 1868. They had a squeeze of the stone made at
that time.
The stone was broken into pieces by Arabs. Two
large fragments and 18 smaller pieces were
recovered
Today Resides in the Louvre
4. Gezer Calendar.
Discovered in 1908 at Tell el-Jazari by Irish archaeologist R.A.S.

MacAlistar at the site of the ancient city of Gezer about 15 miles to
the northwest of Jerusalem, this small limestone rock seems to be a
student’s homework. The translation reads as follows:
8
Introduction
Two months are harvest

Two months are planting
Two months are late (planting)
One month is hoeing flax
One month is barley-harvest
One month is harvest and feasting
Two months are (vine-)pruning
One month is summer fruit.
This inscription dates

6000 B.C. - Ugarit founded.
back to 925 B.C. It serves 1800-1400 B.C. - Ugarit comes under
as evidence that the Egyptian influence.
Hebrews living in Israel at 1300-1200 B.C. - Period in which the
that time were a literary tablets were written.
1180 B.C. - City declines suddenly.
people capable of writing
the Old Testament
Scriptures. At the time of
its discovery, it was the oldest Hebrew inscription to be found.
5. Ras Shamrah - The Lost City of Ugarit.
In the spring of 1928, Mahmoud az-Zir, was ploughing land he had

rented in the south of Minet el-Beida (“white harbor”), Syria. As he
was working, his plough struck something hard just under the surface.
That evening, he returned to the site with some companions, and they
began to clear away a thin layer of top soil. They very quickly came
across some man-made paving stones, and on lifting these, they
discovered a chambered tomb full of pottery.
9
Introduction
When archaeologists were sent in to investigate, they discovered a

palace and an entire royal port city buried beneath the tell. Within
these ruins were hundreds of cuneiform tablets. It was not until 1932
that it was determined that the name of this lost city was Ugarit.
The style of writing discovered at Ugarit is known as alphabetic

cuneiform. This is a unique blending of an alphabetic script (like
Hebrew) and cuneiform (like Akkadian); thus it is a unique blending
of two styles of writing. Most likely it came into being as cuneiform
was passing from the scene and alphabetic scripts were making their
rise. Ugaritic is thus a bridge from one to the other and very important
in itself for the development of both.
Ugaritic greatly helps us in correctly translating difficult Hebrew

words and passages in the Old Testament. As a language develops the
meaning of words changes or their meaning is lost altogether. This is
also true of the Biblical text. But after the discovery of the Ugaritic
texts we found information concerning archaic words in the Hebrew
text.
6. Ebla.
In 1964 Italian archaeologists directed by Paolo Matthiae of the

University of Rome excavated a mound in northern Syria known as
Tell Mardikh. In 1968, Matthiae and his team uncovered ancient
Akkadian inscriptions of King Ibbit-Lim. In this text the king
identified himself as the ruler of Ebla. During excavations in 1974
and 1975, public and royal archives containing over 15,000 clay
tablets came to light. The Eblaite scribes recorded information on clay
tablets, inscribed in cuneiform, as developed by the Sumerians, which
was found in the ruins of the royal palace in 1974 A.D. The people
of Ebla spoke a Semitic language that resembled ancient Hebrew.
The most likely date of these archives is about 2500 B.C.
A royal library was found in 1974 consisting of 20,000 clay tablets,

80 percent of which were written in Sumerian and the rest in an
unknown Semitic language akin to Hebrew that is now called Eblaite.
Located halfway between modern Aleppo and Hama, at the top of the
Fertile Crescent, the city was in the heart of Abraham’s ancestral
home territory of Haran and flourished in 2200 B.C. Names like
David, Micah, Jerusalem, Sodom, Gomorrah, Haran, and Ur appear
in the texts. The city of Ebla was destroyed around 2250 B.C.
10
Introduction
7. Tell Dan Inscription.
In 1994, a team working

under Avraham Biran in
Upper Galilee discovered
three pieces of a single
inscription on basalt. It is
written in Aramaic and
mentions a military victory
over Bth-Dwd - “The House
of David.” This is the
earliest archaeological
Tell Dan Inscription
mention of King David.
8. Tell El-Amarna.
Amarna is located in the desert north of Thebes
where Pharaoh Akhenaton built his pristine royal
A series of letters were city, Akhet-aton, “Horizon-of-Aton.” It lasted only a
discovered at the ancient few years before being destroyed by those loyal to
the old gods of Egypt. But for those few brief years,
E g yp t i a n c i t y o f it was, for Egypt, a kind of mysterious Camelot.
Akhenaton, located on
the east bank of the Nile
midway between Giza and Thebes. The city has since become known
as Tell el-Amarna by the combining of two names:
a. El-Til is the name of the

modern-day village in the area.
b. El-Amarna is one of the Arab

tribes which has settled in the
area.
In 1887, a peasant woman digging for

fertilizer found some tablets in the ruins
of Tell el-Amarna. She sold them for
ten piastres. The tablets were offered to
European scholars, but were suspected
of being forgeries and were rejected.
The tablets were taken to Luxor and
sold to tourists. By the time that
scholars realized the tablets were
genuine, a number of the tablets had
been sold. Excavations began in 1891 and a total of 380 tablets were
11
Introduction
eventually uncovered.
The tablets date to the 18th dynasty of Egypt, specifically during the
reign of Akhenaton. These tablets consist correspondence between
the Pharaoh of Egypt at the kings of the cities of Jerusalem, Gezer,
Lachish, Jarmuth and Eglon. However, they are written in Akkadian,
demonstrating that this was the language of international diplomacy.
In several of these letters, there are complaints and requests for

protection from invading Hapiru, a nomadic people who were
overrunning the land. Some of these Hapiru had been joined by the
Canaanites and some had offered their services as mercenaries (there
is a possible correlation here to the Gibeonites).
9. The Dead Sea Scrolls.
In January 1947, a young Arab boy searching for some lost goats
happened to throw a rock into one of the hundreds of caves that dot
the cliffs overlooking the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea.
Instead of the bleating of a goat, he heard the crack of breaking
pottery. He told this to two of his cousins and the next day the
youngest of the cousins returned to the scene and climbed the steep
incline up to the cave.
The cave floor was covered with debris, including broken pottery.
Along the wall stood a number of clay jars, some with their bowl-
shaped covers still in place. Inside they found several bundles of
ancient manuscripts.
The seven manuscripts were sold to a shoemaker/antiquities dealer in

Bethlehem. They eventually came to the attention of scholars at the
American School of Oriental Research. William F. Albright soon
announced that the scrolls were from the period between 200 BC to
AD 200, making them the oldest manuscripts ever to be found.
Archaeological expeditions back to the caves where the scrolls had

initially been found resulted in the discovery of ten additional caves
in the surrounding area also containing scrolls. Attention was also
directed to a small ruin nearby called “Khirbet (ruins of) Qumran,”
which had been thought to be the remains of an old Roman fortress.
Today most scholars agree that Qumran was the home of a sect of
Jews known as the Essenes who made copies of the scrolls and then
12
Introduction
hid them in the caves when the Romans under Titus invaded Judea in
67 AD.
The seven original scrolls of “Cave One” were made up of:
(1) A scroll of the entire book of Isaiah.
(2) A fragmentary scroll of Isaiah.
(3) A commentary on the first two chapters of Habakkuk. The

commentator explained the book allegorically in terms of the
Qumran brotherhood.
(4) The “Manual of Discipline” — A book of requirements for

those aspiring to join the brotherhood.
(5) The “Thanksgiving Hymns,” a collection of devotional

psalms of thanksgiving and praise to God.
(6) An Aramaic paraphrase of the Book of Genesis.
(7) The “Rule of War” — An allegorical work prophesying the

battle between the “Sons of Light” (the men of Qumran) and
the “Sons of Darkness” which was to take place in the last
days which the men of Qumran believed were about to take
place.
Over the next eight years, scrolls were uncovered in 11 caves around
the Qumran area. Over 600 scrolls and thousands of fragments have
been uncovered, including fragments of every Biblical book except
Esther.
Prior to this find, the oldest Old Testament Manuscripts known were
the Massoretic Texts, dating from the 10th century AD. The Dead
Sea scrolls were a thousand years older. When compared, they were
found to be very close.
What have we actually learned from the Dead Sea Scrolls? Have they
actually contained any astounding discoveries?
a. They teach us that the Massoretic text of the Hebrew Old

Testament was surprisingly accurate and that the Bible has
13
Introduction
not notably changed over the course of history. At the same

time, they also help us to see that there have been occasional
scribal changes that have crept into the Hebrew text and they
have furthered the ability of scholars to study that text and
determine its original composition.
b. The scrolls have been helpful in giving us a window into the

first century Hebrew language.
c. They teach us that there was a messianic expectation in the

first century as the Jews were waiting for the coming of One
who would be both a divine warrior as well as a teacher of
righteousness.
d. They serve to remind us of the Jewish roots of Christianity,

especially when we compare the teachings found in the scrolls
with those of Jesus.
THE FORMING OF ANCIENT TELS

Ancient cities were sometimes built on a hill. This would allow the natural
formation of the landscape to assist in the fortifying of the city. Jerusalem is
a good example of this phenomenon. The original Jebusite city was located
on a narrow ridge so that three sides of the city were protected by steep
inclines. Other cities often found themselves in areas which were originally
lowlands, but which began to elevate as each succeeding city was built over
top of its predecessor.
The word tel in both Hebrew and Arabic means “mound.” What originally
appeared to be mere hills in the landscape sometimes turned out to be a series
of forgotten cities each built one on top of the rubble of its predecessor.
One example of this phenomenon is Tell el-Husn on the Jordan River, 14

miles south of the Sea of Galilee. This was the site of the Biblical city of
Bethshan, the home of those who took the body of Saul after he had been
slain in the battle of Gilboa.
This site was excavated from 1921 to 1933 by the University of

Pennsylvania. Excavators dug down 70 feet through 18 distinct strata. The
history of the city begins as early as 3500 B.C. and continues into the present
era.
14
Introduction
Tel at Beth Shan with Roman era ruins in the foreground
THREE TYPES OF SURVIVING WRITINGS

1. Monumental: These are texts for public display. They were made on
monuments and they were made to last and to withstand the elements.
2. Professional: Texts made by trained scribes. They were often done

of clay tablets or on papyrus.
3. Occasional: These were things written in everyday business. They

could be written on papyrus, parchment, goatskin, or even upon
broken pieces of pottery known as “potsherds” or “ostraca” (the
ancient version of “scrap paper”).
15
GENESIS AND OTHER
CREATION ACCOUNTS
In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.
(Genesis 1:1).
So begins the text of Genesis 1:1. Though it points back to the creation of all
things, it must be understood that this was not the first thing ever to be
written. Moses wrote these words in the 15th century B.C. There had
already been many books written before this time and some which dealt with
the question of creation.
Among the multitude of tablets found in the Library of Ashurbanipal in

Nineveh were a group of seven tablets known as the Enuma Elish. Though
the library dates only to the late 7th century B.C., the present form of the epic
itself goes all the way back to the days of Hammurabi (1700 B.C.), while the
story descends from the days of the Sumerians. The Enuma Elish (“When on
high”) draws its title from the first sentence of its narrative.
“When on high the heaven had not been named, firm

ground below had not been named...”
The text was found written on seven tablets, but this has no bearing on the
seven days of the Genesis account. If the tablets had been larger then there
would only have been six.
Tablet 1: Aspu and Tiamat come together to give birth to the primitive
forces and gods. However, Aspu turns against his offspring, but
is slain by them. Tiamat is enraged at the death of her husband
and she prepares to avenge his death.
Tablet 2: Marduk, one of the second generation gods, is elected to fight

Tiamat.
Tablet 3: The assembly of gods decrees the outcome of the battle and the
glory of Marduk.
Tablet 4: They each create seven assistants to help them. Marduk wins the
conflict and dissects the body of Tiamat.
16
Genesis and Other Creation Accounts
Tablet 5: From the body of Tiamat, Marduk creates heaven and earth. The
moon and the stars are established to mark the seasons.
Tablet 6: Tiamat's second in command, Kingu, is slain and from drops of

his blood Marduk creates man so that there will be one to
sacrifice to the gods.
My blood will I take and bone will I fashion

I will make man, that man may be his name,
I will create man who shall inhabit the earth,
That the service of the gods may be established, and that their
shrines may be built.
But I will alter the ways of the gods, and I will change their
paths;
Together shall they be oppressed and unto evil shall they....
Tablet 7: Marduk advances from the chief god of Babylon to become head
of the entire pantheon. He is given 50 names representing the
power of the various deities.
It can be seen from this brief outline that this account is only superficially
related to the Genesis account.
Similarities and Differences with the Genesis Account

Similarities Differences
(1) Both accounts speak of a (1) One account is grossly
time when the earth was polytheistic while the other
without form and void. is strictly monotheistic.
(2) Both accounts have a (2) One account confuses
similar order of events in spirit and matter while the
creation. other is careful to
(3) An emphasis is placed distinguish between the
upon naming that which two.
was created.
Since the initial discovery of the seven tablets, other copies have been found
relating the same story but on ten tablets. This suggests to us that there is
nothing in particular to the parallel of the seven tablets with the seven days
of Genesis 1-2.
17
There is a real difference between the Genesis account and the creation
accounts of other pagan religions. In other religious systems, the natural
world was seen as a manifestation of all of the deities — the sun, moon, stars,
oceans, storms. The cosmos always had the status of deity. The Bible is
unique in that the cosmos is merely creation. Only the Lord is God.
Another difference between the Genesis account versus the creation accounts
of other religions of antiquity is underscored in an observation by C.S. Lewis:
...creation, in any unambiguous sense, seems to be a

surprisingly rare doctrine; and when stories about it occur in
Paganism they are often religiously unimportant, not in the
least central to the religions in which we find them. They are
on the fringe where religion tails off into what was perhaps
felt, even at the time, to be more like fairy-tale (1994:171).
At the same time, there are enough similarities in the Mesopotamian creation
accounts with those of the Bible to make us wonder if these similarities are
not deliberate. The simple truth is that two authors do not normally express
thought alike if they are acting independently. It is for this reason that I
would propose the similarities between the Genesis account and the various
Mesopotamian creation stories are deliberate. The Bible purposefully sets
forth its creation account in a way that reflects something of the
Mesopotamian stories, yet showing that creation did not come about through
the random happenings of various gods and cosmic forces, but rather that it
was the purposeful and deliberate act of God.
THE NATURE OF THE TWO CREATION

ACCOUNTS
A reading of Genesis 1-2 will show immediately that we have two separate
and distinct accounts of creation.
GENESIS 1 GENESIS 2
The heavens and the earth are Creation of the man and the
created in six days. woman (no time element
mentioned).
18
Shows man in his cosmic Shows man as central to God's

setting. purpose.
A panoramic view of creation A detailed view of one
as a whole. particular aspect of creation.
Centers on God creating the Centers on man as the
heavens and the earth. crowning of God's creation.
Rather than being contradictive, these two accounts are complimentary.

Indeed, this method of first giving a panoramic view and then coming back
to focus on important details is found all through Genesis.
For example, in the account of Jacob and Esau, it is Esau’s story that comes
first, but it is Jacob’s which is more fully developed and which holds the
place of higher importance to the theme of the book.
THE SIX DAYS OF CREATION

The six days of creative work are topical in nature. This does not rule out a
literal interpretation, but the topical nature should also be realized.
DAY 1: Light. DAY 4: Light-givers (Sun,

moon & stars).
DAY 2: Water & sky DAY 5: Fish and birds.
divided.
DAY 3: Land & DAY 6: Land animals &
Vegetation man.
Light is made on Day 1 while, corresponding to that, light-givers are placed

into the heavens on Day 4. The water and sky are divided on Day 2 while the
water and sky are filled with fish and with birds on Day 5. Dry land appears
on Day 3 and that dry land is inhabited on Day 6.
The Jews delighted in this sort of parallelism; it was akin to poetry. This
does not take away from its inspiration or its value as an authoritative
historical account of creation as other forms of parallelism from historical
passages of the Bible are also to be found containing parallelism.
19
THE CREATION OF MAN

Then God said, “Let Us make man in Our image,
according to Our likeness; and let them rule over the fish of
the sea and over the birds of the sky and over the cattle and
over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creeps
on the earth.”
And God created man in His own image, in the image of
God He created him; male and female He created them.
(Genesis 1:26-27).
Throughout this chapter, God is referenced by the title Elohim. This was a
familiar designation to those who spoke Semitic languages. The Canaanite
pantheon viewed one of their gods as El. The plural of El is Elohim, but that
does not mean we are to take this as an example of polytheism, since it
appears throughout most of this chapter accompanied by singular modifiers.
Thus we could translate verse 26, “Then God, He said...”
The creative work of God reaches a crescendo when it reaches the creation
of man.
1. The plurality of the Planner.
Notice the use of the plural pronoun (“Let US make man in OUR
image”). This is a change from the way we have seen God referenced
throughout the first part of the chapter. The Jews held this to be a
conversation that the Lord was having with the angels. However, the
fulfillment of the plan in verse 27 does not say that God created man
in the image of God and the angels. Indeed, angels are nowhere
mentioned in the first half of the book of Genesis.
It has been suggested by some that this may be a foreshadowing of the

doctrine of the Trinity. On the other hand, it may also be a literary
device known as a “plural of majesty.” Even today in the English
language, it is customary for edicts coming from a royal personage to
speak in the plural even though it is a single person doing the
speaking.
2. In the image of God.
In what way was man created in the image and likeness of God? The
context suggests only one way — the area of rulership. As God was
20
sovereign over all that He had created, so now man was placed into
a position of relative sovereignty over all that was upon the earth.
THE GARDEN OF EDEN

And the Lord God planted a garden toward the east, in
Eden; and there He placed the man whom He had formed.
(Genesis 2:8).
Now a river flowed out of Eden to water the garden; and

from there it divided and became four rivers.
The name of the first is Pishon; it flows around the whole
land of Havilah, where there is gold.
And the gold of that land is good; the bdellium and the
onyx stone are there.
And the name of the second river is Gihon; it flows
around the whole land of Cush.
And the name of the third river is Tigris; it flows east of
Assyria. And the fourth river is the Euphrates. (Genesis 2:10-
14).
This passage has been a source of great The word edenu in Akkadian
confusion because it seems to join means “garden” or “paradise.”
geographical areas which are far
removed from one another.
Verse 10 says literally, “from there it divided and became four heads.”
1. Pishon — “Full flowing.”
The Pishon “flows around the whole land of Havilah.” Havilah is a

reference to lands in northern Arabia where the descendants of
Ishmael made their homes (Genesis 25:18).
In the 1990's, Boston University scientist Farouk El-Baz used photos

from satellites orbiting the earth and space Shuttle Imaging Radar to
locate an underground river which now runs under a portion of the
desert of Saudi Arabia (James A. Sauer, “The River Runs Dry,”
Biblical Archaeology Review, Vol. 22, No. 4, July/August 1996, pp.
52-54, 57, 64 and Molly Dewsnap, “The Kuwait River,” Biblical
Archaeology Review, Vol. 22, No. 4, July/August 1996, p. 55.).
21
In Kuwait, a dry riverbed (Wadi Al-Batin) cuts through limestone and

appears to disappear into the desert of Saudi Arabia. Actually, the
river ran underground along a fault line under the sand. From the
Hyaz Mountains in Saudi Arabia, this river carried granite and basalt
pebbles 650 miles northeast to deposit them at its delta in Kuwait
near the Persian Gulf.
Some have theorized that this lost river corresponds to biblical

descriptions of the Pishon River. This one discovery was enough to
make Sauer, the former curator of the Harvard Semitic Museum’s
archaeological collections, reverse his previous skepticism regarding
the historical accuracy of the Bible.
2. Gihon – The root word from which this name is taken means “to
bring forth, gush.”
The Gihon is said to flow around the whole land of Cush (Genesis
2:13). This presents a difficulty in that Cush was the land to the south
of Egypt. However, there was also an area to the east of the Tigris
River which was known as Cush. If this is the case, then this could
be a reference to the Karun River which flows into the Tigris and
Euphrates just before they enter the Persian Gulf.
3. Tigris (Hidiqel).
The Hebrew
name seems to
have been
taken from the
Akkadian
Idiklat. The
Persian word
tir also means
“arrow” and is
the designation
for the Tigris
River.
4. Euphrates.
The name of the Euphrates was used, borrowed, and adapted by many
different people groups to the point that we cannot be certain as to its
22
origins.
The last two rivers are known to us. The first two are not. However, they
come with geographical identifiers. This perhaps indicates that they were not
well known to the readers of this account as they are not well known to us.
The location of the last two river points to a location for the Garden of Eden
at the northwest end of the Persian Gulf. There is the possibility that the first
two rivers can also support such a location.
THE FALL INTO SIN

1. The Gilgamesh Epic and the Temptation Account.
The Gilgamesh Epic is a long story recounting the adventures of

Gilgamesh, the king of Erech in Mesopotamia. The first tablet tells
the story of how Gilgamesh, the god-man and king is a harsh ruler
over his people. They pray to Anu, the sky god who fashions a rival
for Gilgamesh in the person of Enkidu, the wild man of the forests
who is given superhuman strength. A trapper’s son finds Enkidu
running in the forests with the animals and, per the instructions of his
father, he goes to the city and engages the aid of Shamhat, a temple
prostitute, to come and entice Enkidu. He yields to her charms and
loses his strength, but he gains knowledge. Shamhat subsequently
takes Enkidu to the city to meet Gilgamesh.
There are certain parallels in this story with the opening chapters of
Genesis and the fall in the Garden of Eden.
Gilgamesh Epic Bible

Anu, the sky god, creates The Lord God creates Adam
Enkidu, the wild man of the and places him into a garden
forest
Enkidu is naked in the forest Adam and Eve are both naked
in the garden
Enkidu is tempted by Shamhat, Adam is given the forbidden
the temple prostitute fruit by the woman
23
Enkidu falls to Shamhat’s Adam eats the fruit given to

charms, loses his strength but him by Eve, his eyes are
gains knowledge opened with the knowledge
that they are naked and he is
removed from the garden
While there are parallels between the two accounts, there are also
some obvious differences. The Gilgamesh Epic is not giving us an
account of the creation of the human race, but only of a particular
individual. Neither does the temptation and fall affect other members
of mankind.
2. The Prophecy of the Seed.
The first prophecy of a coming Messiah was not made to either the
man or the woman, but to the serpent.
“And I will put enmity between you and the

woman, and between your seed and her seed; He shall
bruise you on the head, and you shall bruise Him on
the heel.” (Genesis 3:15).
This verse provides the theme of the rest of Genesis. This will be a
book about two seeds:
Even though Cain was descended from Eve, he eventually follows the
way of the Serpent in rebellion against God. While he is the physical
descendant of Adam and Eve, he shows by his actions that he is really
the spiritual descendant of the Serpent. Like the Serpent, he rebels
against God. And like the Serpent, he is cursed for his rebellion. The
story continues as we are given two separate genealogies representing
each of these two seeds.
Lamech is the culmination of the Seed of the Serpent through Cain.
24
He takes Cain’s sin and compounds it, threatening to do seven times

the damage that Cain had done. In contrast, Enoch walks with God
and Noah obeys the Lord in the building of an ark. But after Noah,
there is again a departure of a seed to follow after the Seed of the
Serpent.
Ham sins and shows by his sin that he is of the Seed of the Serpent.
His son Canaan is cursed and continues to be a curse to the Israelites.
The pattern continues as Ishmael is cast out while Isaac shows
himself to be the son of faith. And again when Esau despises the
promises of God, it is to Jacob that the promise is given.
Moses writes the book of Genesis to the Israelites in the wilderness.

It is much more than a mere history book. It is a call to be a seed and
a generation and a people. The question before the Israelites in the
wilderness is which seed they will be a part of - the seed of the
serpent or the seed of the woman?
Genesis will be a book about a line of children. Thus, a key word in
25
Genesis will be “generations.”
• The Hebrew word for “generations” is toledoth.

• It is taken from the root word yalad, “to give birth.”
Each new generation will determine which seed it is. Will it continue
in the covenant relation to God and show itself to be a part of the
promised seed? Or will it turn from God to join and be a part of the
seed of the serpent?
26
THE FLOOD
In the six hundredth year of Noah’s life, in the second
month, on the seventeenth day of the month, on the same day
all the fountains of the great deep burst open, and the
floodgates of the sky were opened. (Genesis 7:11).
Genesis presents itself as a historical book. Absent is the “once upon a time”
formula of fairytales. Instead we are given the language of precise historical
records.
GENEALOGIES AND KING LISTS

Even a cursory look at the genealogies of Genesis 5 and 11 indicate a great
difference in the average life span of mankind before the Flood to what it is
today.
YEAR AGE AT AGE AT YEAR MEANING

OF BIRTH DEATH OF OF
PATRIARCH BIRTH OF SON DEATH NAME
Adam 1 130 930 930 Man

Seth 130 105 912 1042 Appointed
Enosh 235 90 905 1140 Sickly
Kenan 325 70 910 1235 Smith
Mahalaleel 395 65 895 1290 Praise of
God
Jared 460 162 962 1422 Descent
Enoch 622 65 365 (987) Dedication
Methuselah 687 187 969 1656 Man of the
Javelin
Lamech 874 182 777 1651 Conqueror
Noah 1056 500 950 2006 Rest
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The Flood
Noah is said to have lived to be a total of 950 years old. A notable and
dramatic change takes place after Noah. Was this one of the judgments of
God upon the post-diluvian world? Was it the result of different ecological
conditions? We do not know. The Bible does not tell us.
It is perhaps significant that the oldest names from the Sumerian King lists
also reflect very lengthy ages among those kings (some of the kings were said
to have lived for over 20,000 years).
The meaning of the name “Methuselah” has been the subject of some
disagreement among scholars.
• Methi is the word “when.”
• Selah can have one of two meanings:
(1) A weapon (Javelin).

(2) To send.
Thus, the name can either mean, “When the weapon is used” or else it can
mean, “When he sends.” Still another possibility is that there is a double
meaning to the name.
Notice that, if we read this as a strict chronology, the Flood came the same
year that Methuselah died. Perhaps his name was a prophecy, that his death
would send the avenging weapon of the Lord upon the earth.
EARLIEST CIVILIZATION
Genesis 4 gives us a brief glimpse into the society and culture of mankind
before the Flood.
1. Cities (Genesis 4:17).
And Cain had relations with his wife and she

conceived, and gave birth to Enoch; and he built a
city, and called the name of the city Enoch, after the
name of his son. (Genesis 4:17).
After the murder of his brother, Cain was banished from society; so
he went out and formed a new society with a city of his own. This
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The Flood
city and other cities of the antediluvian world are unknown to

archaeology.
One of the earliest cities found by archaeologists to date is Jericho.

Its ruins have been estimated at 7000 B.C. in the pre-pottery era. This
early city consisted of a single wall, a tower and several round huts.
There does not seem to have been a written language at that early
date. Later settlers at this site were not more advanced. Indeed, they
were less advanced, except that they used pottery.
2. Polygamy (Genesis 4:19).
And Lamech took to himself two wives: the

name of the one was Adah, and the name of the other,
Zillah. (Genesis 4:19).
Although polygamy had not been expressly forbidden, it was

evidently contrary to the divine design. God did not create Adam,
Eve, and Hilda. The creation pattern was one man and one woman.
The Mosaic Law would prohibit kings of Israel from multiplying
wives (Deuteronomy 17:17).
3. Nomadic herdsmen (Genesis 4:20).
And Adah gave birth to Jabal; he was the

father of those who dwell in tents and have livestock.
(Genesis 4:20).
Tent-dwellers represented an advancement to stationary living. They

were the equivalent of the travel-trailer. They were able to pull up
stakes and travel to greener pastures.
4. Musical instruments (Genesis 4:21).
And his brother’s name was Jubal; he was the

father of all those who play the lyre and pipe.
(Genesis 4:21).
Does this mean that the lyre and the pipe were invented by Jubal?
Not necessarily. But it does mean that Jubal was the world’s first
musician and all who came after him were in that sense following in
his footsteps.
29
The Flood
5. Bronze and iron (Genesis 4:22).
As for Zillah, she also gave birth to Tubal-

cain, the forger of all implements of bronze and iron.
(Genesis 4:22a).
Bronze is an alloy of copper mixed with about 10% tin which

increases its strength (the greater the ratio of tin, the lower the
melting point). Examples of copper implements date back as early as
6000 B.C. while bronze artifacts have been dated at 3700 B.C.
Iron, on the other hand, is a more recent discovery. Iron beads have
been found in Egyptian jewelry as early as 3400 B.C. and iron is
thought by many to have been used even earlier. But it was not until
1400 that the Hittites developed a closely guarded monopoly of
smelting the iron ore which they mined from the mountains of eastern
Anatolia. The Iron Age would not begin until 1200 B.C.
THE ARK
“Make for yourself an ark of gopher wood; you shall
make the ark with rooms, and shall cover it inside and out
with pitch.
“And this is how you shall make it: the length of the
ark three hundred cubits, its breadth 50 cubits, and its height
thirty cubits.
“You shall make a window for the ark, and finish it to
a cubit from the top; and set the door of the ark in the side of
it; you shall make it with lower, second, and third decks.”
(Genesis 6:14-16).
There have been a number of reports in the last hundred years of people
claiming to have seen the Ark on Mount Ararat. Unfortunately, not a single
one has been substantiated with clear photographs and some of these claims
are contradictory as to the Ark’s location.
1. The Word “Ark.” This is different from ‘aron, which

is used to describe the ark of the
The Hebrew word is Tebah. covenant.
This same word is used in
Exodus 2:3-5 to refer to the
30
The Flood
ark that the mother of Moses used to hide her child. Tebah is thought
to be an Egyptian loan-word to describe a box.
2. The Size of the Ark.
The dimensions of the ark are given in cubits. A cubit was the
distance from a man's elbow to the tip of his fingers - generally about
18 inches. There was also a royal cubit which was a few inches
longer (kings suffered from the same malady known to Texans - they
liked to be thought of as bigger than everyone else).
Assuming the standard cubit, we are left with the following

dimensions:
Cubits Feet
Length 300 450

Width 50 75
Height 30 45
It has often been noted that these are the dimensions of an ocean-
going barge.
3. The Building Materials.
The ark was to be made of “gopher” wood. The translators were not
sure how to render the Hebrew text, so they simply gave us a
transliteration. It is the Hebrew word gopher and has nothing to do
with furry little creatures. To make matters worse, this word is a
hapax legomena, meaning that it is not used elsewhere in the Bible.
This makes it difficult to determine what type of wood it is.
It has been suggested that the Hebrew gopher is a textual error which
should read kopher (meaning, “to cover”), but there is no textual
evidence for this. It is more likely that this is either an Akkadian or
a Sumerian loan word, a term that was borrowed from a different
language group.
Noah was also told to “cover it inside and outside with pitch” (6:14).
This literally reads “cover it within and without in covering.” As
31
The Flood
noted above, the word for “cover” is kaphar. It is the same word
which describes the act of atonement. Indeed, we still use the same
word today when we speak of the Jewish Festival of Yom Kippur.
THE NATURE OF THE FLOOD

In the six hundredth year of Noah's life, in the second
month, on the seventeenth day of the month, on the same day
all the fountains of the great deep burst open, and the
floodgates of the sky were opened. (Genesis 7:11).
It is evident from the chronological formula given that we are meant to

understand this as an actual historical event. But what is the nature of this
event?
The phrase that NAS has translated “floodgates of the sky”(Aruboth

haShama'im) is more properly “windows of heaven.” This exact same term
is found in Malachi 3:10 where the Lord is pictured as opening the windows
of heaven to pour out blessings on His people (this kind of usage is also seen
in 2 Kings 7:2,19). The idea of the windows from above being opened in
order to bring destruction is pictured in Isaiah 24:18.
Then it will be that he who flees the report of disaster

will fall into the pit, and he who climbs out of the pit will be
caught in the snare; for the windows above are opened, and
the foundations of the earth shake. (Isaiah 24:18).
In the same way, “all the fountains of the great deep” has its parallels such as
Deuteronomy 4:18 where we read of fish that are “in the water below the
earth.” Thus, the picture is that of the sky and the ocean loosening their
bonds so that their waters fall upon the land.
Was this a world-wide flood or was it merely limited to the geographical area
of Mesopotamia?
1. Arguments for a Universal Flood.
a. The depth of the flood.
Genesis 7:19-20 says that all the high mountains which were
under all the heavens were covered by the waters of the flood.
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The Flood
The peak of Mount Ararat extends to an elevation of around

17,000 feet. If only this one single peak was covered, then
most of the world would also be covered.
b. The duration of the flood.
The flood is said to have lasted 371 days, a little over a year.
Local floods do not last this long.
c. The need for the ark.
If the flood was to be merely confined to a certain isolated

area, it would not have necessitated Noah spending all that
time and effort in building the ark. He could have moved to
high ground.
d. The testimony of the Apostle Peter.
...the world at that time was destroyed,

being flooded with water.
But the present heavens and earth by
His word are being reserved for fire, kept for
the day of judgment and destruction of
ungodly men. (2 Peter 3:6-7).
Peter’s words imply a total destruction of the entire world

both in Noah’s day and in the future parallel.
2. Arguments for a Local Flood.
a. HaAretz is “the land.”
The Hebrew word which is translated “the world” throughout

the flood narrative can be translated “the land.”
“The LAND of Nod” (Genesis 4:16).

“In the LAND of Shinar” (Genesis 10:10).
“Out of that LAND went forth Asshur” (Genesis
10:11).
“Go forth from your COUNTRY, and from your
relatives and from your father’s house, to the LAND
which I will show you...” (Genesis 12:1).
33
The Flood
“And in you all the families of the EARTH shall be

blessed” (Genesis 12:3).
Each of these instances uses the same basic word. It can refer
to the entire world, or it can merely refer to a certain area of
land.
By the same token, when the Bible says that the world was
covered by water, we need not take this to refer to the entire
planet earth. It could merely be a reference to that land area.
b. Universalist terms And all flesh that moved on

can be used in a the earth perished, birds and cattle
limited sense. and beasts and every swarming
thing that swarms upon the earth;
The Scriptures and all mankind; 22 of all that was
sometimes use on the dry land, all in whose nostrils
terms like “all” was the breath of the spirit of life,
and “every” in a died. (Genesis 7:21-22).
way which is
understood to be a
limited sense. We need not go very far to prove this point.
Note the following verses:
The man called his wife’s name Eve, because

she was the mother of ALL the living (Genesis
3:20).
Was Eve the mother of all life? Or merely the mother of all
human life? If we are to understand her to be the mother only
of human life, then we must agree that this universal term is
used in a limited sense.
"Of EVERY living thing of ALL flesh, you shall bring

two of every kind into the ark..." (Genesis 6:19).
Most people who advocate a universal flood do not take this

command to refer to ocean animals (no goldfish bowls on the
ark). Thus even the universalist understands that there are
times when universal language is used in a limited sense.
Therefore when we read of every living thing being destroyed
in the flood, we can understand it to refer to the living land
34
The Flood
animals in that particular area, not necessarily to a flood

which covered the entire planet.
c. Where did the water go?
Mount Everest rises more than five miles above sea level.
There are many other mountains in the world which are over
the three mile height.
For flood waters to completely cover the earth would mandate

that either the mountains were not there (thus they would have
to be very recent in origin) or else that water came from some
supernatural source and then went away again. Another
possibility would be that the ocean beds somehow sank to
collect the excess water.
It is interesting to note that sediment deposits have been found

underneath the Sumerian ruins at Ur, at Fara and at Kish, lending
some credence to the theory of a local flood.
A more recent theory has been suggested linking the rising of the
Black Sea with the flood stories of antiquity. McIntosh makes this
connection:
One recent theory moves the Flood away from

Mesopotamia to the Black Sea. Here underwater
reconnaissance has revealed that the Mediterranean
and the Black Sea were once separated by a narrow
land bridge between Asia and Europe. Rising sea
levels in the Mediterranean cause this to be breached
around 5500 B.C., pouring water into the much lower
basin of the Black Sea and drowning a huge area of
land around the Black Sea shores, with catastrophic
effects (2005:307).
3. Summary.
UNIVERSAL FLOOD LOCAL FLOOD
The Biblical account says that The word aretz is often used
the waters covered the whole to describe a local area.
earth.
35
The Flood
The Biblical language goes The account is given from the

out of its way to use language viewpoint of the narrator is
of totality. from his perspective the
destruction is total.
The size of the ark indicates The size of the ark is not
that this was no local flood. related to the extent of the
A vessel of this size would flood. The building of the ark
not have been needed to was a matter of faith, not of
escape a local flood. pragmatism.
The purpose of the ark was God could have made certain
punishment of world-wide all flesh was destroyed
sin. In a local flood some without flooding the entire
could have escaped. globe.
There are world-wide traces The evidence is scattered and
of a flood to be found in sometimes seemingly
ocean fossils on inconsistent.
mountaintops.
The promise of no future The promise is for no flood to
floods (Gen. 9:15) is not true “destroy all flesh.”
if this is only a local flood.
PAGAN FLOOD MYTHOLOGY

A number of “Flood Traditions” have come down to us from a number of
ancient cultures. The most popular of these is the one found in the
Gilgamesh Epic.
The Epic of Gilgamesh is a long Akkadian poem on the theme of human

beings’ futile quest for immortality. A number of earlier Sumerian stories
about Gilgamesh, the quasi-historical hero of the epic, were used as sources,
but the Akkadian work was composed about 2000 BC. It exists in several
different rescissions, none of them complete.
In the story, Gilgamesh and his friend Enkidu seek immortality through fame,
but when Enkidu dies, Gilgamesh finds that fame to be hollow.
Utnapishtim means “the joining
Unable to accept the finality of death, he goes of nephesh,” the soul.
to Utnapishtim, the Babylonian counterpart of
36
The Flood
the biblical Noah, to learn the secret of his immortality.
This interview takes place on the 5th of seven tablets. Utnapishtim tells the
story of how he was spared the destruction of the great flood through the
building of a giant square barge.
• The boat consisted of seven decks and was overlaid with pitch.
• It took only seven days to build it.
• Utnapishtim saved his family and relatives along with animals and
craftsmen.
• The flood began when “the gods of the abyss rose up; Nergal pulled
out the dams of the nether waters, Ninutra the war-lord threw down
the dykes, and the seven judges of hell, the Annunaki, raised their
torches, lighting the land with their livid flame.”
• The storm lasted for 6 days and nights after which “the surface of the
sea stretched as flat as a roof-top.”
• The boat landed atop the mountain of Nisir. After seven days on the
mountain, Utnapishtim released a dove, then a swallow, and finally
a raven before leaving the boat and making a sacrifice to the gods.
Utnapishtim goes on to explain that he received eternal life due to the unique
circumstances of the flood, but he consoles the dejected Gilgamesh with news
about a plant of life. A snake swallows the plant before Gilgamesh can use
it, however, and he finally returns home, reluctantly accepting death without
future resurrection as inevitable.
What are we to make of the fact that a document predating the book of
Genesis by hundreds of years also contains a story of the flood with many of
the same aspects of the Biblical account? Some have argued that this is proof
that the Biblical narratives were adopted from pagan myths and have no
bearing on the truth. I believe that it demonstrates just the opposite. It is an
independent testimony to the truth of the actual events.
37
EARLY MESOPOTAMIA
“Where is the man who can clamber to heaven?
Only the gods live forever with glorious Shamash, but as
for men, our days are numbered, our occupations are a
breath of wind.” (Gilgamesh Epic, Tablet 2).
“Thus it was that the gods took me and placed me

here to live in the distance, at the mouth of the rivers.”
(Gilgamesh Epic, Tablet 5).
The greatest mountain region in the world stretched in a long line from the
Pyrenees on the edge of the Atlantic through the Alps, the Balkans, the
Anatolian Highlands, the Zagros and the Himalayas. To the south of this
great mountain chain runs a series of dry lands and deserts.
This desert system is interrupted by a narrow crescent-shaped oasis created

by three major
rivers and several
minor ones. The
three major rivers
are the Nile, the
Tigris and the
Euphrates. It is
these last two
rivers which will
concern us in this
chapter, for they
run parallel to
each other,
emptying out into
the warm waters
of the Persian
Gulf.
The land between

these two rivers
was known to the Jews as Aram Naharaim, meaning “Aram of the two
rivers.” The Greeks knew it as Mesopotamia, the “land between the rivers.”
38
Early Mesopotamia
THE GEOGRAPHY OF MESOPOTAMIA

1. The River Valley Concept.
It is a fact of history that people tend to settle along rivers and

waterways. The relatively fertile land which was produced by the
Tigris and Euphrates Rivers attracted settlers to this area. They
learned to irrigate the lands around these two rivers and a whole
system of canals and waterways began to be constructed. Thousands
of years later, the Psalmist would sing of the “Rivers of Babylon.”
The Euphrates and Tigris, along with their tributaries, carry a great
deal of sediment down along their courses. This sediment is
deposited in the southern areas of the valley, bringing a higher
fertility to the soil.
2. The Isolation Concept.
The Mesopotamian Valley is hemmed in on the east by the Zagros

Mountains of Iran and on the west by the vast Arabian Desert. To the
north, the valley opens up into the wide Syrian plains. It is from this
quarter that most of the outside invaders have come.
This easy access into the Mesopotamian Valley had a very striking
effect upon the attitudes, the culture, and the outlook of the
inhabitants. They learned early on that their very existence was a
struggle.
3. The Climate Concept.
The climate of Mesopotamia is haphazard. Summer temperatures

range from 110 to 130 degrees Fahrenheit. Eight months out of the
year are dry and the Tigris and Euphrates turn to muddy eddies of
sluggish brown. The winter is the rainy season. In the spring,
melting snows from the Taurus and Zagros Mountains add their
waters so that the Tigris and Euphrates flood, often in a destructive
manner.
In Northern Mesopotamia, the channels of the rivers have cut deep

into the limestone riverbeds and the course of the rivers has remained
unchanged throughout antiquity. On the other hand, the riverbeds of
Southern Mesopotamia have laid down thousands of years of
39
Early Mesopotamia
sediment. These soft riverbanks are often overrun in times of

flooding, changing the entire course of the rivers.
The irregular flooding of the Mesopotamian Rivers can be seen in

contrast to the Nile River which had a system of regular flooding.
The people looked at the Nile as a benevolent river. As a result of
this outlook, the gods of the Egyptians were seen as benevolent. On
the other hand, the gods of Mesopotamia were untrustworthy and to
be feared.
CONTRAST BETWEEN EGYPT VERSUS THE

LAND OF MESOPOTAMIA
Mesopotamia Egypt
Legalistic in their religious More of an ethical outlook on life
outlook, looking more to the letter with a focus on the spirit of the
of the law. law.
Art and literature reflects a Demonstrates a cheerful
gloomy, pessimistic outlook on resignation to the problems of life.
life.
Euphrates and Tigris flooded The Nile flooded on a regular
unexpectedly and often killed cycle and the Egyptians came to
those who were caught. These expect and depend upon its
rivers came to be feared. flooding. They eventually began
to worship the Nile.
Surrounded by hostile forces on all Egypt has natural boundaries in
sides. People lived in constant the sea and the desert which
fear of invasion. usually kept out invaders.
Lived from day to day always in Looked forward to immortality
fear of invasion and death. and a life after death.
Selfish and practical. Giving and idealistic.
Both of these cultures progressed in ethical theory and social justice (systems
of morality) to the extent that they codified laws. At the same time, both
became involved in the evils of polytheism, slavery, imperialism, oppressive
kings and greedy priests.
40
Early Mesopotamia
EARLY MESOPOTAMIAN HISTORY

1. The Pre-literary Period.
The earliest sources of information of human habitation come to us

from the study of tools and pottery. It can be difficult to establish
dates exclusively by these means since later cultures might exhibit
primitive styles due to lack of proper materials in times of war,
flooding, or other catastrophes.
2. Proto-Literary Period.
Our earliest samples of writing begin around 3500 B.C. This writing
is found in the form of round cylinders which were impressed with a
message and then baked. There are two main uses:
a. Religious and cultic uses.
b. Cooking recipes.
This tells us something about the people of the ancient world. They
are essentially like us. Even though the product of differing cultures
and times, they have the same basic needs and desires. And that is
why the gospel of Jesus Christ is relevant to people in all cultures.
The earliest writing was in the form of pictographs where a single

picture would represent a single object. These developed into
ideographs and from there to a system of wedge-shaped characters
made on soft tablets of clay with a triangular stick or cunios. This
writing became known as cuneiform.
3. Early People Groups.
There were four major people groups which settled in and around the
Mesopotamian Valley.
a. Sumerians. Black-headed people
They were a Hamitic race who tended to be dark-skinned, but

not Negroid. They settled in the southern end of the valley.
It was the Sumerians who demonstrated the first cultural
achievements.
41
Early Mesopotamia
b. Akkadians.
This was a Semitic group who were concentrated in the north

end of the valley. Common language
c. The Medes.
An Indo-European tribe which settled in the Zagros

Mountains to the northeast of Mesopotamia.
d. The Elamites.
The Elamites called themselves

The word Elam
Haltamti. They were a Semitic group means “highlands.”
which settled south of the Medes and
to the southwest of the Mesopotamian
Valley, though the language they spoke was not Semitic.
They were strongly influenced by Sumerian culture and were
originally under Sumerian dominance. But they later became
independent and formed their own kingdom, establishing their
capital at Susa.
When the tigres and eufrates come toghether is Babylon
These people groups were not unified at this early date. They
consisted of a number of independent city-states. Each city-state held
domain over its small area.
4. The Early Dynastic Period. Cuneiform develops into syllabic writing

Age of Giglamesh and Kings
From 3000 B.C. to about 2300 B.C. various city-states gained
42
Early Mesopotamia
supremacy over their neighbors, establishing short periods of

suzerainty.
• Kish - located in central Mesopotamia near Babylon.

• Erech - Neighbor to Ur.
• Ur - City from which Abraham came.
• Lagesh - 35 miles northeast of Erech.
It was during this period that Gilgamesh became king of Erech (2650
B.C.). Myths and legends grew of his exploits. The “Gilgamesh
Epic” recounts his quest for immortality and his conflicts with
monsters and enemies along the way.
This was the “golden age” of Sumerian civilization. Its works of art
were unparalleled in later ages. Woolley has this to say about this
period:
“So far as we know, the fourth millennium

before Christ saw Sumerian art at its zenith. By the
First Dynasty of Ur, if there is any change, it is in the
nature of a decadence, and from later ages we have
nothing to parallel the treasures of the prehistoric
tombs.” (1965:44).
As there were advances in the arts, so there were also advances in the
modes of war. Infantry tactics developed which involved phalanxes
of soldiers carrying short spears and supported by lightly armed
skirmishers.
5. Sargon the Great (Died 2330 B.C.).
A text written in the 7th century B.C. describes Sargon’s birth and
early life in terms very similar to that of Moses:
Sargon, the mighty king, king of Agade, am I.

My mother was a changeling, my father knew me not.
The brothers of my father loved the hills.
My city is Azupiranu, which is situated on the banks of the
Euphrates.
My changeling mother conceived me, in secret she bore me.
She set me in a blanket of rushes, with bitumen she sealed my
lid.
She cast me into the river which rose up over me.
43
Early Mesopotamia
The river bore me up and carried me to Akki, the drawer of

water.
Akki, the drawer of water lifted me out as he dipped his
water.
Akki, the drawer of water, took me as his son and reared me.
According to the legend, his mother placed him in a pitch-covered

basket in the Euphrates River. By chance a farmer drawing water to
irrigate his field found the basket and raised the child as his own.
Sargon went on to become the cup bearer

to the king of Kish and eventually
overthrew the king and placed himself on
the throne, taking for himself the name
“Sargon.”
• Sar is Akkadian for “prince.”

You will remember that
Abraham’s wife was named
“Sarah” and that this means
“princess.”
• Gon is the Akkadian word for

“bastard.”
As in the Greek, so also in
Akkadian, the “a” prefix negates
Sargon the Great of Akkad
the implication of the word.
Sargon means “legitimate prince.” Why did he call himself this?

Perhaps it is because he wasn’t. He was evidently a usurper who had
taken the throne by force.
Over the next few years, Sargon conquered all of the cities of
Mesopotamia marching southward to “wash his weapons in the
Lower Sea” and then turning westward to the Mediterranean and
capturing the silver mines of Tarsus and sending ships to Cyprus and
Crete.
His empire continued to be ruled by his son and his grandson, but
eventually fell prey to a group of invaders known as the Gutti who
held sway over Mesopotamia from 2220 to 2120 B.C. This marked
the Dark Ages of Mesopotamia and came to an end with the rise of
the city of Ur.
44
Early Mesopotamia
6. The Third Dynasty of Ur.
This was to be the last Sumerian dynasty to rule in Mesopotamia. It

would rule from 2100 to 2000 B.C. Under these kings, Sumer was
restored to much of her former glory. All branches of the arts saw a
period of renaissance as economic prosperity became the order of the
day.
a. The Ziggurat.
The Ziggurat of Ur was a

giant, semi-pyramidal
structure of brick
covering an area of 200
by 140 feet. It was
composed of three
terraced stages and crowned by a small shrine towering 90
feet above the city.
Although it looked something like the pyramids of Egypt, the

purpose of the ziggurat was widely different. The pyramid
was a dark, musty tomb for a dead pharaoh. The ziggurat was
a sunbathed ladder to the gods, connecting heaven and earth.
This seems to have been what was in view in the Biblical

account of the building of the Tower of Babel. Ziggurats
were not unique to Ur. They were found throughout
Mesopotamia. The original seems to have been the one
described in the pages of the Bible.
Now the whole earth used the same

language and the same words.
And it came about as they journeyed
east, that they found a plain in the land of
Shinar and settled there.
And they said to one another, “Come,
let us make bricks and burn them
thoroughly.” And they used brick for stone,
and they used tar for mortar.
And they said, “Come, let us build for
ourselves a city, and a tower whose top will
reach into heaven, and let us make for
ourselves a name; lest we be scattered abroad
45
Early Mesopotamia
over the face of the whole earth.” (Genesis

11:1-4).
The phrase whose top will reach into heaven can be

translated, “its top unto the heavens” and have the sense, not
of a means to get into the sky, but a temple which would align
itself to the worship of celestial bodies. More than a mere
astronomical observatory, it was a statement about man
dealing with the heavens on his own terms.
The ziggurat was a man-made mountain in a land where the

mountain was to their religion what the cross was to
Christianity and what the west was to Egypt. It was a holy
place; a place of worship.
b. The Law-code of Ur.
Ur developed a law code with four essential ingredients which

would later carry over into the famous Code of Hammurabi.
(1) Lex Talionis: This was the law of retaliation in kind.

It was the idea expressed in the phrase, “An eye for an
eye and a tooth for a tooth.”
(2) Semi-private administration of justice: It was the job

of the victim and his family and friends to bring the
offender to justice. The court served only as a referee
in the disputes. There was no police system to
maintain public safety or security.
(3) Inequality before the law: The law code divided

people into three distinct classes.
• Aristocrats
• Commoners
• Slaves
Penalties were graded according to the rank of both

the victim and the offender. The killing of an
aristocrat was considered a much more serious offense
than the killing of a slave. Moreover, an aristocrat
was punished more severely than a man of inferior
caste would be for the same crime.
46
Early Mesopotamia
(4) Distinction between accidental and intentional

homicide: In the case of an accidental death, the
offender had to pay a penalty to the family of the
victim.
c. The Fall of Ur.
Near the close of the 21st century, a people known as the

Amurru (Biblical Amorites) began to move into Mesopotamia
from the northwest, conquering the cities of Babylon, Isin and
Larsa. The armies of Sumer managed to hold them off for a
time, but then the Elamite provinces in the east declared their
independence.
Many of the
provincial
governors took
this opportunity
to revolt. Thus
weakened, Ur
fe l l t o t he
assault of Elam
and her king
carried off into Routes of invasion for the Amorites and Elamites
captivity.
With the destruction of Ur, the dominance of the Sumerian

people came to a close. But their culture lived on as it was
adopted by the Assyrians in the north and the Amorites in the
south. These and succeeding kingdoms adopted the Sumerian
pantheon as well as their cuneiform methods of writing,
adapting it to their own languages.
7. Sir Leonard Woolley (1880-1960).
Nearly everything that we know of Ur was discovered by Sir Leonard

Woolley during his twelve year excavation of the site. He began
excavating in 1922.
A few nights after Woolley set up camp, a group of six armed Arabs
robbed the camp, killing one of Woolley’s guards in the process.
When the murder threatened to start a blood feud, the thieves turned
against themselves. Woolley’s possessions were returned, and the
thieves were put in jail for two years, after which Woolley hired them
47
Early Mesopotamia
as workers. Woolley’s finds included:
• The ziggurat of Ur, the largest of all of the ziggurats of

Mesopotamia.
• The Royal Cemetery. This was filled with gold artifacts and
valuable jewelry, including rare blue gems. This was dated at
3400 B.C.
• Flood strata: Below the Royal Cemetery, Woolley

discovered vast quantities of silt – evidence, he believed, of
a great flood. He felt this was the flood from the days of
Noah, albeit a local flood.
“The total destruction of the human

race is of course not involved, nor is even the
total destruction of the inhabitants of the delta
- thus some at least of the antediluvian cities
survive into historic times - but enough
damage could be done to make a landmark in
history and to define an epoch.” (1965:32).
• Sumerian king lists containing a total of 29 dynasties. The

first 10 of these dynasties were reputedly prior to the flood
and over a period of up to 456,000 years. Because some of
these dynasties were prior to the flood, Woolley reasoned that
the Sumerian civilization predated that disaster.
48
THE PATRIARCHS
“The God of glory appeared to our father Abraham
when he was in Mesopotamia, before he lived in Haran.” (St.
Stephen; Acts 7:2).
The first 11 chapters of Genesis are global in nature. Though we read of

individuals like Adam and Eve, Cain and Abel, and Noah, their actions and
their narratives had global consequences which affected all of mankind.
When we come to Genesis 12, there is a change. Though the person of
Abraham will ultimately affect all of mankind, it is not immediately apparent
as he is viewed within his circumstances. Because of this, the remaining
chapters of Genesis are more personal in nature. Our perspective is not upon
the ancient world, but upon one small family. At the same time, it is only as
we widen our perspective to see the world in which they lived that we will
come to have a greater appreciation of how God has moved in history to use
this one family as a fulcrum on which to move the world.
DATING THE PATRIARCHS

It is possible to determine the approximate date of Abraham’s birth by
examining certain chronological statements presented in the Scriptures.
1. From Solomon to the Exodus.
Now it came about in the four hundred and

eightieth year after the sons of Israel came out of the
land of Egypt, in the fourth year of Solomon’s reign
over Israel, in the month of Ziv which is the second
month, that he began to build the house of the Lord.
(1 Kings 6:1).
We are told here that from the exodus to the beginning of the
construction of Solomon’s Temple was a period of 480 years.
49
The Patriarchs
With the help of archaeology and corresponding astronomical

records, scholars have placed the building of Solomon’s Temple at
about 966 B.C. This would give us a date of 1446 B.C. for the
Exodus.
However, there are some Judges 11:26 mentions 300 years from the
textual problems of which time that Israel had entered the land to the
we should be aware. The days of Jephthah.
Acts 13:20 speaks of 450 years from the
Septuagint translation of entrance into Egypt to the final conquest of
this passage lists the Canaan.
length of time as 440
years between the exodus
and the building of the Temple (LXX - 3 Kings 5:17; in our English
Bible this is 1 Kings 6:1). This would place the Exodus at 1406 B.C.
2. The Length of the Sojourn in Egypt.
The prophecy given to Abraham in Genesis 15:13 states that the

Israelites would be enslaved and oppressed in Egypt for 400 years.
This is repeated in Acts 7:6.
Exodus 12:40 specifically says that the time that the sons of Israel
lived in Egypt was four hundred and thirty years. Galatians 3:17
repeats this period as Paul speaks of the time between the ratification
of God’s covenant and the giving of the Law.
• The additional 30 years could be the time that the Israelites

were in Egypt before the beginning of any oppression.
• It could be that we are meant to understand the first number

as being rounded off. For example, I am not considered
incorrect if I say that it has been 500 years since Columbus
discovered America, even though the number is slightly
higher.
Masorite Text
Once again, there is a divergent reading in the Greek Septuagint. The
50
The Patriarchs
Greek translation reads, “And the sojourning of the children of Israel

while they sojourned in the land of Egypt AND THE LAND OF
CANAAN was four hundred and thirty years” (Exodus 12:40, LXX).
Septuagint Text
The Septuagint reading makes for a much shorter period in Egypt

while compressing both the period of the Patriarchs in Canaan as well
as the sojourn in Egypt into a period of 40 years.
Josephus follows the Septuagint reading in his chronology of Jewish

history.
They left Egypt in the month Xanthicus, on the

fifteenth day of the lunar month; four hundred and
thirty years after our forefather Abraham came into
Canaan, but two hundred and fifteen years only after
Jacob removed into Egypt. (Antiquities 2:15:2).
Both the prophecy of The Masoretic Text is that group of Old

Abraham (Genesis Testament texts which were passed down
15:13) as well as the through the ministry of the Masorets, a
words of Stephen (Acts group of Jewish scribes. This has been
the traditionally accepted text of the
7 : 6 ) support t he Scriptures. The Dead Sea Scrolls
Masorite reading. In suggest that there may have been an
addition to these, there early alternate reading to some of these
is also the statement of passages.
Paul in Galatians 3:17.
Now the promises were spoken to Abraham

and to his seed. He does not say, “And to seeds,” as
referring to many, but rather to one, “And to your
seed,” that is, Christ.
What I am saying is this: the Law, which
came four hundred and thirty years later, does not
invalidate a covenant previously ratified by God, so
as to nullify the promise. (Galatians 3:16-17).
51
The Patriarchs
At first glance, Paul seems to be saying that the period between the
giving of the promise to Abraham and the exodus from Egypt was
430 years.
However, we need not read this into his testimony. He is speaking of

the ratification of the covenant. When was the covenant ratified?
Was it when Abraham first entered the land in Genesis 12?

Was it when the promises were given and the animals cut in two
in Genesis 15?
Was it when the seal of circumcision was given in Genesis 17?
Was it when the Lord appeared to Isaac and confirmed him as the
heir of the promise in Genesis 26?
Was it when Jacob saw the vision of the ladder reaching up to
heaven and was given the promise for him and his descendants in
Genesis 28?
Was it when Jacob passed on the promises of God to his
descendants in Genesis 49?
There is a sense in which each of these instances was a ratification of

the covenant. And there is also a final instance recorded in Genesis
when Joseph passed on the promises of God to the next generation
(Genesis 50).
The Talmud lists a total of seventeen cycles of the Year of Jubilee

from the entrance of the Israelites into the land under Joshua until in
Jubilee that took place 14 years after the destruction of Jerusalem that
took place at the hands of Nebuchadnezzar (Arakin 12b). That helps
to place the date of the Exodus to around 1446-1445 B.C.
3. The Days of the Patriarch.
The following passages assist us in developing a chronology of the

period from Egypt to the Patriarchs.
• Presuming a 1446 date for the exodus and adding 430 years,
this would place the entrance into Egypt at 1876 B.C.
• Jacob was 130 years old when his family entered Egypt
(Genesis 47:9). This would make the date of his birth 2006
B.C.
52
The Patriarchs
• Isaac was 60 years old when Jacob and Esau were born
(Genesis 25:26). This would make the date of Isaac’s birth
2066 B.C.
• Abraham was 100 years old at the birth of Isaac (Genesis

21:5). This would put Abraham’s birth at around 2166 B.C.
2166 B.C. - Birth of Abraham

2091 B.C. - Abraham leaves Haran to enter Canaan
2066 B.C. - Birth of Isaac.
2006 B.C. - Birth of Jacob and Esau
1876 B.C. - Israel enters Egypt
1446 B.C. - The Exodus from Egypt
We are not told how old Abraham was when he and his family left Ur
of the Chaldees, but in Genesis 12:4 we find that he was 75 years old
when he departed from Haran to enter Canaan. This would have
taken place in 2091 B.C. - in the days of the Third Dynasty of Ur.
UR OF THE CHALDEES
Now these are the records of the generations of Terah.
Terah became the father of Abraham, Nahor and Haran; and
Haran became the father of Lot.
And Haran died in the presence of his father Terah in the
land of his birth, in Ur of the Chaldeans. (Genesis 11:27-28).
Sir Leonard Woolley spent from 1922 to 1934 excavating the city of Ur. He
found an ancient metropolis numbering 34,000 people in the inner district
and as many as a quarter of a million in the outlying districts.
1. The Political Situation in the Days of Abraham.
The Guti were ruling over Mesopotamia when Abram was born in
2166 B.C. This was the darkest era of history for Sumer. It was
during his lifetime that the Sumerians and the Akkadians sought to
throw off the yoke of their Gutian oppressors. It is even possible that
Abram fought in the Sumerian army against the Guti.
53
The Patriarchs
2. The Third Dynasty of Ur.
Once again independent, Ur experienced a renaissance in art and

culture. It was in the midst of this great economic prosperity that the
Lord came to Abram and commanded him to leave his home in Ur
and to travel to a faraway land.
Abram was not called out of a country that was on the verge of
destruction, but from one that was at its very peak of prosperity.
3. Social Conditions in Ur.
Ur contained a number of schools where students were taught

reading, writing and arithmetic. They learned to write in Sumerian
cuneiform, pressing their wedge-shaped markers into the lumps of
soft clay.
The religion of Ur involved the entire pantheon of Sumer. The city

itself was home to the patron god Nanna, the moon god. Abram and
his family originally participated in this pagan worship.
“From ancient times your fathers lived beyond the River,

namely, Terah, the father of Abraham and the father of
Nahor, and they served other gods.” (Joshua 24:2b).
Even the name Abram reflects his pagan origins. It means “exalted
father,” or “father of high places.” It is possibly a reference to the
regular worship atop the Ziggurat of Ur.
How did Abram and his family move from polytheism to the worship
of the Lord? We do not know. At some time and in some way, the
Lord revealed Himself to Abram.
4. A Northern Location for Ur?
Several problems arise in the identification of Southern Ur as the city

of Abram's birthplace.
Southern Ur was not associated with the Chaldeans until the 10th
century B.C. It is possible that the mention of the Chaldeans in our
Genesis text is a scribal insertion to assist us in determining the
54
The Patriarchs
location of Ur (it would be like speaking of the Ancient Mayans of

Mexico).
The Septuagint reading of Genesis 11:31 does not say that Abram
came from Ur.
Instead of “they went out together from Ur of

the Chaldeans...” the Greek translation reads The Hebrew for
Chaldea is kasdim.
“led them out of the land of the Chaldeans...”
Furthermore, when Abraham was going to send for a wife for his son
Isaac, he gave his servant the following instructions:
“But you shall go to my county and to my relatives, and

take a wife for my son Isaac.” (Genesis 24:4).
The phrase translated

“my country” is the
same term that
elsewhere is translated
“my land.” This was
not just the people of
Abraham. This was
also his land. Where
did the servant go? He
went to Haran.
" Finds at Ugarit suggest that there was a city in Northern

Mesopotamia also known as Ur.
" This area of Northern Mesopotamia is where the original

Chaldeans are said to have come from.
" An examination of the Nuzi Tablets indicate that the

Patriarchs reflect more of northern Mesopotamian culture
than that of the Sumerians.
Both the southern and northern locations would qualify as “the land
beyond the River.”
55
The Patriarchs
ABRAHAM
Abram, or as he is later called, Abraham, is seen in history as the father of
both the Jews and the Arab nations. Judaism, Christianity and Islam hold
him up as a spiritual leader.
1. The Family of Abram.
And Haran died in the presence of his father Terah in the

land of his birth, in Ur of the Chaldeans.
And Abram and Nahor took wives for themselves. The
name of Abram's wife was Sarai; and the name of Nahor's
wife was Milcah, the daughter of Haran, the father of Milah
and Iscah. (Genesis 11:28-29).
The laws of incest in that day were not nearly so strict as they are
today. It was considered commonplace for an uncle to marry his
niece. The family tree of Abram looks like this.
Terah, the patriarch of the family, was involved in the initial move
from Ur. We have already mentioned that Abram was an idol -
worshiper before leaving Ur. There is no indication that Abram's
family ever stopped worshiping these pagan gods.
In the case of Laban, the nephew of Abram and the uncle of Jacob,
the most that we can say is that he considered Yahweh to be one of
many tribal gods. Only in Abram do we find a man who worshiped
Yahweh exclusively.
3. Haran.
And Terah took Abram his son, and Lot the son of Haran,
his grandson, and Sarai his daughter-in-law, his son Abram's
56
The Patriarchs
wife; and they went out together from Ur of the Chaldeans in

order to enter the land of Canaan; and they went as far as
Haran, and settled there.
And the days of Terah were two hundred and five years; and
Terah died in Haran." (Genesis 11:31-32).
Haran was at the crossroads of the main highways from Mesopotamia

to the west. Indeed, the name Haran means “crossroads.” The city
sits at the crossroads of three different continents. It is a central hub
with spokes leading out to Europe, Asia and Africa. From Haran, a
traveler desiring to go down into Canaan can take two different roads.
a. The King’s Highway.
This road ran down through Damascus.

From there, its course ran along the
west bank of the Jordan River Valley,
past the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah
and down into the Sinai Desert, which
it reached Ezion-geber on the Gulf of
Aqaba.
b. The Way of the Philistines.
This route ran along the Mediterranean

Sea, past the Phoenician cities of Sidon
and Byblos, along the Plains of Sharon
and the cities of the Philistines, and
then into Egypt.
The central location of Haran made it a

major trading city. It was also a center of
worship of Nanna, the moon god which was also worshiped at Ur.
THE LAND OF CANAAN

And Abram took Sarai his wife and Lot his nephew, and
all their possessions which they had accumulated, and the
persons which they had acquired in Haran, and they set out
for the land of Canaan; thus they came to the land of Canaan.
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The Patriarchs
(Genesis 12:5).
If Haran is the hub of the wheel, then Canaan is one of the major spokes of
that wheel. The land of Canaan acts as a narrow land-bridge between
Mesopotamia and the continent of Africa.
This is a relatively small area of land, no larger in area than Lake Erie or the
state of Maryland. The name Palestine takes its name from the ancient name
Peleset, meaning “land of the Philistines.”
1. The Topography of Canaan.
Canaan is one of the most diverse lands in the world. Within its small
area, one can find snow-capped mountains, fertile plains, steaming
deserts and even
forests. It is home
both to sparkling
waterways as well as
the most desolate
body of water in the
world. As one moves
from west to east,
there are four distinct
regions encountered.
a. The Coastal Plain.
The coastline of
Canaan is devoid
of any natural
harbors from Tyre
all the way down
to Egypt. The
plain itself is
generally low,
fertile and open. It
is broken only
once where the
Mount Carmel
Promontory juts
o u t i nt o t h e
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The Patriarchs
Mediterranean.
b. The Central Mountain Range.
A long ridge of mountains run parallel to the Coastal Plain from

the Mountains of Lebanon all the way down to the tip of the Sinai
Peninsula. The lowest point of this ridge is 1500 feet and many of
its segments rise to twice that height.
This Central Spine is a natural impediment to east-west travel. At

some places it consists of up to five parallel ridges, each separated
by deep valleys. This Mountain Range is broken only once by the
long Valley of Jezreel, also known by the more popular name of
Armageddon.
c. The Jordan River Valley.
This valley is a part of the Afro-Arabian Rift Valley, one of the

longest and the deepest fissures in the world, following a
geological fault line from the Amanus Mountains of southeastern
Turkey through Syria, Lebanon and Israel, down the Gulf of
Aqaba and then running the entire length of the Red Sea to
Ethiopia and then continuing southward to become a part of the
Great African Rift Valley.
The Jordan River finds its major source in the melting snows of
Mount Hermon which towers 9,200 feet above sea level.
Hundreds of small streams cascade down to flow into Lake Hula.
ln Abram's day, Lake Hula was a shallow marsh. Since the
formation of the nation of Israel in 1948, the lake has been
drained for farmland. This has created an ecological imbalance
in the Sea of Galilee. The swamp used to act as a natural filter,
straining out any impurities from the waters which flowed
southward into the Sea of Galilee.
The Sea of Galilee rests in the crater of an extinct volcano which,

in ages past, spewed out its lava over the Golan Heights to the
east. The Sea is 600 feet below sea level and is surrounded on all
sides by steep hills.
From the Sea of Galilee, the Jordan River runs south down the
59
The Patriarchs
sunken rift. This narrow valley used to be a fertile forest full of

wildlife, including lions and boar.
The name Jordan derives from a verb meaning “to descend.” It

flows downhill in its long, meandering course until it reached the
Dead Sea.
The shore of the Dead Sea is the lowest point on the surface of
the earth, lying 1300 feet below sea level. The salt level of this
sea is six times that of the ocean and, as a result, no fish can live
in its waters.
d. The Transjordan Plateau.
Rising up sharply from the Jordan Valley is a high, fertile

tableland between 30 to 80 miles
in width and stretching from
Damascus to the Gulf of Aqaba. The Arabian desert was not
The northern regions of this nearly so impassible in
tableland are well-watered and antiquity as it is today.
Several trade routes dissected
fertile. To the east of this its breadth.
plateau, the land gives way to
the impassible Desert of Arabia.
2. The Climate of Canaan.
In Egypt, the chief deities were the sun and the Nile River. The most
important deity of the Canaanites was Baal, the storm god of wind
and rain.
It never needed to rain in Egypt or Mesopotamia, since their river

systems were fed by mountains hundreds of miles away. Canaan, on
the other hand, had no great rivers and depended heavily upon the
regular rainfall to feed the small mountain streams which irrigated the
land. The chief deity of the Canaanites was Baal, the god of rain and
thunder.
The “Early Rains” begin in October and the rainy season continues
through until the “Latter Rains” of April and May. The heaviest
rainfall comes during the winter months. There is not a drop of rain
from June to September.
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The Patriarchs
The topography of the country is broken enough to provide some

striking local variations in temperature. In summer along the Coastal
Plains, the winds tend to hold down temperatures from reaching
oppressive levels. Further inland, where the wind has lost its affect,
the temperatures can rise to stifling degrees.
In the winter months along the Coastal Plain the climate is mild and
frost is virtually unknown, due to the incoming wind of the
Mediterranean Sea. As one travels up into the mountains,
temperatures decrease markedly with height. The winter months in
the mountain region produce a long-lying snow cover.
ABRAHAM IN CANAAN
As Abraham first entered the land of Canaan, he traveled down the Central
Mountain Ridge to the site of the ancient town of Shechem.
And Abram passed through the land as far as the site of

Shechem, to the oak of Moreh. Now the Canaanite was then
in the land." (Genesis 12:6).
The town of Shechem would later be built in the pass that runs between
Mount Ebal and Mount Gerizim. It would be on this site that Jesus would
later hold an afternoon discussion with a woman by the well.
When the Scriptures say that the In Genesis 9 a curse was placed
Canaanite was then in the land, it is a upon the descendants of Canaan.
reminder that the land of Canaan was not Now we see a promise that
some uninhabited wilderness. It was a Abraham and his descendants
land of cities and towns, of merchants would inherit their land.
and farmers and shepherds.
Abraham came into this land as a nomadic shepherd-merchant. He did not

take up residence in any of the Canaanite cities, but remained a pilgrim and
a nomad. This led to some seasonal migrations, especially in times of
famine. One such famine took place soon after he had come into the land and
resulted in a sojourn in Egypt.
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The Patriarchs
ABRAHAM IN EGYPT
Now there was a famine in the land; so Abram went down
to Egypt to sojourn there, for the famine was severe in the
land. (Genesis 12:10).
Upon finding a famine in

the land of Canaan,
Abraham moved his family
south to Egypt. The
pyramids and the Great
Sphinx were already
hundreds of years old as
Abraham entered Egypt.
Th i s was t he Fi rst
Intermediate Period of
Egypt’s history. It was a
time of disunity as Egypt
was broken up into several small feudal kingdoms, each attempting to gain
power over its neighbor. During this period, it was not uncommon for
foreigners to be permitted entrance into the country.
While Abraham is in Egypt, he falls into sin. Fearful of his life, he plots with
his wife, Sarai, to pretend that she is his sister.
The reason for this deception is understood when we examine an Egyptian

papyrus which records a pharaoh murdering the husband of a beautiful
woman so that he could marry her.
SODOM & GOMORRAH

Upon returning to Canaan, Abraham has a falling out with his nephew, Lot.
They go their separate ways and Lot moves down to the southern part of the
Jordan Valley.
And Lot lifted up his eyes and saw all the valley of the
Jordan, that it was well watered everywhere - this was before
the Lord destroyed Sodom and Gomorrah - like the garden of
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The Patriarchs
the Lord, like the land of Egypt as you go to Zoar. (Genesis

13:10}.
The implication of this and other passages of the Bible is that the area of the
Dead Sea was not the desolate wasteland that it is today. In that day, it was
a fertile land.
Genesis 14 records the military campaign of an alliance of kings from the

east.
a. Amraphel, king of Shinar.
Shinar was the general term for Mesopotamia. This may have
been an Akkadian king.
b Arioch, king of Ellasar: Ellasar was another name of Larsa, a

Sumerian city to the east of Ur.
c. Chedorlaomer, king of Elam: The Elamites were located to the

east of Sumer and were one of the most powerful countries in the
world at this time.
d. Tidal, king of Goiim: “Goyim” is the Hebrew word for

“nations.” Tidal, on the other hand, is a Hittite name and might
reflect an early Hittite participation in this alliance.
A coalition of these kings from the Genesis 14:14 says that the pursuit went “as far
east invaded Canaan, conquering the as Dan.” Considering that Dan initially settled in
the south and did not move to northern Palestine
cities of the Jordan Valley, and taking until the days of the Judges, this is evidently the
Abraham's nephew, Lot, in the modernized addition of a later scribe (like chang-
ing “New Amsterdam” to “New York”).
process.
Abraham gathered his own alliance of Canaanite chieftains and set out in
pursuit, catching the invaders in a pincer movement in what is the first night
attack recorded in history. Lot was rescued along with the spoils of the kings
of the Jordan Valley.
However, this served as only a temporary respite for the cities of the plain.
Sodom was the major city of the Jordan Valley in the days of Abraham. It
was a beautiful, well-watered area. It had been for this reason that Lot had
chosen to live there.
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The Patriarchs
The Bible records that the Lord destroyed both these cities and everything
else in the Valley.
Then the Lord rained on Sodom and Gomorrah brimstone

and fire from the Lord out of heaven, 25 and He overthrew
those cities, and all the valley, and all the inhabitants of the
cities and what grew on the ground. (Genesis 19:24-25).
The Dead Sea today in the lowest spot on the face of the earth. The north part
of the Sea is more than 1300 feet below sea level. Today the southern part has
dried up completely. Scholars generally place the location of Sodom and
Gomorrah in what is today this shallow, southern part of the Dead Sea.
I am not certain, but I have sometimes wondered if it is possible that these

cities originally lay in what today is the northern portion of the Dead Sea.
1. The evidence from Scripture.
The Bible speaks of the Jordan Valley, but seems to carefully avoid
describing the Dead Sea as a geographical body in Abraham's day.
Instead, it speaks of “the valley of Siddim which is the Salt Sea” as

being the location of the battle with the eastern alliance (Genesis
14:3).
2. The evidence from Archaeology.
A Phoenician inscription had this to say about the destruction of the

“Vale of Sidimus.”
The Vale of Sidimus sank and became a lake, always

evaporating and containing no fish, a symbol of vengeance
and of death for the transgressor. (Attributed to
Sanchuniathon, prior to the Trojan War).
This indicates that there was a time when the Dead Sea was not there
and when the Jordan Valley was unbroken.
3. The evidence from Geology.
Genesis 14:10 says that the valley was full of “tar pits.” Petroleum
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The Patriarchs
and asphalt deposits still exist around the Dead Sea today. This is a
burnt-out region where nothing grows.
We have already mentioned that this area holds a massive fault zone.
Throughout its history, it has been the scene of many severe
earthquakes. It is possible that an earthquake combined with the
explosive petroleum and asphalt deposits to cause a great explosion
of “brimstone and fire.”
OTHER ARCHAEOLOGICAL NOTES FROM

ABRAHAM’S DAY
1. Lot’s Door.
In Genesis 19:6, 9-10 we find several mentions of the door to Lot’s

house in Sodom. It is described in terms of having been shut to keep
out the men of Sodom.
Houses within cities did not always have doors in antiquity. A door
would interfere with any cool breeze, making the heat of the land
intolerable. Archaeologists have noted that there are different styles
of doors for differing eras:
Middle Bronze Strong, sturdy No strong,

(2200-1600 B.C.) wooden doors centralized
government
Early Iron II Doorways Kings of Judah
(800-600 B.C.) consisted of and Israel
archways and provided
curtains centralized
government
The smaller the police force, the greater the need for a stout wooden
door.
2. Abraham’s Purchase of a Tomb.
In Genesis 23:16 we read that Abraham paid 400 shekels of silver.
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The Patriarchs
While today a shekel is a form of currency, in that day it was a weight

designation. We think in terms of pounds or kilograms, they weighed
in terms of shekels. It was not until around 700 B.C. that money
began to be coined.
ISAAC
The name Isaac means “laughter.” lt points to the laughter of Sarah when she
first was given the promise of a son. Hers was the laughter of unbelief. But
it was God who had the last laugh.
1. Quest for a Bride.
When it came time for Isaac to marry, Abraham sent his servant back
to the city of Haran to find a wife from his own kindred. Abraham’s
brother, Nahor, had continued to live here after Abraham’s departure.
Rebekah, the sister of Laban was chosen to be Isaac's bride. Why was
Abraham so insistent that his son’s wife be from his kinsmen and not
from the Canaanites?
I want to suggest that it was because of the peculiar promise of a seed

that God had given to Abraham. For Isaac to intermarry with the
Canaanites would be for him to be quickly amalgamated into their
culture and people, instead of becoming the beginning of a separate
and distinct nation of people.
2. In the Land of the Philistines.
When famine came over the land of Canaan, Isaac moved down into
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The Patriarchs
the south coastal plain. This area was home to a settlement of

non-Semitic people known as the Philistines.
This brings up a problem. The Philistines are known to us through

archaeological digs. They did not enter Canaan until much later.
During the days of Rameses III, they were a part of the “Sea Peoples”
who attempted to invade Egypt. They were fought to a standstill and,
as a result, were permitted to settle along the coast of what is today
known as the Gaza Strip. But there were no Philistines as we know
them in Isaac’s day.
The original inhabitants of this area started as coastal trading colonies

of the Minoan Civilization. Indeed, there are several times in the
Scriptures that the Philistines are referred to as “Cherethites” or
“Cretans” (1 Samuel 30:14; Ezekiel 25:16; Zephaniah 2:5). It was the
later Sea Peoples who came in and amalgamated this group into their
own and who adopted the same name.
Isaac’s life among the Philistines was difficult and trying at times.
The Bible records several conflicts that arose over water-rights.
Throughout these times, Isaac remained faithful to the Lord and saw
an increasing prosperity.
JACOB
The story of Jacob is, on the one hand, a story of a conniving scoundrel, and
on the other hand, the story of God’s chosen one.
1. Jacob & Esau.
Isaac’s two sons by Rebekah were twins. The Bible tells us that these
two brothers began their struggle in the womb. It was a struggle that
was to continue through their descendants for two thousand years.
a. Esau.
Even though they were twins, it was Esau who was born first. He
grew up to be a hunter, an outdoorsman. From his descendants
would come the Edomites.
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The Patriarchs
b. Jacob.
When the two brothers were born, the second-born son was
holding onto the heel of the first-born. This was considered to be
a significant omen and this child was named Jacob, meaning
“heel-grabber.” This was an idiom for a con-artist. We have a
similar idiom today when we speak of pulling someone’s leg.
If Esau was a hunter and an

outdoorsman, then Jacob was a
“mamma’s boy.” Jacob’s role as a Nuzi Tablets (excavated
heel-grabber is seen in his bargaining in 1925-31) indicate that
away the birthright from his older oral blessings & death-
bed wills were not only
brother and then stealing his father’s
legal & binding, but also
blessing at the urging of his mother. The irrevocable.
result of this deception was that Jacob
was forced to leave his home, fleeing
from the wrath of Esau, never to see his beloved mother again.
On the way to Haran, Jacob stops for the night at a place called Luz.
It is here that he has a vision of a ladder reaching to heaven.
And he came to a certain place, and spent the night there,

because the sun had set; and he took one of the stones of the
place and put it under his head, and lay down in that place.
And he had a dream, and behold, a ladder set on the earth
with its top reaching to heaven: and behold, the angels of
God were ascending and descending on it. (Genesis 28:11-
12).
This picture of the angels of God ascending and descending is found

in only one other place in the Bible. It is John 1:51 when Jesus
speaks to Nathanael.
And He said to him, "Truly, truly, I say to you, you shall

see the heavens opened, and the angels of God ascending and
descending on the Son of Man." (John 1:51).
In the words of Jesus, there is no mention of the ladder. The angels

are ascending and descending on the Son of Man. He IS the ladder.
Thus, if the ladder represents God’s presence upon earth, then Jesus
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The Patriarchs
is seen as the One who is “God with us.”
God goes on to pass on his covenant with Jacob. This is the same
covenant which he made with Abraham and Isaac.
Abraham Isaac Jacob

"I am God Almighty" "I am the God of your "I am the Lord, the
(Gen 17:1). father Abraham" (Gen God of your father
26:24). Abraham and the God
of Isaac" (Gen 28:13).
"For all the land which "For to you and to your "The land on which
you see, I will give it to descendants I will give you lie, I will give it to
you and to your all these lands" (Gen you and to your
descendants forever" 26:3). descendants" (Gen
(Gen 13:15). 28:13).
"And I will make your "And I will multiply "Your descendants

descendants as the dust your descendants as the shall also be like the
of the earth" (Gen stars of heaven" (Gen dust of the earth"
13:16). 26:4). (Gen 28:14).
"And in you all the "And by your "And in you and in

families of the earth shall descendants all the your descendants shall
be blessed" (Gen 12:3). nations of the earth shall all the families of the
be blessed" (Gen 26:4). earth be blessed" (Gen
28:14).
"Do not fear, Abram, I "Do not fear, for I am "And behold, I am
am a shield to you" (Gen with you" (Gen 26:24). with you, and will
15:1). keep you wherever
you go" Gen 28:15).
However, there are also some differences. Isaac had been told by
God to stay in the land (Genesis 26:2). Jacob, on the other hand, is
told that the Lord will be with him and shall accompany him on his
extended journey out of the land and that ultimately he shall be
brought back to the land of promise.
At the end of the night, Jacob names the place Beth-el, “House of
God.”
2. Jacob in Haran. Rebekah and Laban were brother

and sister and they each engaged
Jacob found temporary refuge in deception.
with his uncle Laban in Haran.
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The Patriarchs
This was a time when Jacob the con-artist was conned himself as he
sought to marry Rachel and was given her sister Leah instead. He
finally ended up marrying both of Laban’s daughters.
Jacob worked for Laban for 21 years. During the last seven years,
Jacob managed to maneuver Laban out of a great deal of his wealth.
Following this, Jacob left Haran with his family and possessions and
returned to Canaan. In the process, Rachel had stolen her father’s
household gods. These gods had more than just a religious
significance. According to the Nuzi Tablets, they were also used to
establish the family inheritance. A son-in-law who possessed his
father-in-law’s images could go to court and claim his father-in-law’s
estate.
Laban followed Jacob and even searched his caravan, but was unable
to find them. They parted on semi-cordial terms, making a covenant
in which each party agreed to stay in his own land.
3. Jacob in Canaan.
Returning to Canaan, Jacob was intercepted by Esau at the Jabbok

River. The name “Jabbok” means “to wrestle.” It was here that
Jacob wrestled with an angel.
The two brothers made their peace together and Jacob settled in the
area of central Canaan. The descendants of Esau would eventually
become known as the “Edomites” and would settle in the arid lands
to the south of the Dead Sea.
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The Patriarchs
By this time, Jacob had sired a rather large family by his two wives
and their handmaidens.
MOTHER SON Meaning of Name

Reuben "Behold, a Son"
Leah Simeon "Hearing"
Levi "Attachment"
Judah "Praise"
Bilhah Dan "Judgment"
(Rachel’s) Naphtali "Wrestle"
Zilpah Gad "Good Fortune"
(Leah’s) Ashur "Happy"
Leah Issachar "Reward"
Zebulun "Abode"
Rachel Joseph "He adds"
Benjamin "Son of the right hand"
For the most part, these sons are described as jealous, self-seeking,
hateful and murderous. This is a picture of the destructive effects of
polygamy. The exception to the lack was Joseph.
THE LIFE OF JOSEPH

The Joseph narrative begins with an account of the favoritism Jacob showed
for the firstborn son of his beloved Rachel and the hatred Joseph received
from his older brothers. They plot to murder him and instead sell him into
slavery.
Having thus introduced the Joseph narrative, the writer of Genesis turns in
chapter 38 to tell a story of Judah and to his affair with his daughter-in-law
which led to the birth of Perez and Zerah. While the story follows an overall
chronological sequence, it seems that the purpose for the insertion of the story
at this point in the narrative is to set forth a contrast between Joseph and
Judah. While Joseph is the favored son of Jacob, it will be Judah who will
eventually receive the leadership of the Israelites.
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The Patriarchs
Judah Joseph
Went to a foreigner of his own Taken to Egypt against his will.

will.
Sexual immorality: went in to his Sexual morality: resisted
daughter-in-law (38:12-18). seduction (39:6-12).
Left his seal & his cord. Left his garment.
Accuser (38:24). Falsely accused (39:13-20).
Judgment of God (38:6-10). Blessing of God (39:20-23).
True accusation of woman False accusation of woman
(28:25). (39:13-20).
Moses is contrasting the moral character of Judah as the head of his tribe with
the moral character of Joseph as the head of Ephraim and Manasseh.
Why is this important for the Israelites in the Wilderness to know? Because
it explains why Joseph’s tribes receive a double portion, both here in the
Wilderness and when they enter the promised land.
1915 B.C. - Birth of Joseph.

1898 B.C. - Joseph sold into Egypt.
1885 B.C. - Joseph exalted.
1876 B.C. - Israel enters Egypt.
1446 B.C. - The Exodus.
Jacob demonstrated that Joseph was These chapters serve as a warning to

his favorite son and heir to the the rest of Israel not to follow in the
double-portion inheritance by footsteps of their ancestors as they
awarding him a “coat with sleeves.” see Joseph's tribes receive the double
This was the sign of one who was to portion.
be the leader of the clan.
1. Sold into Egypt.

Jacob had deceived his
The hatred of the brothers had its father with a goatskin. His
climax in a murderous plot which sons deceived him with a
robe dipped in goat's blood.
ended only when Joseph had been
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The Patriarchs
sold to some passing slavers. Joseph found himself being sold to an

official of Egypt.
Meanwhile, the Midianites sold him in Egypt to

Potiphar, Pharaoh's officer, the captain of the bodyguard.
(Genesis 37:36).
The word translated “officer is seriys and is usually translated

“eunuch.” The problem with this is that eunuchs were not married
men and Potiphar clearly had a wife. However, seriys seems to be an
Akkadian loan-word which went through a change of meaning
between the first and second millennia. In the 2nd millennia it
described a court official. By the 1st millennia it had come to mean
a eunuch.
2. Egypt in the Days of Joseph.
Joseph entered Egypt in the days of The pyramids were already

the Middle Kingdom. It is always ancient monuments when
problematic to attach a specific Joseph came to Egypt.
pharaoh to the Biblical account
unless the Scriptures actually give
the name of the pharaoh, but it may have been Pharaoh Amenemhat
II who was upon the throne of both Upper and Lower Egypt at this
time.
Egypt during this period was ruled by a strong, centralized

government. The pharaohs of this period had their power held
somewhat in check by the individual governors. Mines in the Sinai
and in Ethiopia brought precious metals and ivory to the courts of the
pharaoh and a line of military
fortresses were established Joseph's coat had gotten him into
around the borders of Egypt to slavery in Egypt in the first place.
protect from outside invaders. Now it is again his garment which
gets him into trouble.
Just prior to Joseph entering
Egypt, the capital was moved from Thebes to lth-tawi, near the Delta.
3. Joseph’s Imprisonment.
For a time, Joseph prospered in the house of Potiphar. This time of
73
The Patriarchs
prosperity was brought to a close in the attempted seduction by

Potiphar’s wife. When Joseph rebuffed her, she falsely accused him
of attempted rape.
The account of Joseph and Potiphar’s wife has an interesting parallel

in the Egyptian Tale of the Two Brothers, found in an eleventh
century papyrus. The story recounts two brothers, Anubis and Bata.
The wife of Anubis attempts to seduce Bata, but he refuses her
advances, so she makes a false accusation against him. Anubis hears
and believes the accusation and sets out to kill his brother and Bata
is forced to flee. The brothers finally meet and Bata convinces his
brother of his innocence so that Anubis returns home and executes his
wife. Meanwhile, Bata marries a woman who is so beautiful that she
attracts the attention of the Pharaoh and he has Bata killed so that he
can take her for himself. Anubis finds the heart of his murdered
brother and brings him back to life. Bata takes the shape of a bull and
confronts his wife, but she has him killed. His blood waters two trees
and when he becomes the tree and again confronts his wife, she has
it chopped down. A splinter from the chopping flies into her eye and
she becomes pregnant, giving birth to a new incarnation of Bata, who
ultimately grows into a man and becomes the new pharaoh.
One need not look too far to see elements, not only of the Joseph-
Potiphar narrative, but also of the account of Abraham, Sarah, and the
Pharaoh as found in Genesis 12. The point can be made to show that
these sorts of activities were not unknown in Egypt. At the same
time, one cannot help but wonder whether these mythological stories
were not derived from the real life events of Abraham and Joseph.
Joseph was taken and thrown into the royal prison where political
prisoners were held. It was there that he befriended the pharaoh's
butler. This friendship, along with a God-given gift of interpreting
dreams, would result in Joseph's promotion to the Court of Pharaoh.
4. Joseph’s Exaltation.
In a single day, Joseph found himself propelled up to the position of

Viceroy over all Egypt, second only to the Pharaoh. Joseph’s
economic plan called for him to store up grain and food supplies for
a coming time of famine. When that time came, Joseph was able to
heighten the Pharaoh's political hold over the nobility and the land-
74
The Patriarchs
owners of Egypt by allowing the people to sell all of their lands to

him in return for food.
So Joseph bought all the land of Egypt for Pharaoh, for

every Egyptian sold his field, because the famine was severe
upon them. Thus the land became Pharaoh’s.
And as for the people, he removed them to the cities from
one end of Egypt's border to the other.
Only the land of the priests he did not buy, for the priests
had an allotment from Pharaoh, and they lived off the
allotment which Pharaoh gave them. Therefore, they did not
sell their land. (Genesis 47:20-22).
From this time on, Egypt became a virtual feudal state with the
Pharaoh owning the land and allowing the people to work it and keep
80% of the profit.
5. Israel’s Entrance into Egypt.
After several dramatic encounters with his brothers, Joseph invited

the entire clan to move into Egypt.
The immediate reason for Israel’s entrance into Egypt was because of
the famine; but there were some underlying reasons. God’s plan and
purpose for Israel was to maintain a pure people, set apart for the
purpose of loving and serving Yahweh as their God, eventually
spreading His name throughout all the earth.
When we examine the Patriarchs with this concept in mind, we are

able to note a startling contrast among them.
a. Altars & Worship.
Abraham, Isaac and Jacob each would move to a new place

within the land and build an altar there, proclaiming the name of
the Lord.
b. A Sense of Purpose.
Each of these Patriarchs had a sense of purpose, a sense of destiny

because of the promises that God had given. The altars were
75
The Patriarchs
symbolic of that purpose in the land.
c. Unity.
Because of that distinctive purpose, they also had a sense of unity

that there would be no division between the worshipers of
Yahweh. Thus, when strife arose between the servants of
Abraham and the servants of Lot, a peaceful means was found to
co-exist.
d. Racial & Religious Purity.
Their sense of unity led them to a realization of the need for

separation from the Canaanites in whose midst they were
dwelling. This unity was a part of the purpose of God that they
would be a distinct and separate people from the nations around
them.
Thus, when it came time for Isaac to take a wife, Abraham took
great pains to make certain that it would not be a Canaanite
woman.
And Abraham said to his servant, the oldest of the

household, who had charge of all that he owned, “Please
place your hand under my thigh. 3 And I will make you
swear by the Lord, the God of heaven and the God of
earth, that you shall not take a wife for my son from the
daughters of the Canaanites, among whom I live.”
(Genesis 24:2-3).
In the same way, Jacob was sent to Haran with the express
purpose of finding a wife from his own people.
So Isaac called Jacob and blessed him and

charged him, and said to him, “You shall not take a wife
from the daughters of Canaan. 2 Arise, go to
Paddan-aram, to the house of Bethuel your mother's
father; and from there take to yourself a wife from the
daughters of Laban your mother’s brother.” (Genesis
28:1-2).
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The Patriarchs
Abraham, Isaac and Jacob each followed these principles.

However, when you come to the sons of Israel, you find a very
big generation gap.
They built no altars and are never said to proclaim the name of
Yahweh. They show no sense of purpose. They seem only
interested in filling their own fleshly desires. They have
absolutely no concern for the unity among their family. Quite the
contrary, they are motivated by jealousy and strife. This is best
demonstrated when they sell their own brother into slavery. They
recognize no need for separation from the Canaanites. Instead, we
see them intermarrying with the people of Canaan and going off
to live with them. This manifests itself in a number of ways.
(1) Lack of chastity in Dinah.
(2) Simeon & Levi murder the population of an entire city.
(3) Reuben sleeps with his father's concubine.
(4) Judah has a child by his own daughter-in-law.
Only in Joseph do we find anyone within that generation who

demonstrates a sense of unity and purpose and faith.
Therefore, God moves in history to bring the Israelites out of

Canaan and into Egypt. Why Egypt? Aside from the obvious fact
that Egypt was the breadbasket of the world and could support
and feed the growing embryo of the nation that would one day be
Israel, there was a very significant reason for Egypt to be the
host-mother of Israel.
The Canaanites followed a policy of integration. They were

constantly seeking to intermarry and form family alliances with
those around them (Genesis 19:14, 26:10; 26:34; 27:46; 34:8-10).
This would have resulted in the breakdown and the absorption of
the Jewish nation before it had even begun.
The Egyptians, on the other hand, were extremely strict

segregationalists (Genesis 43:32; 46:34). Thus in the Joseph
narrative when Joseph has his brothers eat in his presence, they
77
The Patriarchs
are actually seated at a separate table.
Thus the Israelites in Egypt would have no choice but to remain

a pure and undefiled and separated nation as God prepared them
in Egypt. Four hundred years later, God would lead them out of
Egypt and into the land that He had prepared for them.
All these died in faith, without receiving the

promises, but having seen them and having welcomed
them from a distance, and having confessed that they
were strangers and exiles on the earth. (Hebrews 11:13).
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EGYPT - THE LAND OF THE
NILE
Hail to you, O Nile, sprung from the earth,
Come to nourish Egypt,
Food-provider,
Bounty-maker,
Who creates all that is good. (Ancient Hymn).
Egypt is a land of shifting desert sands, a land of giant pyramids and a place
of great rulers from the past. It is the land of the Nile. The Hebrew term for
Egypt was Mizraim, a form of which is still used today in the Arabic name
for Egypt, Misr. It is thought by some that the name is taken from the
Hebrew word tzar, meaning “narrow” or “tight.” The ancient Egyptian name
for their country was Kemet, or “black land.”
GEOGRAPHY OF EGYPT
If it can be said that nature plays favorites, then Egypt was her favorite child.
There are several geographical features which
combine to make this a unique land.
1. An Isolated Land.
Ancient Egypt was isolated from the rest

of the world by its topography. To the
west was a vast desert. To the north was
the Mediterranean. To the east was the
Red Sea. There were only two points of
entry into Egypt aside from sea routes.
a. The south.
The Nubians to the south of

Egypt often proved to be
troublesome, but they were
rarely a match for the more
advanced military of Egypt.
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Egypt - The Land of the Nile
b. The Northeast.
Most of the invaders who came against Egypt moved down

through Palestine and then across the northern section of the
Sinai Peninsula. To counter this threat, the Egyptians built a
line of fortresses along the western edge of the Sinai. While
copper mines have been located in the Sinai that supplied
copper to Egypt, Baines and Malek point out that “these were
probably worked by the local population under Egyptian
control; there is no evidence that the Egyptians themselves
mined copper anywhere in the Sinai” (1985:19).
2. The Nile River.
The Nile is the longest river in the world. It flows from three
branches: The Blue Nile, the White Nile and the Atbara. They join
far south of Egypt to become a single river a mile wide.
The Nile was the lifeline of Egypt. It fashioned the nation’s

economy, determined its political structure, and molded the values it
chose to live by.
Just as the surrounding deserts and oceans gave Egypt security, so the
Nile gave Egypt prosperity. The Nile was almost wholly responsible
for Egypt’s economy.
a. It made Egypt an agricultural nation.
The Nile River flooded on a regular basis each year,

depositing rich sediments on the plains. Crops were planted
in the fertile soil as soon as the river had receded. The result
was a full harvest.
b. It determined all real estate values.
The value of land was determined by how close to the Nile it

was located and whether or not it was flooded annually.
c. It provided transportation.
Ancient Egypt was made up of a long narrow strip of land

over 700 miles long and only a few miles wide. The Nile was
the unifying factor of Egypt. It provided the best means of
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north-south transportation. This factor led to the political

unity of Egypt very early in her history.
The Nile might have also served as a path for invading forces
from the south, had it not been for the many waterfalls to the
south of Egypt.
3. The Climate of Egypt.
Because of the warm climate and the rich, fertile soil, the Egyptians
were able to take life rather leisurely. This gave them time to engage
in philosophy, religion, and developments in architecture, astronomy
and mathematics.
Egypt sees very little rainfall. Its water comes from the mountains of
Central Africa, many hundreds of miles to the south. This dry climate
has brought the added benefit in the preservation of thousands of
monuments and papyrus scrolls.
Many archaeologists used to mistakenly believe that the people of

Palestine were mostly illiterate. The truth is that, except for a few
areas around the shores of the Dead Sea, papyrus has a very short life
span in Palestine due to its high humidity. The absence of papyrus
documents in Palestine is not a sign of illiteracy, but only the lack of
longevity in the documents.
Egypt did not suffer from this problem. The dry climate was perfect
for the preservation of papyrus. It is for this reason that some of our
oldest copies of the Bible were found in Egypt.
We have already contrasted the geography of the Mesopotamian River Valley

with that of the Nile, but it would be well to repeat some of those points of
contrast.
Mesopotamia Egypt
The flooding of the Euphrates The flooding of the Nile was both
and Tigris was irregular and predictable and beneficial.
destructive.
No natural borders to keep out Bounded by natural borders of
invaders. desert and sea.
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Ruled by a vast succession of Most of Egypt’s history saw a

rulers of differing nationalities. dynastic succession of domestic
rulers.
People tended to have a Literature demonstrates a cheerful
pessimistic outlook on life. outlook on life.
The gods of Mesopotamia were The gods of Egypt were considered
cold and cruel and could not be to be good and benevolent.
trusted.
PROBLEMS IN EGYPTIAN CHRONOLOGY

There are several key problems that the archaeologist faces as he attempts to
unravel the history of ancient Egypt.
1. The Lack of a Fixed System for Reckoning Time.
Like many people of the ancient world, the Egyptians had no unified
time scale or way of referring to dates. Instead of having numbers to
describe their years (May 7, 2000), they used several alternate means.
a. The naming of years.
In the earliest years of Egypt’s history, the years were named

according to significant events.
• The year of the great hailstorm.

• The year of fighting and smiting the northerners.
• The year of the second enumeration of all large and
small cattle of the north and the south.
The Bible also uses this kind of numbering system.
• In the year of King Uzziah’s death (Isaiah 6:1).

• In the six hundredth year of Noah’s life, in the second
month, on the seventeenth day of the month...(Genesis
7:11).
• And it came to pass in the seven and thirtieth year of
the captivity of Jehoiachin king of Judah (Jeremiah
52:31).
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b. Regal years.
The next method of reckoning time was to align it with the

reigning monarch.
• The 12th year of Amenhotep.

• In the fourth year of King Darius (Zechariah 7:1).
• In the third year of the reign of Jehoiakim king of
Judah (Daniel 1:1).
• Now in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius
Caesar (Luke 3:1).
This meant that you had to know the name of every Egyptian
king who ever ruled and the order in which they ruled.
Another problem with the fact that many kings had sons who
were given the same name. They did not call themselves
Thutmose I, Thutmose II, Thutmose III. We add these
numbers for our own benefit.
c. Priestly records.
It was not until the Hellenistic Period that the Egyptian priests
began to compile and to record detailed lists of kings, their
names and the number of years in which they reigned. These
were inscribed on temple walls where they can be found
today.
2. The Lack of any Objective Egyptian Historians.
Egypt has yielded more in archaeological finds than any other area of
the ancient world. Yet in spite of this, we have been somewhat
limited in our understanding of Egyptian history.
The Egyptian did not emphasize originality or individuality. In his

style of writing, he attempted to be like all other Egyptians and their
ancestors as much as possible. It is not that we are unable to read his
diary, it is that he writes the same thing that everyone else has written
in their diaries.
The Egyptians never produced a native historian to evaluate or to give

an objective account of their civilization. It was not until the
Hellenistic Age when the Greek Ptolemies were ruling Egypt that her
history began to be analyzed and interpreted by her own people.
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3. The Use of Astronomical Dating Methods.
The Egyptians used a solar rather than a lunar calendar. They had
365 days in their year and divided their year into 360 days of twelve
equal 30-day months and then added five additional feast days at the
end of each year. It was this same calendar that was adopted by
Julius Caesar and made the official calendar of the Roman Empire.
It is essentially the same calendar that we use today.
There was only one difference. They had no leap year. This meant
that their calendar would have the beginning of the year move a
quarter of a day out of alignment each year. Multiply this by 365 days
and you find that it would constitute a cycle of 1460 years for the
calendar to come back into alignment.
The Egyptian months were grouped into three seasons each of 4

month duration:
• Akhet: Inundation
• Peret: Growing
• Shemu: Harvest
Inundation, taking place in the early summer when the Nile flooded,
therefore marked the new year. The Egyptian astronomers were able
to calculate and to keep records of three events.
a. The rising of the sun.
b. The rising of Sothis (Sirius, the dog star 1) after several

months of invisibility. This takes place on July 19th every
year.
c. The start of Inundation (the beginning of the Egyptian new

year).
1
The Egyptians used this star as a symbol of Osiris whose head was
regularly pictured in the form of a dog. Sirius sets in the spring and remains
hidden for 70 days during which it was thought to be journeying through the
underworld (the rite of embalming normally took 70 days). The star rises again
in the summer and was therefore thought by the Egyptians to bring the summer
heat, hence bringing us the phrase “the dog days of summer.”
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These three events took place simultaneously once every 1460 years.
Modern research has established that this event took place between
1325 and 1322 B.C. during the 19th dynasty of Egypt. This fact is
confirmed by ancient scribal records (the previous cycle would have
begun the Pyramid Age in 2785-2782 B.C.).
An Egyptian astronomer living in the second century A.D. by the

name of Claudius Ptolemaeus developed a list of various kings of
antiquity in conjunction with a very exact list of lunar eclipses.
Modern computations have allowed us to verify the accuracy of these
dates.
4. The Translating of the Hieroglyphics.
Until the 1800's everything that historians knew of Egypt came from
Herodotus and the Bible. This began to change in 1798 when
Napoleon invaded Egypt with a fleet of 328 warships. The expedition
was a military failure, but led to an archaeological victory with the
discovery of the Rosetta Stone. This small stone contained an
inscription in three scripts, two of which were in Egyptian.
a. Hieroglyphs.
b. Demotic (“people’s writing”).
c. Greek.
It was thought at first that the hieroglyphs were a form of picture

writing where each picture represented a complete thought. Thus, a
picture of an means the word “ear.” It did not immediately occur
to scholars that might merely stand for the sound “ear.” It was left
to Jean Francois Champollion to painstakingly decipher the Egyptian
hieroglyphs using the key in the Rosetta Stone.
AN OUTLINE OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY

Manetho, an Egyptian historian who studied in the days when the Ptolemies
were ruling Egypt, divided the rulers of Egypt into 30 dynasties. This list
goes back to the earliest king and ends with the conquest of Alexander the
Great.
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PERIOD Dynasty YEARS
The Archaic Period 1-2 3100-2686 B.C.

The Old Kingdom 3-6 2686-2181 B.C.
1st Intermediate Period 7-11 2181-1991 B.C.
Middle Kingdom 12 1991-1786 B.C.
2nd Intermediate Period 13-17 1786-1567 B.C.
New Kingdom 18-20 1567-1085 B.C.
3rd Intermediate Period 21-24 1085-712 B.C.
Late History 25-30 712-332 B.C.
PRE-DYNASTIC PERIOD
Early in Egypt’s history, the people living
along the Nile River polarized into two
distinct kingdoms that we know as Lower
and Upper Egypt.
1. Lower Egypt.
This was the northern kingdom. It

was called “Lower Egypt” because
it lay in the lowlands of the Delta
region. Its capital was Pe.
The symbol for Lower Egypt was

the papyrus reed which grew
throughout the Delta. The king of
Lower Egypt wore a red crown.
2. Upper Egypt.
The southern kingdom was called

“Upper Egypt” because it lay in
the highlands to the south of the
Delta. It stretched over a greater area, all the way to the First
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Cataract. Its capital was Hierakopolis.
The symbol for Upper Egypt was the white lily and the king of Upper
Egypt wore a white crown. It was Upper Egypt that tended to have
the greater wealth. Though we have images and likenesses of these
two crowns in wall paintings and statues, no actual Egyptian crown
has ever been found.
This division of Upper and Lower Egypt

The word “pharaoh” is
remained throughout antiquity. Even when derived from the Egyptian
one pharaoh ruled over all the land, his title phrase per aa, meaning
was “Pharaoh of Upper and Lower Egypt” “great house.”
and he wore a combined red and white crown.
Robert Brier points out that no Egyptian
crown has ever been located and he suggests that there was only a single
Egyptian crown that was passed from one pharaoh to the next (1999:16).
ARCHAIC PERIOD
1. The Unification of Upper and Lower Egypt.
Around 3000 B.C. Lower and Upper Egypt were finally welded into
a single kingdom under one ruler. The was the result of conquest, but
it served to bring peace and prosperity to the land.
Tradition has it that this new ruler was Pharaoh Menes, also known
as Pharaoh Narmer. He was from Upper Egypt and the Narmer Palate
depicts him with a war mace, vanquishing his foes. Discovered north
of Aswan, this ceremonial palate contains the first real hieroglyphs.
The capital of this new kingdom was Thes (located near Abydos), but
was soon moved north to Memphis, 20 miles south of the Delta,
where it remained for the next 600 years. The advantage of this
location was that it was midway between Upper and Lower Egypt.
2. Achievements of the Period.
This period saw the building of many brick temples and palaces.
Hieroglyphic writing was fully formulated and several fragmentary
inscriptions from this period still exist.
87
OLD KINGDOM: 2666 - 2161 B.C.

Now began one of Egypt’s most prosperous periods in history. Within just
a few years, Egypt moved from a few city-states into a great kingdom,
producing architectural feats which have amazed even modern engineers of
today.
The Old Kingdom was seen as the Golden Age of Egypt. The Pharaohs,
ruling from Memphis, divided the country into provinces and appointed
governors of royal blood to oversee them.
The Egyptians were not by nature a warlike people. At this period they had
no standing army, but only a civilian militia which could be drafted in times
of national troubles. This militia was also used in peacetime for peaceful
enterprises such as building or trading. When its task was completed, it was
disbanded.
1. The Third Dynasty.
The Pharaoh was considered to be a god. He was worshiped

throughout the
temples of Egypt.
Because of this, no
expense in serving
the Pharaoh was
considered too
great, both in life
and in death.
During the 1st and

2nd Dynasties, the
Pharaohs had been Step Pyramid at Saqarra
buried in small
brick structures called “mastabas” (Arabic for “bench”). With the
advent of this dynasty began the building of the pyramids.
The first Egyptian pyramid was the famous Step Pyramid. It was
built by the imperial architect for Pharaoh Zoser, first ruler of the
Third Dynasty. With its series of six terraces, it more closely
resembled one of the ziggurats of Mesopotamia. However, the
ziggurats were temples; the pyramids served as tombs.
88
2. The Fourth Dynasty.
This Dynasty saw the height of Egypt’s prosperity. Pyramids assumed

their more regular shape. One of the early trials was the Bent
Pyramid built by Sneferu. It begins to rise from the ground at an
incline of 54 degrees, but it was built on an inadequate foundation
and was in danger of toppling, so midway up, it reduces its rate of
inclination, giving it a bent shape.
Our English word
It was left to Sneferu’s son Khufu (called “sarcophagus” is
Cheops by the Greeks) to build the largest taken from two Greek
and most famous of the pyramids. It stood words meaning “flesh
eater.” The Greeks
480 feet high and was overlaid with a who first saw a
smooth facing of limestone. It was sarcophagus looked
constructed with more than 2 million within, saw a
blocks of stone, most weighing about 2½ decomposed body,
and perhaps thought
tons. These stones were mined at nearby this was the work of
quarries to avoid long transportation the structure in which
distances. the body was held.
The sarcophagus was measured and found

to be larger than the entrance into the pyramid, indicating that it was
placed into the pyramid as it was being constructed.
3. Decline of the Old Kingdom.
With the advent of the Fifth Dynasty, Egypt began to show signs of
trouble. The last two dynasties of Egypt would see a growing decline.
a. Religious problems.
Prior to this time, the king had been a god, equal to all of the
other gods of Egypt. Now the priests declared that the king
was only the son of god and a power struggle between the
king and the priests ensued.
b. Economic problems.
Egypt had paid a great price to build the pyramids and now
found them very expensive to maintain. The pyramids built
during this dynasty were only half the size of the Great
Pyramid and had a central core of such poor construction that
most have collapsed into low mounds of rubble.
89
c. Political problems.
In addition to the priests, there were other high officers and

officials that began to be a threat to the king’s omnipotence.
This culminated in the very long reign of Pepi II, the last
pharaoh of the Old Kingdom.
FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD: 2181 - 1991

B.C.
With the death of Pepi II, Egypt rapidly broke up into several small feudal
kingdoms. These kingdoms were constantly at war with each other, each
trying to conquer his neighbor. This was a period of anarchy as the ruling
classes lost their wealth and power.
1. Rival Dynasties.
While the 9th and 10th dynasties of Egypt maintained their seat of
power in Memphis, a rival 11th Dynasty was established to the south
in Thebes. There were frequent clashes between these two dynasties
with both sides utilizing Nubian mercenaries.
2. Entrance of Bedouins.
During this period, various bedouins began to filter into Egypt,

pushed from the northeast by migration pressures that were taking
place throughout the ancient world. It was during this period that
Abraham visited Egypt during a time of famine in Canaan (Genesis
12:10).
3. Pessimistic Literature.
It was during this First Intermediate Period that Egypt began its
Pessimistic Literature. Ann David describes one such work entitled:
The Dispute between a Man and his Soul:
It presents a unique theme by addressing the personal

conflict of a man whose life has been devastated by
the collapse of society. It is written in terms of a
dialogue between the man and his soul: the man,
because of his personal problems, longs for death and
90
perhaps even contemplates suicide, but his soul

eventually persuades him to live and await the advent
of a natural death (2000:19).
Finally one of the kings of the 11th Dynasty at Thebes succeeded in

overcoming the other kingdoms and uniting Egypt once again under one
government.
MIDDLE KINGDOM: 1991 - 1786 B.C.

While the Eleventh Dynasty united Egypt into one kingdom, the Twelfth
Dynasty consolidated and strengthened the kingdom so that it achieved a
form of stability.
1. Accomplishments of the Twelfth Dynasty.
a. Political power.
These pharaohs curbed the power of the individual governors

by installing their own loyal nobles from Thebes.
b. Economic growth.
By the Twelfth Dynasty, the building of royal pyramids had

ceased. The resources of the country were now put to other
uses.
The pharaohs rebuilt canals, dikes and catch basins which

were so important to Egypt’s agricultural economy.
c. Military advances.
They expanded the military, sending expeditions into Nubia

in the south and into Palestine in the northeast.
d. Growth in trade: They organized regular trade with the

Minoans and the Phoenicians.
2. Entrance of Joseph and the Israelites.
It was during this period that Joseph became the Prime Minister of
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Egypt and, under his influence, the Israelites were allowed to settle in
the area of Goshen, on the eastern edge of the Delta.
Pharaoh Amenemhat II might have been upon the throne of both

Upper and Lower Egypt while Joseph was in the house of Potiphar.
It could have been Amenemhat II who had his butler and baker throne
into prison with Joseph.
Sesostris III became pharaoh in 1887 B.C. It may have been this new
pharaoh who released the butler restoring him to service in the court
while condemning the baker to death.
Two years later, Joseph was released from prison and instituted as the
Prime Minister of Egypt, second only to the Pharaoh. It is noteworthy
that the forces of Sesostris III were the first to campaign in Palestine,
raiding the region of “Sekmem in Retenu” (Shechem in Canaan).
Sesostris III also invaded Nubia, bringing back such wealth that gold
became more common and therefore of less value than silver. When
Joseph’s brothers were accused of stealing a silver cup, it was the
most valuable one in the household. Sesostris III reigned until the
year 1849 B.C., well after the Israelites had settled in Egypt.
As the years passed and the

Israelites began to prosper and
multiply, a new king came to
the throne of Egypt who was
suspicious of these foreigners.
There were several reasons for
these suspicions:
a. They were foreigners.
The Egyptians were

very race conscious and
naturally looked upon foreigners with suspicion.
b. They were shepherds.
The wild border tribes who lived in the deserts around Egypt
were also shepherds. Shepherds were persona non grata in
Egypt.
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c. They lived in Goshen.
Goshen controlled the northeastern frontier. It was the

doorway to Egypt and whoever controlled Goshen had a
stranglehold on Egyptian security.
d. Religious differences.
The Israelites did not honor the gods of Egypt. They

sacrificed bulls which the Egyptians held to be sacred.
3. Amenemhet III.
Amenemhet III took the throne at the death of his father in 1849 B.C.
His primary achievement was in developing an irrigation system. He
ordered his officials at the Fortress of Senineh at the Second Cataract
to record the height of the Nile each year so that he could more
accurately plan for the economic needs of his country.
He developed a plan to irrigate the entire Fayum Basin, building a

wall 27 miles long to control the flood waters and adding 27,000
acres of farmland. The following song, praising his benevolent
accomplishments has been found:
He makes the two lands green more than a great Nile,

He has filled the two lands with strength. He is life, cooling
the nostrils.
The treasures which he gives are food for those who are in
his following;
He feeds those who tread his path.
The king is food and his mouth is increase.
As we read these words, we cannot help but wonder if this

preoccupation with the agricultural economy looked back to the
famine in the days of Joseph.
SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD: 1786 -

1567 B.C.
Egypt’s period of political strength did not last after the advent of the
Thirteenth Dynasty. The ineffectual reign of the Thirteenth Dynasty failed
93
to provide any central authority. Before long, Egypt had split and Upper and
Lower Egypt were once again at war with each other.
Upon this scene, a dynasty of foreigners arose to take over the Delta region.
They were known to the Egyptians as Heka Khasewt (“Chieftains of a foreign
hill country”), but are known in history as the Hyksos (“Rulers of
Countries”). Manetho identified them as Phoenicians and Arabs. We know
only that they were Semitic foreigners.
1. Identity of the Hyksos.
The Hyksos seem to have been a Semitic people who began filtering
into Egypt near the end of the Middle Kingdom, about the same time
that the Israelites were settling in Goshen. Though he was of no
relation to the Biblical patriarch of the same name, Breasted makes
mention of a Hyksos pharaoh named Jacob:
“The scarabs of a pharaoh who evidently

belonged to the Hyksos time give his name as Jacob-
her or possibly Jacob-el, and it is not impossible that
some chief of the Jacob-tribes of Israel gained the
leadership in this obscure age” (1909:220).
If we are correct in viewing the Exodus as having taken place during

the 18th dynasty, then the Bible treats this Second Intermediate Period
as silent years, telling us nothing of the history of the period. On the
other hand, this may help to explain the strong anti-Semitic mood that
we see in the book of Exodus on the part of the Egyptians.
2. Conquest over Egypt.
With Egypt greatly weakened by the civil war, the Hyksos were able
to move in and take control of the leadership of Lower Egypt. They
were able to do this because of several military advantages.
The Egyptians were not advanced in the art of war. They fought
almost nude, carrying heavy, man-sized shields. Their two primary
weapons were the small axe and the light bow.
The Hyksos had the finest weapons in the world. They had come
down from Padam-aram where they had enjoyed much contact with
the Hittites who were the largest arms manufacturers in the ancient
world at that time. Thus, they came into Egypt with the latest in
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modern weaponry.
a. Body armor which the Hittites had obtained from the

Mycenaeans.
b. Long, slim swords and short daggers.
c. Powerful bows made of wood and horn.
d. The six-spoked, light, horse drawn chariot.
The result was the equivalent of matching a modern tank corps

against a tribe of African Bushmen.
3. Resistance at Thebes.
In spite of all their advances in warfare, the Hyksos did not succeed
in advancing past Thebes. A resistance movement at Thebes
managed to hold off the Hyksos for over a hundred years.
4. The Hyksos Dynasty.
The Hyksos now set up their own dynasty, ruling from Avaris. They
set up military garrisons all along the Nile to protect their new
holdings.
Other than this, they erected no monuments of which we are aware.

Quite the contrary, they burned many books and objects of art.
Egyptian inscriptions describe the Hyksos as being a destructive race,

matched only by the Assyrians for their cruelty. This is not too
surprising when we consider that the Hyksos and the Assyrians were
probably from the same stock. They are described as torturing their
captives, cracking heads open, smashing teeth, gouging eyes out and
hacking off arms and legs.
5. The Expulsion of the Hyksos.
During this period of Hyksos domination, the Theban nobles had not
been idle. Learning from their Semitic enemies, they began to train an
army in the use of the war chariot and the short sword.
a. Senekenre.
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Their leader was a Theban nobleman named Senekenre. He

was killed in one of the early battles and for a time the revolt
was quieted.
b. Kamoses.
The son of Senekenre was Kamoses. He was recognized as

the leader in Thebes and he decided to fight a naval battle
against the Hyksos. Gathering a fleet of warships, he sailed
down the Nile, meeting and defeating the Hyksos forces who
were poor sailors. The defeat of the Hyksos marked the
beginning of the New Kingdom in Egypt. The first and
greatest part of this period was ruled by the Eighteenth
Dynasty.
THE EIGHTEENTH DYNASTY

Egypt had beaten off the Hyksos in a major battle, but they still held onto
many of their garrisons and their capital at Avaris.
1. Ahmoses (1570-1546 B.C.).
Ahmoses was the younger brother of Kamoses. After the death of his
brother, Ahmoses completed the systematic expulsion of the Hyksos,
driving them up into Palestine.
Returning to Egypt. Ahmoses found the country once again racked by

civil war. Putting down all opposition, Ahmoses made himself the
pharaoh of all Egypt.
2. Amenhotep I (1546-1526 B.C.).
Amenhotep was the son of Ahmoses. When he came to the throne

following his father’s death, he was faced with rebellion by the
Nubians in the south and the Libyans in the west.
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First, he marched south and defeated the Nubians, pushing them back
to the third cataract. Then he swung back around, conquering the
Libyans in the west.
Back in Egypt, Amenhotep proved himself to be an able

administrator. The government of Egypt was reorganized and order
began to be restored. No trace of the old feudalism of the past was left
in this reorganization. The rule of the pharaoh became absolute.
After 21 years of rule, he died and his son came to the throne.
3. Thutmoses I (1525-1512 B.C.).
During the first year of his reign, Thutmoses had to put down a revolt
in Nubia, marching all the way to the 4th cataract. Next, he led an
expedition into Palestine, setting a precedent in the years to come.
The chariot became a regular part of the Egyptian military at this

time (riding a horse was always repulsive to the Egyptians).
The pyramids
had long
since been
abandoned as
far too costly.
Thutmoses
began a new
tradition,
having a tomb
for himself
built in an Entrance to the Valley of the Kings
area which
was to become known as the Valley of the Kings. Thebes lay on
the east bank of the Nile; the Valley of the Kings was on the west
bank, in the direction of the setting sun.2
The kings of the 18th, 19th, and 20th dynasties were buried here. A
second valley to the southwest became known as the Valley of the
Queens. It became the resting place of both queens, princes and other
nobility.
2
The modern name Luxor is said to have come from the Arabs who
referred to the great temples as el-Uqsur, “the palaces.”
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Thutmoses had no surviving male heirs, but he did have a daughter

named Hatshepsut and an illegitimate son who took for himself the
name Thutmoses II, marrying Hatshepsut to legitimize his right to the
throne.
4. Thutmoses II (1512-1504 B.C.).
Thutmoses II was only 20 years old when he came to the throne. He

was totally dominated by his energetic and ambitious wife. When the
Nubians revolted, Thutmoses II stayed home while his army went out
and put down the revolt.
a. Moses.
If we are correct in dating the Exodus at 1446 B.C., then it

may well have been either Hatshepsut who found the child
Moses in the Nile River and who adopted him and raised him
as her own. On the other hand, there would have been other
daughters of the pharaoh who could have been possible
candidates for this identification.
Josephus tells of an account how it was Moses who let the

armies of Egypt to put down the revolt of the Nubians. The
fact that there is no mention of either Moses or the Exodus
from Egypt in any of the extant inscriptions should not
surprise us. The Egyptians did not record their own defeats
and would have carefully edited anything in the way of the
exodus event. A similar sort of denial was seen in the 2003
American invasion of Iraq when the Iraqi minister of
propaganda stood before the newsmen and announced that the
American forces had all been defeated in the desert. Two
minutes later, the American tanks rolled down the same street
where he stood.
Furthermore, James Hoffmeier points out that “the Nile Delta

where the Bible says the ancient Israelites lived has produced
no historical or administrative documents that might shed
light on any period.” 3
3
“Out of Egypt: The Archaeological Context of the Exodus;” Biblical
Archaeology Review, Vol 33, No 1; Jan-Feb 2007 Page 33.
98
b. Quest for an heir.
Thutmoses II and Hatshepsut had no legitimate sons, but they

did have two daughters. Thutmoses II also had a son by a
concubine. This son took the name Thutmoses III.
Thutmoses III was still under age when his father died after a short
reign. Therefore his mother assumed the throne in his place, taking
the position of regent, but effectively acting as pharaoh and even
wearing the ceremonial beard of the pharaohs (Egyptians were clean-
shaven, so the wearing of a ceremonial beard was not unusual).
5. Hatshepsut (1503-1482).
Following the death of her husband, Hatshepsut ruled as the regent

for the next 21 years. She engaged in at least four military campaigns,
leading one of the campaigns herself. However, she is best
remembered for her peaceful quests to bring economic prosperity to
Egypt.
a. Building programs.
Hatshepsut built great monuments all over Egypt. Her

mortuary temple was carved out of the mountainside at
Thebes.
I have restored that which was ruins,

I have raised up that which was unfinished.
Since the Asiatics were in the midst of Avaris of the
northland,
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And the barbarians were in the midst of them,

Overthrowing that which has been made,
While they ruled in ignorance of Re. - Hatshepsut
She adorned the great temple of Karnak with four huge

granite obelisks, cut out of the quarries at Aswan and floated
down the Nile. One of them, which is still standing, is the
tallest in the whole of Egypt, being nearly ninety feet high.
Mortuary temple of Hatshepsut
b. International trade.
She also opened up the trade routes to other countries which

had been closed since the Hyksos domination. The reliefs at
the beautiful mortuary temple of Deir el-Bahri depict her
voyage to Punt and show an extremely fat queen of that land
as well as the plants and animals to be found there.
c. The decision of Moses.
It would have been at this time that Moses made a decision

which was to affect the rest of his life.
By faith Moses, when he had grown

up, refused to be called the son of Pharaoh’s
daughter; 25 choosing rather to endure ill-
treatment with the people of God, than to
enjoy the passing pleasures of sin: 26
considering the reproach of Christ greater
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riches than the treasures of Egypt; for he was

looking to the reward. (Hebrews 11:24-26).
Moses could have lived a life of ease and luxury in the

palaces of Egypt. Instead, he chose to identify himself with
the people of Israel who were still enslaved in Egypt.
6. Thutmoses III (1482-1450).
There had been no love lost between Thutmoses III and his step-
mother. The first thing he did upon her death was to destroy or
obliterate all of her monuments. We would know nothing of her at all
were it not for the fact that some of the concealing plaster had fallen
off certain monuments.
If Moses was still in

Egypt at this time, then
we could understand
how the incident of the
murder of the Egyptian
taskmaster might be all
that Thutmoses III
needed in the way of an
excuse to rid himself of
this past rival.
Thutmoses III has been

called the Napoleon of
Egypt. Like Napoleon,
his mummy shows him
to have been a short
man in stature. Also
like Napoleon, he was the greatest military strategist that his country
ever produced. In a period of 19 years, he made 17 military
campaigns into Palestine and Syria, defeating the Kingdom of
Mitanni and beating the cities of Syria into submission. Unlike
Napoleon, he never lost a battle.
6. Amenhotep II (1450-1425 B.C.).
Amenhotep II was tall and broad in physique. He was reputed to be

one of the best charioteers in all of Egypt. It was said that no man
could draw his bow.
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a. Campaign into Palestine.
When the princes of Syria heard of the death of Thutmoses

III, they stopped payment of their annual tribute to Egypt.
Amenhotep II personally led his army into Syria, crossing the
Orontes, crushing the revolt, and bringing the seven
ringleaders back to Thebes.
Here, he sacrificed them alive and hung the bodies of six of

them on the walls of the city. The seventh he sent to be
similarly arrayed on the walls of the southernmost fortress in
the south as a warning to the Nubians.
b. Building projects.
He entered into a vast building project including a court,

colossal statues, a funerary temple for himself and temples in
many other cities.
We have already noted that the Egyptian records make no mention of

Israel’s presence in Egypt of their exodus from that land. It is also
noteworthy that the Bible makes no mention of the name of the
pharaoh of the Exodus, even though elsewhere in the Scriptures there
are names given of various foreign kings. For example, in Genesis 14
we are told the names of a number of invading kings from the east.
Much later, in the days of Rehoboam, we are given the name of
Shishak, the Egyptian pharaoh who plunders the temple in Jerusalem.
But we are never given the name of the pharaoh of the Exodus. He
is described either as “the king of Egypt” or as “pharaoh.”
The term “pharaoh” is not a Hebrew word. It is Egyptian for “great

house” and was originally used for the royal palace. It was not until
the 18th Dynasty of Egypt that the term came to be used as a
designation for the kings of Egypt. Hoffmeier observes that “from its
inception until the tenth century, the term ‘Pharaoh’ stood alone,
without juxtaposed personal name. In subsequent periods, the name
of the monarch was generally added on” (1999:87).
If we are to accept the chronology indicated in the Massoretic text,

then it seems that it would have been early in the reign of Amenhotep
II when Moses and Aaron entered his courts with the demand that the
102
people of Israel be released. 4
It was against this Egypt, an empire at the very peak of its glory and
strength — that the Lord sent the ten plagues which would leave
Egypt a ruin from which she would never fully recover.
There were three primary purposes that God had for sending these
terrible plagues upon Egypt.
• First, these were to be a judgment upon the false gods of

Egypt.
These plagues were directed specifically against the various

gods which Egypt worshiped
“For I will go through the land of

Egypt on that night, and will strike down all
the first-born in the land of Egypt, both man
and beast; and against all the gods of Egypt I
will execute judgment. I am the Lord.”
(Exodus 12:12).
So Jethro said, “Blessed be the Lord

who delivered you from the hand of the
Egyptians and from the hand of Pharaoh, and
who delivered the people from under the hand
of the Egyptians. 11 Now I know that the Lord
is greater than all the gods (Exodus 16:10-
11a).
...the Lord had also executed judgment

on their gods. (Numbers 33:4b).
The following chart is only a partial breakdown of the

Egyptian gods who were judged in the plagues.
4
One of the major problems with the traditional date of the Exodus are the
references to the land of Rameses (Genesis 47:11) and the city of Rameses (Exodus 1:11;
12:37; Numbers 33:3-5). This city has been commonly identified as Pi-Rameses (“House
of Rameses”) and this city did not rise until 1275 B.C. There are several possible answers
to this dilemma. One is that the name might be an anachronism in the same way that we
speak of the early history of New York, even though its original name was New
Amsterdam. Another possibility is that there was a different city of the same name.
103
Plagues Corresponding Deities of Egypt

Nile turned Hapi, spirit of the Nile.
to blood
Frogs Heqt, the god of resurrection had the
form of a frog.
Dust and Directed against the priests who were
Gnats required to be clean.
Flies in The Ichumeuman fly was considered a
swarms manifestation of the god Vatchit.
Death of Hathor, the mother goddess had the form
cattle of a cow.
Apis, the bull-god of Ptah was a symbol
of fertility.
Boils Imhotepwas was the god of medicine.
Sekhmet, a lion-headed goddess was
supposed to have the power to begin and
end plagues.
Hail Nut was the sky goddess.
Locusts Seth was the protector of crops.
Darkness Re was the sun god.
Death of The pharaoh himself was worshiped as a
firstborn god.
• Secondly, the plagues were to encourage and build up Israel’s

faith.
Then the Lord said to Moses, “Go to

Pharaoh, for I have hardened his heart and
the heart of his servants, that I may perform
these signs of Mine among them, 2 and that
you may tell in the hearing of your son, and of
your grandson, how I made a mockery of the
Egyptians, and how I performed My signs
among them; that you may know that I am the
Lord.” (Exodus 10:1-2).
God had beaten Egypt when she was at her strongest. This
104
was to teach Israel that the God they worshiped was the
omnipotent Lord of all creation.
• Finally, the plagues served as a means of worldwide

evangelism.
“But indeed, for this cause I have

allowed you to remain, in order to show you
My power, and in order to proclaim My name
through all the earth.” (Exodus 9:16).
When Joshua sent two spies to look over Jericho, they found
a woman named Rahab who had heard of what the Lord had
done to Egypt and who had become a believer (Joshua 2:6-9).
Hundreds of years later, the Philistines still remembered that
the God of Israel had brought plagues against Egypt (1
Samuel 4:8).
This is the God that we worship today. He is not a little God who can
only answer little prayers. He is not a God who has taken a long walk
and who hasn’t come back yet.
We worship a God who is there
and who is not silent and who has
intervened in history.
Egypt never fully recovered from

the disasters which she had met in
the ten plagues. From this point
onward, she would begin to
decline. His army devastated in
the Red Sea, Amenhotep II never
again led a campaign out of the
boundaries of Egypt.
7. Thutmoses IV (1425-1417 B.C.).
Thutmoses IV remained on the

throne for only eight years, dying
at the young age of thirty.
Sphinx with monument stone
His best known monument is a
stone which he erected between
the paws of the Great Sphinx during the first year of his reign. On the
105
stone he records how a prophet had appeared to him many years

before in a dream and told him that he would someday rule Egypt in
place of his older brother. He was also told that when he had become
a pharaoh, he must remove the mountain of sand which almost
covered the Sphinx. It is interesting to note that the older brother of
Thutmoses IV would have died in the plague of the firstborn.
Thutmoses IV found himself facing the rising power of the Kingdom

of Mitanni, located on the plains of northern Syria. Instead of
attempting a dangerous war, Thutmoses entered into a political
alliance with Mitanni, sealing it with his marriage to Mutemwiya, a
princess of Mitanni. He also entered into a treaty with Babylon.
8. Amenhotep III (1417-1379 B.C.).
The military power of Egypt continued to decline during the reign of

Amenhotep III. In fact, he conducted only one campaign during his
reign. The was against the Nubians in the fifth year of his reign.
The Tell el-Amarna Tablets date from his reign. Among these
inscriptions are a number of letters from the king of Jerusalem to
Amenhotep III asking for help against invaders known as the Habiru.
The Habiru are plundering all the lands of the

king. If no troops come in this very year, then all the
lands of the king are lost. (King of Jerusalem).
The Habiru were not a specific racial group, but rather were thought
of as barbarians. These particular Habiru may have been the Israelites
under Joshua who were now moving into Canaan and taking the land.
Because of her military decline, Egypt made no attempt at
intervention.
Amenhotep III went against tradition by marrying Tiye, the daughter

of a commoner. It was highly unusual for a commoner to be chosen
106
as the wife of a pharaoh and Queen Tiye was expressly called the
First Wife of the King. They named their son and heir Amenhotep
IV.
9. Akhenaton (1379-1362 B.C.).
Amenhotep IV has the

distinction of being the
first pharaoh of Egypt to
be a monotheist. He
chose to worship only
one god Aton, the sun
god, as the creator and
sustainer of the universe.
a. Physique and
character.
Amenhotep IV
was a teenager
when he came to
the throne. The
Tell el-Amarna inscriptions show his physical appearance to
be sickly and effeminate. However,
his strong personality made up for
his week physique.
b. A new name.
He changed his name from

Amenhotep (“Amon is satisfied”) to
Akhenaton (“He who is beneficial to
Aton”).
c. Religious reform.
Aton was declared to be Egypt’s

national god and all other temples
were closed down. Anyone still
holding to the old gods was
pronounced a heretic. Akhenaton
Most of the priests of Egypt did not share in the support of the
107
new religion. The following power struggle brought Egypt to

the brink of civil war.
d. Incest.
When his wife, Nefertiti, fell into disgrace and was banished,
Akhenaton married his 13-year old daughter, Ankhesenpaton.
e. His death.
It seems that Akhenaton was killed in a revolt against the new

religion. The details of his death have been lost to history.
Akhenaton had no sons to succeed him, but he had seven daughters

who were married to various Egyptian nobles. Disputes over
succession arose and the country was plunged into civil war.
10. Tutankhamun (1361-1352 B.C.).
The civil war came to a close when the new husband of

Ankhesenpaton was placed upon the throne by the priests of Egypt.
The young king Tutankhaton was only nine years old. His bride and
queen, Ankhesenpaton, was fourteen.
With the new boy-king and his bride upon the throne, Egypt returned
to modicum of stability.
a. Religious return.
The first order of business was to turn back to the traditional

religion of Egypt.
• Ankhesenpaton’s name was changed to the more

politically correct Ankhesenamun (“She lives for
108
Amon”).
• Tutankhaton now became Tutankhamun (“Beautiful
is life in Amon”).
The new religion which had prospered under Akhenaton was

now outlawed. The name of Akhenaton was erased from the
official king list. His name and figure were struck from the
monuments.
b. Political strength.
The military prestige of Egypt had been lost and no attempt

was made to regain it at this time.
c. An archaeological treasure.
The tomb of Tutankhamun was discovered in 1922 by

Howard Carter. He had already dug methodically in the
Valley of the Kings for many years and had only one location
left to explore when his sponsor, Lord Carnarvon, decided to
pull out.
Carter sailed back to Britain and personally pleaded with Lord

Carnarvon for one more year, offering to pay all the expenses
himself and Carnarvon generously consented to underwrite
one more expedition. Within days of starting work the head
of a flight of steps was uncovered. Fearful of looters, Carter
covered them up again while waiting for Carnarvon to come
out from Britain by ship.
Together the two men pried a stone out of the blocking and
then Carter cautiously held a candle up to the opening and
peered into the tomb. “What do you see?” Carnarvon
demanded after a long silence.
“I see wonderful things!” Carter replied in a hushed whisper.

There was an enormous quantity of gold in the tomb. The
coffin alone weighed nearly a ton. Secular historians and
archaeologists had been used to dismissing the Biblical record
of the tabernacle as myth because it was thought that there
was not that much gold in all the world at that time. Now,
however, we see that in Egypt at least, there was plenty of
gold and other precious metals.
109
d. Death.
Tutankhamun died after a short reign of only nine years. The

young king was 18 years old and had produced no heir to the
throne. Therefore his co-regent, Ay, tried to take the throne.
11. Ay (1352-1348 B.C.).
Although Ay had been the co-regent of Tutankhamun, his position on

the throne of Egypt was somewhat unstable. In order to secure that
position, he tried to marry Ankhesenamun, the wife of the late
pharaoh.
Queen Ankhesenamun had other ideas. She sent a letter to

Suppiluliumas, king of the Hittites, requesting that he send one of his
sons to Egypt to marry her and thereby become pharaoh. We have
recovered a portion of the letter.
My husband, Nibkhururia [the official name of

Tutankhamun], has recently died and I have no son.
But your sons, they say, are many. If you will send me
a son of yours, he shall become my husband.
After the Hittite king had thoroughly investigated the situation, a

Hittite prince was sent to Egypt. Before he arrived, his company was
ambushed and he was killed. Soon after this, Ankhesenaraun was
murdered.
Egypt now stood balanced on the brink of collapse. The last few
pharaohs had shown little interest in the administration and this only
served to add to the troubled situation. Only a small spark would
have been necessary to plunge Egypt into revolution and civil war.
12. Horemheb (1348-1320 B.C.).
Into this picture stepped a deliverer who was to prove strong enough
to stabilize the desperate situation. Horemheb was the Commander-
in-chief of the Egyptian army; he may also have been responsible for
the death of both the Hittite prince and his bride-to-be. Following the
assassination of Ay, he marched his army to Thebes where he had
himself crowned king. As pharaoh, he began a campaign designed to
restore to Egypt the power and prosperity that she had enjoyed in the
days of Thutmoses III.
110
a. Legal reforms.
He passed many new laws which would guarantee the

freedoms, the property and the privacy of the citizens of
Egypt. He set strict penalties for all violations of the law.
b. Military career.
He began a series of military campaigns to the south, designed

to drive back the Nubian tribes who had invaded the southern
frontier.
c. Economic policies.
He restored trade relations with the land to the south. This

trade had been disrupted during the reigns of Akhenaton and
Tutankhamun.
Horemheb died after a long reign and was succeeded on the

throne by the commander of the Egyptian army, Rameses.
NINETEENTH DYNASTY OF EGYPT (1320-

1200 B.C.)
The advent of Rameses marks the beginning of the 19th Dynasty of Egypt.
This family would rule over Egypt for the next 100 years.
1. Rameses I (1320-1318 B.C.).
Rameses was an old man when he came to the throne. He died after
a short reign, and was succeeded by his son Seti.
2. Seti I (1318-1304 B.C.).
Seti began his reign with a project designed to build up the sagging
military. The Bedouin tribes in the Sinai desert had been threatening
the boarders of Egypt.
After driving back the Bedouins, Seti advanced northward along the
coast of Canaan, defeating several cities in northern Palestine and
Syria, including Tyre and Kadesh. It was only a matter of time before
the Egyptians clashed with the Hittites.
111
When Seti did clash with the Hittites, the result was indecisive. A
temporary truce was made and both sides withdrew t prepare for
future warfare. When the war finally did come, it was not Seti who
was the pharaoh of Egypt, but his son, Rameses II.
3. Rameses II (1304-1237 B.C.).
Rameses II was to be the most colorful leader that Egypt ever

produced, not because of his great military prowess (which is
questionable) or even his building accomplishments (which are
extensive), but because he had an excellent public relations program.
He had monuments and statues of himself erected throughout Egypt
and even resorted to having his name placed upon existing statues.
a. The Battle of Kadesh.
Early in his reign, Rameses personally led his army north to

meet the Hittites on the Orontes River, to the north of
Palestine. Near the city of Kadesh, he was hit by a surprise
attack that nearly wiped out the Egyptian army.
Rameses himself escaped and made it back to Egypt with the

remnants of his army. He staged a great triumphal entry,
declaring that he had defeated the Hittites by his own great
strength. Huge monuments were built to commemorate this
great Egyptian “victory.”
b. The results of the Battle of Kadesh.
The Battle of Kadesh had ended with an expensive stalemate

between the Egyptians and the Hittites. As a result, both
kingdoms pulled back, halting the expansion which had
brought them into conflict. Because of this resulting power
vacuum, Israel would be left free to grow up into a great
nation under Saul, David and Solomon.
Eventually, an Egyptian-Hittite treaty was agreed upon and

confirmed by the marriage of Rameses to a Hittite princess
and her elevation to the rank of “Royal Wife.”
c. Building programs.
Rameses conducted more building programs than any other
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pharaoh. These projects ranged from the Delta to Thebes and

included gigantic images of himself.
d. The beginnings of decline.
One interesting indication of decline during the reign of

Rameses began when the government fell two months behind
on the payment of wages. The Egyptian workers in Thebes
threw down their tools and walked off the job. They marched
to the Temple of Rameses and sat down outside the walls,
refusing to move until they were paid. This is the first
recorded labor strike in history and it lasted eight days. Other
strikes followed this initial one as discontent grew and people
took to robbing the royal tombs by night.
4. Merenptah (1236-1223 B.C.).
Since Rameses had outlived many of his 79 sons, it was his 13th son
who came to the throne under the name Merenptah.
a. Conflict with Libyans.
In his fifth year, Merenptah repelled an attack of Libyans from

the west, driving them from the Delta which they had
attempted to enter.
b. The Merenptah Stele.
One of the earliest Egyptian references to Israel is seen in the

Merenptah Stele. It is a large granite stele, located in the
mortuary of Merenptah in Thebes. It is a poetic description
of the conquests of the pharaoh. Near the end of the text, it
lists the various cities and countries which had been invaded.
The princes are prostrate, saying,

“Mercy!” Not one raises his head among the
Nine Bows. Desolation is for Tehenu; Hatti is
pacified; plundered is the Canaan with every
evil; carried off is Ashkeloni; seized upon is
Gezer; Yenoam is made as that which does
not exist; ISRAEL is laid waste, his seed is
not; Hurru is become a widow for Egypt.
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This inscription indicates that the tribes of Israel were already

a recognized entity in the land of Palestine at this time.
TWENTIETH DYNASTY OF EGYPT (1200-1085

B.C.)
The years following the reign of Merenptah were times of civil strife. For a
time, there were two kings in Egypt, one ruling in the south at Thebes, and
the other in the north at the city of Rameses.
Finally, a ruler arose by the name of Sethnakht. His rule only lasted three
years, but he made certain that his son was able to take the throne upon his
death. Sethnakht is reckoned as the founder of the 20th Dynasty and his son
was Rameses III.
1. Rameses III (1198-1166 B.C.).
Rameses III came to the throne at a time in history when the Dark
Ages were beginning to sweep over the ancient world. Indo-
European tribes had begun to migrate down into Greece from the
north, destroying the Mycenaean Civilization. They then poured
across the Hellespont and into Anatolia, shattering the Hittite Empire.
As the inhabitants of these lands saw these murdering invaders

marching down upon them, they quickly packed up and moved to the
south, eventually corning to Egypt. Finding themselves repulsed by
the Egyptians, they came to the realization that they were hemmed in
by enemies on either side. Choosing to fight the lesser of two evils,
they regrouped and attacked Egypt.
Rameses III refers to these invaders as the “Sea Peoples.” Their force
was made up of Minoans, Mycenaeans, Hittites, and even Berber
tribes from the west who sought to take advantage of this opportunity.
He had two decisive advantages in the Battle of the Sea Peoples
which was fought in the Delta:
a. Superior weapons.
The invaders had only swords, spears and, shields. Chariots

were of little practical use in the marshes of the Delta.
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The Egyptian army had reorganized into a system much like

the later Persian army in that it had a huge archery corps.
Thus, they were able to kill many of the enemy before they
were even within striking distance.
b. Naval maneuverability.
The ships of the Sea Peoples were powered only by sails,

while the Egyptian vessels were powered by both oars and
sails. The were able to out-maneuver the invading ships.
Because of these two factors, Rameses III was successful in driving

back the invaders from the north. However, he had paid a dear price.
Egypt was completely exhausted by the war. Weakened as she was,
she was riot able to reassert her authority in Palestine. In compromise,
she invited the Sea Peoples to settle among the Philistines, thereby
making them a buffer-state to the outside world.
2. Decline of the 19th Dynasty.
Every pharaoh of the 19th Dynasty to succeed Rameses III took for
himself the great name of Rameses, that being their only claim to
fame. The remainder of this dynasty saw Egypt decline as a world
power.
THE THIRD INTERMEDIATE PERIOD (1085-

712 B.C.)
The end of the 20th Dynasty saw a new low era for Egypt as the country
disintegrated into anarchy with first one and then another outsider rose to
power.
1. Treaty with Israel.
Solomon made a treaty with Egypt, sealing it by a diplomatic

marriage with a daughter of Siamun, the reigning pharaoh. The city
of Gezer was given to Solomon as a dowry.
Normally it was the practice of the pharaohs to receive the daughters

of other rulers into their own harem. For Solomon to take the
pharaoh’s daughter as his wife indicated that Israel was being treated
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as a political superpower.
2. Pharaoh Shishak and the Invasion of Israel.
Shishak, a chief of the Libyans, was also the founder of the 22nd
Dynasty. Rising to power at the death of a previous pharaoh, he
managed to bring all of Egypt under his rule by appointing one of his
sons as the high priest.
He granted refuge to Jeroboam, a political refugee from Israel, and

learned of the divisive attitudes that were growing in Israel.
Shortly after the nation of Israel divided, Shishak invaded the

Southern Kingdom under Rehoboam.
Now it came about in the fifth year of King

Rehoboam, that Shishak the king of Egypt came up
against Jerusalem.
And he took away the treasures of the house of
the Lord and the treasures of the king’s house, and he
took everything, even taking all the shields of gold
which Solomon had made. (I Kings 14:25-26).
The south wall at the Temple of Amon in Karnak names many of the
towns in Palestine which were plundered in this invasion.
3. Later Dynasties.
The later Dynasties of Egypt were still weaker. For a time, Ethiopia
ruled over Egypt and an Ethiopian pharaoh sat upon the throne.
During the days of Asa, the armies of the Ethiopians attempted to
invade Judah, but were driven back with heavy casualties (2
Chronicles 14:9-13).
The Third Intermediate Period ended, but instead of bringing a time

of strength, it brought further troubles for Egypt. This was the Era of
the Empires. A steady succession of empires now arose from Assyria,
Babylon, Persia and finally Greece. Armies from each of these
empires would march across Egyptian soil until Egypt would become
a mere vassal state.
As we close, we are reminded of the words on an inscription which appears

on the pedestal of a shattered statue, attested in a poem by Shelley. In an
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attempt to awe the world with its might, it serves to remind us that all such
strength is fleeting.
I met a traveler from an antique land

Who said: Two vast and trunkless legs of stone
Stand in the desert. Near them, on the sand,
Half sunk, a shattered visage lies, whose frown,
And wrinkled lip, and sneer of cold command,
Tell that its sculptor well those passions read
Which yet survive, stamped on these lifeless things,
The hand that mocked them and the heart that fed.
And on the pedestal these words appear:

“My name is Ozymandias, king of kings;
Look on my works, ye Mighty, and despair!”
Nothing beside remains. Round the decay
Of that colossal wreck, boundless and bare
The lone and level sands stretch far away.
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ISRAEL IN EGYPT AND
THE WILDERNESS
When Israel was a youth I loved him,
And out of Egypt I called My son. (Hosea 11:1).
The Exodus Event is perhaps the most significant single event in the Old
Testament. It represented, not only the birth of the nation of Israel, but the
very redemption of God’s covenant people. There are three things which are
necessary for the formation of any nation that is to call itself a nation.
1. A People: For a nation to exist, there must be citizens who will make
up that nation.
2. A Constitution: Just a group of people is not enough to make a

nation. They must have some type of constitution to bind them
together, or else they are just a lawless mob without purpose or unity.
3. A Land: Those people must have a certain geographical area which

they inhabit and which limits the boundaries of their domain.
In the first section of the book of Exodus, we see God’s acquisition of His
people from the land of Egypt. In the rest of the book of Exodus, we see God
giving the constitution of the new nation. When we come to the book of
Joshua, we find the taking of the land.
ISRAEL IN EGYPT
The birth of Israel is especially unusual in that it took place within the womb
of a hostile nation. Egypt was a reluctant mother who sought to retain and to
rule over her hated son.
1. The Entrance of Israel into Egypt (1876 B.C.).
In the latter chapters of Genesis, we have the record Of Israel’s

entrance into the land of Egypt. According to the Massoretic Text,
this would have taken place during the 12th Dynasty of Egypt.
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Israel in Egypt & the Wilderness
The 12th Dynasty was an extremely prosperous period of Egypt’s

history. The pharaohs of this dynasty concentrated on building both
a strong military and a strong economy. Thus, when Joseph became
the Prime Minister of Egypt, he would have been one of the most
powerful men in the ancient world.
The village of Beni Hasan lies 150 miles south of Cairo on the east
bank of the Nile. Within one of the cliff tombs of that area is a tomb
dating to this period. Within is a large wall painting in which two
Egyptian officials are meeting with a procession of Asiatics. The
hieroglyphics state that 37 Asiatics are coming to trade in eye-
makeup. Their chief is named “Abishai.” The men are bearded and
accompanied by donkeys and other animals. All of the adults wear
garments with elaborate designs.
Beni Hasan Mural, 19th Century B.C.
2. The Israelites Enslaved (1846 B.C.).
Only 30 years after Israel’s entrance into Egypt, a new pharaoh came
to the throne who was not favorable to the Israelites who were now
living in Goshen.
Jacob had already died by this time, but Joseph was still living. This
is why the Israelites had been free to bury Jacob in Canaan but had to
place Joseph’s corpse in a coffin in Egypt.
We must also be reminded that at this early date, the tribe of Israelites
was very small. There had only been 75 people in the entire tribe
when they entered Egypt. Therefore, it was no big thing for them to
be enslaved.
3. The Hyksos Dynasties (1674-1567 B.C.).
Following the end of the 12th Dynasty, Egypt was ruled by several
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weak, petty kings who managed to divide and weaken Egypt.
The result was that Egypt was left vulnerable to outside attack. This
attack came in the form of the invasion of a Semitic people known as
the Hyksos. Using superior weapons and military tactics, the Hyksos
overwhelmed the Egyptians and set up their own dynasty, ruling over
Egypt for the next 100 years.
The 15th and 16th Dynasties of Egypt were Hyksos. They began their
official reign in Egypt with the fall of Memphis in 1674 B.C.
4. The 18th Dynasty (1567 B.C.).
Finally, after many years of war, the Egyptians succeeded in driving

the Hyksos from the land of Egypt.
The kings of the 18th Dynasty now proceeded to embark on an era of

conquest and during the next 100 years they proceeded to make Egypt
the strongest nation in the world. It was at this peak of military
strength that God chose to deliver Israel out of bondage in Egypt.
5. A Growing Anti-Semitism.
The Hyksos had been Semitic. Although they had been driven out of
Egypt, the Israelites were still in the land and, to the Egyptian way of
thinking, there was little difference between Israelites and Hyksos.
To make matters worse, the Israelites lived in Goshen and thus held
the “back door” to Egypt. It was important that they not be allowed
to become too strong, lest they become another source of conflict.
The answer to this problem was the same answer that was used by
Hitler in the 1940’s. A decree was made that all Hebrew male
children be put to death. It was in this situation that Moses was born.
THE EARLY CAREER OF MOSES

Although born as the third child to a poor Hebrew family, a social outcast and
condemned from birth, God preserved Moses through a magnificent process
of events to become the son of Pharaoh’s daughter.
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1. Birth and Infancy.
Moses was born in troubled times. The pharaoh of Egypt had issued
a decree that all newborn Hebrew males were to be killed. Moses
was hidden at first by his parents and then placed in a box of reeds
and set to drift of the Nile River. There he was found by one of the
daughters of the Pharaoh who had come down to bathe. It is even
possible that this daughter was Hatshepsut. She had no children of her
own, so she would have taken this Hebrew infant and raised him as
her own, giving him the name Moses, which means “one drawn out.”
As a pagan Nile worshiper, she perhaps attributed this infant to a gift
from the Nile River.
2. Education.
There is only one verse in all of the Bible which even mentions the
education of Moses in Egypt. “And Moses was educated in all the
learning of the Egyptians, and he was a man of power in words and
deeds.” (Acts 7:22).
Moses was given the finest education available in what was at that
time the most advanced nation on earth. This would have included
math, astronomy, engineering, literature and military science.
His teachers had all of the learning of the engineers who designed the
pyramids and the sphinx. Notice that the fame of Moses was both “in
words and deeds.”
Josephus, the Jewish historian who lived in the days of the New
Testament, tells a story of an invasion of Ethiopian tribes to the south
which threatened to overwhelm the land of Egypt. According to
Josephus, it was Moses who led the armies of Egypt southward to
meet the Ethiopian hordes, driving them back to their own lands.
3. The Decision of Moses.
“But when he was approaching the age of

forty, it entered his mind to visit his brethren, the sons
of Israel.” (Acts 7:23).
The children of Israel had settled in the area of Goshen, located on the
eastern side of the Delta region of Egypt. They lived here in their own
villages because the Egyptians did not hold to integration. To the
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contrary, they were perhaps the most bigoted segregationists in all of

history.
Though he had been raised as an Egyptian, there came a day when

Moses decided to visit the people of Israel.
I think that it was at this time that Moses began to learn of the God of
Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. He heard the promises that had been
given to these people. And, having heard this message, Moses made
a decision.
By faith Moses, when he had grown up,

refused to be called the son of Pharaoh’s daughter;
25 choosing rather to endure ill-treatment with the
people of God, than to enjoy the passing pleasures of
sin; 26 considering the reproach of Christ greater
riches than the treasures of Egypt; for he was looking
to the reward.” (Hebrews 11:24-26).
Moses made a decision to reject his Egyptian heritage. This man was
“the son of Pharaoh’s daughter” and possibly the crown prince of
Egypt. Yet he gave it all up. And for what? To be identified with a
group of slaves without homes or possessions, a people who had
nothing but a promise.
4. The Murder.
It was some time after this that another event took place in the life of
Moses that was to become a turning point in his life.
Now it came about in those days, when Moses

had grown up, that he went out to his brethren and
looked on their hard labors; and he saw an Egyptian
beating a Hebrew, one of his brethren. 12 So he
looked this way and that, and when he saw there was
no one around, he struck down the Egyptian and hid
him in the sand.” (Exodus 2:11-12).
Moses had already made one decision. He had already decided to

throw in his lot with the Israelites. Now, he comes upon an injustice.
An Egyptian is beating a Hebrew. Moses makes another decision.
He decides to stop the injustice permanently.
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“And he supposed that his brethren under-

stood that God was granting them deliverance
through him; but they did not understand.” (Acts
7:25).
Somehow Moses had come to recognize that God was going to use
him in delivering the Israelites. He had heard the promises to
Abraham, Isaac and Jacob that the people of Israel would be delivered
from Egypt. He recognized that God had chosen him and protected
him. And so, he figures that this is as good a time as any to begin the
work of deliverance.
Do you see what he was doing? He was trying to do God’s work in

his own way. He was very sincere. But he was sincerely wrong.
Being sincere is never a substitute for righteousness. It is true that
God is going to use Moses to deliver the people of Israel. But it will
not be by Moses’s strength or power or wisdom that this will be
accomplished.
5. Flight to Midian.
Moses had thrown in his lot with the hated Israelites and no longer
had the throne of Egypt to protect him. If our chronology is correct,
then this murder took place near the end of the reign of Hatshepsut as
Thutmoses III was soon coming to the throne. Already as vice-regent
under his stepmother, he posed a threat to the life of Moses.
The Biblical account specifically states that “when Pharaoh heard of

this matter, he tried to kill Moses” (Exodus 2:15). Merrill makes this
observation
“That the pharaoh himself took note of what

would otherwise have been a relatively minor incident
suggests that this particular pharaoh had more than
casual interest in ridding himself of Moses”
(1987:62).
Is it possible that Thutmoses III saw Moses as a possible rival to the

throne and therefore sought to use this opportunity to he rid of him?
We must be careful not to jump to conclusions, but we can
nevertheless note that it would not be until after the death of
Thutmoses III that Moses would feel free to return to Egypt (Exodus
2:23).
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Moses was forced to

flee Egypt. He sought
refuge in Midian, the
wilderness lands to the
east of the Gulf of
Aqaba.
The Anastasi Papyri are

made up of official
r ep o r t s f r o m t h e
Egyptian border
authorities and
demonstrate the tight
control which the held
over the Egyptian
border.
• Anastasi III
records the daily
border crossings of immigrants during the reign of Pharaoh
Mernptah.
• Anastasi VI records the passage of an entire tribe from Edom

into Egypt during a drought.
• Anastasi V describes the escape of two slaves from the royal

palace at Pi-Rameses. The Egyptian commander of the
boarder writes the following:
In life, prosperity, health! In the favor of

Amon-Re, King of the gods, and of the ka of
the King of Upper and Lower Egypt... I was
sent forth... at the time of evening, following
after these two slaves... When I reached the
fortress, they told me that the scouts had come
from the desert, saying that they had passed
the walled place north of the Migdol of Seti
Merne-Ptah. (BAR Jan/Feb 1999).
Though these date after the 18th Dynasty, they reflect the control over
the boarders of Egypt in Biblical times.
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THE PLAGUES
If we are correct in our understanding of the Biblical and Egyptian
chronologies, then Thutmoses III had died by the time that Moses returned to
Egypt and his son, Amenhotep II was now the pharaoh of Egypt. He had just
returned from a successful military campaign in northern Palestine and he sat
now as the king of the mightiest nation on the face of the earth.
When he refused to allow the Israelites to leave Egypt, the Lord sent ten
successive plagues against the land.
1. Blood (Exodus 7:14-25).

2. Frogs (Exodus 8:1-15).
3. Lice (Exodus 8:16-19).
4. Insects (Exodus 8:20-32).
5. Cattle (Exodus 9:1-7).
6. Boils (Exodus 9:8-12).
7. Hail (Exodus 9:13-34).
8. Locusts (Exodus 10:1-20).
9. Darkness (Exodus 10:21-29).
10. Death of the firstborn (Exodus 11-12).
Notice that there is an increase in severity throughout the plagues. They begin
with discomfort and move on to suffering, followed by destruction and death.
The first nine plagues can be arranged into three groups of three plagues each.
Plagues Effects Initiator

1-3 Loathsome Inflicted by the hand of
Aaron using the rod
4-6 Painful Inflicted by the hand of
the Lord
7-9 Destructive beyond anything Inflicted by the hand of
ever before experienced in Egypt Moses
The first three plagues were upon all of the inhabitants of Egypt. By contrast,
the last six plagues fall only upon the Egyptians and do not directly affect the
Israelites.
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MOSES VERSUS PHARAOH

Then the LORD said to Moses, "See, I make you as
God to Pharaoh, and your brother Aaron shall be your
prophet. (Exodus 7:1).
Exodus presents a contest between the God of Israel versus the gods of Egypt
and a contest between Moses versus Pharaoh.
Yahweh versus Gods of Egypt

Moses versus Pharaoh
For Moses to meet with Pharaoh, it must follow that Moses is on the same
level with Pharaoh. How was Pharaoh viewed in ancient Egypt? He was
viewed as a god.
There was a hierarchy of position in the ancient world. The highest position
was that of a god. Next was that of a prophet. Then came the priest. Finally
came all of the other people.
There is a sense in which both Aaron and Moses are commissioned to act the
part of a higher office than is their own.
• Moses the prophet acts the part of God to Aaron and to Pharaoh.
• Aaron the priest acts the part of a prophet.
“Moreover, he shall speak for you to the people; and

it shall come about that he shall be as a mouth for you, and
you shall be as God to him.” (Exodus 4:16).
Moses gets a temporary promotion along with Aaron. Moses will act in the
place of God to Aaron and Aaron will act in the place of prophet.
Accordingly, it becomes readily apparent that Moses has been prepared in his
past and upbringing to act the part of God to Pharaoh. This becomes clear as
we take note of the Egyptian mythology and beliefs.
The hero of the Egyptian pantheon was the god Horus who had the head of
a bird. He was the god of the underworld. In most mythologies, this would
have made him a dark, brooding villain, but Egypt’s concept of the afterlife
made him an admirable hero.
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The birth story of Moses is echoed in Egyptian mythology. The exposed

infant motif follows a regular story in which the parents are unable to keep
the child and he is exposed to the elements. But instead of starving to death,
he is found by one who takes care of him (Edipus, Romulus and Remus,
Sargon the Great). However, only in the Moses and Horus stories is the
placing of the child on the water an attempt to save the child. In Egyptian
mythology, Seth attempts to put Horus to death. Isis tries to save him by
fleeing to Buto where she keeps Horus hidden in the papyrus marshes.
In the Moses story, the Pharaoh takes the place of Seth, the evil god. Horus
is pictured in a stella triumphing over dangerous animals as he holds the tail
of a snake in his hand. In another, Horus holds a staff with the head of a
snake.
The Hyksos tell a story of a magician who was able to take a wax figure and
turn it into a crocodile and then catch it in his hand so that it would again
become wax.
God challenges Pharaoh on his own turf. “You think that your gods and
magicians can accomplish all of these terrific miracles. I will accomplish
them before your eyes and show you that I am God rather than Pharaoh or the
false gods of Egypt.”
A SUMMARY OF THE EXODUS

The Exodus is likened in the Scripture as the birth of a child. The prophet
Hosea gives this analogy.
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When Israel was a youth I loved him,

And out of Egypt I called My son. (Hosea 11:1).
The birth of the nation of Israel was unlike the birth of any other nation in
history. It was a supernatural birth.
1. The Supernatural Growth of the Child in the Womb of Egypt.
Only 70 Israelites went down into Egypt in 1876 B.C. (75 including
Joseph and his family). 430 years later, 2 million Israelites come out.
There is no other place in the ancient world that this spectacular
growth could have taken place because only Egypt had the natural
resources to feed such a large group.
2. The Supernatural Preservation of the Child in the Womb of Egypt.
We have already mentioned the political power of the 16th Dynasty of

Egypt. The armies of this dynasty had marched through Canaan all
the way to the Euphrates River. Egypt was the most powerful country
in the world.
Furthermore, Egypt is a very reluctant mother. She does not like this
growth which is springing up inside her and she seeks to destroy it.
A decree is issued that all of the male Hebrew children are to be

killed. This solution to the “Jewish problem” is unsuccessful and
Egypt fails in her attempted abortion.
3. The Supernatural Birth of the Child from the Womb of Egypt.
Now that the fetus is fully formed, it becomes time for the birth of the
new nation of Israel. However, Egypt continues to be a reluctant
mother. She does not want to give birth to this child which has grown
within her.
Therefore the Lord brings upon her the travail of the ten plagues so
that she must give birth in spite of herself.
4. The Supernatural Protection of the Child once it has been born.
Once Israel comes out of Egypt, she is utterly defenseless. She has no
chariots or military establishment to protect herself from outside
attack. Furthermore, Egypt is still trying to destroy her. When Israel
128
finds herself trapped by Egypt at the Red Sea, she faces the greatest
army of the ancient world. Egypt has the biggest chariot corps, the
most modern weaponry and the sharpest crack troops of any military
establishment in existence. Thus, when Israel comes out victorious
through the Red Sea while Egypt is destroyed, only God can receive
the glory (Deuteronomy 4:32-34).
THE CROSSING OF THE RED SEA

1. The Place of the crossing of the Red Sea has come under increased
scrutiny in recent years and a number of theories have arisen in
attempting to locate the geography of the movement of the Israelites..
a. The Lakes East of the Delta.
Much ado has been made about the fact that the Hebrew
Scriptures have
the Israelites
crossing the Yam
Suph (literally,
“Sea of Reeds”).
It is argued that
this must refer to
one of the
marshy lakes that
lay between the
Red Sea and the
Mediterranean.
This view is
often made to
say that these
lakes were very
shallow and that
the Israelites
were able to
wade across
while the heavy chariots of the Egyptians became stuck in the
soft mud of the marsh. The problem is that the designation
Yam Suph was well known to the Hebrews as referring, not to
a marshy lake, but to the body of water we know as the Red
Sea.
129
b. The Gulf of Elath.
Another view identifies the Yam Suph as the Gulf of Elath,

located to the northeast of the Nile Delta. There is a narrow
strip of land that curves out into the Mediterranean. The
problem with this view is that the Bible expressly says that
Israel did not take the route known as “the way of the
Philistines” (Exodus 13:17).
c. The Red Sea.
The Bible continues to speak of the Yam Suph in a way that

is an obvious reference to the Red Sea. In 1 Kings 9:26,
Solomon is said to have built a fleet of ships on the shore of
the Yam Suph. It is unlikely that these ships were located in
some desert marshes or any other small body of water.
d. The Gulf of Aqaba.
This view has the Israelites going through the Sinai Desert
and then crossing the relatively narrow area on the south end
of the Gulf of Aqaba. This portion of the gulf has something
of an underwater land bridge and is only about 150 feet deep
as opposed to the 1000 foot depth on either side.
One problem with this view is that the Israelites would not
have had enough time to leave Migdol at the border of Egypt,
avoid the way of the Philistines, and then arrive at the Gulf of
Aqaba, cross that portion of the Red Sea, and then spend
another three days in the wilderness of Shur, camping at Elam
and then leaving there to go to the wilderness of Sin in the
allotted time.
Another problem with this view is that we are specifically

told that the Israelites had to make a detour around the land of
the Edomites in order to go from the Sinai Wilderness to the
land of Moab. If they had been wandering in the Arabian
Desert, this detour would have been unnecessary at this time,
but they would instead have been forced to take this detour to
approach the area of Kadesh-Barnea.
Gordon Franz points out why we can know that Mount Sinai
was outside the Land of Midian: In Exodus 18, Moses and the
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Israelites are camped at “the Mountain of God" (Mt. Sinai)

when Jethro, Moses' father-in-law, visits them. Verse 27 says,
"Then Moses let his father-in-law depart [from Mt. Sinai],
and he went his way to his own land [Midian].” 1
2. The Means of Parting the Waters.
When the Bible describes the actual parting of the waters of the Red
Sea, there are several interesting factors which are mentioned.
Then Moses stretched out his hand over the

sea; and the Lord swept the sea back by a strong east
wind all night, and turned the sea into dry land, so the
waters were divided.
And the sons of Israel went through the midst
of the sea on the dry land, and the waters were like a
wall to them, on their right hand and on their left.
(Exodus 14:21-22).
Notice that the parting of the water was directly caused by the “strong
east wind.” The prevailing winds in that area are normally from the
west. An east wind comes off the desert and brings heavy dust. In
this case, it must have been a very localized wind to drive back the
waters at the precise place that Israel could cross.
Although the waters were parted on the “right hand and on their left,”
we must not infer that the path through the sea was a narrow hall as
has been portrayed in modern movies. The indication is that the entire
tribe of Israel numbering many hundreds of thousands passed through
in the space of a single night. If this is so, then the parting of the sea
might well have been up to a mile wide so that all could make the
crossing.
3. The Destruction of Pharaoh’s army.
The chariot corps of Egypt took off through the Red Sea in pursuit of
Israel. Here, they ran into trouble.
And He caused their chariot wheels to swerve,
1
Paper presented at the ETS / NEAS meeting Thursday, November 15,
2001.
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and He made them drive with difficulty... (Exodus

14:25a).
A traffic jam took place on the sea bottom. Before they could retreat,
the sea returned to its normal state, covering chariot and soldier alike
so that all were lost.
THE MOSAIC COVENANT

With the escape of the Israelites into the Sinai Wilderness, the first step in the
formation of the nation was completed. Next, the Lord moves to give the
Israelites a constitution which will bind them together and unify them as a
nation. Upon arrival at Mount Sinai, the Lord entered into a constitutional
covenant with Israel. There were five parts to this covenant.
1. The Preamble.
Just as the Constitution of the United States of America has a

Preamble which states the purpose of that Constitution, so in Exodus
19:5-6 we have the Preamble to the Israelite Constitution designed by
God.
“Now then, if you will indeed obey My voice

and keep My covenant, then you shall be My own
possession among all the peoples, for all the earth is
Mine; 6 and you shall be to Me a kingdom of priests
and a holy nation.” These are the words that you
shall speak to the sons of Israel.” (Exodus 19:5-6).
In these verses, we see God’s purpose and plan for the nation of
Israel. It was a threefold plan.
a. A Possession.
First, Israel is to be a possession belonging to the Lord. She

will be valued above the other nations of the earth, even
though they all belong to the Lord.
b. A Kingdom of Priests.
Secondly, Israel is to be a kingdom of priests. A priest is one
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who acts as an intermediary between man and God. The way

of access to the Lord will now be through the sons of Israel.
There will be no access to God apart from the priesthood of
God’s special nation.
c. A Holy Nation.
Finally. Israel will be a nation completely set apart from the

other nations of the world as a holy nation to the Lord.
It is toward these three goals that all of the commands in the Mosaic
Law are directed. These three goals are ultimately fulfilled in Jesus
Christ and in His church. All of these qualities are ascribed both to
Jesus and to His body, the united assembly of covenant believers.
2. The Decalogue.
When we speak of the Decalogue, we are referring to the Ten

Commandments given in Exodus 20:1-17. They express the eternal,
moral and righteous will of God.
(1) No other gods.
Israel was to be set apart from the other nations of the world
in that she was to be monotheistic worshiping only the one
true God.
(2) No idols.
The language of this passage does not necessarily forbid

statues or paintings as long as they are not objects of worship.
(3) God’s name.
It is declared sinful to use the name of Yahweh irresponsibly

or in profane speech.
(4) The Sabbath.
The keeping of the Sabbath was the sign of the Mosaic

Covenant (Exodus 31:13-17).
The sign of the Noahic Covenant was the rainbow.
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The sign of the Abrahamic Covenant was circumcision.

The signs of the New Covenant are the Lord’s Supper and
baptism.
By working six days and resting on the seventh, Israel gave

outward symbolic indication that she had entered into a
covenant relationship with the Creator who had originally
worked six days and rested on the seventh.
(5) Respect for parents.
This command contains with it a promise, a prolonged life as

the reward for obedience.
(6) No murder.
This is in the pi’el stem in the Hebrew, giving what would

normally refer to killing. However, the intensive form that if
found here signifies murder. This is a command that protects
the individual’s right to life.
(7) No adultery: This command protects the individual’s

marriage and family.
(8) No stealing: This command protects the individual’s

personal property.
(9) No false witness: This command. protects the individual’s

reputation. It is also a call for truth.
(10) No coveting: All of the previous commands deals with

outward actions. This one deal with an inward attitude.
The first four commandments deal with Israel’s relationship with

Yahweh and give reasons for each command.
These first four commands are completely unique to this constitution.

No other society in the ancient world recognized laws similar to these
since it was unthinkable to have only one God.
The last six commandments deal with principles of morality in man’s

relationship to other men. These are laws common to any society
which recognizes basic establishment principles. This is why no
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explanation of them is necessary.
3. The Judgments.
The Judgments (Mishpatim) were the laws which governed the social
laws of Israel (Exodus 21-24). They were case laws which further
developed the Decalogue. Each one begins with an “if” clause (“If
you do this, then you will do that...).
4. The Religious Regulations.
The Religious Laws (Exodus 25 - Numbers 12) are designed to

enable Yahweh to establish His rule over His people as their King.
These laws establish the Theocratic State, with its various outward
symbols.
a. The Tabernacle and the Ark of the Covenant.
The Tabernacle was an elaborate tent which served as a

portable temple for the Lord. It had an outer court where
sacrifices could be offered, and the tent itself which was
further divided into the Holy Place and the Holy of Holies. At
the center of this innermost sanctum was the Ark of the
Covenant.
The Ark was a wooden box overlaid with gold and having a
solid gold cover known as the Mercy Seat. This Mercy Seat
symbolized the throne of the King. The shekinah glory of
Yahweh would reside upon the mercy seat. The Ark was kept
in the Holy of Holies within the Tabernacle. Therefore, the
Tabernacle was the capital of the King. It was the center of
government as well as the center of religion.
b. The Priests.
They served as the mediators who would offer sacrifices on

behalf of the people, taking their prayers before Yahweh.
c. The Sacrifices.
These were designed to keep the people in a state of purity,

enabling a holy God to remain in the midst of a contaminated
people.
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It was always to be through the shedding of the blood of an

innocent substitute that the Sinless King was able to reside in
the midst of His sinful people.
All of these Religious Laws served an even more fundamental

purpose of pointing to the Messiah who was to come. They picture
the person of Jesus who became flesh and “tabernacled” among us.
They picture our great High Priest who entered heaven itself with His
own blood. And they picture the One who is the Sinless Lamb of God
who was offered to bear the sins of the world.
THE MOSAIC COVENANT & THE SUZERAIN

TREATIES
In recent years, archaeologists have discovered various types of treaties from
the ancient world. One form which was often used by the Hittite kings and
their vassals is known as the Suzerain Treaty.
The Hittite Suzerain Treaties always followed a prescribed format. Upon

closer examination, this format is to be found in striking parallel to the format
of the Mosaic Covenant as outlined in the book of Deuteronomy.
1. The Preamble.
The Suzerain (the king). identifies himself as the author of the

proposed covenant in such a way as to inspire fear and awe in his
vassal.
The regulations which the great prince of

Hatti, Hattusiles, the powerful, the son of Mursilis,
the great prince of Hatti, the powerful, the son of
Suppiluliumas, the great prince of Hatti, the powerful.
In the Mosaic Covenant, Yahweh identifies Himself and shows His

relationship to Israel’s genealogy, Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. He also
shows His greatness in conquering Israel’s enemies (Exodus 20:1;
Deuteronomy 1:1-5).
2. The Historical Prologue.
The Suzerain describes in detail the previous relationship between

himself and his vassal. A great emphasis is placed upon the deeds of
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kindness of the Suzerain toward his vassal so that the vassal finds
himself obligated to be loyal to his Suzerain.
In the Mosaic Covenant, the Lord recalls how He has brought Israel
out of Egypt and how, in spite of her constant rebellion, has fought
for Israel and protected her, caring for her in the wilderness. He goes
on to show how He still intends to give her the land of Canaan for a
possession (Exodus 20:2; Deuteronomy 1:6; 3:29).
3. The Stipulations.
These are obligations which are imposed upon and accepted.

They usually include the following by the vassal demands.
a. The Suzerain prohibits foreign relationships outside his own

empire.
b. The Suzerain prohibits oppression by one of his vassals over

another.
c. The vassal must aid the Suzerain in any military endeavor in

which he partakes.
d. The vassal is not to take in any refugees from other countries.
e. The vassal must appear before the Suzerain once a year.
f. Controversies between vassals must be settled by the

Suzerain.
Each of these stipulations finds its counterpart in the Mosaic

Covenant (Exodus 20-31; Deuteronomy 4-26).
4. Deposit and Public Reading of the Covenant.
A provision is made for the deposit of a copy of the covenant in the

vassal’s sanctuary or temple. Since the treaty was so involved with
the witness of deities, it was regarded as a religious object and
therefore was kept in the temple.
There was also a provision made for the public reading of the
covenant terms to the people (Exodus 25:16; 34:1, 26-29;
Deuteronomy 10:1-5; 31:9-13).
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5. Witnesses.
Just as legal contracts were witnessed by a. number of people in the

community, so the gods were thought to act as witnesses to the
international covenants.
Naturally, the gods of paganism are not found in the Mosaic

Covenant, so there are alternate witnesses to take their places.
a. Memorial stones (Exodus 24:4; Joshua 24:27).
b. The song of Moses (Deuteronomy 31:16-30; 32:1—47).
c. The Book of Law (Deuteronomy 31:26).
6. Curses and Blessings.
The treaty was not merely a legal document to be enforced by the

Suzerain. It was a religious document. It was the gods who had served
as witnesses who were to punish the vassal if he broke the treaty.
Curses were invoked upon the vassal which were to become activated
if he broke the treaty. Blessings were invoked upon him if he was
faithful to the terms of the covenant.
In the Mosaic Covenant, the order of the curses and blessings are
reversed. Blessings are first described and then the cursings
(Leviticus 26:3-33; Deuteronomy 28:1-68).
FAILURE AT KADESH-BARNEA
After leaving Mount Sinai, the Israelites traveled to the northeast. moving up
toward the land of Canaan. Acting according to God’s instructions, Moses
sent out twelve spies into the land ahead to spy out the land. When they had
all returned, ten of them proclaimed it impossible to take the walled cities of
the Canaanites. Only Joshua and Caleb wished to continue into the land. The
people of Israel accepted the majority report.
This was a case where the majority was wrong. There is a lesson here. It is
that it is possible to be in the minority and to still be right.
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Because of the unbelief of the people, the Lord said that they would remain
in the Wilderness for forty years. When the Israelites heard this, they decided
to go ahead and take on the Canaanites, against the advice of Moses who
warned them that they would now be defeated. The following battle turned
into a massacre and the Israelites were thoroughly defeated.
THE WILDERNESS WANDERINGS

Most of the next 38
years were spent by the
Israelites near the area
o f Kad es h-barnea.
During this time, the
Exodus generation died
and a new generation
succeeded them.
When the Israelites

finally left Kadesh-
barnea, they traveled
south in a wide circle
around the hostile
Edomites, finally
coming to the plains of
Moab on the east bank
of the Jordan River. It
was here that God
completed His covenant
with Israel in the form
of the book of
Deuteronomy, using the same format of the Suzerain Treaties of that day.
With Moses soon to die, a new leader was chosen who would lead the
Israelites into Canaan. His name was Joshua.
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ISRAEL’S CONQUEST OF
CANAAN
Every place on which the sole of your foot treads, I
have given it to you, just as I spoke to Moses.
From the wilderness and this Lebanon, even as far as
the great river, the river Euphrates, all the land of the
Hittites, and as far as the Great Sea toward the setting of the
sun, will be your territory.(Joshua 1:3-4).
We stated in the chapter dealing with the birth of Israel that there are three
things necessary for any nation.
• There must be a people to be the citizens.

• There must be a constitution to bind them together.
• There must be a land.
The book of Joshua relates the account of the final step of Israel becoming a
nation, the taking of the Promised Land. This book is actually arranged in the
format of a large chiastic parallel. Thus, it can be seen that this book begins
and ends with a focus upon the Covenant of the Lord with His people. In
both the beginning and the end of the book, we will hear Joshua’s refrain to
be strong and courageous in the keeping of the covenant.
Opening exhortation, Closing exhortation &

circumcision, & renewal of the Covenant
Passover (1-5) (23-24)
Battles for the Land ——— Distribution of the

(6-12) Land (13-21)
This is the message of the book of Joshua. It is that God has been faithful to
keep His promises regarding a land and an inheritance for His people.
Because God has been faithful in the keeping of His covenant relationship,
so also the people of Israel are to be faithful in keeping the terms of the
covenant.
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Israel’s Conquest of Canaan
CONQUEST OF TRANSJORDAN
When we speak of the Transjordan, we are referring to those lands which lay
to the east of the Jordan and the Dead Sea. The conquest of the Transjordan
took place during the closing years of the life of Moses.
1. Conquest of
Heshbron.
The Amorites had

carved out for
themselves a kingdom
from the lands of their
Moabite neighbors
that reached from the
Jabbok River in the
north to the Arnon
River in the south.
They called their
kingdom Heshbron.
The Israelites had

carefully avoided a
military confrontation
with Edom, Moab and
Amon, detouring
around their territories
to camp at Mattanah
on the Arnon River.
From here, they requested permission to pass through the territory of

Sihon, king of the Amorite kingdom of Heshbron. In response, he
sent an army to intercept the Israelites at Jahaz where the Amorites
were routed and Sihon was killed.
2. Conquest of Bashan.
Moving north, the Israelites crossed and attacked the giant King Og,
ruler of the Jabbok River and Bashan. Bashan was the country on the
eastern shore of the Sea of Galilee. It was a rich, fertile land and the
tribes of Reuben and Gad received permission to settle here, provided
that their men assist in the taking of the Promised Land.
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At this point, Israel controlled all of the Transjordan from Mount

Hermon to the Arnon River.
THE AMARNA TABLETS

A series of letters were discovered at the ancient Egyptian city of Akhenaton,
located on the east bank of the Nile midway between Giza and Thebes. The
city has since become known as Tell el-Amarna by the combining of two
names:
a. El-Til is the name of the modern-day village in the area.
b. El-Amarna is one of the Arab tribes which has settled in the

area.
In 1887, a peasant woman found some tablets in the ruins of Tell el-Amarna.
She sold them for ten piastres. The tablets were offered to European
scholars, but were suspected of being forgeries and were rejected. The tablets
were taken to Luxor and sold to tourists. By the time that scholars realized
the tablets were genuine, a number of the tablets had been sold.
Excavations began in 1891 and a total of 400 tablets were eventually

uncovered. The tablets date to the 18th dynasty of Egypt, specifically during
the reign of Akhenaton. These tablets consist of correspondence between the
Pharaoh of Egypt and the kings of the cities of Jerusalem, Gezer, Lachish,
Jarmuth and Eglon. However, they are written in Akkadian, demonstrating
that this was the language of international diplomacy.
In several of these letters, there are complaints and requests for protection
from invading Hapiru, a nomadic people who were overrunning the land.
Some of these Hapiru had been joined by the Canaanites and some had
offered their services as mercenaries.
The interesting thing about these Amarna Tablets is what they do NOT
mention. There are no letters from Jericho, Ai, Bethel, or Gibeon - those
cities which were destroyed by Joshua.
THE TAKING OF JERICHO

Following the death of Moses, Joshua sent two spies across the Jordan River
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to spy out the land, with

instructions to pay special
attention to the city of Jericho.
It has always amused me that
Joshua who, 40 years earlier
had been one of the 12 spies,
now decided to send only 2
spies. Perhaps he disqualified
10 others who might be
inclined to bring back a
negative report.
1. The City of Jericho.
As the Jordan River

nears the Dead Sea, the
river valley widens to a
width of about ten
miles. On the western
edge of this wide valley
lies the ancient city of
Jericho.
a. Strategic importance.
Jericho is one of the oldest known cities in the world, its

earliest ruins dated at 7,000 B.C.
The military importance of this city is seen in that it stood at
the crossroads of the Canaanite trade routes and controlled the
door into central Palestine.
b. Physical description.
There are two Jerichos - an original site during the Old

Testament era and a different site in the New Testament era.
The site of the Old Testament city is a mound rising up 50
feet above the surrounding bedrock of the southern Jordan
valley (Jericho is 825 feet below sea level). It is located about
10 miles to the NNW of the mouth of the Dead Sea and
directly west of fords which make it possible to cross the
Jordan except during the rainy season.
There is a natural spring known as Ain es-Sultan which
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originally attracted settlers to this site. This oasis gave the

city its nickname, “City of Palm Trees.” Even today, the area
around Jericho is known for its extensive groves of palm
trees.
Jericho was surrounded by a double wall about 30 feet high.

The outer wall was 6 feet thick; then came an open space of
15 feet, followed by the inner wall which was 12 feet thick.
The city was fairly small (only 6 acres), but held a strategic
position at the hub of four major roads radiating outward to
Gerazim, Jerusalem, Hebron, and westward to the fords
across the Jordan.
c. Archaeological digs have been conducted by...
(1) Austro-German archaeologists Ernst Sellin and

Deutsche Orientgesellschaft from 1907-1909 and
again in 1911.
(2) John Garstang from 1930-1936.
He found scarabs of Hatshepsut, Thutmoses 3rd and

Amenhotep 3rd in a cemetery at Jericho, indicating
that the city was intact in the period from 1450 to
1400 B.C. (a scarab of Hatshepsut would have been
especially rare), but none later.
Garstang created quite a stir when he announced that

he had discovered the walls of Jericho which had been
knocked down by the Israelites.
The following history was outlined by Garstang for

the city of Jericho.
Designation Description
Undesignated Neolithic occupation (prior to
4500 B.C.). Already at this
time the city was defended by
a wall 12 feet high and 6 feet
wide.
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Undesignated Chalcolithic occupation saw a

number of successive cities
(4500-3000 B.C.).
City A Brick wall - Early Bronze Age
- 3000 B.C.
City B Founded around 2500 B.C.
City grows to 12 acres.
Destroyed in 1700 B.C.
City C Hyksos period.
Larger than its predecessors -
15 acres.
High walls and a moat.
Destroyed around 1500 B.C.,
presumably by pharaohs of the
18th Dynasty.
City D Constructed around 1500 B.C.
Scarabs of Amenhotep III
(1413-1377 B.C.).
Double wall system with a
space of 12-15 feet between
the walls.
Walls were about 30 feet high.
City only comprised about 6
acres.
Evidence of violent destruction
- outer wall has fallen down
the slope.
City E Constructed in 860 B.C. (1
Kings 16:34).
The city was destroyed by
Nebuchadnezzar in 586 B.C.
The city was eventually abandoned and the New

Testament city of the same name was built at a nearby
location.
(3) Kathleen Kenyon, director of the British School of

Archaeology in Jerusalem from 1952-1958, had
originally been a student of Garstang’s. She disagreed
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with the dates assigned by Garstang (her tendency was

to deny any correlation between archaeology and the
Bible). She instisted that Garstang’s wall had in fact
collapsed 1000 years earlier. She concluded that
Jericho had been unoccupied in the Late Bronze Age.
Bryant Wood, an archaeologist at the University of Toronto,

re-investigated Kenyon’s final reports which had been
published after her death in 1978. He confirmed her dating of
the wall in question but rejected her conclusion for the dates
of the final destruction of the city. He concluded that this
final destruction had indeed taken place around 1400 B.C.
2. Rahab the Harlot.
...so they went and came into the house of a

harlot whose name was Rahab, and lodged there.
(Judges 2:lb).
Some commentaries have tried to suggest that Rahab was only an

innkeeper. But that isn’t true. This woman was a prostitute. She was
an ishih zonah - a woman of harlotry.
There is a lesson here. It is that the church is not a gathering for good
people. The church is a hospital for sinners. We say we believe that,
but our actions often show that we don’t. We become proud of our
own righteousness.
Rahab was a Canaanite prostitute. She was of a cursed profession and

of a cursed people. In spite of this, she had heard of the power of
Yahweh and she had become a believer.
Now before they lay down, she came to them

on the roof, 9 and said to the men, “I know that the
Lord has given you the land, and that the terror of
you has fallen on us, and that all the inhabitants of
the land have melted away before you. 10 For we have
heard how the Lord dried up the water of the Red Sea
before you when you came out of Egypt...” (Judges
2:8-10a).
She had heard the news of the miraculous deliverance from Egypt and
she had placed her faith in the Lord. Her faith motivated her to action
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(James 2:25) and manifested itself as she hid the two spies in her own
home. As a result, she was promised protection and deliverance from
destruction. Indeed, she later married Salmon and became the
ancestress of Boaz, David and Jesus.
3. The Report of the Spies.
Escaping from Jericho, the spies hid for several days in the hill
country to the west before making their way back across the Jordan
River to the camp of Israel.
And they said to Joshua, “Surely the Lord. has

given all the land into our hands, and all the
inhabitants of the land, moreover, have melted away
before us.” (Joshua 2:24).
Their report reflects,

not only their faith in
the Lord, but also the
terror of the
Canaanites which
had been engendered
by the stories of the
Exodus miracles.
4. Crossing the Jordan.
The Jordan River is

usually forded quite
easily. Indeed, until
Roman times there
were no bridges across the river. However, in the springtime, the
melting snows of Mount Hermon combine with the latter rains to
swell the river and cause it to overrun its banks.
On orders from the Lord, Joshua directed the priests to carry the Ark
of the Covenant into the Jordan.
And when those who carried the ark came into

the Jordan, and the feet of the priests carrying the ark
were dipped in the edge of the water (for the Jordan
overflows all its banks all the days of harvest), 16
that the waters which were flowing down from above
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stood and rose up in one heap, a great distance away

at Adam, the city that is beside Zarethan; and those
which were flowing down toward the sea of the
Arabah, the Salt Sea, were completely cut off. So the
people crossed opposite Jericho. (Joshua 3:15-16).
Notice that the waters were held up far upstream at the city of Adam.
This is located 16 miles north of Jericho where the Jabbok flows into
the Jordan. Since Jericho is six miles north of the Dead Sea, this
would have left over 20 miles of dry riverbed over which the
Israelites could cross.
It is interesting that in 1927 a section of the cliff at Adam fell into the
Jordan and dammed up the river for 21 hours.
5. Memorial Stones.
Then Joshua set up twelve stones in the middle

of the Jordan at the place where the feet of the priests
who carried the ark of the covenant were standing,
and they are there to this day. (Joshua 4:9).
As the Israelites crossed through the dry riverbed of the Jordan,

Joshua had two groups of stones set up. They were a group of
memorial stones. They were to be a constant reminder of the power
of God which was able to stop the waters of the Jordan so that they
could cross over.
Remembering is important. Nostalgia can be good. It is good to

remember God and His faithfulness. We need reminders. The Lord’s
Supper is such a reminder. The real danger in Christianity is that we
forget. That is how we fall into sin. Every time a Jew walked past
that stack of rocks, he would be reminded of the power and the
goodness of God.
A careful reading of the text suggests that there were actually two
stacks of rocks. The first group is seen in verse 8. They are twelve
stones taken from the riverbed and placed outside the river.
But there is also a second group. This group is seen here in verse 9.
This group is also composed of twelve stones. But they are not
placed outside the river. They are placed “in the middle of the
Jordan.”
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Seems like a funny place to place

memorial stones, doesn’t it? After all, Are you going through
who is going to see them at the bottom any dry seasons in your
of the river? Let me suggest that, in the life? Perhaps your road
is a bit rocky. Gather up
same way that the first group was to those rocks into a pile
remind the Israelites of the faithfulness and build a memorial to
and the power of God, so also this the Lord. And let them
second group of stones would also be a serve as a reminder that
He is still faithful. Even
reminder to the Israelites. in the dry season.
But when would they see this second

group? Only in the dry season when the level of the river lowered.
During the dry season, when the crops were in danger of dying and
the people were praying for the coming rains, these stones in the
middle of the river would become visible. They would be a reminder
that God is faithful - even in the dry season.
THE TAKING OF AI
After the fall of Jericho, the
next city on the path of Most archaeologists identify Ai with the
modern site of Et-Tel, about two miles
conquest was Ai. This was a southeast of Bethel. There is a problem
very small city. Its remains with this identification. Et-Tel was
have not even been located uninhabited from 2200 to 1200 B.C.
with certainty by modern Futhermore, in the early Bronze Age
when Et-Tel was inhabited, it was a city
archaeologists. covering 27 acres with a stone wall 25
feet wide and 30 feet high. This does
The city of Ai is always found not match the description given by the
in the Hebrew with the definite spies that this was a town of only a few
men. When the spies had checked it
article, “the heap” or “the ruin.” out, they had suggested that Joshua
Joshua 7:2 indicates that Ai only send in a few troops (Joshua 7:3).
was “east of Bethel.” I am forced to conclude that the site of
Ai is still unknown.
The modern site of Et Tell is
generally thought to be the
location of the ancient city of Ai (it is within a mile and a half of Bethel).
The following digs have been held at the site.
a. John Garstang (1928).
b. Judith Marqet-Krause (1933-35).
149
c. Joseph A. Callaway (1964).
There was a pre-urban occupation of the site as early as 3200-3000 B.C.

This was followed by a prosperous city in the Early Bronze Period (3000-
2500 B.C.).
6:1 Central Jericho Victory through

Campaign Faith
7:1 Ai Defeat through
Sin
8:1 Restoration
9:1 Southern Gibeon Deception
Campaign
10:1 Jerusalem, Hebron, The Sun &
Jarmuth, Lachish, Moon Stand
Eglon Still
11:1 Northern Hazor, Madon, Surprise attack
Campaign Shimron, Achshaph by the Waters
of Merom
11:16 Summary “There was not a “It was of the
city that made Lord to harden
peace” their hearts”
1. The Sin of Achan.
Jericho had been cursed along with everything in it. God had
commanded that nothing be taken from the ruins except for gold,
silver and other metals for the Tabernacle treasury.
But the sons of Israel acted unfaithfully in regard to the things under
the ban, for Achan, the son of Carmi, the son of Zabdi, the son of
Zerah, from the tribe of Judah, took some of the things under the ban,
therefore the anger of the Lord burned against the sons of Israel.
(Joshua 7:1).
Achan disobeyed the Lord and stole some goods from the ruins of
Jericho. This was to have an adverse effect upon Israel. There is a
lesson here. It is that the consequences of sin are never private. The
effects of sin always have a way of spilling over and touching the
150
lives of others.
2. Spies Sent to Ai.
Not one to leave things to chance, Joshua sent spies out to search Ai
for weaknesses.
And they returned to Joshua and said to him,

“Do not let all the people go up; only about two or
three thousand men need go up to Ai; do not make all
the people toil up there, for they are few.” (Joshua
7:3).
Upon their return, the spies related how Ai was not big enough to
justify sending the entire Israelite army.
3. Defeat at Ai.
Only 3000 Israelites were sent out to take the city. They were
decisively defeated. Achan was found and punished, along with his
entire household. Joshua led the entire nation of Israel in a prayer for
repentance over this sin.
4. Fall of Ai.
Joshua took 30,000 men and hid them in ambush around Ai with
another body of 5000 men hiding to the west of the city.
Attacking Ai with the remainder of his force, he feigned a retreat. The

army of Ai began a pursuit and were drawn away from the city as they
chased after the fleeing Israelites.
Suddenly, the Israelites wheeled and attacked the forces of Ai. At the
same time, the hidden forces descended upon the unprotected city,
putting it to the torch.
THE DECEPTION OF GIBEON

The city of Gibeon was one of the larger cities of Canaan (Joshua 10:2). It lay
directly in the path of the Israelite invading army.
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1. The Plan of the Gibeonites.
When the inhabitants of Gibeon heard what had happened to Ai and

Jericho, they dressed up their ambassadors in old, worn-out clothes
and sent them over the hill to Joshua, telling him that their country
was so far away that the ragged clothes they wore had been new when
they set out.
2. Treaty with the Gibeonites.
Believing their story that their home was far away, Joshua made a
peace treaty with the Gibeonites. The Lord had warned Israel against
making treaties with the Canaanites (Exodus 23:32-33; 34:12).
Joshua did not consult the Lord or the high priest before making this
decision. It was to plague Israel in future generations.
When the deception was discovered, the Gibeonites were allowed to

live, but they were made servants to the Israelites.
THE SOUTHERN CAMPAIGN

Up to now, Joshua’s strategy had been to cut the land of Canaan in half by a
thrust across the central region of the land. He was now in a position to turn
in either direction.
1. The Amorite League.
Gibeon had belonged to a league of Amorite cities until she deserted

and made a treaty with the invading Israelites. The Amorite League
saw this as a defection and determined to destroy Gibeon as a lesson
to other cities.
The Amorite League was made up of the following cities of southern

Palestine.
a. Jerusalem.
b. Hebron.
c. Jarmuth.
d. Lachish.
e. Eglon.
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Each of these cities was located in the hill country of southern

Palestine.
2. A Request for Aid.
When the armies of the Amorite League attacked Gibeon, a

messenger was sent to Joshua, asking for help.
That night, Joshua made a forced march from Gilgal to Gibeon,

attacking the Amorites the next morning (Joshua 10:9).
3. When The Sun Stood Still.
It was during this battle that Joshua commanded the sun to stand still
so that the enemy could not escape under the cover of darkness.
And it came about as they fled from before

Israel, while they were at the descent of Beth-horon,
that the Lord threw large stones from heaven on them
as far as Azekah, and they died; there were more who
died from the hailstones than those whom the sons of
Israel killed with the sword.
Then Joshua spoke to the Lord in the day
when the Lord delivered up the Amorites before the
sons of Israel, and he said in the sight of Israel, “0
sun, stand still at Gibeon, and O moon in the valley of
Aijalon.”
So the sun stood still, and the moon stopped,
until the nation avenged themselves of their enemies.
Is it not written in the book of Jashar? And the sun
stopped in the middle of the sky, and did not hasten to
go down for about a whole day. (Joshua 10:11-13).
There have been several different interpretations offered for this

passage.
153
a. Poetical Interpretation: Both the command and its fulfillment

are seen as poetical language consisting in an appeal for
renewed strength and vigor for the warriors of Israel.
(1) The command to “stand still” is dos, the Hebrew Qal

Imperative of damas. It can mean both “be still” or
“be silent.”
(2) The fact that the moon is also called to stand still is
seen as an indication of the poetical nature of the
passage. The moon would have been no help in
providing light if the sun remained in the sky.
On the other hand, if the sun literally set leaving only

the light of the moon, then the call for the moon's light
to assist them would make sense.
(3) An alternate poetic

interpretation is that Some have suggested that
this is descriptive of a solar
Joshua was calling eclipse, but we are able to
for the sun to be still plot which solar eclipses were
in shining so visible in Palestine and none
brightly. This of them fit the date of Joshua.
interpretation says The solar eclipses in
that the last thing Palestine between the years
Joshua wanted was 1500 to 100 B.C. were as
more sunlight - follows:
rather, he was August 19, 1157 B.C.
seeking relief from September 30,1131
the heat of the day. B.C.
November 23, 1041
Joshua’s prayer was
answered by an icy
hailstorm which both cooled the attackers and
destroyed many of the enemy.
An obvious problem with this interpretation is that the

moon is also said to have stayed. There would be no
reason for this since the moon gives off no heat.
b. Literal Interpretation: The passage explains the words of

Joshua by saying that “the sun stopped in the middle of the
sky, and did not hasten to go down for about a whole day.”
154
The phrase “the sun stopped” is   (waYa’mor

HaShemesh - “the sun stood”). The verb can carry the idea of
standing still. Furthermore, the passage says that the sun “did
not hasten to go down for about a whole day.”
If we adopt the literal interpretation, then we are still left with

another question: Is this a localized phenomenon, or was it
caused by a stopping of the rotation of the entire planet?
(1) A localized phenomenon could have been caused by

refraction of the light of the sun and the moon (a
mirage) in which they appeared to be out of their
regular phases.
(2) The other way for this miracle to have taken place
would have been for the earth to stop its movement.
Considering that the earth rotates at a speed of about
1000 miles per hour at the equator, this would have
caused massive earthquakes and seismic disturbances
of epic proportions. Such a phenomenon would have
resulted in a long afternoon, a long evening, a long
night, depending upon what part of the world the
observer stood.
Irnmanuel Velikovsky’s book “Worlds In Collision”

(1950) attempts to document instances of writings
from various cultures around the world which
described a long night, a long evening, a long
morning, etc.
The Biblical account states that “hailstones” from the

sky were instrumental in destroying the Amorite army.
The earth rotates at a speed of 1000 miles per hour at

the equator. The changing of this rate of rotation
would have uprooted entire mountains and cast them
across the sky in an unparalleled cosmic catastrophe.
It may have been from this source that the Lord used
the stones which destroyed the fleeing Amorites.
No matter which interpretation we choose, it should be recognized

that this was seen as an unprecedented miracle.
155
And there was no day like that before it or after it,

when the Lord listened to the voice of a man; for the Lord
fought for Israel. (Joshua 10:14).
You cannot believe the Bible without also believing in miracles.

Many people want to take the miracles out of the Bible. Whether one
believes in miracles or does not believe in miracles has absolutely
nothing to do with whether or not miracles are true. Philosophers
have said that the supernatural cannot take place. And so, they have
tried to define miracles out of existence. But that doesn’t make
miracles go away. Reality has nothing to do with public opinion.
THE NORTHERN CAMPAIGN

When the king of Hazor heard of the defeat of the Amorite League, he called
together all of the kings of Northern Canaan in order to map out a unified
strategy against the Israelites.
1. The Northern Alliance was made up of the following cities.
a. Hazor.
The name Hazor means “enclosure” or “settlement.” It was

already an ancient city in Joshua’s day. Hazor was the largest
city in all of Canaan with a population as high as 40,000.
Hammurabi had kept two ambassadors stationed at this city.
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Fortified with a double system of massive walls and a deep

moat all the way around her, she seemed virtually
impregnable.
Hazor is comprised of two distinct sections: The upper city

(the acropolis) and the lower city (the fortified enclosure)
lying close to the north. Hazor was the largest site of the
Biblical period of Israel. It was approximately 10 times the
size of Jerusalem in the days of David and Solomon.
The palace was destroyed with the rest of Hazor, apparently

in a conflagration that fired the bricks into very hard material.
The remains of the Hazor palace were covered with ash and
debris which contained fragments of Egyptian sculptures,
ivory artifacts, jewelry, bronze figurines and statues and more.
Occupants Dates Description

Canaanite 2000-1700 Confined to the upper
Occupation B.C. city
1700-1400 Lower city only, the
B.C. upper city was not
initially rebuilt
1400 B.C. Massive burning on the
plateau.
1250 B.C. Destruction in post
Amarna Era (possibly
from the days of
Deborah)
1200-1000 Small settlement
Israelite B.C.
Occupation
930-850 B.C. City gradually expanded
850-732 B.C. Major construction
turned Hazor into a
royal city under Ahab.
800-732 B.C. City declined in
importance. Destroyed
by Tiglath-pileser.
157
Excavations begun on this site in 1955 under Yigael Yadin

and resumed in 1968. Further excavations continue through
the present.
A very large Canaanite temple was uncovered in the northern

part of the city. It appears that four consecutive temples were
built one on top of the other, between the 17th and 13th
centuries BC. The first of these was modest, the last attained
its greatest size in the 14th century BC. It consists of three
large rooms built in a row, from south to north. The entrance
hall in the south leads to a central hall, behind which was the
holy of holies, the northernmost and the largest room of the
temple.
b. Madon & Shimron: Royal cities located in Galilee.
c. Cities of the Arabah: Lay within the Upper Jordan River

Valley.
d. Dor.
The Akkadian “duru” means “fortress.” The city of Dor was

located on the coast of the Mediterranean to the south of
Mount Carmel. It was a Phoenician port city.
e. Various Canaanite tribes.
Other tribes mentioned in this alliance included the Amorites,

Hittites, Perizzites, Jebusites and Hivites.
2 Mobilization at Waters of Merom.
This Northern Confederacy mobilized by the waters of Merom in the

hill country to the northwest of the Sea of Galilee.
Israel was encamped at Gilgal near the ruins of Jericho (Joshua

10:43). The distance between these two armies was about 70 miles.
3. Surprise Attack.
Joshua faced a force that was both numerically and technologically

superior to his own. It would be the first time that Israel faced an
enemy chariot corps.
158
Utilizing the element of surprise and mobility, Joshua led his army in
a forced march, falling upon the bivouacked Confederacy in a
surprise attack and completely routing them. Another contingent of
his army moved to Hazor and set fire to that city.
JOSHUA’S POLITICAL MISTAKES

1. He made a Treaty with Gibeon.
Gibeon remained as a spiritual cancer within the nation of Israel. This

was to have an adverse affect upon Israel, causing many to worship
the false gods of the Canaanites.
2. He failed to take Jerusalem.
Now as for the Jebusites, the inhabitants of

Jerusalem, the sons of Judah could not drive them
out... (Joshua 15:63a).
Jerusalem was later captured by the sons of Judah after the death of
Joshua and the city was burned to the ground (Judges 1:8). However,
the Jebusites proved to be a determined people and they rebuilt the
city, holding it until the days of King David.
3. He failed to permanently drive out the Canaanites.
Many of the Canaanite forts which were initially overthrown were

later permitted to be rebuilt, especially those in the lowlands and in
the plains of Jezreel.
The most dangerous thing about the Canaanites was their religious
contamination. The basis of the Canaanite religion was the fertility
cult. This involved sacred prostitution, child sacrifice, bestiality,
homosexuality and snake worship.
The Lord had told Abraham 600 years earlier that the iniquity of the
Amorites was not full in that day (Genesis 15:16). He gave the
Canaanites a 600 year opportunity to repent.
Now, in Joshua’s day, the time of judgment upon the Canaanites was
at hand. Joshua’s war against them was the Lord’s judgment for their
159
sinfulness.
The Canaanite contamination is seen in the fact that it eventually led

to the downfall of all of Israel. The world’s thinking today will
accomplish the exact same thing if you let it go unchallenged. Just as
Joshua fought against the Canaanites, so you are involved in a
spiritual war. As Joshua had the power to drive the Canaanites from
the land, so God has given you power to win your spiritual battles.
But the danger is that you fall short. The danger is that some root of
sin be ignored and allowed to remain.
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THE JUDGES
In those days there was no king in Israel; everyone
did what was right in his own eyes. (Judges 21:25).
The period of the Judges in Israel provides the transition between Joshua and
the conquest of Canaan and the advent of Saul, the first king of Israel.
THE WORLD IN THE DAYS OF THE JUDGES

Joshua’s entrance into the land of Canaan can be dated around 1400 B.C.
Assuming the early dating of Egyptian chronology, Amenhotep III was on the
throne of Egypt at this time and he had permitted his military to lapse into
decline so that he was not able to come to the aid of the Canaanite cities
which Joshua attacked.
After the death of Joshua, Israel was governed by a series of judges for the
next three hundred years. This period saw the Battle of Kadesh and the
following decline of both the Hittites and the Egyptians. During this time,
the Indo-European tribes began to move down from the north, overthrowing
the Mycenaean and Hittite Civilizations.
It was still during the period of the Judges that Rameses III defeated the
invading Sea Peoples, finally allowing them to settle in southern Palestine
where they joined the Philistines. After this time Egypt dwindled into
comparative insignificance.
This was a time of unrest all over the world, and in Israel it was no different.
Joshua’s campaigns had subdued much of the land, but opposition still
remained.
The Israelites did not enjoy the technological advances of their enemies. The
Philistines had a chariot corp which gave them a highly mobile force. This
gave them a great advantage as long as the terrain was reasonably level. For
this reason, the Philistines remained in control of the low-lands of Palestine.
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The Judges
THE ISRAELITE GOVERNMENT

The government of Israel was strikingly different from that of her neighbors.
Moab, Ammon, Edom and the Philistines each were ruled by a king whose
authority extended to all of the people within their lands.
Israel, on the other hand, was only a loose federation of tribes, held together
by a common covenant with Yahweh. There were three visible symbols of
this common bond.
1. Circumcision.
The rite of circumcision had been ordained for the Israelites in the
days of Abraham. The cutting of the male foreskin represented the
mark of the seed. It was a sign indicating that a person was a covenant
citizen.
2. The Tabernacle.
The center of worship for the Israelite was the Tabernacle. This was
a portable meeting place in the form of a tent with a surrounding cloth
wall. It was here that the daily sacrifices were to be made. During the
time of the Judges, the Tabernacle was kept at Shiloh, a city within
the territory of Ephraim.
3. The Ark of the Covenant.
At the center of the Tabernacle, located in the innermost part was the
Ark of the Covenant. The Ark was a wooden chest overlaid with gold.
It contained the broken pieces of the tablets of the law, an ancient pot
of manna and Aaron’s rod.
The top of the Ark was made of solid gold. It was known as the
Mercy Seat. It was considered to be the very throne of God.
In theory, the government of Israel was a Theocracy, with Yahweh

ruling over His people from Shiloh. In reality, there was usually
anarchy with each man doing “what was right in his own eyes.”
(Judges 21:25).
The elders of each tribe dispensed judgment within each tribe,

exercising no authority over any other tribe but their own.
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The Judges
Throughout this period, God raised up various leaders who were

called “judges” to act as Commander-in-Chief in time of war. The
judge acted as the spokesman of the Lord in time of peace.
This system of government had one fatal weakness. It did not provide the
basis for a strong centralized leadership. The only time that the nation was
unified was in time of war, and even then, such was not always the case.
The only thing that made Israel a unity and therefore a power to be reckoned
with was their relationship with Yahweh. As that relationship prospered, so
Israel prospered as a nation and as a people. But all too often that relationship
was ignored.
ISRAEL’S FIVE CYCLES

As we overview the period of the Judges, it seems as though the Israelites
went through a series of cycles. Each of these cycles had the same five
aspects.
1. Rebellion.
Then the sons of Israel did evil in the sight of

the Lord, and served the Baals, 12 and they forsook
the Lord, the God of their fathers, who had brought
them out of the land of Egypt, and followed other gods
from among the gods of the peoples who were around
them, and bowed themselves down to them; thus they
provoked the Lord to anger.
So they forsook the Lord and served Baal and
the Ashtaroth. (Judges 2:11-13).
The religion of the Canaanites had a sensual appeal to the Israelites.

As the people of the land had an agricultural economy, so their
163
The Judges
worship revolved around a fertility cult. The Israelites found

themselves turning from Yahweh to go after other gods and worship
them.
In many cases, this relapse was brought about because of mixed

marriages with the Canaanites.
2. Retribution.
And the anger of the Lord burned against

Israel, and He gave them into the hands of plunderers
who plundered them; and He sold them into the hands
of their enemies around them, so that they could no
longer stand before their enemies.
Wherever they went, the hand of the Lord was
against them for evil, as the Lord had spoken and as
the Lord had sworn to them, so that they were
severely distressed. (Judges 2:14-15).
As a result of their relapse, the Lord sent their enemies in to raid their
camps and villages. They soon found that they were no longer a
match for their enemies in battle.
3. Repentance.
Realizing that the Lord had forsaken them, the people now cried out
to Yahweh for help against their enemies, repenting of the sin that
had brought punishment against them.
4. Redemption.
And when the Lord raised up judges for them,

the Lord was with the judge and delivered them from
the hand of their enemies all the days of the judge; for
the Lord was moved to pity by their groaning because
of those who oppressed and afflicted them. (Judges
2:18).
The Lord would raise up a single man, a Judge to right the wrong and
to defeat the enemy of Israel. Thus the title of judge signified both
the leadership he would exercise as well as the fact that his service
often took place during a time of tension and turmoil.
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The Judges
5. Restoration.
Now the people would enjoy a period of rest and prosperity under the
leadership of the judge as they worshiped Yahweh. But all too soon,
the judge would die and the people would return to worshiping the
false gods of the Canaanites. The cycle continues throughout the
book with a number of different oppressors:
The following list of judges conforms to the order in which they are found
within the book of Judges:
OPPRESSOR JUDGE TRIBE SCRIPTURE
Mesopotamia Othniel Judah Judges 3:8

Moabites Ehud Benjamin Judges 3:9-30
Philistines Shamgar - Judges 3:31
Canaanites Deborah Ephraim Judges 4-5
Midianites Gideon Manasseh Judges 6-8
Abimelech - Manasseh Judges 9
Tola Ephraim Judges 10:1-2
Jair Gilead Judges 10:3-6
Ammonites Jephthah Gilead Judges 10:10-
12:7
Ibzan Judah Judges 12:8-10
Elon Zebulun Judges 12:11-
12
Abdon Ephraim Judges 12:13-
15
Philistines Samson Dan Judges 13-16
It should not be assumed that this is necessarily a chronologically progressive

account. There seem to be places where the ministry of the judges had a
certain amount of overlap.
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The Judges
OTHNIEL
Then the anger of the Lord was kindled against Israel,
so that He sold them into the hands of Cushan-rishathaim
king of Mesopotamia, and the sons of Israel served Cushan-
rishathaim eight years. (Judges 3:8).
The word translated "Mesopotamia" is the Hebrew Aram Naharim - “Aram

between the rivers.” Indeed, our word “Mesopotamia” is derived from the
Greek term meaning “between two rivers.” The rivers in view here were the
Tigris and the Euphrates. During this period, northern Mesopotamia was
ruled by the Kingdom of Mitanni.
There is now archaeological evidence that at the close of the 19th Dynasty of
Egypt, Mitanni forces were strong enough not only to enter Canaan, but to go
all the way to Egypt. For eight years, the Israelites found themselves under
the shadow of these oppressors from the north.
And when the sons of Israel cried to the Lord, the

Lord raised up a deliverer for the sons of Israel to deliver
them, Othniel the son of Kenaz, Caleb’s younger brother.
(Judge 3:9).
The Hebrew word translated “deliverer” and "deliver" come from the root
word yasha, “to save.” It is from this root that we obtain the name Yashua,
“Yahweh saves,” its English form being “Jesus.”
And the Spirit of the Lord came upon him, and he

judged Israel. When he went to war, the Lord gave Cushan-
rishathaim king of Mesopotamia into his hand, so that he
prevailed over Cushan-rishathaim.
Then the land had rest forty years. And Othniel the
son of Kenaz died. (Judges 3:10-11).
This is the first of seven times where we read in the book of Judges that the
Spirit of the Lord comes upon someone. It will happen on a number of other
occasions.
• Othniel (3:10).
• Gideon (6:34).
• Jephthah (11:29).
• Samson (13:25; 14:6; 14:19; 15:14).
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The Judges
The Lord gave His Spirit in these instances to enable His people to
accomplish special tasks. He does the same thing today.
EHUD
1. The Oppression of Moab.
Now the sons of Israel again did evil in the

sight of the Lord. So the Lord strengthened Eglon the
king of Moab against Israel, because they had done
evil in the sight of the Lord.
And he gathered to himself the sons of Ammon
and Amalek; and he went and defeated Israel, and
they possessed the city of the palm trees.
And the sons of Israel served Eglon the king of
Moab eighteen years. (Judges 3:12-14).
The Moabites and the Ammonites were descendants of Lot. The

Israelites had in the past deliberately avoided military conflict with
Moab and Ammon for this reason. But this did not stop these two
kingdoms from invading Israel. Eglon, the king of Moab, formed an
alliance in order to invade Israel. It involved three kingdoms:
a. Moab.
The kingdom of
Moab was
located on the
eastern shore of
the Dead Sea
bet ween the
Zered and the
Arnon Rivers.
b. Ammon.
The Ammonites
lived to the
north east of
Moab. In past
years, they had
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The Judges
been pushed eastward off their homeland along the eastern

bank of the Jordan by the Amorites. Their new home was
located to the east of the Amorites on the border of the desert
and east of the headwaters of the Jabbok River.
Their capital city, Rabbath-ammon, still stands today as the

capital city of Jordan. It is known simply as Ammon.
c. Amalekites.
The Amalekites lived in the Negev to the south of Canaan.

They were descendants of Esau and were initially one of the
desert tribes of Edom.
The “city of the palm trees” is a designation for Jericho

(Deuteronomy 34:3). Though the city had been destroyed by Joshua
and remained uninhabited, the site remained an important one due to
its control of the important trade route through the center of Canaan.
The site of the Old Testament city is a mound rising up 50 feet above
the surrounding bedrock of the southern Jordan valley (Jericho is 825
feet below sea level). It is located about 10 miles to the NNW of the
mouth of the Dead Sea and directly west of fords which make it
possible to cross the Jordan except during the rainy season.
There is a natural spring known as Ain es-Sultan which originally

attracted settlers to this site. This oasis gave the city its nickname,
“City of Palm Trees.”
The site held a strategic position at the hub of four major roads
radiating outward to Gerazim, Jerusalem, Hebron, and westward to
the fords across the Jordan.
2. Ehud the Man.
Judges 3:15-26 tells the story of Ehud and his premeditated murder
of Eglon, king of Moab (perhaps "assassination" is a better word).
Ehud is the hero of the story. It was the Lord who raised him up to
be a deliverer for the Israelites (3:15). This act would serve as an
impetus for an uprising against Moab.
But when the sons of Israel cried to the Lord,
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The Judges
the Lord raised up a deliverer for them, Ehud the son

of Gera, the Benjamite, a left-handed man. And the
sons of Israel sent tribute by him to Eglon the king of
Moab. (Judges 3:15).
Ehud was a “left-handed man,” literally, “a man bound in his right

hand.” There is a play on words here. He was a “left handed man”
but he was also a Benjamite, meaning a “son of the right hand.” The
fact that Ehud was left-handed was significant.
In that culture, a left-handed man was considered something of a

social misfit. The right hand was normally the social hand (we still
speak of extending the “right hand of fellowship”). The left hand was
used solely for matters of personal hygiene. It was considered the
unclean hand. That is why in matters of judgment, the condemned
would be placed at the left hand of the king (remember this the next
time you look at the judgment of the sheep and the goats and see what
happens to those whom Christ places at His left hand).
It was this social misfit that God chose to deliver the Israelites from
their oppressors. There is a lesson here. It is that God uses the
unusable. Even Jesus was described as “the stone that the builders
rejected.”
3. The Assassination of Eglon.
And Ehud made himself a sword which had

two edges, a cubit in length; and he bound it on his
right thigh under his cloak.
And he presented the tribute to Eglon king of
Moab. Now Eglon was a very fat man.
And it came about when he had finished
presenting the tribute, that he sent away the people
who had carried the tribute.
But he himself turned back from the idols
which were at Gilead, and said, “I have a secret
message for you, O king.” And he said, “Keep
silence.” And all who attended him left him.
And Ehud came to him while he was sitting
alone in his cool roof chamber, And Ehud said, “I
have a message from God for you.” And he arose
from his seat.
And Ehud stretched out his left hand, took the
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sword from his right thigh, and thrust it into his belly.
The handle also went in after the blade, and
the fat closed over the blade, for he did not draw the
sword out of his belly; and the refuse came out.
Then Ehud went out into the vestibule and shut
the doors of the roof chamber behind him, and locked
them. (Judges 3:16-23).
The very thing that

made him a social It is not only mentioned that Eglon was
fat (3:17), but we are given graphic
outcast was utilized by details of his fat closing in over the haft
Ehud in carrying out his of the assassin’s blade (3:22).
execution of the king. Furthermore, we are given a glimpse of
the embarrassment of the servants as
we view their thoughts of their master
Ehud makes his escape (3:24-25).
while the servants wait
outside the king’s room,
thinking that he is
merely taking his time in matters of personal hygiene (“he is only
relieving himself in the cool room” - 3:24).
4. Military Deliverance.
Now Ehud escaped while they were delaying,

and he passed by the idols and escaped to Seirah.
And it came about when he had arrived, the he
blew the trumpet in the hill country of Ephraim; and
the sons of Israel went down with him from the hill
country, and he was in front of them.
And he said to them, “Pursue them, for the
Lord has given your enemies the Moabites into your
hands,” So they went down after him and seized the
fords of the Jordan opposite Moab, and did not allow
anyone to cross.
And they struck down at that time about ten
thousand Moabites, all robust and valiant men; and
no one escaped.
So Moab was subdued that day under the hand
of Israel. And the land was undisturbed for eighty
years. (Judges 3:26-30).
Ehud did not stop with the assassination of the Moabite king. In this,
he was not like the Israelites who had taken the land but who had
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failed to take the opportunity to completely drive out the Canaanites.
He escaped only to rally the Israelites. While he had previously gone

against the enemy alone, now he walked at their head. The period of
peace that ensued was 80 years, the longest of any period during the
days of the judges. Moab and Israel were to continue as perpetual
enemies for most of their history.
DEBORAH
1. The Oppression of Hazor.
Then the sons of Israel again did evil in the

sight of the Lord, after Ehud died.
And the Lord sold them into the hand of Jabin
king of Canaan, who reigned in Hazor; and the
commander of his army was Sisera, who lived in
Harosheth-hagoyim.
And the sons of Israel cried to the Lord; for he
had nine hundred iron chariots, and he oppressed the
sons of Israel severely for twenty years. (Judges 4:1-
3).
Ancient Hazor has

been identified
with Tell el-
Qeday. It is
located nine miles
north of the Sea of
Galilee.
The site is made

up of an oval-
shaped tell of
about 25 acres and
a much larger
plateau covering
an area of 175
acres. This made Hazor one of the largest cities in Canaan.
Excavations begun on this site in 1955 under Yigael Yadin.
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Stratum Date Description

1 Destruction by Deborah
2 City was not as strong as Stratum 3 -
the plateau was not rebuilt.
3 1400 Destruction by Joshua.
Archaeology shows massive burning
on the plateau.
What made Hazor so formidable was the fact that it boasted a chariot
corps numbering 900 chariots. It must be remembered that chariots
were to the ancient world what the armored tank has been to the
modern world.
2. The Ministry of Deborah.
Now Deborah, a prophetess, the wife of

Lappidoth, was judging Israel at that time.
And she used to sit under the palm tree of
Deborah between Ramah and Bethel in the hill
country of Ephraim; and the sons of Israel came up to
her for judgment. (Judges 4:4-5).
Throughout most of antiquity, women had a fairly low standing in

society. And yet, this woman was known as a prophetess and a judge.
She was a housewife and a mother (Judges 5:7 mentions that she was
a mother in Israel). But that did not stop the Lord from speaking
through her.
3. Deborah and Barak.
Now she sent and summoned Barak, the son of

Abinoam from Kedesh-naphtali, and said to him,
“Behold, the Lord, the God of Israel, has commanded,
‘Go and march to Mount Tabor, and take with you ten
thousand men from the sons of Naphtali and from the
sons of Zebulun, 7 and I will draw out to you Sisera,
the commander of Jabin’s army, with his chariots and
his many troops to the river Kishon; and I will give
him into your hand.’”
Then Barak said to her, “If you will go with
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me, then I will go; but if you will not go with me, I
will not go.” (Judges 4:6-8).
Barak said that he would go, but only on one condition. He would
only go if Deborah would come along. Barak believed that the Lord
was with Deborah. He wasn’t so certain that the Lord was with him.
And so, he wanted to bring someone along who would guarantee the
presence of the Lord. By insisting that Deborah come, Barak was
showing true faith. But he was also showing weak faith.
And she said, “I will surely go with you;

nevertheless, the honor shall not be yours on the
journey that you are about to take, for the Lord will
sell Sisera into the hands of a woman.” Then
Deborah arose and went with Barak to Kedesh.
(Judges 4:9).
If I gave a quiz in the average Sunday school class, quite a few would
recognize the name of Deborah. But not that many would remember
the name of Barak.
4. The Battle.
As the battle commenced, the forces of Sisera consisted of a large

chariot corps mobilized “from Harosheth-hagoyim to the river
Kishon” (Judges 4:13). We know the location of the river Kishon -
it runs in a northwesterly direction along the southern part of the
Valley of Jezreel, emptying out into the Mediterranean just north of
Mount Carmel.
What is interesting is the other plan-name mentioned. It is

Harosheth-hagoyim. It seems to mean “the cutting of the nations.”
The key city of this valley, although not mentioned in this text, is the
ancient walled city of Megiddo. It is from this that we get the
Hebrew “Armageddon” (Har-Megiddo - “Mount of Megiddo” - the
problem being is that Megiddo is not on a mountain, it is in the
middle of the valley).
In the historical account of the passage, we read that “the Lord routed
Sisera and all his chariots and all his army” (4:15). The passage
makes it quite clear that the instrument which the Lord used to
accomplish this was Barak and the Israelites.
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Judges 5 follows up the battle with a song of victory. In this song,

Deborah says that “the torrent of Kishon swept them away”(5:21) -
seemingly a reference to the Kishon River overflowing its banks,
although whether this is simply poetic imagery or whether it actually
happened in the course of the battle is difficult to tell.
As I read this account, I am struck by the “coincidence” of its echoing

repetition in the book of Revelation.
a. The kings of the nations (Ha-Goyim) are described as being

gathered
together to the
place known as
Har-Megiddo
(Armageddon).
b. It is the Lord
who goes and
fights for His
people.
c. There is a
“torrent” in
Judges while
Revelation
describes blood
“to the horse’s
bridle.” It
seems as
though the
imagery for the spiritual battle of Armageddon is drawn from
this historical battle.
5. Sisera’s Defeat.
And the Lord routed Sisera and all his

chariots and all his army, with the edge of the sword
before Barak; and Sisera alighted from his chariot
and fled away on foot. (Judges 4:15).
How did Barak and his 10,000 under-equipped foot soldiers manage
to defeat a chariot corps of 900 war chariots? This was like having
a bunch of Indians defeat a modern mechanized armor division. And
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what is more, they did it in open terrain. They were on the valley of
Megiddo. This was perfect territory for chariot warfare. The
Israelites had no right to win.
But God was bigger than Sisera’s chariot corps. In her song of
victory, Deborah says that “the earth quaked, the heavens also
dripped, even the clouds dripped water” (Judges 5:4). Furthermore,
she says that “the torrent of Kishon swept them away, the ancient
torrent, the torrent of Kishon” (Judges 5:21). We can further note
that this torrent of Kishon is also mentioned in Psalm 83:9.
If this is not merely figurative language, then it is possible that the

Lord brought about a rainstorm and a flooding of the Kishon River to
turn the valley floor into mud, thereby immobilizing Sisera’s chariot
force. The Israelites were unaffected by this adverse weather and
attacked their enemies, routing them.
6. Jael - a Faithful Wife with a Faithless Husband.
As Sisera flees on foot, he will come into contact with another

woman who will be used of the Lord. It is noteworthy that this
woman was married to a man who had rejected the Lord.
Now Heber the Kenite had separated himself

from the Kenites, from the sons of Hobab the father-
in-law of Moses, and had pitched his tent as far away
as the oak in Zaanannim, which is near Kedesh.
(Judges 4:11).
Heber had come from a distinguished family. He was a descendant

of the father-in-law of Moses. But he had long since disassociated
himself from his fellow Israelites. Instead of living with them, he had
parted from their company and had pitched his tent in the area of
Kedesh Naphtali on the southwest shore of the Sea of Galilee.
He had also made an alliance with the Canaanite city of Hazor and the
enemies of the people of God.
Now Sisera fled away on foot to the tent of

Jael the wife of Heber the Kenite, for there was peace
between Jabin the king of Hazor and the house of
Heber the Kenite. (Judges 4:17).
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This man had made peace at a time where there ought to have been
no peace. But his wife remained faithful to the Lord. When Sisera
sought refuge within her tent, she at first acquiesced, feeding him and
hiding him under a rug within her tent.
But Jael, Heber’s wife, took a tent peg and

seized a hammer in her hand, and went secretly to
him and drove the peg into his temple, and it went
through into the ground; for he was sound asleep and
exhausted. So he died. (Judges 4:21).
In such a way, the prophecy was fulfilled. It was by the hand of a

woman that Sisera met his end. This was the original battle of
Armageddon.
The kings came and fought;

Then fought the kings of Canaan
At Taanach near the waters of Megiddo;
They took no plunder in silver. (Judges 5:19).
This battle was to become the pattern for the victory of the Lord
against the powers of darkness. As Deborah describes the slaying of
Sisera (5:23-27), there is a picture of the spiritual war that was
introduced in Genesis 3:15.
Genesis 3:15 Deborah’s Song

The woman. “Most blessed of women is Jael”
The wife of Adam who “The wife of Heber the Kenite”
had fallen into sin.
He shall bruise you on “She struck Sisera, she smashed his
the head. head; and she shattered and pierced
his temple”
As a result of this victory, there are 40 years of peace in the land

(Judges 5:31).
GIDEON
Gideon is the lesson of what God can do with a man who will simply say,
“Yes” to God. The interesting thing about him is he initially seems to have
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been inclined to say, “No.”
1. Oppression at the hands of Midian.
Then the sons of Israel did what was evil in

the sight of the Lord; and the Lord gave them into the
hands of Midian seven years. (Judges 6:1).
The Midianites were descendants of Abraham and Keturah (Genesis

25:1-4). They settled in the lands of Arabia to the east of the Gulf of
Aqaba where they adopted a nomadic lifestyle. But now they invaded
the land of Canaan.
This period lasted for seven years. For seven years, the Midianites
made successive raids into Canaan. They always came at the time of
the harvest. They would wait until the Israelites had done all the
work of planting and cultivating, and then they would swarm over the
land, taking the crops at will.
2. Gideon’s Call.
Then the angel of the Lord came and sat under

the oak that was in Ophrah, which belonged to Joash
the Abiezrite as his son Gideon was beating out wheat
in the wine press in order to save it from the
Midianites. (Judges 6:11).
In verses 11 and 12 He is called the “angel of the Lord.” When we

come to verse 14 He is simply called “the Lord.” This should not
confuse us. The angel of the Lord always represents the very
presence and message of God.
Gideon wasn’t expecting such an angelic visitor. He was expecting

Midianites. That is why he was beating wheat in a place where you
didn’t normally beat wheat. He was in hiding.
And the angel of the Lord appeared to him and

said to him, “The Lord is with you, O valiant
warrior.” (Judges 6:12).
Gideon didn’t look much like a valiant warrior. He looked more like
the “before” picture on a “before & after” poster. He was here in
hiding doing “woman’s work” (the grinding of grain was considered
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to be the work of women - Exodus 11:5). But God declared him to

be a “valiant warrior.”
That is what God does with us, too. He justifies us. He declares us
to be righteous, not because we are righteous, but because of the
righteousness of Jesus Christ which has been reckoned to us. He
says, “I have declared you to be righteous, now be righteous.”
3. Gideon’s Requests for a Sign.
Gideon didn’t make only one request for a sign. He made three such
requests (though he acted in faith and obedience prior to making the
last two requests).
Request #1 “Show me a sign” (Fire springs from Judges

the rock and consumes the offering). 6:17-22
Request #2 Let dew be on the fleece while the Judges
ground remains dry. 6:36-38
Request #3 Let the fleece be dry while dew is on Judges
the ground. 6:39-40
The first sign involved Gideon preparing an offering of meat and

bread and broth and bringing it to the angel of the Lord. These were
placed on a rock.
Then the angel of the Lord put out the end of

the staff that was in his hand and touched the meat
and the unleavened bread, and fire sprang up from
the rock and consumed the meat and the unleavened
bread. Then the angel of the Lord vanished from his
sight. (Judges 6:21).
I can’t help but wonder if the charred surface of that rock was to serve
as a constant reminder that the Lord had been there. Indeed, Gideon
chose to immortalize that place by building an altar there.
Then Gideon built an altar there to the Lord

and named it The Lord is Peace. To this day it is still
in Ophrah of the Abiezites. (Judges 6:24).
If I had been there, I might have named it “the place of the burning
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rock.” But I wasn’t. And perhaps Gideon realized something that is

all too easily missed. He named it, “The Lord is Peace.” He
understood that the fact that a sacrifice had been accepted by God was
a sign of peace between God and men.
4. Gideon Destroys the Altar of Baal.
Now the same night it came about that the

Lord said to him, "Take your father’s bull and a
second bull seven years old, and pull down the altar
of Baal which belongs to your father, and cut down
the Asherah that is beside it; 26 and build an altar to
the Lord your God on the top of this stronghold in an
orderly manner, and take a second bull and offer a
burnt offering with the wood of the Asherah which
you shall cut down." (Judges 6:25-26).
Baal was the storm god of the Canaanites. The word “Baal” means
“lord” or “master.” It is used in modern Hebrew to describe a
“husband.” Baal was the god who was said to produce rain which
was so necessary to the raising of crops and cattle. He was also the
god of reproduction and produce.
The Israelites had begun to worship this false god. As a sign of their
worship, they had built an altar to Baal.
Then Gideon took ten men of his servants and

did as the Lord had spoken to him; and it came about,
because he was too afraid of his father’s household
and the men of the city to do it by day, that he did it by
night. (Judges 6:27).
The tearing down of this altar was no simple affair. A Baal altar
found at Megiddo measured 26 feet across and 4 feet high. It was
made of stones cemented together with dried mud. Next to it would
be an “Asherah,” a fertility symbol.
So loyal were the Israelites to the worship of Baal that Gideon feared
to destroy the altar by day. The account goes on to show that his fear
was not misplaced, for the Israelites respond by demanding his death
and it is only when his father intercedes for him that he is allowed to
live.
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Then the men of the city said to Joash, “Bring

out your son, that he may die, for he has torn down
the altar of Baal, and indeed, he has cut down the
Asherah which was beside it.”
But Joash said to all who stood against him,
“Will you contend for Baal, or will you deliver him?
Whoever will plead for him shall be put to death by
morning. If he is a god, let him contend for himself,
because someone has torn down his altar.”
Therefore on that day he named him
Jerubbaal, that is to say, “Let Baal contend against
him,” because he had torn down his altar. (Judges
6:30-32).
There is a play on
words here.
Gideon is given
the nickname
“Jerubbaal”
because it was
suggested by his
father that they
should “let Baal
co nt end (yr b )
against him.” We
could translate the
name as “Baal-
fighter.”
5. The Reduction of
Gideon’s Forces.
Then Jerubbaal (that is, Gideon) and all the

people who were with him, rose early and camped
beside the spring of Harod; and the camp of Midian
was on the north side of them by the hill of Moreh in
the valley (Judges 7:1).
The Midianites had a camel corps. These would have been the desert
version of cavalry and, as such, would be more suited to warfare on
the open plains as opposed to mountain terrain. With this in mind,
they had moved their forces into the Valley of Jezreel and had
encamped near the village of Endor on the north side of the Hill of
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Moreh.
Gideon and his forces encamped to the south of the Midianites with
only the ridge of Moreh separating the two forces. It was a time of
tension with battle in the air. And it was now that the Lord instructed
Gideon to whittle down his forces.
When we get to Judges 8:10, we shall see that the entire force of the
Midianites numbered 135,000 men. The Israelites at the outset were
outnumbered nearly four to one.
32,000 men “Whoever is afraid and 22,000 leave

trembling, let him depart”
10,000 men “Separate everyone who laps 9,700 sent
like a dog” home
300 men “I will deliver you with the 300 men.”
6. The Battle.
And he divided the 300 men into three

companies, and he put trumpets and empty pitchers
into the hands of all of them, with torches inside the
pitchers.
And he said to them, “Look at me, and do
likewise. And behold, when I come to the outskirts of
the camp, do as I do. 18 When I and all who are with
me blow the trumpet, then you also blow the trumpets
all around the camp, and say, `For the Lord and for
Gideon.’” (Judges 7:16-18).
This isn’t much of a battle strategy. In one hand they would hold a
trumpet. In the other hand they would hold a pitcher and a torch.
What is wrong with this picture? They had no weapons. The Lord
would be their sword.
And when they blew 300 trumpets, the Lord set

the sword of one against the other even throughout
the whole army; and the army fled as far as Beth-
shittah toward Zererah, as far as the edge of Abel-
melolah, by Tabbath. (Judges 7:22).
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The attack was set for the “middle watch.” This was in the dead of
night when the camp would be filled with slumber. Suddenly there
was a clattering of shattered pottery and 300 swirling lights around
the camp.
The battle quickly turned into a rout. The army of the Midianites fled
back the way they had come. As they retreated, the other tribes of
Israel were called to join in.
Then Gideon and the 300 men who were with

him came to the Jordan and crossed over, weary yet
pursuing. (Judges 8:4).
Gideon knew that victory would not be complete without destroying

the military might of the Midianites. With this in mind, he began a
chase of the Midianites that was to take him 150 miles.
And he said to the men of Succoth, “Please

give loaves of bread to the people who are following
me, for they are weary, and I am pursuing Zebah and
Zalmunna, the kings of Midian.”
The leaders of Succoth said, “Are the hands of
Zebah and Zalmunna already in your hands, that we
should give bread to your army.?”
And Gideon said, “All right, when the Lord
has given Zebah and Zalmunna into my hands, then I
will thrash your bodies with the thorns of the
wilderness and with briars.” (Judges 8:5-7).
As we read a bit further, we find that Gideon received this same

repulse from the town of Penuel. These were Israelite towns. They
were inhabited by those two and a half tribes which had elected to
remain on the east bank of the Jordan River.
Succoth Declined to assist “I will thrash your bodies

Gideon through with thorns & briars”
the sharing of
Penuel provisions. “I will tear down this tower”
Do you see what has happened? They are no longer identifying

themselves with the covenant people of God. They want to “play it
safe.” They have not yet chosen sides in the conflict.
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7. Offer of Kingship.
Then the men of Israel said to Gideon, “Rule

over us, both you and your son, also your son’s son,
for you have delivered us from the hand of Midian.”
But Gideon said to them, “I will not rule over
you, nor shall my son rule over you; the Lord shall
rule over you.” (Judges 8:22-23).
Gideon did not let his victory go to his head. In this he is to be

commended. He gave the glory and the credit of his victory to the
Lord.
8. The Ephod at Ophrah.
Yet Gideon said to them, “I would request of

you, that each of you give me an earring from his
spoil.” For they had gold earrings, because they
were Ishmaelites. (Judges 8:24).
The people agree to this request and a total of 1700 shekels (about 42
pounds) of gold along with other ornaments are gathered and given
to Gideon.
And Gideon made it into an ephod, and placed

it in his city, Ophrah, and all Israel played the harlot
with it there, so that it became a snare to Gideon and
his household. (Judges 8:27).
An ephod was an apron-looking garment. It was worn by the high

priest. It was the badge of priesthood (Judges 17:5). It was held in
place by a waistband and associated with the urim and thummim
which were kept within a breastplate.
What caused Gideon to do such a thing? Was it pride? Or the

sudden wealth that was awarded him? He had faced the hoards of
Midian and won. He faced the temptation of sudden wealth and lost.
ABIMELECH
Gideon’s closing years were a time of great prosperity. A part of this
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prosperity was in the fact that he had no less than 70 sons. One of these sons
was by a concubine from Shechem. His name was Abimelech, meaning “my
father the king.”
Often when a ruler dies, his son succeeds him. But what happens when that
ruler has 70 sons? The answer is trouble.
1. King at Shechem.
Following the death of his father, Abimelech goes to Shechem and

raises support to build for himself a throne and to establish himself as
king.
They supply him with funds by which he hires a band of “worthless

and reckless fellows.” Seventy pieces of silver are used to hire these
men who help to murder seventy brothers.
Then he went to his father’s house at Ophrah,

and killed his brothers the sons of Jerubbaal, seventy
men, on one stone. But Jotham the youngest son of
Jerubbaal was left, for he hid himself.
And all the men of Shechem and all Beth-millo
assembled together, and they went and made
Abimelech king, by the oak of the pillar which was at
Shechem. (Judges 9:5-6).
There is an interesting play on words in the Hebrew text as the men

of Shechem “made to be king Abimelech as king.” They bring him
to the point of making his position to match his name.
Shechem was a Canaanite city. It had been there in the days of Jacob
(see Genesis 34 for the story of Dinah and the people of Shechem).
They were used to the idea of a king and were especially prone to
accept a man whose mother came from their city. Thus, the advent
of Abimelech was as an anti-Israelite king.
2. Curse of Jotham.
Jotham, the youngest and only surviving son of Gideon, goes to

Mount Gerazim and pronounces a curse upon the city of Shechem.
It begins with a parable in which the trees embark upon a quest for a
king. Nobler trees refuse such a position. But the bramble bush
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The Judges
agrees.
“And the bramble said to the trees, `If in truth

you are anointing me as king over you, come and take
refuge in my shade; but if not, may fire come out from
the bramble and consume the cedars of Lebanon.’”
(Judges 9:15).
The picture is obvious. The bramble bush has There is a motif

no shade by which it is able to shade the mighty established
cedars. here of a false
anointed one.
Shechem lies on the saddle ridge between the
twin peaks of Gerizim and Ebal. This is
significant as these were the two mountains upon which Joshua had
all of the Israelites stand and recite the blessings and the cursings of
the law.
“...let fire come out from Abimelech and

consume the men of Shechem and Beth-millo; and let
fire come out from the men of Shechem and Beth-
millo, and consume Abimelech.” (Judges 9:20).
The rest of this chapter deals with the fulfillment of this curse.
Following a three year reign, “God sent an evil spirit between
Abimelech and the men of Shechem” (Judges 9:23).
Abimelech captures a rebellious Shechem and burns its tower fortress

to the ground, sowing the city with salt. This is possibly related to the
concept of a “covenant of salt.” The idea was that salt would
preclude anything from growing in that location in the future.
Abimelech then goes on to attack Thebez. This is another city within

the realm of Manasseh and located some six miles to the northeast of
Shechem. It is here that Abimelech is killed.
So Abimelech came to the tower and fought

against it, and approached the entrance of the tower
to burn it with fire.
But a certain woman threw an upper millstone
on Abimelech’s head, crushing his skull.
Then he called quickly to the young man, his
armor bearer, and said to him, “Draw your sword
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and kill me, lest it be said of me, `A woman slew

him.’” So the young man pierced him through, and he
died. (Judges 9:52-54).
Abimelech’s death is an ignoble one; he is killed by a lowly weapon

(the millstone) and at the hands of a woman. This is reminiscent of
the death of Sisera.
Sisera Killed by Tent peg through the Head

a woman
Abimelech A Millstone crushed his Head
This motif of the crushed head of the enemy of God harkens back to
the prophecy of the seed of the serpent from Genesis 3:15.
JEPHTHAH
1. The Judgment of God.
Then the sons of Israel again did evil in the

sight of the Lord, served the Baals and the Ashtaroth,
the gods of Aram, the gods of Sidon, the gods of
Moab, the gods of the sons of Ammon, and the gods of
the Philistines; thus they forsook the Lord and did not
serve Him.
And the anger of the Lord burned against
Israel, and He sold them into the hands of the
Philistines, and into the hands of the sons of Ammon.
(Judges 10:6-7).
Once again the Israelites turned away from the Lord and indulged in
the pagan practices of the nations around them. This time, judgment
came from two separate directions.
a. The Philistines.
These were a group of warriors known as the “Sea Peoples.”

They had attempted an invasion of Egypt and had only barely
been repulsed in the days of Rameses III. They had
subsequently founded five cities on the seacoast area of
southwestern Canaan.
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The Judges
b. The Ammonites.
These were the

descendants of
Lot through his
incestuous
relationship with
his daughter.
They were
located to the
southeast of
Gilead.
It is the second of these

two groups that is of
foremost interest in this
passage. The Philistines
become a major concern as we examine Samson. Thus, Jephthah will
be to the eastern tribes what Samson will be to the tribes of the west.
2. Jephthah - A Man Rejected.
Now Jephthah the Gileadite was a valiant

warrior, but he was the son of a harlot. And Gilead
was the father of Jephthah.
And Gilead’s wife bore him sons; and when
his wife’s sons grew up, they drove Jephthah out and
said to him, “You shall not have an inheritance in our
father’s house, for you are the son of another
woman.”
So Jephthah fled from his brothers and lived
in the land of Tob; and worthless fellows gathered
themselves about Jephthah, and they went out with
him. (Judges 11:1-3).
Jephthah was illegitimate. As such, he was a social outcast and was

stripped of any rights to inheritance. This was no fault of his own.
He was being persecuted for the sins of his parents.
Those who speak of sexual sins as merely “a matter between

consenting adults” normally forget the repercussions that such
activities have upon the children.
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The Judges
Jephthah was forced to live in exile in “the land of Tob.” This was
the area to the southeast of the Sea of Galilee. Here he became the
leader of a group who are described as “worthless fellows,” literally
“empty men”). The same term was used of the men who followed
Abimelech (Judges 9:4).
3. An Invitation to Leadership.
And it happened when the sons of Ammon

fought against Israel that the elders of Gilead went to
get Jephthah from the land of Tob; 6 and they said to
Jephthah, “Come and be our chief that we may fight
against the sons of Ammon.” (Judges 11:5-6).
It must have taken a great deal for the elders of Gilead to swallow
their pride and come to Jephthah. They ask that he come and be their
“chief.” In verse 11 they make him “head and chief” over them.
4. Initial Negotiations.
Before seeking a military resolve, Jephthah sends messengers to the

king of the Ammonites in an attempt to negotiate a peaceful resolve.
Several arguments are given.
a. Israel took only the land of the Amorites and then only after
being attacked when they sought safe passage through that
land (Judges 11:15-22).
b. It was the Lord who drove out the Amorites, something that
Chemosh, the god of the Ammonites had failed to do (Judges
11:23-24).
c. This land had now been the uncontested property of the

Israelites for the past 300 years (Judges 11:26).
5. Victory of Jephthah.
Now the Spirit of the Lord came upon

Jephthah, so that he passed through Gilead and
Manasseh; then he passed through Mizpah of Gilead,
and from Mispah of Gilead he went on to the sons of
Ammon. (Judges 11:29).
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The Judges
This is only the second time up to this point that it had been said of
one of the judges that “the Spirit of the Lord came upon” him. It is
an indication that Jephthah was trusting in the Lord for this victory.
Indeed, Hebrews 11:32 lists Jephthah as one of those who “by faith
conquered kingdoms, performed acts of righteousness, obtained
promises, shut the mouths of lions, quenched the power of fire,
escaped the edge of the sword, from weakness were made strong,
became mighty in war, put foreign armies to flight” (Hebrews 11:33-
34).
So Jephthah crossed over to the sons of

Ammon to fight against them; and the Lord gave them
into his hand.
And he struck them with a very great slaughter
from Aroer to the entrance of Minnith, twenty cities,
and as far as Abel-keramim. So the sons of Ammon
were subdued before the sons of Israel. (Judges
11:12-13).
We are not told the specific strategy used - only that it was the Lord
who gave the victory. The result was not only that the Ammonites
were pushed back into their own land, but that the entire line of
fortresses which divided the lands of Israel from those of Ammon
now fell to the Israelites.
6. Jephthah’s Vow (Judges 11:30-31; 11:34-40).
Prior to the battle, Jephthah made a vow to the Lord that if he was
victorious then upon his return “whatever comes out of the doors of
my house to meet me when I return in peace from the sons of Ammon,
it shall be the Lord’s, and I will offer it up as a burnt offering”
(Judges 11:31). Upon his victorious return, the first one to come out
of the door of his house was his daughter. He responds in sorrow.
And it came about when he saw her, that he

tore his clothes and said, “Alas, m daughter! You
have brought me very low, and you are among those
who trouble me; for I have given my word to the Lord,
and I cannot take it back.” (Judges 11:35).
She asks for a two month respite to mourn “because of my virginity”

(Judges 11:37).
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The Judges
And it came about at the end of two months

that she returned to her father, who did to her
according to the vow which he had made; and she had
no relations with a man. Thus it became a custom in
Israel, 40 that the daughters of Israel went yearly to
commemorate the daughter of Jephthah the Gileadite
four days in the year. (Judges 11:39-40).
This passage has led to some difficult questions since the natural
reading seems to indicate that Jephthah engaged in human sacrifice,
putting his own daughter to death in order to fulfill his foolish vow.
There are two possibilities:
a. Jephthah did not actually have her put to death, but only
sacrificed her in the sense of wholly dedicating her to the
service of the Lord.
b. Jephthah actually performed a human sacrifice, putting his

daughter to death as a sacrifice to God.
Evidences have been offered for both of these interpretations.
Dedicated to God Human Sacrifice

Being a Judge, Jephthah must The promise of a simple animal
have been Good-fearing and sacrifice would hardly be a
so would not have violated convincing vow in this situation
the Law
The Spirit of the Lord comes This does not take place while
on Jephthah and he is the Spirit of the Lord is on him
mentioned in Hebrews 11 as and he is not commended for
being one of faith this action
Daughter bewails her The burnt offering involves
virginity and Judges 11:29 death in all 286 Old Testament
makes comment that “she occurrences
knew not a man”
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The Judges
Exodus 38:8 and 1 Samuel If it was a frequent practice for

2:22 speak of women in women to serve in the
service of the Tabernacle Tabernacle, then why would this
be a case for mourning?
Human sacrifice would have Human sacrifice was viewed as
been clearly understood as a a last ditch effort in battle (2
violation of God’s Law; Kings 3:27).
public opinion would have
disallowed it
Leviticus 27:1-8 allows for There is little evidence of
redemption of humans vowed Jephthah’s knowledge of the
for sacrifice Law
Deuteronomy 12:31 warns that the Israelites were not to engage in the
pagan practices of the Canaanites, “for every abominable act which
the Lord hates they have done for their gods; for they even burn their
sons and daughters in the fire to their gods.”
THE PHILISTINES
The story of Samson opens with a new antagonist for Israel. They are called
the Philistines.
Now the sons of Israel again did evil in the sight of the
Lord, so that the Lord gave them into the hands of the
Philistines forty years. (Judges 13:1).
We have already made mention of the advent of the five cities of the
Philistines upon the shores of southwest Canaan.
The word “Philistine” is a transliteration and is not a Hebrew or even a

Semitic word. It seems to be Indo-European in origin. It is from this name
that we derive the term “Palestine.”
Genesis 10:14 identifies the tribal origins of the Philistines as a Hamitic

people coming from the Casluhim (See also Jeremiah 47:4; Amos 9:7;
Deuteronomy 2:23 and 1 Chronicles 1:12). The most plausible theory is that
these were related either to the Minoans of Crete or to the Mycenaeans of
early Greece.
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The Judges
Egyptian records speak of an invading group of “Sea Peoples” who were

barely repulsed by Rameses III in 1188 B.C. It is probable that the Philistines
were among these Sea Peoples.
With the exception of Ekron, the five

major cities of the Philistines were all
originally Canaanite cities which were
taken over by the Philistines. From their
position on the coast, they controlled the
major trade route into Egypt.
(1) Ashkelon was the only city to

have its own harbor and so it
was the major seaport for the
Philistines. Letters from
Ashkelon appear among the
Amarna Tablets in Egypt.
(2) Gaza was located 3 miles inland

from the coast of the
Mediterranean. The city was situated on a high hill a hundred feet
over the surrounding plain. It boasted fifteen fresh water wells.
(3) Ashdod was originally inhabited by the Anakim. The city boasted a
temple to their god Dagon. It would be here that the Philistines
would bring the captured Ark in the days of Samuel.
(4) Ekron is the only city to have been built by the Philistines and not
merely taken over.
(5) Gath (“Winepress”) was the home of the Anakim, a race of giants,
one of whom was Goliath. As there were several towns by the name
of Gath, the exact location of this city has not yet been determined.
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The Judges
SAMSON
1. Birth and Early Life.
“For behold, you shall conceive and give birth

to a son, and no razor shall come upon his head, for
the boy shall be a Nazarite to God from the womb;
and he shall begin to deliver Israel from the hands of
the Philistines.” (Judges 13:5).
The requirements of the Nazarite Vow had been set forth in Numbers
6:2-5. It was a “vow of dedication.” Indeed, the word “Nazarite”
comes from the Hebrew word nezer, “to separate.”
Samson was to be separated unto God from the womb. While those
who partook of the Nazarite Vow generally only did so for a limited
time, Samson was to be a permanent Nazarite.
Then the woman gave birth to a son and

named him Samson; and the child grew up and the
Lord blessed him.
And the Spirit of the Lord began to stir him in
Mahanch-Dan, between Zorah and Eshtaol. (Judges
13:24-25).
The name “Samson” seems to be taken from the Hebrew word

shemesh, meaning “sun.” Perhaps this was because he was born only
a few miles away from Beth-Shemesh (“House of the Sun”). As
such, it was a Canaanite name, for they worshiped the sun.
At some point in his life, the Spirit of God “began to stir” within
Samson. Perhaps this stirring was with reference to his great
strength.
We should not think of Samson as a great muscle-man. Rather, he

seems to have been an ordinary man gifted with extraordinary
strength.
3. His Desire for a Philistine Woman.
Then Samson went down to Timnah and saw

a woman in Timnah, one of the daughters of the
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The Judges
Philistines. (Judges 14:1).
Samson lived in a cross-cultural community. The Sorek Valley

hosted both Israelite, Canaanite and Philistine towns. And as Samson
came of marital age, his eye fell upon a Philistine woman.
In verse 3 he says to his father, “Get her for me, for she looks good
to me.” Again in verse 7 we read that “she looked good to Samson.”
In both these cases, the Hebrew says literally, “She is right in my
eyes.” This is a refrain which we will see throughout the closing
chapters of the book of Judges when “every man did what was right
in his own eyes” (Judges 17:6; 21:25).
Samson was a He-Man with a "she-weakness." He had a tendency

toward lust that was to conquer him. But the real point of this story
is how God used Samson in spite of his failures. It is a story of the
sovereignty of God.
Judges 14:4 says that all of his troubled relationships were "of the
Lord, for He was seeking an occasion against the Philistines."
4. The Wedding Incident.
Wedding feasts were

no short affair. They
customarily lasted as
long as a week
(14:17). The groom
would throw a great
party to which he
would invite all of his
friends. Since the
wedding was taking
place in a Philistine
town, it was a group
of Philistines who
came to attend the
feast.
Normally, custom mandated that the wedding feast be at the house of

the groom. But this was not the case here. Instead of this Philistine
girl associating herself with the people of God, Samson was
associating himself with the Philistines. In the midst of the feast,
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The Judges
Samson proposes a riddle and a very expensive wager.
So he said to them, “Out of the eater came

something to eat, and out of the strong came
something sweet.” (Judges 14:14).
After three days, the Philistine guests have not discovered the answer,
so they threaten his bride with death and with the destruction of her
father’s home. She, in turn, solicits the answer from Samson and
betrays him.
Then the Spirit of the Lord came upon him

mightily, and he went down to Ashkelon and killed
thirty of them and took their spoil, and gave the
changes of clothes to those who told the riddle. And
his anger burned, and he went up to his father’s
house. (Judges 14:19).
Samson’s attack on the Philistines was motivated, not from spiritual

reasons, but merely of revenge. Remember that the Lord was using
his strength in spite of his impure motivations.
This is the first of several escalating conflicts with the Philistines.
Verse Incident Number Killed

14:19 Samson kills men of Ashkelon to 30 men
take their clothes in payment
15:5 Samson burns farmlands of Unknown
Philistines
15:8 Samson strikes with a great Unknown
slaughter
15:15 Samson breaks ropes that bind 1000 men
him and fights with the jawbone of
an ass
16:30 Samson pushes down the house of More than he had
Dagon, killing all within killed in his life
5. In the Time of Wheat Harvest - An Escalating Vengeance.
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The Judges
The anger of his vengeance temporarily cooled, Samson returns to

take his wife, only to find that she has been given to another man.
Samson takes this as a further insult and takes up a career as an
arsonist, burning up a great number of the fields of the Philistines.
The Philistines respond by burning the home of his would-be bride
and her father. They die in the flames, she suffering the very death
she had sought to avoid in initially betraying Samson.
The escalation continues as Samson “struck them ruthlessly with a

great slaughter” (Judges 15:8). Following this, Samson escapes to
a refuge in a cave near the town of Etam (a mere 2 miles from
Bethlehem) in the territory of Judah.
6. The Lehi Incident - the Jawbone of an Ass.
Samson’s actions had already brought retribution upon his bride and
father-in-law. Now the Philistines invade the territory of Judah,
putting pressure upon the Israelites to turn Samson over to them.
They agree and Samson is bound and made a captive of the
Philistines.
When he came to Lehi, the Philistines shouted

as they met him. And the Spirit of the Lord came
upon him mightily so that the ropes that were on his
arms were as flax that is burned with fire, and his
bonds dropped from his hands.
And he found a fresh jawbone of a donkey, so
he reached out and took it and killed a thousand men
with it. (Judges 15:14-15).
The name “Lehi” means “jawbone.” It seems likely that it was given
this designation following this event.
7. The Gates of Gaza.
Now Samson went to Gaza and saw a harlot

there, and went in to her.
When it was told to the Gazites, saying,
“Samson has come here,” they surrounded the place
and lay in wait for him all night at the gate of the city.
And they kept silent all night, saying, “Let us wait
until the morning light, then we will kill him.”
Now Samson lay until midnight, and at
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The Judges
midnight he arose and took hold of the doors of the

city gate and the two posts and pulled them up along
with the bars; then he put them on his shoulders and
carried them up to the top of the mountain which is
opposite Hebron. (Judges 16:1-3).
This is the second time a woman became the source of trouble for
Samson. Perhaps as many as 20 years had passed since his last
encounter with the Philistines (Judges 15:20).
While they lie in wait for him, he literally breaks out of the city,
carrying the city gates with him. This had a special significance in
the ancient world. A city was considered to be no stronger than its
gates. To have the gates carried off was the height of humiliation for
this city.
Hebron is located nearly 40 miles to the east of Gaza. Furthermore,

it is uphill all the way, rising to a height of 3000 feet above sea level.
Apparently, Samson took these gates there as a trophy of the strength
of the God of Israel.
8. Samson and Delilah.
After this it came about that he loved a woman

in the valley of Sorek, whose name was Delilah.
(Judges 16:4).
Though Delilah is not described as a Philistine, her name does not

seem to be Semitic in origin and so it is likely that she was a
Philistine. The lords of the Philistines offer her a large bribe if she
will discover the secret of Samson’s great strength. Samson is at first
evasive, telling her lie after lie. But ultimately he relents.
And it came about when she pressed him daily

with her words and urged him, that his soul was
annoyed to death.
So he told her all that was in his heart and
said to her, “A razor has never come on my head, for
I have been a Nazarite to God from my mother’s
womb. If I am shaved, then my strength will leave me
and I shall become weak and be like any other man.”
(Judges 16:16-17).
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The Judges
Delilah is quick to make use of this information and, while he is

sleeping, she has his head shaved.
And she said, “The Philistines are upon you,

Samson!” And he awoke from his sleep and said, “I
will go out as at other times and shake myself free.”
But he did not know that the Lord had departed from
him.
Then the Philistines seized him and gouged
out his eyes; and they brought him down to Gaza and
bound him with bronze chains, and he was a grinder
in the prison
However, the hair of his head began to grow
again after it was shaved off. (Judges 16:20-22).
The gouging of the eyes of a hated prisoner was common in the

ancient world. It assured him a fate of servitude. He is brought to
Gaza, the city which he had humiliated by carrying away the gates.
Thrown into prison, he is assigned the duty of grinding mill by hand

(the large animal-powered mills were not yet in use).
9. Samson’s Death.
Now the lords of the Philistines assembled to

offer a great sacrifice to Dagon their god, and to
rejoice, for they said, “Our god has given Samson our
enemy into our hands.” (Judges 16:23).
“Dagon” was the god of the Philistines. Though the name is similar
to dag, the Hebrew word for “fish,” more recent archaeological
studies have identified Dagon as a Canaanite deity which had been
borrowed by the Philistines. In Ugaritic literature he is the father of
Baal. Dagon was the god of grain (dgn). Perhaps this was why
Samson had been given the task of grinding grain in the prison. They
attributed this victory, not to Samson’s disobedience, but to the power
of their own god.
In the midst of their celebration, they have Samson brought out for
their amusement. In the midst of this entertainment, Samson prays
one last time to the Lord.
Then Samson called to the Lord and said, “O
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The Judges
Lord God, please remember me and please strengthen

me just this time, O God, that I may at once be
avenged of the Philistines for my two eyes.”
And Samson grasped the two middle pillars on
which the house rested, and braced himself against
them, the one with his right hand and the other with
his left.
And Samson said, “Let me die with the
Philistines!” And he bent with all his might so that
the house fell on the lords and all the people who
were in it. So the dead whom he killed at his death
were more than those whom he killed in his life.
(Judges 16:28-30).
Two Philistine temples have been uncovered by archaeologists. One

at Tel Qasile, in northern Tel Aviv, and one in Tel Miqne, ancient
Ekron, 21 miles south of Tel Aviv. Both temples share a unique
design; the roof was supported by two central pillars. The pillars
were made of wood and rested on stone support bases six feet apart
from one another.
199
ISRAEL IN THE DAYS OF
THE MONARCHY
Thus the word of Samuel came to all Israel. Now
Israel went out to meet the Philistines in battle and camped
beside Ebenezer while the Philistines camped in Aphek.
And the Philistines drew up in battle array to meet
Israel. When the battle spread, Israel was defeated before the
Philistines who killed about four thousand men on the
battlefield. (1 Samuel 4:1-2).
The Philistines had become the dominate force along the Mediterranean
coastline in the latter days of the Judges. It is from this group that we derive
the name “Palestine.”
During the reign of Rameses III of Egypt, this area had experienced a massive
wave of migrations. The Sea Peoples had swept down the coast toward
Egypt and were only turned away after a terrible battle on the Nile River.
One tribe of these Sea Peoples were the Peleset - the Philistines. They had
settled on the southeastern coast of the Mediterranean, establishing
themselves in five cities on the coastal plain. For years there had been
discord between the Philistines in the lowlands and the Israelites who lived
in the hills.
Indeed, the reason that the Israelites lived in the hills is because the
Philistines had iron chariots and this gave them greater mobility in the
lowlands and made them masters of the coastal areas (Judges 1:19). But
now, for the first time, the Israelites fight a pitched battle against the
Philistines. The result is disastrous.
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Israel in the Days of the Monarchy
The place of this battle was known as Ebenezer. The name “Ebenezer” is a
compound made up of the joining of two words.
a. Eben is the word for “stone.”
b. Ezar is the verb, “to help.”
It therefore means “the stone of help.” Unfortunately, there was no help for
the people of Israel on that day.
ISRAEL AND THE ARK

When the people came into the camp, the elders of
Israel said, “Why has the Lord defeated us today before the
Philistines? Let us take to ourselves from Shiloh the ark of
the covenant of the Lord, that it may come among us and
deliver us from the power of our enemies.”
So the people sent to Shiloh and from there they
carried the ark of the covenant of the Lord of hosts who sits
above the cherubim; and the two sons of Eli, Hophni and
Phinehas, were there with the ark of the covenant of God. (1
Samuel 4:3-4).
In light of their defeat, the Israelites

determine to bring the ark of the covenant
with them into their next battle against
the Philistines. They are thinking of it as
a good like charm. The second battle is
another defeat for Israel.
First Battle of Ebenezer 4,000 Israelites killed

Second Battle of 30,000 Israelites killed
Ebenezer The ark is taken
Hophni & Phinehas are killed
When Eli the judge of Israel hears the news that the ark has been taken, he
falls backward off his seat, breaks his neck and dies “for he was old and
heavy” (Judges 4:18). Eli illustrates the tragedy of a lack of church
discipline. He allowed his sons to remain in the priesthood and did not seek
to have them removed, in spite of the fact of their continuing sin.
201
The wife of Phinehas hears the news. She is pregnant and the shock of this
tragedy brings on the labor pains. As she dies in childbirth, the women try
to console her, telling her that she has given birth to a son. But with her
dying breath, she names the child “Ichabod.”
And she called the boy Ichabod, saying, “The glory

has departed from Israel,” because the ark of God was taken
and because of her father-in-law and her husband.
And she said, “The glory has departed from Israel, for
the ark of God was taken.” (1 Samuel 4:21-22).
It has been noted that  (“Ichabod”) uses a very rare form of the
negative particle () found normally only in Ugaritic and Phoenician.
THE ARK IN THE LAND OF THE

PHILISTINES
1 Samuel 5 records the travels of the ark of the covenant after it had fallen
into the hands of the Philistines.
Verse City Occurrences

5:1 Ashdod Idol of Dagon first found on its face.
It is again on its face, this time with head and hands
removed.
People broke out with tumors.
5:8 Gath A very great confusion.
The men of the city smitten with tumors.
5:10 Ekron A very great confusion.
The men who did not die were smitten with tumors.
The ark was considered to be the throne of God. God was described as “the
Lord of hosts who sits above the cherubim” (4:4). Since the God of Israel
was invisible, His presence could only be determined by the place where He
would sit.
Dagon was the god of the Philistines. Though the name is similar to dag, the
Hebrew word for “fish,” more recent archaeological studies have identified
Dagon as a Canaanite deity which had been borrowed by the Philistines. In
202
Ugaritic literature he is the father of Baal. Dagon was the god of grain.
The significance of the idol being found face down before the ark of the Lord
is obvious. And when, the following day, the people found the idol again
face down and this time with its head and hands removed, it is an obvious
indication that Yahweh had defeated Dagon in battle and had removed these
battle trophies, much the same way that David would later remove the head
of Goliath.
After seven
months of
passing the ark
from city to city,
the Philistines
determine to
send it back
home to the land
of the Israelites.
They do so,
sending it back
with an offering
of five golden
tumors and five
golden mice
(hoping that this would take away the plagues of tumors). They place these
along with the ark onto an ark pulled by two cows.
1. Beth-shemesh.
And the cows took the straight way in the

direction of Beth-shemesh; and they went along the
highway, lowing as they went, and did not turn aside
to the right or to the left. And the lords of the
Philistines followed them to the border of Beth-
shemesh.
Now the people of Beth-shemesh were reaping
their wheat harvest in the valley, and they raised their
eyes and saw the ark and were glad to see it.
And the cart came into the field of Joshua the
Beth-shemite and stood there where there was a large
stone; and they split the wood of the cart and offered
the cows as a burnt offering to the Lord. (1 Samuel
6:12-14).
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Beth-shemesh is located on the Archaeological excavations at

east end of the Sorek Valley, Beth-Shemesh have revealed a
near to where Samson had massive fortification system and a
lived. Its name means “house huge underground reservoir cut
out of the rock. Artifacts show a
of the sun.” It had been blend of Canaanite, Israelite and
allotted in the days of Joshua Philistine culture.
to the priests (Joshua 21:16).
These people working out in their fields look up to see a strange

procession. A pair of oxen pulling a cart on which rests the throne of
God. And behind them come five kings and all of their retainers. It
was as though the Lord were leading all of the enemies of Israel in a
triumphant parade.
The people of Beth-shemesh respond in worship, taking apart the cart

on which the ark was transported and using both the wood and the
oxen as a sacrifice to the Lord.
And He struck down some of the men of Beth-

shemesh because they had looked into the ark of the
Lord. He struck down all the people, 50,070 men, and
the people mourned because the Lord had struck
down the people with a great slaughter. (1 Samuel
6:19).
The Philistines had suffered because of the presence of the ark in their
cities, but the Israelites were no less immune to the results of a
careless treatment of the ark. It is not as though they were ignorant
of the importance of the ark. These were Levites. They would have
been familiar with the requirements of the Law. They would have
known that, in the days in the Wilderness, only the sons of Aaron had
been permitted to handle the ark - that even they did not presume to
look within the ark, but reverently covered it with a veil each time
they were required to move it (Numbers 4:5-20).
The number translated as 50,070 men reads differently in the Hebrew

text: 70 men, 50,000 men.
Aside from the fact that there were not this many men in the town of
Beth-shemesh, the construction of the Hebrew suggests that this
reading might be the result of a textual error, even though this is not
apparent from either the Massoretic text or from the Septuagint.
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2. Kiriath-jearim.
And the men of Kiriath-jearim came and took

the ark of the Lord and brought it into the house of
Abinadab on the hill, and consecrated Eleazar his son
to keep the ark of the Lord.
And it came about from the day that the ark
remained at Kiriath-jearim that the time was long, for
it was twenty years; and all the house of Israel
lamented after the Lord. (1 Samuel 7:1-2).
Demoralized by the death of their men, the people of Beth-shemesh

sent the ark 10 miles up the road to the town of Kiriath-jearim (only
8 miles from Jerusalem). It is placed into the keeping of Abinadab
and his son Eleazar. The ark will remain there until being brought to
Jerusalem in the days of David.
THE JUDGESHIP OF SAMUEL

Samuel was to be the last judge of Israel. His ministry is one which connects
the period of the judges with that of the kings.
1. Call to Repentance.
The capture of the ark had been due to the unfaithfulness of Israel.
The spiritual leaders of the nation had turned their hearts away from
the Lord and He, in turn, had brought judgment upon the nation.
Then Samuel spoke to all the house of Israel,

saying, “if you return to the Lord with all your heart,
remove the foreign gods and the Ashtaroth from
among you and direct your hearts to the Lord and
serve Him alone; and He will deliver you from the
hand of the Philistines.”
So the sons of Israel removed the Baals and
the Ashtaroth and served the Lord alone. (1 Samuel
7:3-4).
It was not only the priests and spiritual leaders of the nation who had
been in sin. The Israelites had begun to engage in idol-worship.
Samuel calls for repentance. This repentance is threefold:
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a. Remove the foreign gods. It began with a turning away from

the sin in which they had been involved.
b. Direct your hearts to the Lord. False worship was to be

replaced with true worship - a worship of commitment to the
Lord.
c. Serve Him alone. True repentance always involves a

resulting obedience. It is not merely a change of mind. There
is also a resulting change of action. Notice that they were not
merely called to serve the Lord. They were called to serve
God alone. They are to serve Him and are to serve no other.
Jesus pointed out this principle when He said that “no one
can serve two masters; for either he will hate the one and love
the other, or he will hold to one and despise the other”
(Matthew 6:24).
2. Victory Over the Philistines.
Now when the Philistines heard that the sons

of Israel had gathered to Mizpah, the lords of the
Philistines went up against Israel. And when the sons
of Israel heard it, they were afraid of the Philistines.
Then the sons of Israel said to Samuel, “Do
not cease to cry to the Lord our God for us, that He
may save us from the hand of the Philistines.” (1
Samuel 7:7-8).
What was it that caused the Philistines to attack Israel at this

particular time? It was because they heard that the Israelites had
gathered at Mizpah. Perhaps they viewed this gathering as a military
threat.
Satan always attacks when he sees God’s people repenting of their

sins. He views this, not as a military threat, but as a spiritual threat.
Samuel also views this as a spiritual battle. And so, he does not
prepare the men for battle. He doesn’t beat any plowshares into
swords. He doesn’t suggest an armament plan or devise a strategy.
Instead, he performs an act of worship.
Now Samuel was offering up the burnt
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offering, and the Philistines drew near to battle

against Israel. But the Lord thundered with a great
thunder on that day against the Philistines and
confused them, so that they were routed before Israel.
And the men of Israel went out of Mizpah and
pursued the Philistines, and struck them down as far
as below Beth-car. (1 Samuel 7:10-11).
The Lord wins the battle. And He does so in a way that is

reminiscent of the days of Joshua. You remember the story. Joshua
was fighting an alliance of five kings and he called upon the sun and
the moon to stand still and they obeyed him. The Lord sent great
hailstones against the enemies of Israel when killed more than were
killed in the fighting. And the Israelites pursued their enemies down
the descent of Beth-horon.
Now it happens again. There is an alliance of five kings, a prayer to

the Lord, an answer from the skies, and a victory in which the
Israelites pursue their enemies down the valley (This is the same
valley in which lies Beth-car).
If I had been there prior to the battle, I might have been tempted to
say, “Hey guys, I know that God used to do this sort of thing, but
times have changed. That was a long time ago in another age and
God doesn’t do that sort of thing anymore.” There is a lesson here.
It is that we dare not underestimate the power of God.
3. The Memorial at Ebenezer.
Then Samuel took a stone and set it as far as

below Beth-car and Shen, and named it Ebenezer,
saying, “Thus far the Lord has helped us.” (1 Samuel
7:12).
The word Ebenezer is actually two words in the Hebrew. Eben is the
word for “stone.” Ezer is the verb, “to help.” It is called this
because this was the place where the Lord “helped us.”
This does not seem to be the same Ebenezer as the one mentioned in
chapter 4:1 and 5:1. That first Ebenezer was located near Aphek
(4:1). This Ebenezer is between Mizpah and Shen. That first
Ebenezer was a place of defeat. This second Ebenezer is a stone of
victory. And so, Samuel establishes it as a memorial.
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Memorials are important. They are important because we need to be

reminded of those times when the Lord has helped us. We need to be
reminded because, when times get tough, we forget.
Do you have any memorials of the faithfulness of God in your life?

You ask the Lord to remind you of those times and then you build a
memorial there so that you will never forget.
SAUL
1. Call for a King.
From the days in the wilderness, God had told the Israelites that one
day they would have a king (Deuteronomy 17:14-17). And yet, it had
been understood up to this point that GOD was their king. When the
Israelites had offered the kingship to Gideon, he had refused, insisting
that “the Lord shall rule over you” (Judges 8:23). That all changes
when the people of Israel ask Samuel for a king.
And it came about when Samuel was old that

he appointed his sons judges over Israel.
Now the name of his first-born was Joel, and
the name of his second, Abijah; they were judging in
Beersheba.
His sons, however, did not walk in his ways,
but turned aside after dishonest gain and took bribes
and perverted justice. (1 Samuel 8:1-3).
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Samuel was the judge of Israel. As Samuel grew older, he was

succeeded by his two sons. Their judging was characterized by
dishonesty and corruption. They followed after a perversion of
justice.
There is a parallel here between Samuel and Eli. They both judged
Israel. They both had two sons. Their sons acted wickedly and were
rejected.
Perhaps Samuel had learned his parenting skills from Eli. The good
news is that he does not seem to have been partaking in their sinful
behavior the way in which Eli did. Because his sons were not fit to
succeed him, the Israelites perceived a need for a king.
Then all the elders of Israel gathered together

and came to Samuel at Ramah; 5 and they said to him,
“Behold, you have grown old, and your sons do not
walk in your ways. Now appoint a king for us to
judge us like all the nations.” (1 Samuel 8:4-5).
In verse 1, Samuel had appointed his sons to be judges over Israel.

Now the elders ask Samuel to appoint a king to judge them. There
are several things which ought to be mentioned in defense of Israel’s
request for a king:
a. The request was initiated because of the ungodly successors

to Samuel. In verse 20 they shall add that they are seeking
one who would fight their battles.
b. Instead of seeking a king on their own, they sought the right

man from the spokesman of the Lord.
c. God had told the Israelites that one day they would have a
king (Deuteronomy 17:14-17). Nevertheless, their request
was perceived as a rejection, not only of Samuel and his sons,
but even of the Lord who tells Samuel that “they have not
rejected you, but they have rejected Me from being king over
them” (8:7). One of the problems with a king was that many
of the surrounding nations considered their kings to be gods.
The Lord issues a warning of what it will mean for the Israelites to
have a king to reign over them.
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• He will draft your sons into his military (8:11).

• He will conscript people to do his plowing and harvesting and
to manufacture his weapons of war (8:12).
• He will take your daughters for household duties (8:13).
• He will take your lands and vineyards and groves and give
them to his retainers (8:14).
• He will tax the produce of your land (8:15).
• He will take your servants and animals (8:16).
• He will take you (8:17).
They have come and asked the Lord for a king. Before it is all over,
they will come and ask God to take their king back (8:18). The
career of Saul is set forth in three acts, each of which consists of
several parallel scenes.
Act 1 Act 2 Act 3

Scene Saul meets Saul meets Saul meets
1 Samuel and is Samuel and is Samuel and his
anointed by him condemned by death is foretold
(9-10) him (15). (28).
Scene Success in battle Success in battle Failure in battle
2 with the help of with the help of and suicide
God (11). David (17-18). (31).
Scene Saul’s failure Saul’s failure
3 before Samuel before David (19-
and Jonathan 26).
(13-14).
2. The Anointing of Saul.
Saul comes on the scene, not seeking a kingdom or a throne, but

looking for some lost donkeys. As they are about to give up on their
quest, Saul’s servant suggests that they go and inquire from the local
Seer about the missing donkeys.
They discuss this plan. Saul is reluctant because they have no gift to
give to the Seer. But the servant has a quarter of a shekel of silver.
This was not a coin, for coinage would not be invented until the 7th
century B.C. This was a weight.
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Meanwhile, the Lord had revealed to Samuel that a man was coming
from the tribe of Benjamin who would be anointed as the deliverer of
the Israelites. Thus, when Saul arrives at the gate of the city, he is
met by Samuel who informs him that the donkeys have been found
and then proceeds to invite him as the guest of honor to a special
dinner.
Then Samuel took the flask of oil, poured it on

his head, kissed him and said, “Has not the Lord
anointed you a ruler over His inheritance?” (1
Samuel 10:1).
Notice the use of the definite article in describing the flask of oil (the
Hebrew   has the sign of the direct object). This was
not merely any old flask. It was the flask. I think it is possible that
this was the flask that contained holy anointing oil of a special recipe
which had been used to anoint the tabernacle and the holy things
(Exodus 30:22-32).
Thereafter Samuel called the people together

to the Lord at Mizpah (1 Samuel 10:17).
Mizpah was the place where the Lord had last delivered the Israelites
from the attack of the Philistines (1 Samuel 7:5-11). It had since
become one of the regular points along Samuel’s traveling circuit (1
Samuel 7:16).
Thus Samuel brought all the tribes of Israel

near, and the tribe of Benjamin was taken by lot.
Then he brought the tribe of Benjamin near by
its families, and the Matrite family was taken. And
Saul the son of Kish was taken; but when they looked
for him, he could not be found.
Therefore he inquired further of the Lord,
“Has the man come here yet?” So the Lord said,
“Behold, he is hiding himself by the baggage.”
So they ran and took him from there, and when
he stood among the people, he was taller than any of
the people from his shoulders upward.
And Samuel said to all the people, “Do you
see him whom the Lord has chosen? Surely there is
no one like him among all the people.” So all the
people shouted and said, “Long live the king!” (1
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Samuel 10:20-24).
There is a touch of irony here. When we first saw Saul, he was being
sent to look for missing donkeys. Now it is Saul who is missing and
the people go looking for him. They find him hiding by the baggage.
Remember, being a king was not something for which Saul had been
seeking. He had come on the scene seeking nothing but a pair of lost
donkeys. And now that he is chosen, he is still reluctant to take of the
mantle of kingship.
3. The Nature of Saul’s Kingship.
And Saul also went to his house at Gibeah;

and the valiant men whose hearts God had touched
went with him.
But certain worthless men said, “How can this
one deliver us?” And they despised him and did not
bring him any present. But he kept silent. (1 Samuel
10:26-27).
What happened after Saul had been proclaimed the first king of
Israel? Did he move into the royal palace? He did not. There was no
royal palace into which he could move. And so, when the celebration
was over, there was nothing else for him to do but to return home.
When next we see him, he will be at the south end of a northbound
team of oxen.
You see, Israel at this time was nothing more than a scattered and
disunited collection of tribes. This was not a unified nation. You
couldn’t even get them to agree on what to eat for lunch. And they
also did not agree that Saul should be their new king, no matter what
Samuel had told them. But this changed dramatically when Saul led
the Israelites to victory in battle.
4. Saul and the Ammonites.
Now Nahash the Ammonite came up and

besieged Jabesh-gilead; and all the men of Jabesh
said to Nahash, “Make a covenant with us and we
will serve you.”
But Nahash the Ammonite said to them, “I will
make it with you on this condition, that I will gouge
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out the right eye of every one of you, thus I will make
it a reproach on all Israel.”
And the elders of Jabesh said to him, “Let us
alone for seven days, that we may send messengers
throughout the territory of Israel. Then, if there is no
one to deliver us, we will come out to you.” (1 Samuel
11:1-3).
There was bad blood between the Ammonites and the Israelites. The
Ammonites were descendants of Lot through his incestuous
relationship with one of his daughters (the name Ammon -  -
means “my father”). They occupied the territory north of the Arnon
River and east of the Dead Sea.
• They had joined Moab in invading Israel and taking Jericho

in the days of Ehud (Judges 3:12-13).
• They had also warred with Israel in the days of Jephthah and
had been defeated by him, losing a number of their border
cities to him (Judges 10-11).
Now they were back. The city which they were now attacking was
Jabesh-gilead. By strange coincidence, this is the same city which
had been destroyed by the Israelites for not joining in the punitive
attack against the tribe of
Benjamin following the
incident at Gibeah in which a
Levite’s concubine was
raped and then dismembered
(Judges 19-21).
The city had since been

rebuilt and re-inhabited. It is
now being attacked, not by
Israel, but by Ammon. And
because of her past history, it
seems doubtful that anyone
will come to her aid. Except
for a man from the tribe of
Benjamin - Saul’s tribe. And
specifically, a man of Gibeah
- Saul’s city.
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Judges 19-21 1 Samuel 11

Takes place when Israel had Becomes the confirming event
no king. of Saul’s kingship.
Gibeah becomes a city Gibeah becomes the city from
destined to be destroyed for which salvation goes forth.
her sins.
Jabesh-gilead refuses to join in Jabesh-gilead is besieged and
Israel’s call for punishment asks for help from Israel.
against wicked Gibeah.
Benjamin becomes the object Benjamin becomes the leader in
of attack. this holy war.
Then the Spirit of God came upon Saul

mightily when he heard these words, and he became
very angry.
And he took a yoke of oxen and cut them in
pieces, and sent them throughout the territory
of Israel by the hand of messengers, saying,
“Whoever does not come out after Saul and It is
after Samuel, so shall it be done to his oxen.” possible
that the
Then the dread of the Lord fell on the people, term aleph
and they came out as one man. (“thousand”)
is to be
And he numbered them in Bezek; and understood
the sons of Israel were 300,000, and the men in a more
of Judah 30,000. (1 Samuel 11:6-8). general
sense as a
military
Just as the Israelites had been called to arms against unity.
Gibeah by the cutting up of the body of the murdered
concubine, so this time two oxen are cut up and their
pieces sent throughout the land as a call to arms.
Gibeah which was formerly in need of the heavy hand of punishment

has now become the rallying point of salvation for God’s people.
Saul moves north to Bezek where he musters his forces in preparation

for an attack across the Jordan.
And it happened the next morning that Saul

put the people in three companies; and they came into
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the midst of the camp at the morning watch, and

struck down the Ammonites until the heat of the day.
And it came about that those who survived were
scattered, so that no two of them were left together. (1
Samuel 11:11).
Having assembled at
Bezek on the mountains
of Gilboa, Saul and his
force cross the Jordan
River and attack the
Ammonites just before
sunrise. The result is an
overwhelming victory.
It is noteworthy that it
would be at this same
locale on the mountains
of Gilboa that Saul
would eventually fight
his last battle. And
when his body is
mutilated and hung up
on the wall of the city of
Beth-shan, it will be
men of Jabesh-gilead
who will rescue the body and give it a proper burial.
Flushed with their victory, the people call for the death of those who
had originally refused to follow Saul as king. Saul refuses, requiring
leniency, pointing out that it is the Lord who has accomplished
deliverance.
5. Coronation at Gilgal.
Then Samuel said to the people, “Come and

let us go to Gilgal and renew the kingdom there.”
So all the people went to Gilgal, and there
they made Saul king before the Lord in Gilgal. There
they also offered sacrifices of peace offerings before
the Lord; and there Saul and all the men of Israel
rejoiced greatly. (1 Samuel 11:14-15).
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Gilgal was located on the western bank of the Jordan River. It was
here that Joshua and the Israelites first camped after crossing the
Jordan River. They had built a monument here of 12 memorial
stones. And it was here that the Israelites had renewed the covenant,
circumcising all of the men in the camp.
This was a place of...
• Victory
• Celebration
• Memorial
• Rededication
Gilgal will be the scene both of Saul’s coronation, his rebuke and his
ultimate rejection as king.
Saul is the story of a great beginning. But the spiritual life is not
limited to beginnings. It is not a sprint. It is, instead, a marathon.
Saul had made an excellent beginning. This young man who had
come on the scene looking for lost donkeys had instead found himself
as the redeemer of Israel and her first king. The tragedy of his story
is told in chapters 13-15.
Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15

Jonathan’s Jonathan’s victory Saul’s victory over
victory over the over the Philistine the Amalekites
Philistines at garrison at Michmash
Geba
Saul disobeys the Saul makes an oath of Saul disobeys God
law by offering hunger which by sparing the life
sacrifices Jonathan inadvertently of Agag, king of
disobeys the Amalekites.
The section comes to a climax when Samuel refuses the company of

Saul. When Saul reaches out to detain the prophet, he inadvertently
tears his cloak. Samuel retorts, “The Lord has torn the kingdom from
you today, and has given it to your neighbor” (1 Samuel 15:28).
DAVID
The name “David” is unusual within the world of the Bible. It means
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“beloved” and, for all his faults, this is a man who loved the Lord and who
was beloved by God.
1. The Goliath Incident.
The Story of David & Goliath is probably one of the best known
Bible stories, and has been told in Sunday Schools for generations.
As such it has perhaps become too familiar, and perhaps as we read
it over, we tend to read it through the eyes of a child.
Now the Philistines gathered their armies for

battle; and they were gathered at Socoh which
belongs to Judah, and they camped between Socoh
and Azekah, in Ephes-dammim.
And Saul and the men of Israel were gathered,
and camped in the valley of Elah, and drew up in
battle array to encounter the Philistines.
And the Philistines stood on the mountain on
one side while Israel stood on the mountain on the
other side, with the valley between them. (1 Samuel
17:1-3).
As you leave the coast land area of Palestine along the Mediterranean
and move eastward, the first geographical feature you encounter is a
range of low foothills known as the Shephelah. Over the years the
streams flowing down from these hills have cut deep gorges known
as Wadis. The Valley of Elah is one such Wadi. Located about 15
miles west of Bethlehem, this Wadi served as a pass from east to west
(the stream disappears entirely in the dry season leaving a riverbed of
small round stones).
The Philistines held the seacoast plains of Canaan. The Israelites held
the mountains. The Shephelah was the contested area between.
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Then a champion came out from the armies of

the Philistines named Goliath, from Gath, whose
height was six cubits and a span.
And he had a bronze helmet on his head, and
he was clothed in scale-armor which weighed five
thousand shekels of bronze.
He also had bronze greaves on his legs and a
bronze javelin slung between his shoulders.
And the shaft of his spear was like a weaver’s
beam, and the head of his spear weighed six hundred
shekels of iron; his shield-carrier also walked before
him. (1 Samuel 17:4-7).
The name “Goliath” seems to be Indo-European in origin. He is

described as having the latest armaments in modern warfare.
This paragraph leaves us with a number of weights and measures.
Weight/Measure Meaning Equivalent
Cubit Distance from the tip of the 18 inches

fingers to the elbow
Span From the tip of the thumb to the 8 inches
tip of the little finger when the
hand is extended
Shekel, from a There is considerable 4/10's to
word meaning fluctuation as to what 3/10's of
“to weigh” constituted a shekel. an ounce
When we put these together, we are presented with the following

description:
Item Description Equivalent

Height six cubits and a span 9 feet, 8 inches
Armor 5000 shekels of bronze 125 pounds
Head of his Spear 600 shekels of iron 15 pounds
The tallest man in recent recorded history was Robert Wadlow who
was 8 feet, 11 inches at the time of his death on July 15, 1940 (he was
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only 22 years old). In his case, being overly tall did not lead to good
health, but quite the opposite. On the other hand, it should be noted
that when the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered, one of the scrolls
included the book of 1st Samuel and there is a textual variant that
describes Goliath as four cubits and a span. This would make him
around 6 feet, 8 inches tall. In a world where the average height was
around five and a half feet, he still would have been a veritable giant.
No matter which reading we adopt, Goliath was the equivalent of a

human tank. He looked indestructible. To even get to him, one
would have to get past the large figure-eight shield which was held by
his armor bearer.
And he stood and shouted to the ranks of

Israel, and said to them, “Why do you come out to
draw up in battle array? Am I not the Philistine and
you servants of Saul? Choose a man for yourselves
and let him come down to me.
“If he is able to fight with me and kill me, then
we will become your servants; but if I prevail against
him and kill him, then you shall become our servants
and serve us.” (1 Samuel 17:8-9).
Warfare in the ancient world was a violent and bloody affair (this is
true for war in any age). It was not uncommon for 20 or 30 thousand
men to fall in a single battle. Goliath was a part of a highly cultured
race. He offers a relatively peaceful alternative. A representative
from each of the two warring nations will fight and decide the issue.
Instead of thousands falling in battle, only one man shall die. A
young shepherd named David takes up the challenge.
And he took his stick in his hand and chose for

himself five smooth stones from the brook, and put
them in the shepherd’s bag which he had, even in his
pouch, and his sling was in his hand; and he
approached the Philistine. (1 Samuel 17:40).
A sling consisted of two long cords tied to a pocket at the center. The
slinger would place a stone in the pocket, whirl two ends of the cord
and then release one of them, letting the stone fly at its target. I’ve
used a sling before. And I admit that it takes a lot of practice.
The sling was one of the accepted weapons of the Israelites. It was
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not dependent upon the ironworks of the Philistines. There had been
an entire brigade of 700 slingers from the tribe of Benjamin who
could “sling a stone at a hair and not miss” (Judges 20:16).
And David put his hand into his bag and took
from it a stone and slung it and struck the Philistine
on his forehead. And the stone sank into his forehead,
so that he fell on his face to the ground. (1 Samuel
17:49).
The later Greek helmets had a protective prong down the center of the
face to stop such assaults. But the Philistine helmets left the face
exposed. Do you remember the incident of the Ark within the
Temple of Dagon? There is an interesting similarity with the fall of
Dagon and the fall of Goliath.
Ark Versus Dagon David Versus Goliath

The Ark had been captured by Goliath saw in David an
the Philistines and placed in the easy victory.
Temple of Dagon.
Dagon was found face down Goliath fell on his face.
before the Ark.
Dagon was found with his head David cut off Goliath’s head
removed which led to an and kept it as a trophy.
enduring practice.
Dagon was seen by all to be a The Lord is seen to be the
dead idol of stone. living God (17:26).
2. David the Fugitive.
David’s rise to popularity was meteoric in its suddenness. One day

he is a simple shepherd and the next he is the hero of Israel who
overshadows even the lofty king Saul. It is not long before Saul
becomes jealous and David has to flee for his life.
Throughout this period, we continue to see Saul fall short at every

turn while David continues to succeed.
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19:1 20:1 21:10 22:6 24:1 26:1

David flees David & David
from the Jonathan flees to Saul Pursues David
presence of makes a Gath
Saul covenant 1st Pursuit 2nd Pursuit 3rd Pursuit
David David David David David cuts David takes

assisted by assisted by assisted encouraged by Saul’s robe Saul’s spear
Michal Ahimelech by king Jonathan & jug
of
David Moab David assisted David David flees
assisted by by his assisted by to Gath
the Lord Circumstances Abigail
Saul’s court was in Gibeah, a city in the territory of the tribe of

Benjamin, about 10-15 miles north of Jerusalem. David flees, first to
Nob where he finds refuge at the tabernacle, then later to the cities of the
Philistines.
3. The Death of Saul.
So the Philistines gathered together and came and

camped in Shunem; and Saul gathered all Israel together and
they camped in Gilboa. (1 Samuel 28:5).
Shunem is located in the Valley

of Jezreel at the southern foot of
Mount Moreh, nine miles east-
northeast of Megiddo. Mount
Gilboa is 10 miles to the south
on the southeastern edge of the
Valley of Jezreel.
Instead of coming up the narrow

mountain passes as they had in
the past, the Philistines now
moved across the wide open
plains of Jezreel. Here they
could maneuver their chariot
corps to full effect. If this
m i litary operat i on was
successful, it would result in
splitting the land in two.
221
When Saul saw the camp of the Philistines, he

was afraid and his heart trembled greatly.
When Saul inquired of the Lord, the Lord did not
answer him, either by dreams or by Urim or by prophets.
(1 Samuel 28:6-7).
Saul had every reason to fear. The Philistines were big and they had the
best in military weaponry and there were a lot of them.
Then Saul said to his servants, “Seek for me a

woman who is a medium, that I may go to her and
inquire of her.” And his servants said to him, “Behold,
there is a woman who is a medium at En-dor.” (1
Samuel 28:7).
The Hebrew word

for Medium is ‘Ob.
This is a Hittite loan-
word. It originally
was used to describe
a pit and spoke of the
place of departed
spirits. It came to be
used both of the
spirits of the dead as
well as of those who
were supposedly able
to contact those
spirits.
The Mosaic Law

s t ri ctl y forbade
God’s people from
consulting mediums.
The penalty for such actions was death.
“Now a man or a woman who is a medium or a

spiritist shall surely be put to death. They shall be
stoned with stones, their blood guiltiness is upon them.”
(Leviticus 20:27).
In accordance with God’s law, Saul had ordered that mediums and
spiritists be driven from the land. And yet, he now seeks to consult with
222
one. He is directed by his servants to the town of En-dor, located on the

northern slope of Little Hermon.
To arrive at Endor from Mount Gilboa would have involved a long 8-

mile detour around the Philistine forces. Saul took this route under the
cover of night, perhaps for several reasons.
 To escape detection by the Philistines.
 It was traditionally believed that such a seance would only work

at night.
The woman of Endor at first refuses to participate. It is not until Saul

takes a solemn oath invoking the name of the Lord that she agrees to
participate.
Then the woman said, “Whom shall I bring up

for you?” And he said, “Bring up Samuel for me.”
When the woman saw Samuel, she cried out with
a loud voice; and the woman spoke to Saul, saying,
“Why have you deceived me? For you are Saul.”
And the king said to her, “Do not be afraid; but
what do you see?” And the woman said to Saul, “I see
a divine being [Elohim] coming up out of the earth.”
And he said to her, “What is his form?” And she
said, “An old man is coming up, and he is wrapped with
a robe.” And Saul knew that it was Samuel, and he
bowed with his face to the ground and did homage. (1
Samuel 28:11-14).
This passage has troubled theologians for hundreds of years. There have
been three alternate interpretations offered for this passage.
a. This was truly Samuel speaking from the grave.

This interpretation takes the passage naturally when it says that
“the woman saw Samuel” (28:12).
b. This was a demonic manifestation pretending to be Samuel.

This view was held by Augustine.
c. This was a trick of the woman. This interpretation is perhaps

supported by the Septuagint which uses a term in this passage
which is also used of ventriloquists.
223
The reason for the varied interpretation is because people do not care for
the implications of what happened; that a seance was actually able to
bring back Samuel from the dead. However, this need not be considered
as normative. Just because Samuel actually appeared to the medium in
this instance does not give credibility to all such mediums.
Indeed, if there is a lesson here, it is that God’s people ought to trust in

the Lord rather than in other types of spiritual phenomenon. We ought
not to delve into horoscopes or fortune telling or Ouija boards, for such
activity is following in the footsteps of Saul.
Evidently, only the woman saw the form of Samuel, for Saul asked in
verse 14, “What is his form?” and did not realize that it was Samuel
until she had given a description of the prophet.
Notice what it was about the description which identified the visionary
arrival as Samuel. It was the fact that he was an old man who was
“wrapped with a robe” (28:14).
Saul remembered that robe. He could not help but remember how
Samuel had predicted the loss of the kingdom and had turned to go and
how he, Saul, had grabbed the robe of Samuel and had torn it. He had
been told that in just such a manner the kingdom would be torn from his
grasp.
And Samuel said, “Why then do you ask me, since

the Lord has departed from you and has become your
adversary?
“And the Lord has done accordingly as He spoke
through me; for the Lord has torn the kingdom out of
your hand and given it to your neighbor, to David.
“As you did not obey the Lord and did not
execute His fierce wrath of Amalek, so the Lord has done
this thing to you this day.
Moreover the Lord will also give over Israel
along with you into the hands of the Philistines,
therefore tomorrow you and your sons will be with me.
Indeed the Lord will give over the army of Israel into the
hands of the Philistines!” (1 Samuel 28:16-19).
While in the past the Lord had delivered Israel from the Philistine threat
on more than one occasion, now Israel would be delivered by God into
the hands of the Philistines (verse 19). The words of the prophecy are
224
fulfilled in the battle of the following day.
Now the Philistines were fighting against Israel,

and the men of Israel fled from before the Philistines and
fell slain on Mount Gilboa.
And the Philistines overtook Saul and his sons;
and the Philistines killed Jonathan and Abinadab and
Malchi-shua the sons of Saul.
And the battle went heavily against Saul, and the
archers hit him; and he was badly wounded by the
archers.
Then Saul said to his armor bearer, “Draw your
sword and pierce me through with it, lest these
uncircumcised come and pierce me through and make
sport of me.” But his armor bearer would not, for he
was greatly afraid. So Saul took his sword and fell on it.
And when his armor bearer saw that Saul was
dead, he also fell on his sword and died with him.
Thus Saul died with his three sons, his armor bearer, and
all his men on that day together. (1 Samuel 31:2-6).
The archers served as the field artillery of the ancient world. They could
be a deadly arm of the military. When Xenophon was going out to fight
the Persians, he was told by one of his scouts, “There are so many
archers that when they fire their arrows, they blot out the sun.” To
which he quipped, “Good! We shall be able to fight in the shade.”
As volley after volley of Philistine arrows fell upon the hapless Israelite
army, Saul was seriously wounded. The nature of the wound would
prevent his escape and the Philistines were closing in.
Saul knew of the reputation of the Philistines. They had captured

Samson and had gouged out his eyes and had made a public spectacle of
him. Saul fears the worst. He fears that he will be both tortured and
humiliated. And so, he takes his own life.
4. David as King.
And David brought up his men who were with him, each
with his household; and they lived in the cities of Hebron.
Then the men of Judah came and there anointed David
king over the house of Judah” (2 Samuel 2:3-4a).
225
David’s kingship is
not immediately
recognized by all
Israel. For the first
seven years of his
reign, his authority is
known only over the
tribe of Judah as he
uses Hebron as his
base of operations.
This was the burial

place of the patriarchs.
 Abraham and
Sarah.
 Isaac and Rebecca.
 Jacob and Leah.
As such, this was the most prestigious city in all of the land of Judah.
David had already been anointed by Samuel. Now he is anointed by the
men of Judah.
David’s First Anointing David’s Second Anointing

Anointed by Samuel. Anointed by the men of Judah.
Private anointing. Public anointing.
Signified a promise of future Signified a present recognition
kingship. of kingship.
David was thirty years old when he became king,

and he reigned forty years.
At Hebron he reigned over Judah seven years
and six months, and in Jerusalem he reigned thirty-three
years over all Israel and Judah. (2 Samuel 5:4-5).
It has been theorized by modern scholars that the 40 year reigns ascribed
to Moses, to Eli, to David and to Solomon are merely to be understood
as a long, undetermined number of years. But this passage gives a
breakdown of what comprised those forty years.
226
5. Jerusalem becomes David’s Capital.
Up to this time, David had been reigning in Hebron. Hebron was

centrally located in Judah and would always be associated with that
tribe. If the other tribes were to accept the concept of a unified nation,
it would be necessary to have a capital city which had no former
associations. Jerusalem was such a city.
Jerusalem was a city of the Jebusites. They had been living here before
the days of Abraham. One of their kings had been Melchizedek, a priest
of God. But now it was merely a Canaanite city. The Israelites under
Joshua had been unable to drive out the Jebusites (Joshua 15:63). And
even though the Israelites had captured and burned Jerusalem early in
the days of the Judges (Judges 1:8), the Jebusites had returned to rebuild
and refortify their city.
Now the king and his men went to Jerusalem

against the Jebusites, the inhabitants of the land, and
they said to David, “You shall not come in here, but the
blind and lame shall turn you away”; thinking, “David
cannot enter here.” (2 Samuel 5:6).
The old city of Jerusalem was built upon a high ridge and was
surrounded on three sides by steep ravines. The old name for the hill
was Ophel - literally, “the hump.” An approaching enemy would have
to climb to the top of the ridge and then would find himself facing high
fortifications with no room to maneuver.
Furthermore, Jerusalem had its own internal water supply. A tunnel had
been carved into the mountain leading down to a pool which was in turn
fed by a natural spring.
The boast of the city was that, even if these fortifications were manned
by the blind and lame, they would be enough to keep out any enemy.
Nevertheless, David captured the stronghold of

Zion, that is the city of David. (2 Samuel 5:7).
The word “Zion” seems to refer to a “high place” or a “place of

protection.” The term is rare in the historical books.
And David said on that day, “Whoever would

strike the Jebusites, let him reach the lame and the blind,
227
who are hated by David’s soul, through the water

tunnel.” (2 Samuel 5:8a).
Located on the east side of the city is the Gihon Spring. It is the city’s
only local source of fresh water. Unfortunately, the spring is located at
the bottom of the ridge upon which the city was built. The Jebusites
resolved this problem by excavating a tunnel through the bedrock which
went beneath the city walls and then down a vertical shaft to the spring.
The shaft was discovered by Captain Charles Warren of the British

Engineers in 1867. He and his
sergeant entered the Gihon Spring,
followed the narrow tunnel into Now David had said, “Whoever
strikes down a Jebusite first shall
the mountainside, and came upon be chief and commander.” And
a vertical shaft rising nearly 40 Joab the son of Zeruiah went up
feet straight up. It was possible first, so he became chief. (1
for the inhabitants of Jerusalem to Chronicles 11:6).
stand at the top of the shaft and
drop a bucket with a line attached
and draw up water.
It is thought that this may have been the route used to capture the city of
Jerusalem. David’s forces could have crept in through this route to
come up inside the city gates.
So David lived in the stronghold, and called it the city of

David. And David built all around from the Millo and inward.
(2 Samuel 5:9).
228
The “Millo” was the original fortification around which the city was built (the
word mala means “to fill”). Its exact location remains uncertain.
SOLOMON
The name “Solomon” is taken from the Hebrew word shalom, meaning “peace.”
What David had won through warfare, Solomon attempted to hold together
through peace. His reign is described in the Bible as being a time of peace and
prosperity for Israel.
1. A Time of Peace.
The reign of Solomon saw a remarkable

period of peace in that portion of the
ancient world.
a. Assyria was in a state of decline as

it wrestled with internal strife and
was further weakened with battles
against Aram.
b. Egypt also suffered the effects of a

general decline, never again
reaching her former dominance as
a world power.
c. Solomon entered into a prosperous

alliance with King Hiram of Tyre.
The Phoenicians were the masters
of the Mediterranean Sea.
2. The Extent of Solomon’s Rule.

Extent of Solomon’s Rule
Now Solomon ruled over

all the kingdoms from the River to the land of the Philistines and
to the border of Egypt; they brought tribute and served Solomon
all the days of his life. (1 Kings 4:21).
“The River” is used only of large rivers as opposed to the term for
smaller streams or wadis. In this case, it refers to the Euphrates.
229
It was commonplace among ancient empires that when the old king died,
the subject nations would withhold tribute and challenge the new king
in rebellion. This necessitated repeated punitive expeditions to reinforce
the former king’s terms and to prove the ability of the new king to
enforce his will. Solomon did not have to do this. Instead, God gave to
him a peaceful reign.
3. The Prosperity of Solomon’s Reign.
So Judah and Israel lived in safety, every man

under his vine and his fig tree, from Dan even to
Beersheba, all the days of Solomon. (1 Kings 4:25).
It was not only Solomon who amassed riches. The people of Israel in his
day also enjoyed a great amount of prosperity. The statement that
“every man under his vine and his fig tree” became a favorite catch
phrase used by the prophets to indicate the ideal conditions prevailing in
Messiah's kingdom (Micah 4:4; Zechariah 3:10). The fact that a man
could enjoy the fruit of the vine and the fig tree meant that there was a
complete absence of warfare and its ensuing economic disruption.
4. Construction Projects.
A r c h a eol ogi s t s h a v e Archaeological surveys in the 1970's

uncovered some of the uncovered more that 40 iron age
fortifications of this period. fortresses in the Negev to the south of
Israel. They range in size from 70 to
They included a system of 215 feet in diameter.
double walls entered by a
series of double gates
overseen by twin towers.
The casements of these gates are inset into the city to allow an invader
to be virtually surrounded.
230
Solomon entered into a number of major construction projects, building

up the fortifications in Jerusalem as well as at Hazor, Megiddo and
Gezer (1 Kings 9:15).
Ruins of casement fortification at Dan
Gezer It lay on the road which connected the cities of Beth

Horon to the coast. As such, it had served as a border
city between Israel and the Philistines.
It had first been conquered by Pharaoh Thutmose III
and more recently had been burned by a later Pharaoh.
Hazor The major city in the north. It had originally been
destroyed by Joshua and later rebuilt.
Megiddo This ancient city guarded the main road from the Plain
of Sharon on the coast to the Valley of Jezreel which
intersected the Carmel Range.
Beth These were two cities which controlled the access to
Horon the highlands of Judea from the coastal plain through
the Valley of Aijalon
231
5. Solomon’s Temple.
Construction of the Temple

began on the fourth year of
Solomon’s reign (1 Kings 6:1).
The building project took
seven years and was climaxed
with the dedication of the
Temple.
Now when Solomon had finished praying, fire

came down from heaven and consumed the burnt
offering and the sacrifices; and the glory of the Lord
filled the Temple.
And the priests could not enter into the house of
the Lord, because the glory of the Lord filled the Lord’s
house. (2 Chronicles 7:1-2).
In the same way that the Lord had moved into the Tabernacle in the days
of Moses, so now His presence was manifested in the Temple.
Solomon’s Temple cross-section
There are no remains of Solomon’s Temple. It was completely destroyed by

Nebuchadnezzar in 586 B.C. A second temple was rebuilt on this same spot,
but that was destroyed by the Romans in A.D. 70. Today there stands on that
same site the Dome of the Rock, a Muslim shrine. Indeed, the destruction of
these two temples was so complete that modern archaeologists have argued
as to its exact location. The traditional view is that it was located at the very
top of the temple mount, the spot on which the Dome of the Rock now
stands.
The completion of the Temple was to mark a high point in the career of
Solomon. The later years of his reign were to see a turning away from the
Lord.
232
Contrasting Elements in Solomon’s Career

His Early Years His Later Years
Political Nation unified and Tribes rebellious and loss of
Realm Solomon exalted on the influence in Egypt, Edom and
international scene. Syria.
Economic People willing to donate Heavy taxes and forced labor
Realm time and money. Silver “as becomes burdensome.
common as stones.”
Social Focus on building the Focus upon other building
Realm Temple. projects of Solomon.
Spiritual Dedication to the Lord. Other gods are worshiped.
Realm
Military Israelite military is Large chariot corps

Realm exclusively infantry developed.
(cavalry not permitted
under Mosaic Law).
233
THE NORTHERN
KINGDOM OF ISRAEL
Israel was a family. The tribes of Israel were made up of the descendants of
12 brothers. They all enjoyed the same ancestry and the same heritage. There
was among them a bond of blood as well as a bond of faith. But these bonds
were broken soon after the death of Solomon.
Then Rehoboam went to Shechem, for all Israel had

come to Shechem to make him king. (1 Kings 12:1).
Rehoboam was the son of Solomon and heir to the throne of Israel. The fact
that the planned coronation of the king was to take place at Shechem is
significant. Jerusalem was the capital city of Israel. It was here that Solomon
had been anointed and installed as king of Israel (1 Kings 1:38-39). And yet,
Rehoboam found in necessary to travel to Shechem for the inaugural
ceremony.
The name “Shechem” describes “the space between the shoulder blades.”
The town lay exactly between the two mountains of Gerazim and Ebal. It
was here that Israel had come in the days of Joshua where half of the people
stood on Mount Gerazim and half of the people stood on Mount Ebal to read
the Law of the Covenant. Half of the people had read the blessings of the
covenant and half of the people had read the cursings of the covenant and the
people had pledged
themselves to follow the
Lord.
Shechem lay in the

geographical center of the
land of Israel. It was
specifically within the
territory of the tribe of
Ephraim - one of the largest and most influential tribes of Israel.
The fact that Shechem was to be the site of the inaugural ceremonies was
evidence that there was already a schism of spirit between Judah and the
other tribes.
234
The Northern Kingdom of Israel
When Rehoboam comes to be crowned king, he is faced by a group of tribal

elders who have come to him with a petition to lower their taxes. Instead of
relenting, Rehoboam threatens to raise the taxes even higher.
When all Israel saw that the king did not listen to
them, the people answered the king, saying, “What portion do
we have in David? We have no inheritance in the son of
Jesse; To your tents, O Israel! Now look after your own
house, David!” So Israel departed to their tents.
But as for the sons of Israel who lived in the cities of
Judah, Rehoboam reigned over them. (1 Kings 12:16-17).
The response of Israel was one of rebellion and a desire for independence.
Since the king had refused to look out for their interests, they would now
look out for their own interests. Accordingly, they chose for themselves
Jeroboam to be their king. Only the tribe of Judah would remain under the
rulership of the house of David.
The story of the Divided Kingdom is one of wars, political intrigue, and
rebellion against God. Both kingdoms saw periods of rebellion, but in the
Northern Kingdom it was a case of rebellion without reprieve.
SOUTHERN NORTHERN
KINGDOM OF CATEGORY KINGDOM OF
JUDAH ISRAEL
19 Kings, 1 Queen Kings 19 Kings

Jerusalem Capital Samaria
1 Dynasty Dynasties 5 Dynasties and several
independent kings.
Judah & Benjamin Tribes 10 Northern Tribes.
Most were unstable; Character All were bad, but only
some were good & some of the Ahab and Ahaziah were
were bad. Kings Baal worshipers.
By Babylon in 586 B.C. Conquered By Assyria in 721 B.C.
Returned to the land. Afterward No return.
235
THE FIRST DYNASTY OF THE NORTHERN

KINGDOM
1. Jeroboam’s Early Career.
Jeroboam was from the tribe of Benjamin. In the days of Solomon he

had been placed in charge of one of the forced labor crews working
in Jerusalem.
One day the prophet Ahijah came to him and foretold that ten of the
twelve tribes would be taken from the descendants of Solomon and
given to Jeroboam.
Then Ahijah took hold of the new cloak which

was on him, and tore it into twelve pieces.
And he said to Jeroboam, “Take for yourself
ten pieces; for thus says the Lord, the God of Israel,
‘Behold, I will tear the kingdom out of the hand of
Solomon and give you ten tribes.’” (1 Kings 11:30-
31).
This action was reminiscent of the time that Saul had pleaded with
Samuel and inadvertently ripped his cloak. Samuel had told him that
in a similar way the kingdom would be ripped from his grasp and
given to David.
Solomon responded to this prophecy by calling for Jeroboam’s death.

He was forced to flee to Egypt until the death of Solomon.
The 21st Dynasty of Egypt had been friendly to Israel to the point of
Pharaoh’s daughter being wedded to King Solomon. But now there
came a Libyan to the throne who founded a new ruling family - the
22nd Dynasty. He is known in historical records as Sheshonq (the
Biblical Shishak). He was able to reunify the country which had been
previously divided and brought a certain amount of stability to the
crown. He would ultimately become an enemy of Israel.
2. The Division at Shechem.
The act of succession of the ten northern tribes threatened to bring

about a civil war. It was only through the intervention of the prophet
Shemaiah that this was averted.
236
From this time onward,

Israel was to remain a
divided kingdom. To
the south was the tribe
of Judah with the small
tribe of Benjamin. To
the north and to the east
were the other ten tribes
which now became a
separate independent
nation. These ten
northern tribes are
known collectively as:
• Israel (as
opposed to
Judah in the
south).
• Ephraim (after
the largest and
most influential
of the tribes).
3. Jeroboam as King over Israel.
Then Jeroboam built Shechem in the hill

country of Ephraim, and lived there. And he went out
from there and built Penuel. (1 Kings 12:25).
Shechem was already an ancient city, nearly a thousand years old

dating back before the days of Jacob. Jeroboam built up this city and
made it his initial capital. Later he built a secondary palace at Penuel,
the place where Jacob had wrestled with the angel on the Jabbok
River.
These two sites were located amidst the center of the Northern
Kingdom and were designed to unify the people under his rule. To
further cement this unity, Jeroboam determined to change the manner
of worship in Israel.
26 Jeroboam said in his heart, “Now the kingdom will

return to the house of David. 27 If this people go up to offer
sacrifices in the house of the Lord at Jerusalem, then the
237
heart of this people will return to their lord, even to

Rehoboam king of Judah; and they will kill me and return to
Rehoboam king of Judah.”
28 So the king consulted, and made two golden
calves, and he said to them, “It is too much for you to
go up to Jerusalem; behold your gods, O Israel, that
brought you up from the land of Egypt.”
29 He set one in Bethel, and the other he put in
Dan. (1 Kings 12:26-29).
Jeroboam was now the king

of the Northern Kingdom.
But he was a king with a
problem.
The law of the Lord

mandated that all Israelites
make a pilgrimage three
times a year to worship the
Lord in His Temple. Here
lay the problem. The
Temple was in Jerusalem
and Jerusalem was in Judah.
This land was under the
domain of Rehoboam. This
state of affairs would give
R ehoboam an ampl e
opportunity to wage a
propaganda campaign which
could ultimately result in Jeroboam being removed and the Kingdom
being reunited.
Jeroboam came up with an alternative plan of worship. It was a plan

which appealed to convenience. The plan was for two centers of
worship to be set up within the Northern Kingdom. They would be
located at the extreme northern and southern borders of the kingdom.
a. Bethel (“House of God”).
This was the place where Jacob had his vision of a ladder
reaching to heaven (Genesis 28:11-19). It was located a mere
12 miles north of Jerusalem and sat atop a bare mountaintop.
238
b. Dan.
The tribe of Dan had originally been given an allotment of

land between Judah, Ephraim, and Benjamin. This had
proven to be uncomfortably close to the Philistines and in the
days of the judges they migrated northward to the area north
of the Sea of Galilee on the slopes of Mount Hermon (Judges
18). Capturing the Canaanite city of Laish, they renamed it
Dan and made it their religious center with their own Levitical
priesthood descended from Moses (Judges 18:30).
At each of these two locations there was erected a golden calf.

Perhaps it was reasoned that such a means of worship had been
instituted by Aaron at Mount Sinai. In actuality, both Aaron and
Jeroboam had borrowed this calf worship from Egypt where the
sacred cow was the symbol of the goddess Hathor.
High place at Dan. The metal fame shows where archaeologists believe the altar would have
stood before the steps of the temple.
Many of the Hebrews who remained faithful to the teachings of the

Law fled to the south to where they could worship in peace. Included
in this exodus were many of the Levites. As this strong core of
faithful moved out, the Northern Kingdom would find itself subject
to apostasy and eventual ruin.
239
4. Nadab (910-909 B.C.).
The reign of Nadab was short. He continued his father’s policy of

leading the people in idolatry. It was not long before he fell to the
hand of an assassin. The assassin’s name was Baasha and he did not
stop until the entire house of Jeroboam had been murdered.
THE SECOND DYNASTY OF THE NORTHERN

KINGDOM
This second dynasty was destined to be
short-lived. It would last only 24 years.
The kings of this dynasty went from bad
to worse.
1. Baasha (909-886 B.C.).
Israel and Judah had been

constantly at war since the days of
Jeroboam. Throughout most of
this period it was Judah who had
the upper hand. There were two
reasons for this:
a. The wealth of Judah.
From a strictly economic

viewpoint, Judah was
wealthier than Israel and could afford a better equipped army.
b. Spiritual source.
The people of Judah enjoyed a continuing success as they

continued to worship the Lord.
As the war progressed, Judah The stele of Ben-hadad was

discovered in northern Syria in
formed an alliance with Ben- 1940. He is called “Bir-hadad,”
hadad of Damascus. Baasha the Aramaic equivalent of Ben-
found himself surrounded by hadad. Ben is the Hebrew word
enemies both to the north and to for “son.” Hadad was one of the
deities of the Aramaeans.
the south. Because of this, Israel
240
was forced to give up large amounts of territory.
2. Elah (886-885 B.C.).
Baasha’s son was a drunk and Israel floundered without a leader.

Elah was quickly assassinated by one of his captains who took the
throne in his place.
3. Zimri (885 B.C.).
Zimri was the captain who murdered his drunken king. He made a
grab for the throne and managed to hold on to it for seven days. In
those seven days, he murdered everyone from the house of Baasha.
When news of Elah’s death reached the Israelite army that was
involved in a campaign with the Philistines, the army declared that
their commanding general, Omri, should be their new king. Zimri
heard of this and committed suicide.
THE THIRD DYNASTY OF THE NORTHERN

KINGDOM
The story of the kings of the Northern Kingdom of Israel is one of dynasty
after dynasty being assassinated for the throne. Jeroboam’s family was
murdered by Bashan. His succeeding family left a power vacuum. Zimri
may have thought to become king himself, but he was unable to gain a
following and his reign lasted only a week. Following his untimely death,
there arose two contenders for the throne of Israel.
• Tibni, the son of Ginath.

• Omri, commander of the army.
1. Omri (885-874 B.C.).
After a civil war which lasted 6 years, it was Omri who came out as
the winner in the conflict - he seems to have had both the military
expertise as well as the support of the army in taking the throne.
He bought the hill Samaria from Shemer for

two talents of silver; and he built on the hill, and
named the city which he built Samaria, after the name
241
of Shemer, the owner of the hill. (1 Kings 16:24).
Samaria was to become the new

capital city of Israel. It was
located on a large oval hilltop, 300
feet above the surrounding plain.
From the top of the hill the
Mediterranean Sea is visible to the
west. It lay 6½ miles northwest of
Shechem and along the major
north-south highway.
The summit of the hill was leveled

and enclosed with a double wall
with towers and bastions. In later
years, the city would spread
downward from the summit.
The main gate faced east where a low ridge joins the hill of Samaria
to the major north-south mountain range. The city held large cisterns
of water since there was no natural spring of water on the site.
The site was originally excavated in 1908-10 by Harvard University

under Reisner, Fisher and Lyon. The following levels were
uncovered.
Levels 1-2 Omri-Ahab dynasty

Level 3 Jehu
Levels 4-6 The 8th century, highest level of prosperity
In ensuing excavations, more than 500 fragments of Ivory have been

discovered on the site. Amos 6:4 and 3:15 speak of “houses of ivory”
and “beds of ivory.” 1 Kings 22 reports that King Ahab created a
house of Ivory. Numerous pieces of ivory have been located in the
excavations of Samaria in the form of small plaques and panels which
were originally set into furniture.
2. Ahab (874-853 B.C.).
30 Ahab the son of Omri did evil in the

sight of the Lord more than all who were
242
before him.
31 It came about, as though it had been a
trivial thing for him to walk in the sins of
Jeroboam the son of Nebat, that he married
Jezebel the daughter of Ethbaal king of the
Sidonians, and went to serve Baal and
worshiped him.
32 So he erected an altar for Baal in the
house of Baal which he built in Samaria. (1
Kings 16:30-32).
Ahab, the son of Omri and successor to his throne, entered into an
alliance with the Phoenicians, sealing it by taking a Phoenician
princess to be his wife. This alliance would have long-lasting
repercussions in Israel.
a. Baal Worship.
It is because of this Phoenician influence that Ahab soon finds

himself engaged, not only in idolatry, but in the worshiping of
Baal, the god of the Phoenicians. He is confronted by Elijah,
but he does not repent before the Lord.
Up to this time, the Israelites had been guilty of attempting to

worship Yahweh in an improper manner - through the use of
idols which had been established at Bethel and at Dan. But
now they turn away completely from any attempt to worship
the Lord and turned instead to a false god.
b. The Battle of Qarqar.
Archaeological records from Assyria relate to us how the

Assyrian king Shalmaneser III invaded the Levant. From
those records, we learn that it was Ahab who rallied all of the
243
small kingdoms on the

Mediterranean Coast to
meet this threat.
Gathering an alliance of
12 kings, he met the
Assyrians at Qarqar in
853 B.C.
In the annuls of
Shalmaneser III, the
Assyrians claim to have
won a victory. However
it is noteable that he
made no further
southward advances at
this time.
c. The rebuilding of
Jericho.
In hi s
days Hiel the
Bethelite built Jericho; he laid its foundations with
the loss of Abiram his firstborn, and set up its gates
with the loss of his youngest son Segub, according to
the word of the Lord, which He spoke by Joshua the
son of Nun. (1 Kings 16:34).
Jericho had been destroyed in the days of Joshua. It had been

the first city of Canaan to fall to the Israelites when they
entered into the land. As such, it had been accursed - all its
inhabitants and even the plunder of the city given over to be
burned. Achan’s sin had been that of attempting to take some
of that plunder for himself and he had paid with his life.
Joshua had issued a decree that Jericho was not to be rebuilt.

With his decree came a curse - that the man who would
attempt to rebuild Jericho would suffer the loss of both his
first-born son and his youngest son (Joshua 6:26).
Apparently with the full blessing of Ahab, Hiel set out to

rebuild Jericho. In keeping with the ancient curse, he seems
to have deliberately sacrificed both his oldest and his
244
youngest sons. This was the sort of activity which was

commonplace among Baal worshipers.
d. Alliance with Judah.
Ahab entered into an alliance with Jehoshaphat, king of

Judah, sealing it with the marriage of their children. In this
way, Athaliah, the daughter of Jezebel came to be the queen
of Judah.
3. Ahaziah (853-852 B.C.).
Ahaziah came to the

throne, but his mother,
Jezebel, remained a
major influence in the
policies of the nation so
that Israel continued to
turn further and further
from the Lord. He died
from injuries sustained
in a fall when a portion
of the lattice within his
palace gave way beneath
him. He had left no
children to succeed him
to the throne, so his
younger brother Joram
became king. Invasion of Moab
245
4. Joram (852-841 B.C.).
Joram seems to have been a vacilating character. He often listened to

the advice of the prophet Elisha and obeyed the will of the Lord. On
the other hand, he seems to have been reluctant to go against his
mother in doing away with Baal worship. He would eventually turn
against Elisha and seek to kill him.
a. The Moab Campaign.
Early in his reign, Joram allied himself with Judah and Edom
and joined those kings in an invasion of Moab, traveling
around the southern end of the Dead Sea to come at Moab
from the south. 2 Kings 3 gives the Biblical record of the
campaign.
In 1868 a French Anglican medical missionary by the name

of F.A. Klein discovered a stela in Dhiban, Jordan which has
come to be known as the Mesha or Moabite Stone. This stela
gives an account of the same battle from the Moabite point of
view.
Language Moabite (very similar to Hebrew)

Description Basalt stone stele
Height: 1.15 meters
Width: 60-68 centimeters
35 lines of writing
Author Mesha, king of Moab
Discovery 1868 in Dhiban [in modern Jordan]
Current Location Paris, France
A complete transcript of the entire stele can be found in the

Appendix. It has become a source of a heated controversy
between scholars as it is now believed by some to contain a
reference to the “House of David.”
b. The Syrian Invasion.
For a while there was an uneasy peace with Syria, but then
246
Benihadad once again decided to try to conquer Israel. This

time, he led his armies to Samaria where he laid siege to the
city.
When the Israelites were ready to give up hope, God

intervened, making the Syrians hear the noise of two great
chariot corps approaching. The Syrians reasoned that Joram
had hired the Egyptians and the Hittites to attack them. They
withdrew in disarray, not even bothering to pack their camp.
c. Campaign at Ramoth-gilead.
The Syrians returned in 841 B.C. to attack the eastern city of

Ramoth-gilead. The battle went well for the Israelites since
Judah had come to assist them. However, Joram was
wounded in the battle and was forced to leave the battlefield,
leaving his army under the command of Jehu as he withdrew
to Jezreel.
Soon after this, Elisha commanded that a prophet go to

Ramoth-gilead and anoint Jehu as the new king of Israel.
Jehu quickly proceeded to Jezreel where he murdered Joram,
Jezebel and Ahaziah, the king of Judah.
THE FOURTH DYNASTY OF THE NORTHERN

KINGDOM
The dynasty begun by Jehu was to be the longest-lasting that the Northern
Kingdom would ever see.
1. Jehu (841-814 B.C.).
Jehu began his reign with a vast bloodbath. He demanded that all of
the descendants of Ahab and his dynasty be killed and their heads
brought to him in a basket. The nobles of Israel were quick to comply.
Adopting a chapter from Assyrian terror-tactics, he had the heads
placed in heaps at the city gates so that people would be afraid to
revolt.
So Jehu killed all who remained of the house

of Ahab in Jezreel, and all his great men and his
247
acquaintances and his priests, until he left him

without a survivor. (2 Kings 10:11).
Jehu wiped out the priests of Baal, setting up in their place the old
calf-cult of Jeroboam.
a. The situation in Judah.
While Jehu was killing all of the relatives of Ahab, a similar

massacre was taking place in Judah. Athaliah, the daughter of
Ahab and Jezebel, seized power after her son was killed by
Jehu. To secure her position of power, she had all of the royal
relatives killed. Only her grandson, Joash, escaped.
b. Tribute to Assyria.
As Assyria began to loom once again on the horizon, Jehu

found himself paying an annual tribute.
Detail from the Black Obelisk shows Jehu bowing before Shalmaneser III
In 1846, Austen Henry Layard discovered a 6½ foot tall stone

stele at the palace of Shalmaneser at Nimrud on the Tigris
Rivier. Made of black alebaster, it consisted of a tall, four-
sided pillar. It came to be known as the Black Obelisk. There
are in all twenty small sculptured pictures on the stela,
forming five series, each series having four related pictures.
Each one commemorates a victory and the various kings
coming to the Assyrian monarch Shalmaneser III to pay him
tribute. One of the reliefs depicts Jehu kneeling with his face
to the ground before the Assyrian king (See appendix for the
248
full text of the inscription).
The cuneiform caption above the relief reads: “Tribute of

Iaua [Jehu], son of Omri. Silver, gold, a golden bowl, a
golden beaker, golden goblets, pitchers of gold, tin, staves for
the hand of the king, javilins, I [Shalmaneser] received from
him.”
The obelisk was nearly lost at sea when the sailing ship on
which it was being transported to England came close to
sinking during a terrible storm in the Indian Ocean.
c. Attacks from Damascus.
Hazael, king of Damascus had tried to get Jehu to join him in

a mutual defense league against Assyria. When Jehu refused,
Hazael attacked Israel, taking much territory on the eastern
bank of the Jordan.
2. Jehoahaz (814-798 B.C.).
Jehoahaz found himself a vassal to Damascus and was bound by a

disarmament treaty in which he was only allowed to maintain 10
chariots, 50 cavalry and 10,000 infantrymen.
The future of Israel at this point looked bleak. Damascus seemed to

be toying with Israel the way a cat toys with a captured mouse.
In 804 B.C. Adad-Nirari III of Assyria marched south and besieged

Damascus. Although he failed to take the city, the action was
sufficient to force Aram to release her hold on Israel. The Northern
Kingdom had been saved for a time.
It was around this time that Jonah was sent to prophesy to the city of
Nineveh with the result that the city saw a great revival as people
turned in faith to Yahweh.
3. Jehoash (798-782 B.C.).
When Jehoash came to the throne of Israel, he faced a Syria that was
much weaker than the one to which his father had submitted. He
attacked Syria successfully and pushed her national boundaries far to
the north.
249
Next, Jehoash turned to the south and attacked Judah where he again
was successful. He even reached Jerusalem, breaking down a portion
of the northern wall. After taking hostages, he returned to Samaria.
4. Jeroboam II (782-753 B.C.).
When Jeroboam The jasper seal of "Shema, servant of

came to the throne Jeroboam", discovered by Schumacher at
following the death Megiddo, is to be identified with Jeroboam II,
of his father, Israel as is now epigraphically certain. The lifelike
and magnificently executed lion, which
was the strongest appears on it, furnishes evidence of the state
nation in that part of of art during this era.
the ancient world.
a. Expansion of the Northern Kingdom.
The rest of the ancient world was suffering from the

upheavals of more migrations. In the midst of this power
vacuum, Jeroboam managed to extend his kingdom northward
to the borders of Hamath, making Israel almost as big as she
had been in the days of Solomon (2 Kings 14:25). With this
vast military victory came a period of great economic
prosperity.
b. Ministries of Hosea and Amos.
Hosea and Amos both prophesied during this period. Their

writings reflect the moral and religious decay of the Israelites
during this time.
• Hosea was called upon to act out the relationship

between Yahweh and the nation by marrying an
unfaith-ful prostitute.
• Amos, a shepherd from the eastern regions of Israel,

spoke out against the social injustices of the day. He
warned that the prosperity of the nation was fleeting.
Within 30 years of the death of Jeroboam, the
Northern Kingdom would cease to exist.
5. Zechariah (753-752 B.C.).
Zechariah succeeded his father to the throne and reigned for only six
250
months before being assassinated by Shallum.
Shallum tried to place himself on the throne, but was only able to
hold it for a month before he was also assassinated.
THE FIFTH DYNASTY OF THE NORTHERN

KINGDOM
1. Menahem (752-742 B.C.).
Although the details are unknown, Menahem murdered Shallem and

took the throne of Israel for himself.
Just three years earlier, Tiglath-Pileser III had come to the throne of
Assyria, marking a new period of Assyrian strength. When he
marched into Israel, Menahern swore allegiance to him and paid an
enormous tribute for the privilege of being allowed to remain intact.
2. Pekahiah (742-740 B.C.).
Pekahiah continued his father’s submission to Assyria. However,

there was a strong anti-Assyrian faction growing in Israel which
thought that they should fight rather than pay the tribute. This
resentment grew so high that one of Pehshiah’s own generals led a
conspiracy, assassinated him, and took the throne for himself.
THE DECLINE AND FALL OF THE

NORTHERN KINGDOM
The remainder of Israel’s history saw two more rulers upon the throne, each
one taking it by means of assassination.
1. Pekah (740-732 B.C.).
Realizing that Assyria would soon return to put an end to Israel’s

anti-Assyrian government, Pekah allied himself with Damascus
against Assyria.
This Israelite/Syrian Confederation approached Ahaz, king of Judah
251
and urged him to join their alliance. When he refused, they attacked
and besieged Jerusalem.
Instead of trusting the Lord, Ahaz sent a message to Tiglath-Pileser

III, asking him to come down and deliver Judah.
Tiglath-Pileser III swept down from the north, sacked the city of
Damascus, and took many of the cities of Israel including Ijon, Abel-
beth-maacha, Janoah, Kadesh, Hazor, Gilead, and Galilee — all the
land of Naphtali (2 Kings 15:29). The inhabitants of these cities were
deported to Assyria. The annuls of Tiglath-Pileser give this record:
...the wide land of Naphtali, in its

entirety, I brought within the border of
Assyria. My official I set over them as
governor.
Again, he says:
The land of Bit-Humria (House of Omri)...all

of its people, together with their goods, I carried off
to Assyria.
Bit-Humria or “House of Omri” had been the common Assyrian name

for the country of Israel ever since the days of King Omri.
In an effort to pacify Assyria, the inhabitants of Samaria murdered

Pekah and placed Hoshea, a pro-Assyrian leader, upon the throne.
2. Hoshea (732-724 B.C.).

Archaeologists have found a small
When Hoshea became king, seal which reads, “Belonging to Abdi
it was a greatly reduced Servant of Hoshea.”
Israel which he ruled.
Tiglath-Pileser had taken all
of the Israelite holdings in Trans-Jordan, in Megiddo, in Galilee, and
the lands along the Mediterranean, annexng them to Assyria. Israel
retained only Samaria and the surrounding hill country.
Tiglath-Pileser III died in 727 B.C. and Hoshea took this opportunity
to revolt. He sent messengers to Egypt to form an alliance against
Assyria. At the same time, he stopped payment of the annual tribute.
252
In 724 B.C. Shalmanesser

V, the new king of Assyria, Excavations at Samaria have
confirmed the splendor of the Israelite
marched south into Israel. capital in the eighth century BC.
Hoshea surrendered himself Jeroboam II fortified the city with a
and offered to pay the double wall, reaching to as much as
tribute, but this time he had thirty-three feet in width in exposed
sections, comprising fortifications so
gone too far and was substantial that the Assyrian army
thrown into chains. He was took three years to capture the city (2
taken to Assyria where he Kings 17:5).
died in captivity.
3. The Fall of Samaria.
The Assyrians now laid siege to the capital city of Samaria. Although
the city was without a ruling king, Samaria held out under the siege
for three years.
Shalmanesser eventually became sick and was forced to return to

Nineveh, leaving his
younger brother, Sargon II,
In 1843, the French consular agent at
in command of the armies. Mosul, Paul Emile Botta, began to dig
When Shalmanesser died in at Khorsabad and discovered the
722 B.C. Sargon declared palace of Sargon II. On the walls of
himself king. the palace were inscriptions listing
Sargon’s accomplishments. One of
them is the taking of Samaria. He
The following year, claims to have carried away 27,290 of
Samaria was taken. The city the Israelites into captivity. He rebuilt
was burned to the ground the city and settled it with other
conquered peoples.
and the surviving
population was deported.
In the ninth year of Hoshea, the king of

Assyria captured Samaria and carried Israel away
into exile to Assyria. and settled them in Halah and
Habor, on the river of Gozarx and in the cities of the
Medes. (2 Kings 17:6).
The area that had once been the Northern Kingdom of Israel was
eventually resettled with refugees from other Assyrian conquests.
These refugees intermarried with the few remaining Hebrew
survivors. The resulting half-breeds became known as Samaritans.
The author of the book of Kings summarizes the reason for the fall of
253
the Northern Kingdom.
Now this came about, because the sons of

Israel had sinned against the Lord their God, who
had brought them up from the land of Egypt from
under the hand of Pharaoh, king of Egypt, and their
had feared other gods 8 and walked in the customs of
the nations whom the Lord had driven out before the
sons of Israel, and in the customs of the kings of
Israel which they had introduced. (2 Kings 17:7-8).
Israel had turned away from God. This seems surprising when we
consider that she had seen great miracles. Time and time again, the
Lord had miraculously intervened in history to save His people from
destruction. If any nation on earth could testify to the power of God,
it was Israel.
Nor was she without warnings. Prophets continually warned of the

coming judgment if Israel did not turn from her evil ways, but all to
no avail. The people of Israel had hardened their hearts to the
teachings of God and paid the cost for such rebellion.
254
THE SOUTHERN KINGDOM
OF JUDAH
The scepter shall not depart from Judah
Nor the ruler’s staff from between his feet,
Until Shiloh comes,
And to him shall be the obedience of the peoples. (Genesis 49:10.
The promise of kingship from the line of Judah had a long tradition, going
back all the way to the prophecy of Jacob. Reuben, the firstborn of Jacob,
had sinned against his father and lost
the birthright. Simeon and Levi had
also disqualified themselves from
leadership. This promise of
leadership had come to Judah.
Judah was the tribe from which David

had come. Because of this, when the
other tribes split off and went their
own way, Judah remained faithful to
the lineage of David. Even though
Jerusalem was thought of as a neutral
city, it still lay within the boundaries
of the lands of Judah. Furthermore,
Judah had been exempted from the
forced labor which Solomon
demanded of the rest of Israel.
The land of Judah was geographically

divided from the rest of Israel by the deep valley of Sorek. It was bordered
in the east by the Dead Sea, on the west by the lands of the Philistines and in
the south by Edom and the Sinai Desert.
The history of the northern and southern kingdoms would run in parallel
courses. Though both of these kingdoms would see periods of rebellion
against the Lord, Judah’s history would be marked by occasional periods of
repentance and return.
255
The Southern Kingdom of Judah
SOUTHERN NORTHERN
KINGDOM OF CATEGORY KINGDOM OF ISRAEL
JUDAH
19 Kings, 1 Queen Kings 19 Kings

Jerusalem Capital Samaria
1 Dynasty - the line of Dynasties 5 Dynasties and several
David independent kings.
Judah & Benjamin Tribes 10 Northern Tribes.
Most were unstable; Character All were bad, but only
some were good & of the Ahab and Ahaziah were
some were bad. Kings Baal worshipers.
By Babylon in 586 B.C. Conquered By Assyria in 721 B.C.
Returned to the land. Afterward No return.
REHOBOAM OF JUDAH
Rehoboam was the son of Solomon who found himself ruling, not over Israel,
but only over the southern kingdom of Judah.
1. Rehoboam.
Now Rehoboam the son of Solomon reigned in

Judah. Rehoboam was forty-one years old when he
became king, and he reigned seventeen years in
Jerusalem, the city which the Lord had chosen from
all the tribes of Israel to put His name there. And his
mother's name was Naamah the Ammonitess. (1 Kings
14:21).
Rehoboam was the son of Solomon. His mother was of the country
of Ammon - presumably one of the 700 foreign wives which
Solomon had married. Theirs had been a political marriage and it had
produced this young man.
The parallel account in 2 Chronicles 11:17 tells us that the people of

Judah served the Lord for three years. It was only after Rehoboam
256
felt himself secure and established as king of Judah that he led the
nation in forsaking the way of the Lord (2 Chronicles 12:1).
Some scholars have wrestled with
Rehoboam’s story is one of the idea that Rehoboam was 41 at
good beginnings but poor the beginning of his reign since we
endings. It is a pattern read of “the young men who grew
which we shall see repeated up with him” in 1 Kings 12:10.
Furthermore, 2 Chronicles 13:7
in a number of the kings of speaks of the splitting of the
Judah. It began with kingdom having taken place at a
Solomon and now it is seen time when Rehoboam “was young
in his son. and timid and could not hold his own
against them.”
a. The Sins of Judah.
22 Judah did evil in the sight of the Lord,

and they provoked Him to jealousy more than
all that their fathers had done, with the sins
which they committed.
23 For they also built for themselves high
places and sacred pillars and Asherim on
every high hill and beneath every luxuriant
tree.
24 There were also male cult prostitutes
in the land. They did according to all the
abominations of the nations which the Lord
dispossessed before the sons of Israel. (1
Kings 14:22-24).
Judah actually seems to have descended more readily into

idolatry and the worship of false gods than did Israel. This
process had begun with Solomon and the pagan practices of
his foreign wives. It now returned with a vengeance.
• High Places.
It was the custom throughout the entire fertile crescent
to conduct worship in a “high place.” The origin of
this practice may go back all the way to the Tower of
Babel.
• Sacred Pillars.
This is different from a support pillar or column. This
is an obelisk. They were used by the Canaanites as
257
fertility symbols.
• Asherim.
An Asherah was a tree which was used for worship.
Asherim (plural) were an entire grove of such trees.
• Male Cult Prostitutes.

A part of the pagan worship involved homosexual acts
within the places of worship. It was thought that
participation in such actions would incite the various
gods who ruled over the wind and the rain to
participate and thus bring fertility to the land.
The people of Israel had been forbidden from participating in

these pagan practices. But now they entered into them with
a passion. As a result, the Lord soon brought judgment upon
the land.
b. Invasion from Egypt.
25 Now it happened in the fifth year of

King Rehoboam, that Shishak the king of
Egypt came up against Jerusalem.
26 He took away the treasures of the
house of the Lord and the treasures of the
king's house, and he took everything, even
taking all the shields of gold which Solomon
had made.
27 So King Rehoboam made shields of
bronze in their place, and committed them to
the care of the commanders of the guard who
guarded the doorway of the king's house.
28 Then it happened as often as the king
entered the house of the Lord, that the guards
would carry them and would bring them back
into the guards’ room. (1 Kings 14:25-28).
The 21st Dynasty of Egypt

The body of Shishak was
had been friendly to Israel to
discovered at an intact
the point of Pharaoh’s burial tomb at Tanis in
daughter being wedded to 1938.
King Solomon. However
258
these good relations did not last past Solomon’s death.
Now there came a Libyan to the throne who founded a new

ruling family - the 22nd Dynasty. He is known in historical
records as Sheshonq (the Biblical Shishak). He was able to
reunify the country which had been previously divided and
brought a certain amount of stability to the crown. He then
turned his attention to foreign policy, renewing an alliance
with Byblos and regaining control of Nubia.
It is likely this same Sheshonq who had given refuge to such

enemies of Israel as Jeroboam and Hadad the Edomite.
Now he marched into Judah.

Archaeological records list 150 We know from Egyptian
records at Karnak that
cities which he claimed to have this raid extended all the
taken in this campaign. Among way into Galilee.
the cities which were looted was
Jerusalem and its temple.
Egyptian records list the thousands of pounds of gold and

silver that the son of Shishak offered to the Egyptian gods
following his raid into Canaan. This was the plunder which he
had taken from Solomon’s Temple.
From this time on, the reign of Rehoboam would be only a

shadow of its former glory. The golden shields of Solomon
were replaced by shields of bronze, a less-valued commodity.
The old forms continued, but they lost some of their luster.
2. Abijam (913-911 B.C.).
Rehoboam was followed by his son, Abijam. The reader should take
care not to confuse Abijah, son of Jeroboam with Abijam, son of
Rehoboam. Like his father before him, Abijam followed Yahweh
sometimes and even showed a certain amount of faith when he was
in trouble; but he worshiped other gods and was not consistent.
Judah and Israel went to war during his reign. At the Battle of
Zemaraim, Israel ambushed the army of Judah in a pincer movement
and with a force that outnumbered Judah by a factor of two to one.
259
In the midst of this situation, the Lord gave the victory to Judah. This
ended the war as Jeroboam retreated back to Israel.
THE FIRST REFORMATION PERIOD

1. Asa (911-870 B.C.).
Abijam was succeeded by his son Asa. He was the first godly king of
the Divided Monarchy. With his advent began a period of national
reform in Judah.
a. Religious reform.
Asa did what was right in the sight of

the Lord, like David his father. (1 Kings
15:11).
Throughout the rest of the book of Kings, we will read of

each of the kings of Judah a summary statement of the way in
which he conducted himself. This summary will say one of
two things.
(1) He walked in the sins of his fathers.

Or...
(2) He walked right in the sight of the Lord like David.
Asa tore down all of the heathen temples and altars in Judah,
leading the Jews back into the exclusive worship of Yahweh
and renewing the covenant promises. He even removed his
own mother from the office of queen because of her idol
worship.
He also put away the male cult

prostitutes from the land and removed all the
idols which his fathers had made.
He also removed Maacah his mother
from being queen mother, because she had
made a horrid image as an Asherah; and Asa
cut down her horrid image and burned it at
the brook Kidron. (1 Kings 15:12-13).
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The writer of Kings make no mention of the prophet Azariah

(2 Chronicles 15:1-7) who was a moving influence in the life
of Asa. There are times when God will use a man or a
woman as an influence for good behind the scenes.
b. Military reform.
He guaranteed peace and security for Judah by building up his

military machine. When an army of Ethiopians threatened to
invade from the south, they were beaten off.
c. War with Israel.
The reforms which Asa brought about in Judah served as a

beacon for the worship of the Lord to all Israelites. He gave
an open invitation to members of every tribe of Israel to come
and to worship in the Temple.
And he gathered all Judah and

Benjamin and those from Ephraim, Manasseh
and Simeon who resided with them, for many
defected to him from Israel when they saw
that the Lord was with him. (2 Chronicles
15:9).
This was seen as a threat to the continued security of the

Northern Kingdom and the response was an embargo against
all traffic coming from or going into Judah.
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Now there was war between Asa and

Baasha king of Israel all their days.
Baasha king of Israel went up against
Judah and fortified Ramah in order to prevent
anyone from going out or coming in to Asa
king of Judah. (1 Kings 15:16-17).
Baasha was a usurper to the throne of Israel. He gained the

throne by murdering all of the dynasty of Jeroboam. He
invaded Judah and captured the city of Ramah, a scant 5 miles
north of Jerusalem. There are several different cities in
Palestine by this name. The name means “high place.” Those
towns with this name were all built on top of a mountain.
The purpose of Baasha’s taking of this city was to prevent

anyone from going out or coming in to Asa king of Judah. It
was not enough for Baasha to walk in the path of idolatry. He
also wanted to stop others from worshiping the Lord. Evil is
like that. Evil always wants company.
d. Alliance with Aram.
18 Then Asa took all the silver and the

gold which were left in the treasuries of the
house of the Lord and the treasuries of the
king’s house, and delivered them into the hand
of his servants. And King Asa sent them to
Ben-hadad the son of Tabrimmon, the son of
Hezion, king of Aram, who lived in Damascus,
saying, 19 “Let there be a treaty between you
and me, as between my father and your father.
Behold, I have sent you a present of silver and
gold; go, break your treaty with Baasha king
of Israel so that he will withdraw from me.”
20 So Ben-hadad listened to King Asa
and sent the commanders of his armies
against the cities of Israel, and conquered
Ijon, Dan, Abel-beth-maacah and all
Chinneroth, besides all the land of Naphtali.
(1 Kings 15:18-20).
Instead of turning to the Lord for help, Asa responds to the
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incursion by soliciting assistance from the King of Aram

(modern Syria), the country to the northeast of Israel.
The Aramaeans had been long-standing enemies of Israel.

David had subdued the Aramaean tribes, occupying
Damascus (2 Samuel 8:6), but in the days of Solomon, Rezon
ben Eliada had retaken Damascus, being “Israel’s adversary
as long as Solomon lived” (1 Kings 11:23-25).
Now there was a new dynasty in Damascus headed by Ben-

Hadad (there will be several kings of Damascus with this
name. Hadad was the
name one of the pagan
deities of that day).
Asa stripped the

treasures of the Temple
and used them to bribe
Benhadad into invading
Israel from the north.
For relying upon a

Syrian alliance instead
of upon Yahweh, Asa
was rebuked by the
prophet Hanani. Instead
of repenting, Asa
responded by throwing
Hanani. into prison.
As a result, the Lord

afflicted him with
political unrest and with a disease which affected his feet.
Even then, he refused to return to the Lord.
2. Jehoshaphat (870-848 B.C.).
Jehoshaphat became co-regent with his father as his health continued

to fail. Once his father died, Jehoshaphat became king. He followed
his father’s early example in worshiping Yahweh.
a. Religious policy.
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Jehoshaphat sent officials throughout Judah accompanied by

Levites to teach the Law of the Lord to the people.
b. Military policy.
He had a strong military policy, fortifying the cities of Judah

and even establishing garrisons within territories belonging to
Ephraim. He was able to field an army of nearly a million
men. Both the Philistines and the Arabians were vassal states
to Judah during this period.
It was during his reign that Assyria was repulsed by a

coalition of Israel, Aram and a number of other countries at
Qarqar.
c. Alliance with Israel.
When Ahab approached him with the offer of an alliance,

Jehoshaphat was agreeable. The alliance was sealed by the
marriage of Ahab’s daughter to Jehoshaphat’s son.
Later in the same year, Ahab and Jehoshaphat marched

against Damascus and were defeated. Ahab was killed in the
battle and Jehoshaphat barely escaped.
d. Repentance.
Returning to Judah, Jehoshaphat was rebuked by the prophet

Jehu for having entered into the alliance with an enemy of
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Yahweh. Jehoshaphat repented of his sin and continued his

religious reforms, establishing a judicial system invested in
the Levites and priests.
3. Jehoram (848-841 B.C.).
Jehoshaphat had several sons. Jehoram, as the firstborn, was made co-
regent for several years and then became king upon the death of his
father.
a. Murder of his brothers.
The first thing that Jehoram did upon coming to the throne
was to murder all of his brothers and other high-ranking
nobles so that none might pose a threat to his authority.
b. Apostasy.
Jehoram had married Athaliah, daughter to Ahab and Jezebel.

He followed after his wife in the Canaanite religious system.
Shrines to Baal were set up in the high places around Judah.
c. Military defeats.
During his reign, Edom revolted and became an independent

state. Perceiving this weakness, the Philistines and the Arabs
raided Judah, murdering and pillaging. They even plundered
the king’s own palace and put to death most of his sons.
Ultimately, the Lord judged Jehoram with a disease which

caused his bowels to fall out. He died a terrible and painful
death.
4. Ahaziah (841 B.C.).
The young son of Jehoram came to the throne at the death of his
father. Like his father and mother, Ahaziah worshiped false gods and
practiced the Canaanite cultic rituals.
He joined with his uncle Joram, king of Israel, in a war against Aram.
The battle ended in defeat and Ahaziah was wounded. He was
convalescing in Jezreel when a palace revolt broke out in Israel, led
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by Jehu. Ahaziah sought refuge in Samaria, but was captured,

brought before Jehu, and put to death.
5. Athaliah (841-835 B.C.).
Athaliah, the queen mother used this opportunity to seize power,

murdering all of her children and grandchildren. However, one of her
daughters took her infant nephew and hid him in the temple, a
building that had been all but deserted by the Jews. His name was
Joash.
The young crown prince Joash was raised in the temple by Jehoida,
a faithful priest. After six years, a conspiracy successfully placed the
young prince upon the throne. Athaliah was put to death.
THE SECOND REFORMATION PERIOD

The Second Reformation Period was to see only a partial return from the
paganism that was beginning to be entrenched in Judah.
1. Joash (835-796 B.C.).
Joash was only 7 years old when he came to the throne of Judah. For
many years, Jehoida, the high priest who had raised him, was the
ruling power of Judah.
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a. Policies during Jehoida’s life.
As long as Jehoida lived to guide the young king, the nation

prospered. Under his direction, the Temple was cleansed and
restored. The sacrifices which had been abandoned were
reinstated.
b. Policies after Jehoida’s death.
After the death of Jehoida, Joash was swayed by the opinion

of the young liberal party and began to worship false gods.
He even went so far as to have Zechariah, the son of Jehoida,

stoned when he spoke out against this idolatry.
c. Invasion from Aram.
The Aramaeans invaded Judah and Jerusalem, pillaging the

city and killing many of the king’s officers. What was
remarkable about this invasion is that the victorious invaders
were vastly outnumbered by the military forces of Judah.
Indeed the army of the Aramaeans

came with a small number of men; yet the
Lord delivered a very great army into their
hands, because they had forsaken the Lord,
the God of their fathers. Thus they executed
judgment on Joash. (2 Chronicles 24:24).
This military defeat was a judgment from the Lord against

Judah and her wayward king. Joash was finally assassinated
by his own servants.
2. Amaziah (796-767 B.C.).
Amaziah was 25 years old when he came to the throne, he was to rule
Judah for the next 29 years.
a. Religious policies.
Amaziah was a good king, obeying all of the commands of

Yahweh during the first part of his reign.
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b. Spiritual failure.
After a successful expedition into Edom, he brought back the

idols of the Edomites and set them up for display. It was not
long before they were being worshiped.
c. Military defeat.
Soon after this, Amaziah was defeated in battle against the

Israelites of the Northern Kingdom. The Israelites led
Amaziah in chains back to Judah. They pillaged Jerusalem,
tearing down a portion of the wall and looting the gold and
silver in the Temple.
When a conspiracy was uncovered, Amaziah fled to Lachish

to escape assassination. The conspirators followed him there
and put him to death.
Apparently this was not considered to be a move against the

Davidic Dynasty, but rather was designed to place a worshiper
of Yahweh upon the throne (2 Chronicles 25:27).
3. Uzziah (767-740 B.C.).
Uzziah had already served as co-regent

with his father for 23 years when he was
crowned king of Judah.
Like his father before him, Uzziah

began his reign with a return to
Yahweh.
b. Military policy.
Uzziah concentrated on building

up a very strong, professional
military. He used this to conquer
the Philistines and the Arabians.
He also built up much of Jerusalem, adding towers, gates and
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war machines to protect the city.
c. Beth-Yahweh
Ostraca.
Ostraca is a piece of
broken pottery. It
was used as scrap
paper. In this case, it
served as a receipt.
Dated between the
7th and 9th century Broken pieces of pottery were used for writing
B.C., it is not known
where it was originally discovered, but it somehow made its
way into the private collection of Shlomo Moussaieff
(London, England). Since that time, there have been some
who have questioned its authenticity in the light of counterfeit
scandals.
Translation reads as follows: According to your order,

Ashyahu the king, to give by the hand of [Z]echaryahu silver
of Tarshish for the house of Yahweh 3 shekels.
Language Hebrew
Medium Ostracon (pottery)
Size 8.6 centimeters high

10.9 centimeters wide
5 lines of writing
Genre Temple receipt
Date 7th-9th century B.C.
Current Private collection of Shlomo Moussaieff

Location (London, England)
4. Jotham (740-732 B.C.).
Jotham followed his father’s example by obeying the Law of the

Lord. However, it is notable that he never entered the Temple. There
are several possible reasons for this.
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He may have been showing respect for his father who had been
judged for his sin in the Temple. Or he may have been superstitious
about entering the Temple, thinking that he might also contract
leprosy. As a result of Jotham’s obedience, Judah prospered in both
the areas of military strength as well as in the economy.
5. Ahaz (732-716 B.C.).
The name Ahaz is shortened from Jehoahaz, meaning Possession of

Yahweh. Perhaps the reason that his name was shortened was that he
was so rebellious to the Lord. Ahaz was the complete opposite of his
father.
As soon as he came to the throne, Ahaz began to follow the

Canaanite religious practices, even sacrificing his own
children to the false gods.
b. Military defeats.
Because of the sins of Ahaz, the Lord allowed the Philistines,

the Edomites and the Syrians to invade and conquer the
border cities of Judah. It was at this time that Judah lost the
port of Elath on the Gulf of Aqaba.
c. Alliance with Assyria.
Because of these military threats, Ahaz made an alliance with

the Assyrians, robbing the Temple to send money to bribe
Tiglath-Pileser. In return, the Assyrians offered to attack
Aram and Israel (they had been planning to do so anyway).
Isaiah confronted Ahaz and advised him to trust in the Lord

instead of Assyria. He even offered to give Ahaz a sign from
the Lord to prove the truth of his words. When Ahaz refused
to choose a sign, the Lord Himself chose one, promising that
a child world be born and that, before the child had reached
a certain age, the kings of Aram and Israel would be
overthrown.
It is in the midst of this prophecy that Isaiah tells of a Child
270
whose name would be Immanuel, literally “God with us.”

While the New Testament looks at the ultimate fulfillment of
this in the person of Jesus, the immediate application of this
prophecy saw the promised overthrow of the kings of Aram
and Israel within a single generation.
d. Destruction of Samaria.
Tiglath-Pileser III died in 727 B.C. and Israel took this

opportunity to revolt, stopping payment of the annual tribute.
Ahaz wisely continued to pay the required tribute as the
Assyrians swept down from the north, laying siege to the
capital city of Samaria. For three years, Samaria held out
under the siege until famine and disease had decimated the
population. When the city fell in 721 B.C., the surviving
population was deported. The Northern Kingdom of Israel
had ceased to exist.
The Jews of the Southern Kingdom were terrified as they

watched the inhuman cruelties which the Assyrians inflicted
upon their captives. Now. the Assyrians began to eye the
Southern Kingdom of Judah. It was only a matter of time
before they attacked.
THE THIRD REFORMATION PERIOD

The Third Reformation Period took place at a time when Judah seemed to be
on the verge of extinction. The power of the entire Assyrian Empire was
poised about the tiny Kingdom.
1. Hezekiah (715-686 B.C.).
Hezekiah was 25 years old when he came to the throne. The prophet
Isaiah had already been ministering for 35 years. With the advent of
Hezekiah, a great revival began.
Hezekiah began his reign by destroying all of the Canaanite

idols and then repairing the Temple of God.
271
b. Envoys from Merodach-baladan.
Merodach-baladan had managed to snatch Babylon and hold

it from the Assyrians. Looking for allies against Assyria, he
sent envoys to Hezekiah, king of Judah. In a moment of pride,
Hezekiah foolishly showed these envoys all of the treasures
of the temple. As a result, the word got out of the great wealth
that was stored up in Jerusalem.
c. Solicitations to rebellion.
Philistia, Egypt and Ethiopia sent envoys to Hezekiah, urging

him to join in a rebellion. Isaiah warned him not to put his
trust in Egypt.
And the Lord said, “Even as My

servant Isaiah has gone naked and barefoot
three years as a sign and token against Egypt
and Cush, 4 so the king of Assyria will lead
away the captives of Egypt and the exiles of
Cush, young and old, naked and barefoot with
buttocks uncovered, to the shame of Egypt.
“Then they shall be dismayed and
ashamed because of Cush their hope and
Egypt their boast.” (Isaiah 20:3-5).
Hezekiah listened to the warning of Isaiah and continued to

pay homage to Assyria.
d. Revolt against Assyria.
When Assyria was drawn into an extended conflict with

Merodach-baladan, Hezekiah was persuaded to join Egypt; in
a revolt. The cities of Philistia also joined in, along with Tyre
and Sidon.
In 701 B.C. Sennacherib conducted a massive campaign

against this western alliance. The Phoenician cities each
submitted or were destroyed. The Egyptians were routed and
Judah was left to face Sennacherib alone.
Hezekiah offered to pay any tribute in return for peace.
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Sennacherib set the price at 300 talents of silver and 30 talents

of gold (in that day even a single talent was considered to be
a fortune).
And Hezekiah gave him all the silver

which was found in the house of the Lord, and
in the treasuries of the king’s house.
At that time Hezekiah cut off the gold
from the doors of the temple of the Lord, and
from the doorposts which Hezekiah king of
Judah had overlaid, and gave it to the king of
Assyria. (2 Kings 18:15-16).
Instead of keeping his agreement, Sennacherib changed his

mind and decided to try to take Jerusalem.
e. Hezekiah’s Tunnel and the Siloam Inscription.
Now the rest of the acts of Hezekiah

and all his might, and how he made the pool
and the conduit, and brought water into the
city, are they not written in the Book of the
Chronicles of the Kings of Judah” (2 Kings
20:20).
Now when Hezekiah saw that

Sennacherib had come, and that he intended
to make war on Jerusalem, 3 he decided with
his officers and his warriors to cut off the
supply of water from the springs which were
outside the city, and they helped him. (2
Chronicles 32:2-3).
It was Hezekiah who stopped the

upper outlet of the waters of Gihon and
directed them to the west side of the city of
David. And Hezekiah prospered in all that he
did. (2 Chronicles 32:30).
Hezekiah ordered a tunnel to be cut through the mountain on

which Jerusalem rests. This tunnel served to bring water from
the Gihon Spring down into the city. The tunnel can still be
273
seen today. It winds its way 1900 feet under the city of
Jerusalem.
This tunnel was

explored by Edward
Robinson when he
arrived in Jerusalem in
April of 1838. He
made the first
scientific study of this
amazing engineering
feat. The conduit, cut
from solid rock in a
rather circuitous route,
was 1,750 feet long,
with an average width
of 2 feet, and an
average height of six Author and guide in Hezekiah’s Tunnel
feet. Because the
workmen’s chisel marks changed directions at about the half-
way point, Robinson speculated that two crews had dug the
tunnel, starting at opposite ends, finally meeting in the
middle. His theory was later confirmed.
In 1880 a boy was wading in the pool of Siloam and entered

Hezekiah’s Tunnel. Nineteen feet inside the entrance, he
noticed marks on the wall of the tunnel. It was an inscription.
It was later cut out and taken by the Turkish government to
the Ottoman Museum in Constantinople. It related how a
team cut through each end of the mountain to come together
at a point in the middle.
“The boring through is completed.

And this is the story of the boring through:
while yet they plied the drill, each toward his
fellow, and while yet there were three cubits
to be bored through, there was heard the
voice of one calling unto another, for there
was a crevice in the rock on the right hand.
And on the day of the boring through the stone
cutters struck, each to meet his fellow, drill
upon drill; and the water flowed from the
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source to the pool for a thousand and two

hundred cubits, and a hundred cubits was the
height of the rock above the heads of the stone
cutters.”
While the Biblical narrative recounts Hezekiah’s part in the

construction, this inscription tells the same story from the
point of view of the workers who dug the tunnel.
f. Jerusalem delivered.
This time, Hezekiah turned to the Lord for help and was
promised deliverance. In a single night, the Assyrian army
was overthrown.
Then it happened that night that the

angel of the Lord went out, and struck
185,000 in the camp of the Assyrians; and
when men rose early in the morning, behold,
all of them were dead.
So Sennacherib king of Assyria
departed and returned home, and lived at
Nineveh. (2 Kings 19:35-36).
The palace of Sennacherib was discovered in 1847 by the

English archaeologist Austen Henry Layard at Kuyunjik. A
total of 71 rooms were uncovered. Many of the walls were
lined with sculptured slabs. One of Sennacherib’s campaigns
is described on the Taylor Prism, a clay octagonal cylinder
which today resides in the British Museum (an even better
copy is on a prism at the Oriental Institute of the University
of Chicago). It contains the following:
“As for Hezekiah, the Jew, who did not

submit to my yoke, 46 of his strong walled
cities, as well as the small cities in their
neighborhood, which were without number, by
escalade and bringing up siege engines, by
attacking and storming on foot, by mines,
tunnels and breaches, I besieged and took
200,150 people, great and small, male and
female, horses, mules, asses, camels, cattle
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and sheep without number, I brought away

from them and counted as spoil. Himself, like
a caged bird, I shut up in Jerusalem, his
royal city. Earthworks I threw up against
him. The one coming out of his city gate I
turned back to his misery. The cities of his
which I had despoiled, I cut off from his land
and gave them to Mitinti king of Ashdod, Padi
king of Ekron, and Silili-bel king of Gaza.
Thus I diminished his land. I added to the
former tribute and laid upon him as their
yearly payment a tax in the form of gifts for
my majesty. As for Hezekiah, the terrifying
splendor of my majesty overcame him and the
Urbi and his mercenary troops which he had
brought in to strengthen Jerusalem, his royal
city, deserted him. In addition to 30 talents of
gold and 800 talents of silver, there were
gems, antimony, jewels, large sandu stones,
couches of ivory, house chairs of ivory,
elephant’s hide, ivory, maple, boxwood, all
kinds of valuable treasures, as well as his
daughters, his harem, his male and female
musicians, which he had them bring after me
to Nineveh, my royal city. To pay tribute and
to accept servitude he dispatched his
messengers.”
It is interesting to note Sennacherib’s description of this

campaign. He brags about how he had besieged the city of
Jerusalem, closing up Hezekiah as a bird in a cage, but makes
no mention of the outcome of the battle.
The remaining years of Hezekiah’s life were peaceful and

prosperous as the Lord continued to bless him.
2. Manasseh (686-642 B.C.).
Manasseh has the distinction of being one of the worst kings that
Judah ever had.
a. Murder of Isaiah.
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One of Manasseh’s first acts was the arrest and execution of

the prophet Isaiah. The old prophet was placed inside a
hollow tree trunk and then sawn apart.
b. Apostasy.
Manasseh was involved in all of the practices of the

Canaanite religious system.
(1) Worship of false gods.

(2) Child sacrifice.
(3) Sorcery.
(4) Idols in the Temple of God.
c. Assyrian invasion.
Because of Manasseh’s sin, the Lord allowed the Assyrians to

invade Judah. The Scriptures tell how Manasseh was captured
and taken in chains to Babylon. At this time in history,
Babylon was a part of the Assyrian Empire and Esarhaddon,
the king of Assyria, used it as his southern palace.
d. Repentance.
In Babylon, Manasseh repented and turned back to God. Soon

after this, he was released and allowed to return to Jerusalem.
He now led Judah back to the Lord, tearing down the false
idols in the land.
3. Amon (642-640 B.C.).
Amon was 22 years old when he came to the throne. He quickly

undid much of what his father had accomplished, leading the Jews
back into idolatry. He was murdered by his own servants after a short
reign of only two years.
THE FOURTH REFORMATION PERIOD

The Fourth Reformation Period of Judah was to be the last before the nation
disintegrated in the Babylonian Captivity.
277
1. Josiah (640-609 B.C.).
Josiah was only an 8 year old boy when he came to the throne. Even
as a boy, he served Yahweh and began to bring a revival to Judah.
As he grew older, Josiah began a program of reforms,

breaking down the idols and executing the Canaanite priests.
Then he began the work of rebuilding the Temple.
While the Temple was being restored, a copy of the Scriptures

was located. It was brought to Josiah and read to him.
Moreover, Shaphan the scribe told the

king saying, “Hilkiah the priest has given me
a book.” And Shaphan read it in the presence
of the king.
And it came about when the king heard
the words of the hook of the law, that he tore
his clothes. (2 Kings 22:10-11).
When Josiah heard the terms of the covenant of Yahweh read,

he was struck with the realization that Judah had transgressed
that covenant.
Accordingly, he now led the nation in a prayer of repentance.

For this, he was informed by the prophetess Huldah that the
nation would not be judged in his lifetime.
b. Fall of Assyria.
The final years of Josiah’s reign saw a great number of

changes on the international scene. Nineveh, the capital of
Assyria, fell to the combined assault of the Medes and the
Chaldeans in 612 B.C.
A remnant of Assyrians escaped to Carchemish where they

allied themselves to the Egyptians in an attempt to hold off
the Medes and the Chaldeans.
c. Battle of Megiddo.
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When Pharaoh Echo, the king of Egypt, began to march

through Palestine toward Carchemish, Josiah tried to intercept
him at Megiddo.
After all this, when Josiah had set the

temple in order, Neco king of Egypt came up
to make war at Carchemish on the Euphrates,
and Josiah went out to engage him.
But Neco sent messengers to him,
saying, “What have we to do with each other,
O King of Judah? I am not coming against
you today but against the house with which I
am at war, and God has ordered me to hurry.
Stop for your own sake from interfering with
God who is with me, that He may not destroy
you.”
However, Josiah would not turn away
from him, but disguised himself in order to
make war with him; nor did he listen to the
words of Neco from the mouth of God, but
came to make war on the plain of Megiddo. (2
Chronicles 35:20-22).
In spite of the warning of Necho that he had been sent by

God, Josiah met him in battle in the Valley of Megiddo. In the
heat of the battle, Josiah was shot by a stray arrow and he
ultimately died from his injury.
Josiah had left three sons and a grandson. Each one of them
would sit for a time upon the throne of Judah.
With Josiah dead, the people of Judah placed Jehoahaz (also
279
known as Joahaz) upon the throne.
2. Joahaz (609 B.C.).
Joahaz remained on the throne for three months. At the end of that
time, Pharaoh Necho came to Jerusalem and deposed Joahaz, placing
a tribute on the land of Judah of 100 talents of silver and a talent of
gold. Joahaz was taken to Egypt for the remainder of his life.
3. Jehoiakim.
Necho now placed Eliakim upon the throne of Judah and changed his
name to Jehoiakim. Jehoiakim’s first act was to raise a levy of taxes
to pay a bribe to the Egyptians.
Jeremiah had been prophesying for nearly 20 years when Jehoiakim

became king. The prophet denounced the wickedness of the
leadership of Judah and warned that Jehoiakim would die and, instead
of a royal burial, he would be given that accorded to a beast of
burden.
a. The Battle of Carchemish (605 B.C.).
Pharaoh Necho met Nebuchadnezzar at Carchemish on the

Euphrates in 605 B.C. The Egyptians were defeated with
enormous losses. They retreated south with Nebuchadnezzar
hot on their heels.
b. Nebuchadnezzar in Palestine.
Prince Nebuchadnezzar pursued the Egyptian forces all the

way down to Palestine, encountering no serious resistance
along the way.
As Nebuchadnezzar arrived in Canaan, he called for

Jehoiakim, king of Judah, to swear allegiance to him and pay
a tribute. Jehoiakim complied and was permitted to retain his
throne.
Nebuchadnezzar also took hostages from among the Hebrew

nobility at this time. Among these hostages was Daniel and
his companions, Shadrach, Meshach and Abed-nego. These
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were taken to Babylon to receive a Chaldean indoctrination.
c. The Chaldean/Egyptian War.
Nebuchadnezzar mounted an invasion into Egypt in 601 B.C.

The outcome of this campaign was indecisive with each side
inflicting heavy casualties upon the other. As a result,
Nebuchadnezzar returned to Babylon to regroup and
strengthen his forces.
d. Judah’s Rebellion (597 B.C.).
Jehoiakim saw this and interpreted it as a defeat for

Nebuchadnezzar. He promptly rebelled and allied himself
with the Egyptians. Retribution from Babylon was quick in
coming.
Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem and threw Jehoiakim

into chains, and placed his 18 year old son Jehoiachin on the
throne.
4. Jehoiachin (597 B.C.).
Jehoiachin, also known as Coniah, was only 18 years old when he

became king of Judah. Nebuchadnezzar set him upon the throne and
then moved down against Egypt. While he was in Egypt, young
Jehoiachin foolishly rebelled, contrary to the advice of Jeremiah.
Nebuchadnezzar returned, recaptured Jerusalem, and took Jehoiachin,

his family, servants and princes, threw them into chains, and marched
them away to Babylon.
This second deportation was made up of about 10,000 of the nobles

of Judah. Among them was the prophet Ezekiel.
5. Zedekiah (597-586 B.C.).
Having deposed Jehoiachin, Nebuchadnezzar now placed Zedekiah,

uncle to Jehoiachin, upon the throne of Judah.
a. Intrigue with Egypt.
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Zedekiah was constantly vacillating between Egypt and

Babylon. In 593 B.C. when Pharaoh Necho died,
representatives from the city-states of Edom, Moab, Ammon
and Tyre met in Jerusalem, hoping that the new Egyptian ruler
would join them in a new rebellion against Babylon.
However, the new pharaoh, Psammetichus II, adopted a

policy of non-interference. The plot against Babylon left
Zedekiah on the spot and he had to travel to Babylon where
he swore allegiance once again to Nebuchadnezzar.
b. Rebellion.
In 588 B.C. Psammetichus II died and Pharaoh Hophra

(Apries) came to the throne of Egypt. He immediately
persuaded the countries of Palestine to join him in a revolt
against Babylon.
c. Jerusalem under siege.
Nebuchadnezzar assembled his army and invaded Palestine,

setting up his headquarters at Riblah on the Orontes River.
From there, he launched simultaneous invasions of Judah,

Ammon, Edom and Tyre with a small reconnaissance patrol
to the Egyptian border.
Zedekiah sent messengers to Jeremiah, asking for help from

the Lord. Jeremiah’s response was that the city of Jerusalem
was doomed.
You shall also say to this people,

“Thus says the Lord, Behold, I set before you
the way of life and the way of death.
“He who dwells in this city will die by
the sword and by famine and by pestilence;
but he who goes out and falls away to the
Chaldeans who are besieging you will live,
and he will have his own life as booty.
“For I have set My face against this
city for harm and not for good, ‘ declares the
Lord. ‘It will be given into the hand of the
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king of Babylon, and he will burn it with fire.”

(Jeremiah 21:8-10).
Judah was quickly overrun except for the cities of Jerusalem,

Lachish and Eziekah. The siege of Jerusalem began on
January 588 B.C. It would be another year and a half before
the city was taken.
d. The siege lifted.
The siege of Jerusalem was temporarily interrupted when

Pharaoh Hophra led the Egyptian army up into Palestine in an
attempt to relieve Tyre and Sidon.
Meanwhile, Pharaoh’s army had set out from Egypt; and

when the Chaldeans who had been besieging Jerusalem heard
the report about them, they lifted the siege from Jerusalem
(Jeremiah 37:5).
Many of the inhabitants of the city were heartened by this,

thinking that it indicated a turn in their fortunes. Instead of
heeding the warnings of Jeremiah, they strengthened their
resolve to hold out against; Nebuchadnezzar.
As Pharaoh Hophra marched up along the Way of the

Philistines, the Chaldeans who had been besieging Jerusalem
pulled out and hit the Egyptians, driving them back into
Egypt. Having defeated the Egyptian threat, they returned to
Jerusalem.
e. The fall of Jerusalem.
The siege continued for many long months as the food ran out
and disease and starvation spread through the city.
On July 10, 586 B.C. Nebuchadnezzar’s forces broke through

the northern wall of Jerusalem. It would be another month
before the southern wall could be taken.
On the ninth day of the fourth month

the famine was so severe in the city that there
was no food for the people of the land. Then
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the city was broken into, and all the men of

war fled by night by way of the gate between
the two walls beside the king’s garden, though
the Chaldeans were all around the city. And
they went by way of the Arabah. But the army
of the Chaldeans pursued the king and
overtook him in the plains of Jericho and all
his army was scattered from him. Then they
captured the king and brought him to the king
of Babylon at Riblah, and he passed sentence
on him. During this siege, Zedekiah and the
remnants of his army broke out of Jerusalem
and fled east toward Jericho, only to be
captured and brought to Riblah where
Nebuchadnezzar still maintained his head-
quarters. When he was come.
Nebuchadnezzar began to call him a wicked
wretch and a covenant-breaker and one that
had forgotten his former words, when he
promised to keep the country for him.
(Antiquities 10:8:2).
Zedekiah was forced to watch his sons being executed and

then his eyes were put out. He was thrown into chains to be
dragged back to Babylon where he would die in prison.
The Jewish survivors were hauled across the Syrian Desert to

Babylon, many of them perishing en route. The Southern
Kingdom of Judah had ceased to exist.
Jerusalem was burned and the walls of the city were torn
down. All military, civil and religious leaders were either
executed or carried away into captivity.
Only the poorest of the peasants of Judah were allowed to

remain in the land that was by now completely desolate.
6. The Lachish Letters.
Lachish was one of the city-forts in Judah at the time of the

Babylonian Captivity. It lay about 20 miles to the southwest of
Jerusalem. Tel Lachish was partially excavated from 1932 to 1938
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by James L. Starkey who led a large-scale British expedition. This

work ended abruptly when Starkey was murdered by Arab bandits
while traveling from Lachish to Jerusalem.
Starkey uncovered massive fortifications built in the 17th century

B.C. which extended down the entire slope of the tel, ending at the
bottom in a dry moat (fosse). Subsequent digs uncovered more of the
history of this city.
Level History
7 Egyptian influences.
No fortifications discovered - possibly due to protection
from Egypt.
Destroyed by fire, but soon rebuilt (See Joshua 10:31-32).
6 Another Canaanite city was built showing a marked

architectural change from Level 7, but with a clear cultural
continuity and having a marked Egyptian presence and
influence.
Destroyed by fire after 1150 B.C., after which the site was
abandoned and not rebuilt until the 10th century B.C.
No fortifications have been discovered.
5 Judean palace-fort in the days of Solomon.
4 Judean palace-fort in the days of the divided Kingdom.

There were two city walls and gates during this period.
3 The city appears to have been densely populated and

fortified with two walls. An Assyrian siege ramp has been
found along with a Judean counter-ramp.
City destroyed by Sennacherib in 721 B.C.
2 City was rebuilt in 701 B.C. as a fortified city.

This is the period from which the Lachish Letters were
written.
The city was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar in 588-586 B.C.
1 The city was rebuilt during the Persian period with a palace
and a fortified city wall and gate. It continued into the
Hellenistic period.
Archaeologists have not found walled fortifications at either Level 6

or Level 7, the two Canaanite occupations of the Late Bronze Age.
A cartouche was discovered bearing the name of Rameses III at Level
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6, indicating that the destruction of this level did not take place until
after his period (Rameses III is dated at 1182-151 B.C.).
In 1935, J. L. Starkey discovered an ostraca in what was thought to be

a guard room adjoining the gate of Lachish. The ostraca was buried
in a burnt layer of charcoal and ashes. There were 18 ostraca found
here. Most of them were letters written by a man named Hoshaiah
who was a military officer reporting to a higher commander at
Lachish named Jaosh. They are written just prior to the final fall of
Lachish in 588 B.C.
a. Letter #3 reads as follows: “Your servant Hoshaiah has sent

to inform my lord Yaosh. May Yahweh cause my lord to hear
tidings of peace! And now you have sent a letter but my lord
has not enlightened your servant concerning the letter which
you sent to your servant yesterday evening, for the heart of
your servant has been sick since you wrote to your servant.
And as for what my lord has said, ‘You do not know it! Read
any letter,’ as Yahweh lives no one has undertaken to read me
a letter at any time, nor have I read any letter that may have
come to me nor would I give anything for it! And it has been
reported to your servant saying, ‘The commander of the host,
Coniah son of Elnathan, has come down in order to go into
Egypt and unto Hodaviah son of Ahijah and his men has he
sent to obtains things from him.’ And as for the letter of
Tobiah, servant of the king, which came to Shallum son of
Yaddua through the prophet, saying ‘Beware,’ your servant
has sent it to my lord.”
Is this the same Hoshaiah who is mentioned in Jeremiah 42:1?

We have no way of knowing and this may have been a fairly
common name.
b. Letter #6 contains the following message: “Who is thy slave,

a dog, that my lord has sent the letter of the king and the
letter of the officers, saying, Read, I pray thee, and thou wilt
see; the words of the (prophet) are not good, to loosen the
hands, to (make) sink the hands of the country and city.”
This is remarkably similar to the words recorded in Jeremiah:
Thus saith the Lord, “This city shall
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surely be given into the hand of the king of

Babylon's army, which shall take it.” 4
Therefore the princes said unto the king, “We
beseech thee, let this man be put to death: for
thus he weakeneth the hands of the men of
war that remain in this city, and the hands of
all the people in speaking such words unto
them: for this man seeketh not the welfare of
this people, but the hurt.” (Jeremiah 38:3-4).
7. Gedaliah (587-583 B.C.).

On the back of one clay seal found
To maintain order over the at Lachish were marks of the
desolate country, Nebuchad- papyrus document to which it had
nezzar appointed a Jewish been affixed. It contained the
inscription, “The property of
noble named Gedaliah. A seal Gedaliah who is over the house.”
which has been discovered at This was the same name of the
Lachish indicates that he had man whom Nebuchadnezzar
served as the chief minister on appointed governor of Judah after
596 B.C. (2 Kings 25:22). The title
Zedekiah’s cabinet. His family “who is over the house” is found in
had evidently been pro- Isaiah 22:16 and 36:3 for
Chaldean and friendly to governors and kings.
Jeremiah (Jeremiah 26:24). He
was given command of a
Babylonian garrison at Mizpah.
Nebuchadnezzar had underestimated the poor of Judah. Once again

they rose up, killing Gedaliah and wiping out the Babylonian
garrison. In 582 B.C. Nebuchadnezzar made another march to
Palestine and another deportation left the land almost unpopulated.
Refugees from this incident fled to Egypt. Jewish tradition has it that
Jeremiah was taken along to Egypt at this time.
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MESOPOTAMIA IN THE
AGE OF THE EMPIRES
The Sumerian period of dominance came to a close with the advent of a
group coming in from the west known as the Amorites, literally “westerners.”
This was in conjunction with a mass of migrations which were all taking
place around 2000 B.C.
• Indo-European groups moved into the Greek peninsula to begin what

would become the Mycenaean Civilization.
• Some of the Hamitic peoples in Greece moved south onto the Island
of Crete to begin the Minoan Civilization.
• Luians crossed the Hellespont into Anatolia to begin the Hittite
Kingdom.
• Amorites moved into Mesopotamia from the west.
• Elamites contributed by invading from the east and taking Ur.
As a result of these invasions, Mesopotamia was shattered into a mosaic of

tiny competing kingdoms. As a rule, these kingdoms were dominated by
either Akkadian or Amorite rulers. The Akkadians were highly civilized.
The Amorites started as uncultured but soon assimilated the Sumero-
Akkadian culture. It was 250 years before one man managed to bring all of
Mesopotamia under one rule.
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Mesopotamia in the Age of the Empires
HAMMURABI
Hammurabi was an Amorite king who came to the throne of Babylon around
1750 B.C. During his 50-year reign, he managed to carve out a small empire
that stretched from the Persian Gulf to the borders of Anatolia. He is most
famed for his law code.
Code of Hammurabi
Location A copy first found at Susa
Excavator Found in 1902 by de Morgan
Description Stela of black diorite, topped by a base relief
showing Hammurabi before the sun god.
Followed by 51 lines of text which form a
prologue for the Code.
The law code itself includes nearly 300 paragraphs of legal provisions which
set forth the law of Hammurabi. It was not the first of its kind. It borrowed
heavily from the old Sumerian legal system. It included the following areas:
1. A Caste System.
The society of that day was divided into three classes: Patrician, serf
and slave. The serf was bound to his land which he could not sell and
was under obligation to the state.
The penalties differed depending upon who committed the crime and
against whom it was committed. Eye for an eye only took place
within the same class distinctions.
2. The Death Penalty.
The death penalty was prescribed for theft, murder, adultery,

kidnaping, rape, the receipt of stolen property from a temple or a
palace, and for a false accusation of a capital crime.
3. Lex Talionis.
Punishment for infractions attempted to be in accordance with the

level of the crime (“an eye for an eye”). If a man built a house badly,
and it fell and killed the owner, the builder was to be slain. If the
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owner’s son was killed, then the builder’s son was slain.
4. Wages were prescribed by the state for workers and craftsmen.
5. Trial by ordeal.
When the witnesses of a law suit could not agree, then the accused
was thrown into the Euphrates River. If he drowned, then he was
considered to have been guilty (swimming seems to have been an
unknown art).
6. Marriage.
• Marriage was only legal when recorded in writing.
• The penalty for adultery was death.
• Married women were permitted to own property.
• Monogamy was the rule, and a childless wife might give her
husband a maid (who was no wife) to bear him children, who
were reckoned hers. She remained mistress of her maid and
might degrade her to slavery again for insolence, but could
not sell her if she had borne her husband children. If the wife
did this, the Code did not allow the husband to take a
concubine. If she would not, he could do so. The concubine
was a wife, though not of the same rank; the first wife had no
power over her.
Hammurabi’s empire did not continue overlong after his death. His
descendants saw the flare of rebellion as both northern and southern
provinces regained their independence.
THE MARI TABLETS

Mari or Tell Hariri is situated on the Euphrates River about fifteen miles
north of the present Syria-Iraq border about midway between Babylon and
Haran. It had been an important city of Mesopotamia during the Sumerian
period, though the major archaeological discoveries date to the period of
Hammurabi.
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André Parrot, the chief archaeologist at Mari, conducted digging seasons

from 1933-38 and 1951-56. Further work was done by Jean Margueron in
1979. Over twenty thousand tablets and a number of inscriptions on objects
have been unearthed. The language of the texts is Akkadian. The period of
the texts covers from 1800-1750 B.C. and comes to a close when Hammurabi
conquered the city. Their subject content crosses a wide range of topics, but
most deal with financial and business transactions.
1. Biblical Names.
Mari was an Amorite city and, since Amorite is similar to Hebrew,

there are a number of names which are similar to the Hebrew names
of personages in the Bible.
• Terah
• Nahor
• Haran
• Ishmael
• Serug
• Variations of Abraham and Jacob
These names formed by a verb in the imperfect form are very

numerous and very typical of Amorite names found at Mari, but are
very rare for Canaanite-Phoenician names.
2. Travel and Commerce.
One tablet at Mari entailed a wagon contract. The contract stated that
as a condition of rental the wagon must not be driven to the
Mediterranean sea. This serves as an indication that such long-
distance travel as Abraham undertook was normative.
3. Covenants and Sacrifices.
The Mari tablets describe the sacrifice of a young donkey as part of

the ritual for concluding a treaty. The traditional language of
“entering into a covenant” was “to kill a young ass” in the Mari texts.
Mari was destroyed by Hammurabi and it was his Babylonian scribes who
went through the tablets, collecting and organizing them. Those considered
of greater importance were taken away, but some 20,000 tablets were left
behind along with the catalog label seals from the Babylonian scribes who
organized them.
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Mari Tablets
Location On the west bank of the Euphrates by Tell Hariri
Excavator Excavated by the Louvre Museum under Andre
Parrot.
Description 20,000 tablets
THE HITTITES
The Bible makes several references to a people known as the Hittites. These
passing references depict them as a group of warriors whose coming would
strike fear in their enemies. At the same time, we note the loyalty of Uriah
the Hittite to David, even though that loyalty was not returned.
The French Encyclopedia of 1871 contained a total of three sentences on the

Hittites:
The Hittites: A Canaanite tribe encountered in

Palestine by the Israelites, resident and along side the
Amorites in the region of Bethel. They were pressed into
service by Solomon. Still later, however, an independent and
monarchically governed Hittite tribe existed nearer Syria.
(Meyers Neus Konversationislexikon, 1871).
This stood in complete contrast to For the Lord had caused the
the Biblical reference in 2 Kings 7:6 army of the Arameans to hear a sound
which implied that the Hittites were of chariots and a sound of horses, even
a mighty warrior race comparable to the sound of a great army, so that they
Egypt. As a result, secular scholars said to one another, “Behold, the king
of Israel has hired against us the kings
attacked and ridiculed the Bible as of the HITTITES and the kings of the
being a book of myths and fairytales. Egyptians, to come upon us.”
Therefore they arose and fled
Then, in the late 19th century, a in the twilight, and left their tents and
discovery was made which was to their horses and their donkeys, even the
camp just as it was, and fled for their
rock the archaeological world. life.” (2 Kings 7:6-7).
1. Charles Felix-Marie Texier.
Texier was a French explorer who received permission from the

Turkish government to explore the wilds of central Anatolia. He was
292
searching for the ancient city of Taviurn which had been built by the
Gauls in the days of the Romans. His expedition set out on July 18,
1834.
a. Ruins at Boghazkoy.
In the course of his travels, Texier came to a small village

called Boghazkoy, about 90 miles east of Ankara.
When he asked the villagers if there were any ruins in the

neighborhood, he was told to look in the hills above the
village.
One of the villagers guided him up into the hills. There, he

came upon huge blocks of stone which had once formed the
foundations of a building. Walking a little further, he came to
a massive wall which stretched on for miles.
He finally reached a vantage point from which he could see

the entire complex. He realized that he had discovered a huge
city as large as Athens at the height of her glory.
b. Conclusions.
Texier returned to France where he published a book on his

findings. He described the ancient ruins and the massive size
of the stones and concluded that this was the lost city of
Tavium.
However, after the book had been written and published, he

reviewed his notes and stated that he had been wrong and that
the ruins at Boghazkoy could not have been Tavium.
This came as something of an embarrassment to scholars

since here was an entire city with carvings and inscriptions
that no one knew about. By all rights, the city should not have
been there.
2. Archibald Henry Sayce (1845-1933).
In 1879, a British scholar, Oxford professor and Bible student named

Sayce examined the ruins in Anatolia. He concluded that these had all
been built by the Biblical Hittites which made up a great Hittite
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Empire.
All of the archaeologists and historians of that day rose up in

opposition against Sayce. Sayce and his handful of followers (mostly
Bible-believers) were ridiculed.
In the face of strong criticism, Sayce and his followers began to look
for further evidence of this city belonging to the Hittites. They
discovered several facts:
a. Assyrian documents.
They found Assyrian documents which repeatedly spoke of

their invasions into the land of “Hatti.”
b. Egyptian writings.
Egyptian inscriptions made several references to battles

against the “Heta.” At Tell el-Amarna a treaty was found
between Rameses II of Egypt and Hattusilis III from “Heta.”
However, archaeologists and historians continued to dispute

Sayce and explain these items away.
3. Hugo Winckler was a specialist in ancient languages, not a

professional archaeologist.
a. First expedition.
In 1905, he led an expedition to Boghazkoy. He stayed only

three days and then had to leave, due to the early seasonal
rains. In those three days, he had found thirty fragments of
clay tablets.
b. Second expedition.
Winckler returned to Boghazkoy the next year. Although he

was an excellent language expert, he was only an amateur
archaeologist. The result was that these excavations were
carried out in a very unscientific manner.
Winckler would sit in his tent all day while hired Turkish
natives would bring in fragments of inscriptions. Winckler
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would then either translate it, or if the language was

unknown, he would put it to the side for later study.
One day, Winckler’s assistant followed an unsuspecting

native to see where he was finding these inscription
fragments. The native traveled over a winding mountain path,
eventually coming to a large clearing. There, he saw the
native walk over to a long row of perfectly good tablets, pick
out a few, and break them up with his axe. Loading the
fragments into his wheelbarrow, he took them back to
Winckler.
In spite of these crude methods used in obtaining the

inscriptions, much progress was made.
c. Breakthrough.
On the 20th day of the expedition, Winckler was brought a

complete tablet written in Akkadian, a language which he
could easily read. The tablet contained a treaty between
Rameses II and Hattusilis. It was almost an exact duplicate of
the treaty which had been found at Tell el-Amarna in Egypt.
This proved that there had been a Hittite Empire which had
been comparable to Egypt in strength. Once again, the truths
of the Bible had been substantiated by the findings of
archaeology.
4. Hittites in Babylon.
We know today that around 1600 B.C. the Hittite king Mursilis led
his army all the way to Babylon and conquered that city. They did
not retain their control and soon packed up their loot and returned to
their own country.
THE ASSYRIANS
The Assyrians settled in the northeastern area of Mesopotamia which lies
around the banks of the Tigris River. In contrast to southern Mesopotamia
which is full of marshy reeds and swamp lands, this is a high plateau, broken
up by small river valleys. The summers are blistering hot and the winters of
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this land are very cold.
Early 1750-2000 Kassites dominate Babylon

Assyrian B.C. Kingdom of Mitanni (Hurrians) in
Period northwest Mesopotamia uses the spoked
chariot to become strong, but eventually
conquered by Hittites.
Dark Ages 1200-900 Introduced by a new wave of migrations;
B.C. Hittite Kingdom falls, Sea People invade
Egypt.
Assyrian military machine introduce
cavalry with stunning success.
Neo-Assyrian 900-626 Assyria expands her borders to take in all
Empire B.C. of Mesopotamia. Provides a constant
threat to the kingdoms along the Levant.
• Aram
• Israel
• Judah
Fall of 626-612 Assyria entered an era of decline and was
Assyria B.C. set upon by a coalition from Media,
Scythia and Babylon.
1. A Literary People.
The Assyrians were writers and story tellers. Our best copies of the
Gilgamesh Epic come from the libraries of Assyria.
2. The Assyrian Eponym Lists.
The Assyrians kept detailed historical records, giving a name to each

year. It was the custom to name the year after an officer of the state.
It could be the king or it could be some other high ranking officer.
The man thus honored would be the Eponym and the year named for
him would be the eponym year.
The Assyrians also recorded the advent of Total Solar eclipses were
celestial phenomenon such as solar eclipses, visible in Nineveh in 832,
763 and 585 B.C.
tallying them with their eponym years. This
has been a blessing to archaeologists and
historians as it has allowed them to pinpoint exact dates in historical
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chronology. Faulstich makes this observation:
During the reign of Ashur-dan III of Assyria,

an eclipse of the sun is mentioned in the notation for
the eponym of Bur-Sagale. This eclipse was
calculated in 1887 to have occurred on June 15
(Julian calendar), 763 B.C. (1986:162).
By pinpointing a specific year on the calendar, scholars have been

able to work forward and backward along the eponym list and
determine the occurrence of other dates.
This was utilized in conjunction with a later set of observations

known as the Canon of Ptolemy. Named for Claudius Ptolemaeus, an
Egyptian astronomer in the second century after Christ, he claims to
have had access to Greek and Babylonian historical records and thus
produced a list of kings of antiquity and integrated that list with a
series of observations made of lunar and solar phenomenon including
the 1460 year cycle of the Egyptian correlation of the rising of Sirius
(July 19th of each year) with the first day of the Egyptian month.
3. Assyrian Military Machine.

Isaiah gives a graphic representation
of the disciplined professionalism of
The Assyrians were renown the Assyian army: No one in it is
for their military prowess. weary or stumbles, None slumbers or
Reared in an invigorating sleeps; Nor is the belt at its waist
climate and schooled for a undone, Nor its sandal strap broken
(Isaiah 5:27).
thousand years by constant
warfare, they made
formidable soldiers.
a. Foot soldiers: They were equipped with a curved bow from

which they shot short arrows. They also carried a sword and
an iron-tipped lance which served as a javelin.
b. Chariots: While the Assyrians had chariots, they did not use
them to the same effect as the Hittites. Chariots were usually
reserved for nobility.
c. Cavalry: The Assyrians had learned of the value of cavalry

from the Scythians - barbarian horsemen to the north. They
utilized mounted archers and swordsmen, riding small horses
with neither stirrups nor saddles.
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d. Terror tactics: The idea of terror-tactics was to so demoralize

the enemy with fear of the cruelty of the Assyrians that they
would submit rather than fight. Unfortunately, it often had
the opposite result. Knowing the torture, mutilation and death
that they would face if they lost a battle, Assyria’s enemies
were often ready to fight to the death rather than to submit.
“I built a pillar over against his city

gate and I flayed all the chief men... and I
covered the pillar with their skins; some I
walled up within the pillar, some I impaled
upon the pillar on stakes... and I cut off the
limbs of the officers... Many captives from
among them I burned with fire... From some I
cut off their hands and their fingers and from
others I cut off their noses, their ears... of
many I put out their eyes... their young men
and maidens I burned in the fire.” -
Assurnasipal II.
4. Notable Kings of Assyria.
Name Dates Accomplishments

Tiglath-Pileser I 1116- Conquered most of Syria, Urartu
1076 and Babylon. Took tribute from
Sidon and Byblos.
The kings which followed him
did not follow in his conquests
and the empire went into a period
of decline.
Adad-Nirari II 910-889 Brought Assyria back as a local
power.
Assurnasirpal II 884-859 Marched all the way to the
Mediterranean Sea.
Shalmaneser III 859-824 Fought a coalition at Qarqar
which included Ahab of Israel
and Ben-hadad of Damascus.
He later lay siege to Damascus
but was unable to take the city.
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Shamshi-Adad 824-810 (Jonah revival?)

V
Adad-Nirari III 810-783 Assyrian trend toward
monotheism (brought about by
Jonah?).
Besieged Damascus, but did not
take the city.
These attacks on Syria were
beneficial to Israel and allowed
Jeroboam II to expand his
kingdom.
Shalmaneser IV 782-772 All three of these kings were
Ashur-Dan III 771-745 brothers; sons of Adad-Nirari III.
Ashur-Nirari V 753-746 Under their reign, Assyria
gradually gave up all her foreign
possessions.
Tiglath-Pileser 745-727 His name was originally “Pul.”
III He gained the throne via
assassination.
Conquered Merodach-baladan of
Babylon.
Raided Galilee (2 Kings 15:29).
Bribed by Ahaz of Judah to attack
Aram (2 Kings 16:7-10).
Inaugurated regular system of
deportation of conquered peoples.
Shalmaneser V 726-722 At the beginning of his reign,
Hoshea of Israel entered into an
alliance with Egypt against
Assyria.
Shalmaneser besieged Samaria
for three years.
Sargon II 721-705 Younger brother of Shalmaneser
V. Completed conquest of
Samaria and deported 10 tribes
into captivity.
Captured Ashdod.
Built capital city of Khorsabad.
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Sennacherib 705-681 Younger brother of Sargon II,

took throne when his brother was
assassinated.
Besieged Jerusalem, but failed to
capture it in the days of Hezekiah
(2 Kings 19).
Assassinated (2 Kings 19:37).
Esarhaddon 681-669 Invaded Egypt.
Imprisoned Manasseh, king of
Judah.
Assurbanipal 669-626 Scholar-king; collected a library
of over 6000 cuneiform texts.
5. The Fall of Assyria.
The Old Testament prophets foretold the fall of Assyria, predicting

that their capital city of Nineveh would be so completely destroyed
that even her location would be forgotten.
“Woe to Assyria, the rod of My anger and the

staff in whose hands is My indignation.” (Isaiah
10:5).
And He will stretch out His hand against the

north and destroy Assyria, and He will make Nineveh
a desolation, parched like the wilderness.
And flocks will lie down in her midst, all
beasts which range in herds; both the pelican and the
hedgehog will lodge in the tops of her pillars; birds
will sing in the window, desolation will be on the
threshold; for He has laid bare the cedar work.
This is the exultant city which dwells securely,
who says in her heart, “I am, and there is no one
besides me.” How she has become a desolation, a
resting place for beasts! For everyone who passes by
her will hiss and wave his hand in contempt.
(Zephaniah 2:13-15).
This fall which was promised by the prophets came to pass within a
single generation. It began with an alliance of two of Assyria’s
traditional enemies, Nabopolassar of Babylon and Cyaxeres of the
300
Medes. In 614 B.C. they sealed their alliance by the marriage of their
children.
The Assyrians sought aid from the Scythians to the north and the
Scythians initially agreed to attack the Medes. But when Cyaxeres
offered them a portion of the spoils of Nineveh, the Scythians
changed sides and all three groups converged on the Assyrians. The
city fell to this coalition in the summer of 612 B.C. Remnants of the
Assyrian military retreated westward to Haran and from there to
Carchemish.
The Assyrians formed an alliance with Pharaoh Necho of Egypt who

agreed to come to their aid at Carchemish. Josiah was ruling in
Jerusalem at this time and he was determined to stop help from
coming to the beleaguered Assyrians. Going against the advice of
Jeremiah, he intercepted Pharaoh Necho at Megiddo, but was
defeated and killed in the ensuing battle. Pharaoh Necho continued
unimpeded to link up with the Assyrians at Carchemish. The battle
which was fought there in 605 B.C. is one of the classic military
engagements of history. The winner of this conflict was the young
Babylonian prince Nebuchadnezzar.
NEBUCHADNEZZAR (605-562 B.C.)

His name is Akkadian, Until 1956, most of the facts we had
Nebo-kudurri-ussur, meaning about Nebuchadnezzar were from the
“Nebo has protected my inherit- Bible and Josephus. This change in
ance.” Of his early life, we know 1956 with the discovery of the tablets
of the Babylonian Chronicle which
almost nothing. He was the eldest record the first 11 years of his reign.
son of Nabopolassar, and was
described as a very tall, very strong
man.
We have already mentioned that when Nabopolassar allied himself with the
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Medians, the alliance was cemented by a marriage between Nebuchadnezzar

and the daughter of Cyaxeres. However, Nebuchadnezzar’s greatest claim to
fame was in the area of the military. He would demonstrate his genius in this
area throughout his career.
1. The Battle of Carchemish (605 B.C.).
Nebuchadnezzar met the Assyrian-Egyptian Alliance at Carchemish

in 605 B.C. This ancient Hittite city guarded the major ford across
the Euphrates River.
In the twenty first year the king of Akkad

stayed in his own land. Nebuchadnezzar, his eldest
son, the crown-prince, mustered and took command of
his troops; he marched to Carchemish which is on the
banks of the Euphrates and crossed the river to go
against the Egyptian army which lay in Carchemish.
(Chronicles Tablet 21946, British Museum).
He seems to have crossed the Euphrates River unopposed, a feat that

is surprising because Carchemish guarded the river fords. It is
possible that Nebuchadnezzar’s advance was unexpected and that his
attack came as a surprise to the Egyptians.
2. Nebuchadnezzar in Palestine.
Prince Nebuchadnezzar pursued the Egyptian forces all the way down
to Palestine, encountering no serious resistance along the way.
And the king of Egypt did not come out of his

land again, for the king of Babylon had taken all that
belonged to the king of Egypt from the brook of Egypt
to the river Euphrates. (2 Kings 24:7).
As Nebuchadnezzar arrived in Canaan, he called for Jehoiakim, king

of Judah, to swear allegiance to him and pay a tribute. Jehoiakim
complied and was permitted to retain his throne.
Nebuchadnezzar also took hostages from among the Hebrew nobility

at this time. Among these hostages were Daniel and his three friends,
Hannaniah, Mishael and Azariah. We know them by their Babylonian
names: Shadrack, Meshach and Abednego. His plan in taking these
hostages was that they be indoctrinated into Chaldean culture so that
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they could he future leaders of their people who would be loyal to

Chaldean rule.
3. Ascent to the Throne.
It was while he was here that Nebuchadnezzar received news that his
father had died in Babylon. Taking only a small cavalry contingent,
Nebuchadnezzar took the quickest route back to Babylon, taking a
short-cut through the Syrian Desert and arriving at the capital in 23
days.
Arriving in Babylon, Nebuchadnezzar ascended to the throne on the

same day and was immediately recognized as king.
4. Campaigns in Syria and Canaan.
Within a month, Nebuchadnezzar returned to continue his campaigns

in Syria and Canaan, collecting heavy tributes from each of the
kingdoms in the area. The Philistine city of Ashkelon held out the
longest, but it was eventually captured and reduced to rubble.
5. War with Egypt (601 B.C.).
After several years of fighting, the Syrian frontier was thoroughly

subdued, leaving Nebuchadnezzar free to invade Egypt. The two
armies clashed on the Egyptian frontier and the outcome of the battle
was indecisive with each side inflicting heavy casualties upon the
other. As a result, Nebuchadnezzar returned to Babylon to regroup
and strengthen his forces.
6. Judah’s Rebellion (597 B.C.).
Jehoiakim of Judah saw this and interpreted it as a defeat for

Nebuchadnezzar. He promptly rebelled and allied himself with the
Egyptians. Retribution from Babylon was quick in coming.
In the seventh year, the month of kislev, the

king of Akkad mustered his troops, marched to Hatti-
land, and encamped against the city of Judah and on
the second day of the month of Adar he seized the city
and captured the king. (Chronicles Tablet 21946,
British Museum).
303
In 597 B.C. Nebuchadnezzar marched west into Syria and down into
Judah. He captured Jerusalem, threw Jehoiakim into chains, and
placed his 16 year old son Jehoiachin on the throne. Then he
marched south to deal with Egypt. While Nebuchadnezzar was in
Egypt, the young Jewish King Jehoiachin foolishly rebelled against
Nebuchadnezzar. Nebuchadnezzar returned, took Jerusalem, and took
Jehoiachin, his family, servants and princes, threw them into chains,
and marched them away to Babylon.
This second deportation was made up of about 10, 000 of the nobles
of Judah. Among them was the prophet Ezekiel.
7. Zedekiah in Judah.
Having deposed Jehoiachin, Nebuchadnezzar now placed Zedekiah,

uncle to Jehoiachin, upon the throne of Judah.
Zedekiah was constantly vacillating between Egypt and Babylon. In

593 B.C. when Pharaoh Necho died, representatives from the city-
states of Edom, Moab, Ammon and Tyre met in Jerusalem, hoping
that the new Egyptian ruler would join them in a new rebellion
against Babylon.
However, the new pharaoh, Psammetichus II, adopted a policy of

non-interference. The plot against Babylon left Zedekiah on the spot
and he had to travel to Babylon where he swore allegiance once again
to Nebuchadnezzar.
8. Second Revolt in Judah (587 B.C.).
In 588 B.C. Psammetichus II died and Pharaoh Hophra (Apries) came
304
to the throne of Egypt. He immediately persuaded the countries of

Palestine to join him in a revolt against Babylon. Nebuchadnezzar
assembled his army and invaded Palestine, setting up his headquarters
at Riblah on the Orontes River. From there, he launched
simultaneous invasions of Judah, Ammon, Edom and Tyre with a
small reconnaissance patrol to the Egyptian border.
Judah was quickly overrun except for the cities of Jerusalem, Lachish
and Eziekah. The siege of Jerusalem was temporarily interrupted
when Pharaoh Hophra led the Egyptian army up into Palestine in an
attempt to relieve Tyre and Sidon.
Meanwhile, Pharaoh’s army had set out from

Egypt; and when the Chaldeans who had been
besieging Jerusalem heard the report about them,
they lifted the siege from Jerusalem. (Jeremiah 37:5).
As Pharaoh Hophra marched up along the Way of the Philistines, the

Chaldeans who had been besieging Jerusalem pulled out and hit the
Egyptians on their right flank, driving them back into Egypt. Having
defeated the Egyptian threat, they returned to Jerusalem.
9. The Fall of Jerusalem (586 B.C.).
On July 10, 586 B.C. Nebuchadnezzar’s forces broke through the

northern wall of Jerusalem. It would be another month before the
southern wall could be taken.
During this siege, Zedekiah and the remnants of his army broke out
of Jerusalem and fled east toward Jericho, only to be captured and
brought to Riblah where Nebuchadnezzar still maintained his
headquarters.
Zedekiah... fled out of the city, through the

fortified ditch, and through the desert; and when
certain of the deserters had informed the Babylonians
of this, at break of day, they made haste to pursue
after Zedekiah and overtook him not far from
Jericho... When he was come, Nebuchadnezzar began
to call him a wicked wretch and a covenant-breaker
and one that had forgotten his former words, when he
promised to keep the country for him (Antiquities
10:8:2).
305
Zedekiah was forced to watch his sons being executed and then his
eyes were put out. He was thrown into chains to be dragged back to
Babylon where he would die in prison.
By August of 586 B.C. Jerusalem belonged to the Babylonians. The

vast majority of survivors were herded together and hauled away to
Babylon in chains. The Southern Kingdom of Judah had ceased to
exist. Jerusalem was burned and the walls of the city were torn down.
All military, civil and religious leaders were either executed or carried
away into captivity. Only the poorest of the peasants of Judah were
allowed to remain in the land that was by now completely desolate.
The treasures of the temple were plundered and the temple itself was
destroyed. It is interesting that, of the temple vessels and utensils, the
Ark of the Covenant is not mentioned, save for a single reference in
Jeremiah.
“And it shall be in those days when you are

multiplied and increased in the land,” declares the
Lord, “they shall say no more, ‘The ark of the
covenant of the Lord.’” And it shall not come to mind,
nor shall they remember it, nor shall they miss it, nor
shall it be made again. (Jeremiah 3:16).
The implication of this passage is that the Ark either had already been
or was soon to be taken from the Temple and lost. The Ark was still
in the Temple during Josiah’s reign (2 Chronicles 35:3), so it must
have been removed after Josiah.
10. Gedaliah.
To maintain order over the desolate country, Nebuchadnezzar

appointed a Jewish noble named Gedaliah. A seal which has been
discovered at Lachish indicates that he had served as the chief minister
on Zedekiah’s cabinet. His family had evidently been pro-Chaldean
and friendly to Jeremiah (Jeremiah 26:24). He was given command
of a Babylonian garrison at Mizpah.
Nebuchadnezzar had underestimated the poor of Judah. Once again

they rose up, killing Gedaliah and wiping out the Babylonian garrison.
In 582 B.C. Nebuchadnezzar made another march to Palestine and
another deportation left the land almost unpopulated. Refugees from
this incident fled to Egypt. Jewish tradition has it that Jeremiah was
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taken along to Egypt at this time.
NEBUCHADNEZZAR’S BABYLON
The city of Babylon now became the center of the ancient world. Not only was
it the center of government, but it was the center of trade and culture as well.
1. Physical Description of the City.
Herodotus, writ-
ing 150 years
after Nebuchad-
nezzar, tells us
that the city of
Babylon was a
vast square in
design, each side
having a length
of 14 miles and Babylon with the River Euphrates running through the city
making a com-
plete circuit of 56 miles. He adds that the walls of the city were 300
feet high and were so wide that three chariots could race along the top
side by side.
The Euphrates River ran straight through the center of the city. The
banks of the river were lined with brick and large gates crossed the
river where it entered and exited from the city.
A large part of the city was given over to farmland. With both a food
and water supply, Babylon could withstand a siege indefinitely.
2. The Defenses of the City.
Herodotus states that the outer wall of the city was three hundred feet
high and eighty feet thick. Even assuming that he is exaggerating,
these walls must have been huge. Surrounding this outer wall was a
huge moat which was fed through canals from both the Euphrates and
the Tigris Rivers.
Around the center of the city was a second double-wall. If an invader

managed to pass the outer wall and then also passed through the inner
307
wall, he would find himself within a narrow space between the first
and second inner wall which could be flooded in times of emergency.
3. The Hanging Gardens.
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were considered by the Greeks to

be one of the seven wonders of the world. They were 400 feet square
and were raised on terraces one above the other to the height of the city
wall. Viewed from a distance, they had the appearance of a forest-
covered mountain, standing in marked contrast to the level plains of
the Mesopotamian Valley.
It is said that Nebuchadnezzar built the Gardens for his wife, Amyhia,
the daughter of Cyaxeres, the king of the Medes. The Gardens were
to relieve her homesickness for the mountains of her native Media.
In order to
maintain the
exotic plants of
the Gardens
under the blaz-
ing sun of the
Babylonian
plains, a pow-
erful pump was Hanging Gardens of Babylon
built inside the
terraced wall
which kept a steady flow of water, insuring that the soil was always
moist.
4. Temples.
Under Nebuchadnezzar, every temple in Babylon was rebuilt. He lists

eight which were built within the city itself.
The greatest of all was the Temple of Bal-Merodach. It stood in a

square enclosure with each side measuring twelve hundred feet and
entered by twelve gates. In the middle rose a tower of solid brick, like
a pyramid. The sanctuary on the top rose in eight stories and was three
hundred feet high.
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NEBUCHADNEZZAR AND DANIEL

We have already noted that Daniel was one of the young nobles who was taken
as a hostage to Babylon. He and his companions rose to positions of some
prominence in the empire.
1. Nebuchadnezzar’s Dreams.
Daniel had not been in Babylon very long when he was called upon
to interpret a prophetic dream that Nebuchadnezzar had. The dream
pictured Nebuchadnezzar as a great empire-builder who would lead
the way in a number of successive world empires which would
culminate in the god of heaven establishing an eternal kingdom. After
this time, Daniel was promoted to the position of prefect over all of
the wise men of Babylon.
2. The Image of Gold.
Daniel 3 relates an account of how Nebuchadnezzar had a great statue

made of himself, standing ninety feet high. He mandated that, at
appointed times, this statue be accorded worship.
When Daniel’s three friends refused to partake in this idolatry,

Nebuchadnezzar ordered their execution. They were thrown into a
furnace of fire, but miraculously survived when there appeared with
them “one like a son of the gods” (Hebrew of Daniel 3:25).
Archaeology has yet to find any images of Nebuchadnezzar let alone

any that are of gold. That none remain which are of gold should not
surprise us. Such a valuable item would have long since been melted
down for its valuable ore.
The use of a fiery furnace has an Assyrian counterpart in the days of

Ashurbanipal, whose brother, Shamash-shumukin, was put to death
in such a furnace.
3. Nebuchadnezzar’s Madness.
Daniel 4 relates an account of Nebuchadnezzar being stricken with

madness for a period of time lasting “seven times” (the Chaldean word
iddan).
309
The fact that no ancient inscription testifies to such an incident in the

life of Nebuchadnezzar has given critics of the Bible some ammuni-
tion. However, several important factors need to be considered.
a. The scarcity of reliable information. The official records that

we have from Nebuchadnezzar’s career have some notable
gaps and could easily accommodate such a period, whether it
was seven months or seven years. Even if those records were
extant, it is doubtful whether they would have included this
dark episode in Nebuchadnezzar’s reign.
b. The Nabonidus prayer.
Found among the Dead Sea Scrolls was an Aramaic document

known as the “Prayer of Nabonidus.” It reads as follows:
The words of the prayer made by

Nabonidus, king of Assyria and Babylon, the
great king, when he was smitten with a malig-
nant disease, by the decree of the Most High
God in the town of Tima. I was smitten with a
malignant disease for a period of seven years,
and became unlike men. But when I had con-
fessed my sins and faults, God sent me a
magician. He was a Jew from among those
exiled in Babylon. He gave his explanation,
and wrote an order that honor and great glory
should be given to the Name of the Most High
God. And thus he wrote: While you were
smitten with a malignant disease in the town
of Tima by decree of the Most High God, you
prayed for seven years to gods of silver and
gold, or bronze, iron, wood, stone and clay...”
(Translated by J. T. Milik, Ten Years of Dis-
covery in the Wilderness of Judea, Pages 36-
37).
The fact that Nabonidus is substituted for Nebuchadnezzar

should not surprise us when we consider that Herodotus used
the same name for both of these men. Indeed, it is likely that
Nabonidus adopted the additional name of Nebuchadnezzar
in order to further legitimize his right to the throne. This would
have added to future confusion between these two rulers.
310
THE LATER KINGS OF THE CHALDEAN

EMPIRE
The Babylonian Empire reached its zenith under the reign of Nebuchadnezzar.
Only 23 years after his death, Babylon would fall to Cyrus the Great and the
Babylonian Empire would cease to exist.
King Reign Description

Nebuchadnezzar 605-562 Greatest king of Neo-Babylonian Em-
pire.
Dealings with Israel and with Daniel.
Amel-Marduk 562-560 Son of Nebuchadnezzar
(Evil-Merodach)
Nergal-shar-usur 560-556 Brother of Amel-Marduk. Murdered
(Neriglisar) his brother to take the throne
Labashi-Marduk 556 Son of Nergal-shar-usur only reigned a
few months.
Nabunaid 556-539 One of the conspirators who overthrew
(Nabonidus) Labashi-Marduk.
1. Amel-Marduk (562-560 B.C.).
Nebuchadnezzar died in 562 B.C. leaving three sons and a daughter.

Amel-Marduk took the throne at the death of his father. He is described
by Josephus as a tyrannical ruler who had no respect for the laws of
his people. On the other hand, he released Jehoiachin, the dethroned
311
king of Judah, from prison and elevated him to a respected position

within Babylon (Jeremiah 52:31-34).
After a short reign of only two years, he was assassinated by his

brother-in-law, Neriglissar, who now took the throne.
2. Neriglissar (560-556 B.C.).
Neriglissar had been a commander in Nebuchadnezzar’s army (He is

referred to as Nergil-sharezer in Jeremiah 39:3, 13). He led the armies
of Babylon in a raid of Cilicia on the southeastern edge of Anatolia,
culminating in the invasion of Pitusu, a island just off the Mediterra-
nean Coast.
However, the Empire was suffering from a rising economic inflation,

made worse by the heavy taxation required for the great building
projects.
3. Larbashi-Marduk (556 B.C.).
Larbashi-Marduk was very young when he came to the throne. He

reigned for only nine months before he was murdered. This time, a
successor who was satisfactory to the priests of Babylon was chosen
to serve as the king.
NABONIDUS (556-539 B.C.)

Nabonidus was the only son of Nabu-balatu-iqbi, governor of Haran. His
mother was a priestess of the moon god, Sin. The fact that he was married
to one of Nebuchadnezzar’s daughters made him politically acceptable. He
was nearly 70 years old when he came to the throne.
1. Archaeological Interests.
Nabonidus seems to have spent most of his time excavating the ruins
of ancient temples and then rebuilding them. He was so completely
taken up with this quest that he neglected the rulership of his kingdom.
Newsome makes this observation:
Many years later, almost all of the desert

communities which Nabonidus mentions in his inscrip-
312
tions are found to contain small colonies of Jews.

(1979:109).
We do not know the significance of this Jewish presence in the

colonies which Nabonidus frequented. It is interesting that he fell out
of favor with the pagan priests of Babylon during this time.
2. Co-Regency with Belshazzar.
The book of Daniel describes the last king of Babylon prior to the
coming of the Persians as being Belshazzar. For many years critics
of the Bible pointed to this as being an error in the Scriptures. But
today we know differently.
Nabonidus had a son named Belshazzar. In 554 B.C. this son was
made co-regent of Babylon and left in control of the city while
Nabopolassar left for a nine-year archaeology expedition. This is why
Belshazzar can offer Daniel the position of “the third ruler in the
kingdom” (Daniel 5:16).
Belshazzar proved The Nabonidus Chronicle lists the 7th, 9th, 10th
and 11th years of Nabonidus as those years in
to be a very poor which he did not return from his residence in Tima
ruler and Babylon’s to Babylon. Because of this, the annual new year’s
economic problems festival was not celebrated in Babylon during those
years.
became steadily
worse. Nabonidus
returned to Babylon in 545 B.C. where he continued his temple
reconstructions (to the delight of the priests at Babylon).
3. The Rise of Cyrus.
Meanwhile, a young man by the name of Cyrus had succeeded in

welding the two kingdoms of Media and Persia together into a united
alliance under his rule. From this base he had moved out and captured
the Kingdom of Lydia in Central Anatolia.
After this, many of the smaller kingdoms which made up the

Babylonian Empire began to defect and give their loyalty to Cyrus.
It was only a matter of time before Cyrus marched on the city of
Babylon.
With Cyrus preparing his forces for an attack on Babylon, Nabonidus

decided that it might be a good time to go on another archaeological
313
expedition, this time to Borsippa, about 30 miles to the south of

Babylon. Nabonidus left his son, Belshazzar, in charge of Babylon.
BELSHAZZAR
Belshazzar was the son of Nabonidus and the grandson of Nebuchadnezzar
through his mother. Historical accounts describe him as a proud, cruel man.
On a hunting trip, one of Belshazzar’s nobles was the first to bag his limit.
This made the king so mad that he drew his sword and killed the nobleman
on the spot. This set a precedent which caused manly hunters throughout the
Babylonian Empire to pretend poor marksmanship.
On another occasion, Belshazzar hosted a party similar to the orgy described

in Daniel 5. During the party, a young man named Gadates was admired by
one of the king’s concubines. For this offense, the man was taken out and
castrated.
In 539 B.C. one of the generals of Cyrus named Gobryas led an army against
the city of Babylon. Belshazzar was confident in the ability of the fortifica-
tions of the city to stand up to any attack and the city was stocked with enough
supplies to last a 10-year siege.
1. Belshazzar’s Party.
With an army completely surrounding his city, Belshazzar decided to

throw a party. Only this time, he had the vessels which
Nebuchadnezzar had taken from the Temple brought in.
Then they brought the gold vessels that had

been taken out of the temple, the house of God which
was in Jerusalem; and the king and his nobles, his
wives, and his concubines drank from them. (Daniel
5:3).
As these Temple vessels were brought in, Belshazzar and his friends
drank to their gods of Babylon. In effect, they were committing
blasphemy against the God of Israel. Because of this, God stepped into
the picture.
2. The Handwriting on the Wall.
314
In the midst of the festivities, a hand appeared and wrote four words
on the wall. The mood of the party was instantly changed and
Belshazzar commanded that all of the astrologers and priests be
brought in to interpret these words.
When the priests and astrologers were unable to help, Belshazzar’s

mother, Queen Nitocris, came to the Regent and advised him to seek
out the Jewish prince Daniel who had interpreted the dreams of
Nebuchadnezzar.
When Daniel was brought in, he told Belshazzar that the writing was
a prophecy that God had judged Belshazzar because of his pride and
would give his kingdom to the Medes and Persians.
3. The Fall of Babylon.
The Cyrus Cylinder gives an abbreviated account of the fall of Babylon

to Cyrus and that it was accomplished without siege or fighting.
Marduk, the Great Lord, a protector of his

people, beheld with pleasure his [Cyrus] good deeds
and his upright heart and ordered him to march
against his city Babylon. He made him set out on the
road to Babylon going at his side like a real friend.
His widespread troops — their number, like that of the
waters of a river, could not be established — strolled
along, their weapons parked away. Without any battle,
he made him enter his city Babylon, sparing Babylon
any calamity.
Xenophon relates an account of how Gobryas, one of Cyrus’

lieutenants, succeeded in damming up the Euphrates River. His army
marched down the dry riverbed and into the city where they were able
to capture the city gates and open them, admitting the entire Median-
Persian Army.
Gadatas and his men, seeing the gates swing

wide, darted in, hard on the heels of the others who
fled back again, and they chased them at the sword's
point into the presence of the king. They found him on
his feet, with his drawn scimitar in his hand. By sheer
weight of numbers they overwhelmed him: and not one
of his retinue escaped, they were all cut down, some
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flying, others snatching up anything to serve as a

shield and defending themselves as best they could
(7:4:25-26).
Belshazzar was killed in his palace only a few hours after Daniel had
prophesied his end.
And when it was day and those who held the

heights knew that the city was taken and the king slain,
they were persuaded to surrender the citadel them-
selves. Cyrus took it over forthwith, and sent in a
commandant and a garrison, while he delivered the
bodies of the fallen to their kinsfolk for burial, and
bade his heralds make proclamation that all the
citizens must deliver up their arms (Xenophon).
Nabonidus was arrested within several days and kept in exile for the
remainder of his life. The Babylonian Empire had passed from the
scene, never to appear again.
316
ISRAEL AND THE
PERSIAN PERIOD
The fall of Babylon in 539 B.C. was to mark a new epoch in world history.
This marked a significant turning point for the survivors of the Babylonian
Captivity. Within the space of a few short years, one man had risen to
prominence and managed to bring nearly the entire known world under his
sway. His name was Cyrus the Great.
REBUILDING THE TEMPLE

1. Cyrus the Great.
Herodotus tells us that Cyrus was the product of a union between the
nobility of Media and Persia. Both the Medes and the Persians lived
to the east of Mesopotamia. Cyaxeres of the Medes, the same king
who entered into an alliance with Nabonidus by marrying his
daughter to Nebuchadnezzar, also allied himself through a separate
marriage to the Persians who lived to the south of him.
Thus Cyrus the Great represented the ruling families of both the
Medes and the Persians. He began as a vassal to his grandfather
Astyages, but soon set out on a campaign of conquest. Anatolia fell
to him when he conquered Croesus (known to the Greeks as Midas)
and the kingdom of Lydia. Then Gobryas, the king of Elam, revolted
317
Israel ane the Persian Period
and came over to him. Finally Babylon itself fell to him as he took
the city without a fight. 1
Nabonidus and his son Belshazzar had been unpopular. The former
had alienated the priesthood and the latter did the same with the
general populace. Cyrus began a public relations campaign that was
to have direct ramifications for the Jews.
In relating the fall of Babylon, Daniel 5:31 says that Darius the Mede
received the kingdom at about the age of sixty-two. We know from
history that it was Cyrus who received the kingdom. How are we to
answer this discrepancy? There are several possibilities:
a. Darius the Mede was an early governor of Babylon under

Cyrus. This view was held by John Whitcomb, Old
Testament professor at Grace Seminary.
• From historical records, we know that the first

governor of Babylon under the Persians was Gobryas,
also known as Gubaru. He continued as governor
during the reigns of both Cyrus and Cambyses.
• There also seems to have been a Gobryas, also known

as Ugabru, who originally took the city of Babylon but
died three weeks later. This is the Gobryas described
by Xenophon in his narrative of the fall of Babylon.
October 11, 539 B.C. Sippar falls to the Persians

October 13, 539 B.C. Babylon falls to the Persian
general Ugbaru
October 29, 539 B.C. Cyrus enters Babylon for the
first time and appoints
Gubaru as governor.
November 6, 539 B.C. Ugbaru dies
1
Xenophon tells a story of how Cyrus entered through the defenses of Babylon
by diverting the course of the Euphrates River and marching his army up the dried
riverbed. Cyrus’s own official account of the capture of the city makes no mention of this
and speaks only of his capture of the city without any resistance.
318
b. Darius the Mede was another name for Cyrus.

This view was held by D.J. Wiseman, professor of
assyriology at the University of London.
• The ages are correct for such a theory. Cyrus was

indeed about 62 years old at the time of the fall of
Babylon (Daniel 5:31).
• Cyrus was both Median and Persian.
• When Daniel 6:28 says that Daniel enjoyed success in

the reign of Darius and in the reign of Cyrus the
Persian, the Hebrew conjunction () can be translated
to say that Daniel enjoyed success in the reign of
Darius, even in the reign of Cyrus the Persian. Such
a translation is found in 1st Chronicles 5:26 where the
God of Israel stirred up the spirit of Pul, king of
Assyria, even the spirit of Tiglath-pilneser king of
Assyria.
2. The Return of the Jews.
One of the first things that Cyrus did after the fall of Babylon was to
issue a decree allowing the Jews to return to Palestine and to rebuild
the Temple in Jerusalem.
Now in the first year of Cyrus king of Persia -

in order to fulfill the word of the Lord by the mouth of
Jeremiah - the Lord stirred up the spirit of Cyrus king
of Persia, so that he sent a proclamation throughout
his kingdom, and also put it in writing, saying, 23
“Thus says Cyrus king of Persia, ‘The Lord, the God
of heaven, has given me all the kingdoms of the earth,
and He has appointed me to build Him a house in
Jerusalem, which is in Judah. Whoever there is
among you of all His people, may the Lord his God be
with him, and let him go up.’” (2 Chronicles 36:22-
23).
This decree was not an isolated act of kindness just to the Jews, but
rather was the general policy of Cyrus. He realized that it is much
easier to rule people who are happy in their own homes and who are
not trying to overthrow their rulers.
319
Cyrus also realized that a tribute-paying nation would be more

profitable than a devastated country. Thus, he looked forward to
turning the desolation into a profitable source of revenue.
The Cyrus Prism was discovered in 1879 by Rassam which described

this policy of Cyrus.
I am Cyrus, King of the World, Great King,

Legitimate King, King of Babylon, King of Kiengir
and Akkad, King of the four rims of the earth, Son of
Cambyses, Great King, King of Achamaenes,
Grandson of Cyrus, Great king, King of Achamaenes,
descendant of Chishpish, Great king, King of
Achamaenes, of a family which always exercised
kingship; whose rule Bel and Nebo love, whom they
want as king to please their hearts. When I entered
Babylon as a friend and when I established the seat of
the government in the palace of the ruler under
jubilation and rejoicing, Marduk, the great lord,
induced the magnanimous inhabitants of Babylon to
love me, and I was daily endeavoring to worship
him.... As to the region from as far as Ashur and Susa,
Akkad, Eshnunna, the towns Zamban, Me-turnu, Der
as well as the region of the Gutians, I returned to
these sacred cities on the other side of the Tigris the
sanctuaries of which have been ruins for a long time,
the images which used to live therein and established
for them permanent sanctuaries. I also gathered all
their former inhabitants and returned them to their
habitations. Furthermore, I resettled upon the
command of Marduk, the great lord, all the gods of
Kiengir and Akkad whom Nabonidus had brought into
Babylon to the anger of the lord of the gods,
unharmed, in their former temples, the places which
make them happy.
However, not all Jews wanted to return to Palestine. Many had settled
down, started their own businesses, and were doing quite well
financially. They had no desire to uproot and move away to the
desolation that had been the homeland of their ancestors.
The total number of Jews returning to Palestine at this time numbered

about 50,000. They were led by Zerubbabel and his uncle,
320
Sheshbazzar, descendants of the royal family of David through

Solomon.
To Sheshbazzar were given the articles of the house of the Lord, but
this apparently did not include the Ark of the Covenant What
happened to the Ark? Contrary to the Hollywood movie “Raiders of
the Lost Ark,” the Ark of the Covenant was still in Jerusalem in the
days of Josiah (2nd Chronicles 35:3). So what happened to it? There
are several theories:
a. It may have been destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar when the

Temple was destroyed.
b. It may have been carried off to Egypt by Jews who fled there
in the days of Nebuchadnezzar. The claim is made to this day
that the Ark resides in Ethiopia, however this has never been
confirmed.
c. It may have been hidden to protect it. 2nd Maccabees 2:4-5

relates such a tradition. However if this were the case, then
it would have been brought out of hiding when the Jews were
given permission to rebuild their Temple.
Jeremiah prophesied that it would be lost and that it would not be

either remembered or remade (Jeremiah 3:16).
3. Work on the Temple Begun.
The first order of business was the rebuilding of the altar so that the
regular sacrifices could be instituted once again. The actual
reconstruction of the Temple began the following year.
4. The Death of Cyrus.
After the conquest of Babylon, only Egypt remained as an enemy to

the Persian Empire. Plans were made for an invasion of Egypt and
entrusted to Cambyses, the son of Cyrus. Although he was nearly
seventy years old, Cyrus himself set out to deal with a revolt of
nomads in the east.
It was a campaign from which he never returned. He was wounded in

battle and died. He body was returned to a tomb in Pasargade. The
following inscription was placed over his tomb.
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“Mortal! I am Cyrus, son of Cambyses, who

founded the Persian Empire, and was Lord of Asia.
Grudge me not, then, my monument.”
With the death of Cyrus, his eldest son, Cambyses, came to the
throne. He would reign from 530 to 522 B.C. During his reign, the
work on the Temple would be halted.
5. Construction Halted.
The various deportations inflicted by the Assyrians and Babylonians

had been messy affairs. There were Jews who could no longer give
evidence from which tribe they had come or even whether they were
truly Israelites (Ezra 2:59). There were Israelites of various tribes
who had come down to Jerusalem following the Assyrian deportation
(1 Chronicles 9:3). Some of these retained their tribal identity while
others lost track of from which tribe they had come. In the case of
those who claimed to be of priestly families, this meant that they
could no longer serve as priests (Ezra 5:62).
The name “Cambyses” is not found in the book of Ezra. However,

there is a Persian king who is called both “Ahasuerus” and
“Artaxerxes” in Ezra 4:6-7). This passage is introduced by a
statement that the Jews were opposed in their building program from
the days of Cyrus to the reign of Darius (4:5).
Then the people of the land discouraged the

people of Judah, and frightened them from building,
5 and hired counselors against them to frustrate their
counsel all the days of Cyrus king of Persia, even
until the reign of Darius king of Persia.
Now in the reign of Ahasuerus, in the
beginning of his reign, they wrote an accusation
against the inhabitants of Judah and Jerusalem.
And in the days of ARTAXERXES [literally
“Artah-shashta”], Bishlam, Mithredath, Tabeel, and
the rest of his colleges, wrote to ARTAXERXES king
of Persia; and the text of the letter was written in
Aramaic and translated from Aramaic. (Ezra 4:4-7).
It is perhaps significant that the name translated “Artaxerxes” in

chapter 4-6 is spelled slightly different than the same name found in
chapter 7-8 and in Nehemiah; the difference is that the letter “sin” (v)
322
is replaced with the letter “samekh” (s).
Because of this, I would suggest that the earlier mention of

Artaxerxes in the book of Ezra is really to be identified as Cambyses.
Cambyses Artaxerxes
Reigned from 530 to 522 B.C. Reigned from 464 to 423 B.C.
Referred to as Ahasuerus and Mentioned by the same name
Artaxerxes in Ezra 4:6-23. in Ezra 7-8 as well as in
Nehemiah.
Thus, it was during the reign of Cambyses that opposition to the

rebuilding of the Jewish temple succeeded in stopping the work.
6. The Further History of Cambyses.
In order to stabilize his position as king, Cambyses secretly murdered

his younger brother, Smerdis. The death of Smerdis was kept a secret
to the general population. This deed would soon come back to haunt
him.
In 526 B.C. Cambyses invaded and conquered Egypt. Once he had

control of Egypt, he adopted the royal costume of the pharaohs and
laid official claim to be the son of Re, sun god. Then he decided to
push south into Africa in order to find other domains to conquer.
Cambyses sent a land expedition of 50,000 men westward toward

Carthage. This expedition was apparently lost in the desert, since it
was never heard from again. Meanwhile Cambyses led another
expedition up the Nile River into Ethiopia. He got cut off from his
supply lines and a great part of his army starved to death.
Back in Egypt, Cambyses received news that a man posing as his

dead brother Smerdis had arisen to the throne and had won the favor
of the people by remitting taxes for three years. Cambyses headed
back for Persia, but he never arrived. His sudden death is still a
mystery. Herodotus states that he died from a wound which was
accidentally self-inflicted while mounting his horse. The Persian
record suggests suicide. It is even possible that he was assassinated.
The pretender was able to hold the throne for several months, calling
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himself Smerdis, the brother of Cambyses. A band of seven nobles

who had been with Cambyses in Egypt managed to talk their way past
the royal guards and then fight their way through a handful of
protective eunuchs to assassinate the pseudo-Smerdis. One of the
nobles, a prince by the name of Darius, now took the throne.
DARIUS HYSTASPES (522-486 B.C.)

Darius was a distant cousin to Cambyses and so was able to take the throne
without too much contest. Darius was 26 years old when he came to the
throne of the Persian Empire. He was a handsome Aryan with a high forehead
and a straight nose. He had long black curly hair and a long square beard
which hung in four rows of curls according to the Persian custom.
As a young man, Darius had become the commander of the Royal Bodyguard,
an elite group of the famous “Immortals.” It was in this position that he had
accompanied Cambyses to Egypt.
1. The Capture of Babylon.
When Darius came to the throne, he found the Empire in an uproar.

Although the Medes and the Persians were ready to accept him as
king, other provinces were not. Babylon rebelled and braced itself for
a long siege. This city was considered impregnable and Darius
324
seemed to have been thwarted.
Darius had a general named Zopyrus who deliberately cut off his own
nose and ears, shaved his head like a criminal’s, and had welts raised
upon his body with a whip. He then showed up before the gates of
Babylon, claiming that Darius had turned against him and asking for
refuge.
The Babylonians were suspicious of him and they decided to test his
loyalty before trusting him completely. They sent him out against a
force of Persians at the head of a small force. Zopyrus won the battle,
just as he and Darius had planned.
Zopyrus was now the sudden hero of Babylon and he was made
Commander of the Wall. His first official act was to open the gates
of Babylon and let Darius and his army into the city. Darius burned
the defenses of the city, pulled down the gates, and impaled 3000 of
the leading citizens. This reprisal had a strong quenching effect of
the other rebellious nations, causing them to have second thoughts.
Thus, peace was restored to the Empire.
2. Reorganization of the Civil Government.
With peace restored to the Empire, Darius began to reorganize the

government. He completed the division of the Empire into satrapies
or provinces and fixed the annual tribute of each province.
He standardized currency, weights and measures. He developed

highways and a postal system to draw the huge Empire together.
Indeed, the United States Postal Service Motto is taken from the
words of Herodotus as he describes the Persian postal system.
These are stayed neither by snow nor rain nor

heat nor darkness from accomplishing their appointed
courses with all speed. (Herodotus 8:96).
Darius completed the construction of a canal 50 miles long linking

the Red Sea to the Nile River. This project was begun by Pharaoh
Necho II nearly a hundred years earlier.
3. Completion of the Temple.
The prophets Haggai and Zechariah both prophesied during the
325
second year of the reign of Darius (Ezra 5:1; Haggai 1:1; Zechariah
1:1). At their urging, Zerubbabel resumed the work of rebuilding the
Temple. When challenged by the Persian officials, he made claim to
the permission that had originally been granted by Cyrus (Ezra 5:13).
When this was reported to Darius, he called for a search to be made

of the royal records at Babylon and Ecbatana. When Cyrus’ edict was
brought to light, Darius ordered it to be followed and allowed the
Temple project to be funded by the royal treasury of Persia (Ezra 6:2-
12). As a result, the temple was completed in the 6th year of Darius
(516 B.C.).
4. Palaces at Susa and Persepolis.
Both Cyrus and Cambyses had ruled the Empire from the saddles of
their warhorses. With the peace that came in the days of Darius, there
was a need for a centralized capital.
(a) Susa.
Darius placed his seat of government at Susa, extending the

city which had once served as the ancient capital of the
Elamites. Darius took this city and further developed it,
constructing a magnificent palace for himself. The ruins of
this city remain to this day.
(b) Persepolis.
Cambyses had begun the building of a new city in a wide

plain surrounded by protecting mountains to the east of the
Persian Gulf. Called Istakhar by the Persians, the city has
come to be known by its Greek name, Persepolis (“City of the
Persians”).
Darius had a second palace constructed at Persepolis. He

used many of the same builders and artisans in this city which
had built up Susa. For this reason, the cities were very similar.
5. The Behistun Inscription.
On a sheer cliff 225 feet above the plains of Persia is a giant

inscription cut into the side of the mountain. This inscription depicts
a life-sized Darius treading upon his enemy.
326
This inscription was first copied and studied by Sir Henry Rawlinson
in 1835. To copy the inscription, he was required to climb up the
mountain and finally stand on a ladder which rested on a narrow
ledge which jutted 225 feet up the cliff. The inscription was written
in three languages.
(1) Babylonian dialect (Akkadian).

(2) Elamite.
(3) Old Persian.
This provided the key for scholars to

Old Persian cuneiform
translate cuneiform. Rawlinson was contained about fifty
already familiar with modern Persian and signs, while Akkadian
was found to use over
he used this to translate the Old Persian. five hundred.
This in turn provided the key to the Elamite
and Akkadian languages. Rawlinson did
the work in Akkadian while Edwin Norris was able to translate
Elamite in 1853.
Behistun Inscription
In 1946 George Cameron returned to Iran and worked from a

scaffolding suspended by steel cables 200 feet above the inscription.
He was able to make latex castings of the inscription.
6. Campaign Against the Scythians.
In 512 B.C. Darius decided to attack the Scythians who had been
raiding along the east coast of the Black Sea. His plan was to attack
them from the rear by marching around the west end of the Black Sea
and coming up behind them.
That same year, Darius led his army across the Bosphorus over a
bridge of boats tied side by side. From there, he marched north to the
327
Danube.
Darius advanced into the north country, but the Scythians would not
meet him in open battle. Instead, they harassed his army and with
their guerrilla warfare tactics until Darius was forced to flee with
considerable losses.
7. The Greek/Persian Wars.
This defeat of Darius at the hands of the Scythians did not go

unnoticed by the Greeks. In 494 B.C. the Ionian Greeks on the entire
west coast of Anatolia revolted against the Persian rule. Darius sent
an army against these Ionian cities and effectively defeated them. By
493 B.C. the rebellion had been crushed. Since the revolt of the
Ionian Greeks had been actively encouraged by the European Greeks,
Darius decided to take action against them.
a. In 492 B.C. a fleet of 600 ships set sail from Anatolia to

punish the inhabitants of Greece. This fleet was destroyed in
a severe storm off Mount Athos in the Northern Aegean.
b. In 490 B.C. another Persian fleet landed at Marathon. The

Greeks met the Persians there and defeated them in a pitched
battle. The remnants of the Persian fleet returned home. It
would return under the leadership of Darius’ son, Xerxes.
XERXES (486-464 B.C.)

Xerxes was one of the sons of Darius. He was also grandson to Cyrus
through his mother. Xerxes came to the throne at the age of 35. As the son
of Darius and the grandson of Cyrus, he should have been prepared to rule
wisely. He was not. It seems that he had no talent for economics and he
reveled too much in court pleasures and in lavish building projects. His
treatment of subjugated peoples was brutal, contrary to the habits of his
predecessors.
1. Rebellion in the Empire.
In 485 B.C. Egypt rebelled. Xerxes put down the revolt, leaving the
land in shambles. A Persian ruler was placed upon the throne to see
that it did not happen again.
328
Babylon rebelled next, killing Zopyrus, their governor who had once
betrayed them to the Persians. Since Babylon no longer had the
fortifications of the past, she was no match for Xerxes and his array.
Xerxes ordered his army to smash all of the fortifications and the
temples of the city. Priests were slaughtered and land was
confiscated. The city was all but wiped out.
2. Invasion of Greece.
With civil problems now taken care of, Xerxes now determined to
take up the invasion of Greece which Darius had begun. It was to be
a miserable disaster.
a. Crossing the Hellespont.
In 480 B.C. Xerxes led an army numbering over a million

men across the Hellespont and into Greece. The crossing was
effected by the construction of two giant bridges built across
hundreds of ships tied together.
b. Thermopylae.
The first Greek line of defense was found at the narrow pass
near Thermopylae. The Greeks held this pass with 7000 men.
The Persians were able to overwhelm the Greeks only after
they had managed to circle around behind them and cut off
their retreat.
c. Athens.
Xerxes marched on to Athens and took that city after a two-

week siege. By this time, most of the inhabitants had fled
westward to the island of Salamis.
d. Salamis.
On September 27, 480 B.C. the Persian navy engaged the

small Greek fleet in the Bay of Salamis. The battle ended in
a decisive Greek victory and Xerxes departed in humiliation,
never again to return to Greece. The Persian forces that he
left behind in Greece were defeated the following year in a
battle at Plataea, destroying the bulk of the Persian army.
329
Though the Persians had been driven out of Greece, the empire was
still strong and, over the next two hundred years it would confine
itself to diplomatic means of attending to the Greeks by pitting the
various Greek tribes against each other.
3. Esther and the Jews.
During the final 15 years of the reign of Xerxes, he sought the cure to
his discouragement in lavish building projects and magnificent feasts
and banquets. It was during this time that Xerxes married Esther and
elevated her to the position of queen. When a plot to exterminate the
Jews came to light, she was in a position to influence Xerxes to
intervene and save her people.
4. Assassination.
Xerxes was murdered in his own bedchambers in 465 B.C. by a group

of conspirators. Artabanus, one of the assassins and the commander
of the Royal Bodyguard, took the throne and held it for seven months.
He was then killed and succeeded by Artaxerxes, the legitimate heir
to the throne.
ARTAXERXES I LONGIMANUS (464-423 B.C.)

Artaxerxes was given the nickname Longimanus (“The Long-handed”) by the
Greeks because his right hand was reported to be longer than his left hand.
He is described as “remarkable for a gentle and noble spirit” (Plutarch).
1. The Commission of Ezra.
Although a small remnant of Jews had returned to Jerusalem under

Zerubbabel more than 50 years earlier, the work of rebuilding the city
had not progressed very far. The temple had been rebuilt, but the
walls of the city were still in ruins.
In 457 B.C. Artaxerxes permitted the Jewish scribe Ezra to lead an

expedition of about 5000 Jews back to Jerusalem to settle there and
to continue the work of rebuilding the city. This work was met with
violent opposition by the Samaritans who lived in the area to the
north of Judah. These people had intermarried with Gentiles and so
were not considered to be Jewish. The problem of such intermarriage
330
continued to be an issue among the Jews as even some of the Jewish

priesthood had taken foreign wives for themselves.
2. Commission of Nehemiah.
In 444 B.C. Artaxerxes commissioned his Jewish cupbearer,

Nehemiah, to be the new governor of Jerusalem and gave him
permission to finish the walls of the city.
Under Nehemiah, the walls of Jerusalem were repaired and the

Temple services restored. This began a new period of national
prosperity for the Kingdom of Judah that would last for the next 150
years.
In total, there were three major migrations of Jews returning to the land
following the Babylonian Captivity.
RETURN FIRST SECOND THIRD

Reference Ezra 1-6 Ezra 7-10 Nehemiah 1-13
Date 538 B.C. 458 B.C. 444 B.C.

Leaders Sheshbazzar Ezra Nehemiah
Zerubbabel
Persian Cyrus Artaxerxes Longimanus
King
Elements As many as As many as wished could Allowed to
of the wished could return & complete the rebuild the walls
return & rebuild Temple. Allowed to have around the city.
Decree Temple. own civil magistrates.
Related Work begun but Problems with inter- Wall rebuilt in 52

Events then halted until marriage days.
516 B.C.
Prophets Zechariah Malachi

Haggai
THE ELEPHANTINE PAPYRI

Elephantine is an island on the Nile River just below the first Cataract; today
the site of the Aswan Dam. The name comes from the Greek Elefantinh,
331
“Elephant place.” In ancient times, the island, as well as the southern town,
was called Abu, or Yabu, which also meant “elephant.” The island served as
the last port before the inaccessible cataract. Several different excavations
have been undertaken since the early 1900's, uncovering a number of papyri
which make reference to a Jewish military colony posted to this island in the
days of the Persian Empire.
One such papyri document is a letter written by the Jewish garrison

commander to the governor of Judah. In it he tells of how the Jews living on
the island had built their own temple to Yahu (another rendition of Yahweh)
on the island before the days of Cambyses when the Egyptians were still
autonomous.
Language Aramaic
Medium Papyrus - written on both sides
Size 24 centimeters high
32 centimeters wide
30 lines of writing
Genre Official letter of petition
Senders Yedaniah bar-Gemariah & his
associates (priests at Elephantine)
Date November 25, 407 B.C.
Place of Elephantine, Egypt
Discovery
Date of January 1, 1907
Discovery
Current Staatliche Museum (Berlin, Germany)
Location
This letter is a request to Darius II telling the specifics of how their temple on
the island of Elephantine had been destroyed and asking permission to rebuild
it.
To our lord, Bagohi, governor of Yehud, (from) your

servants: Yedaniah and his associates, the priests who are in
the fortress of Yeb.
332
May the God of the Heavens perpetually pursue the

welfare of our lord greatly and grant you favors before
Darius the king and the “sons of the palace” a thousand
times more than now. May you be joyful and healthy at all
times.
Now your servant Yedaniah and his associates testify

as follows: In the month of Tammuz, in the fourteenth year of
Darius the king, when Arsames departed and went to the king,
the priests of the god Khnub, who is in the fortress of Yeb,
conspired with Vidranga, who was administrator here, to
destroy the temple of Yahu in the fortress of Yeb. So that
villain Vidranga sent this order to his son Nefayan, who was
in command of the garrison of the fortress at Sawn: “The
temple of the god Yahu in the fortress of Yeb shall be
destroyed.” Nefayan consequently led the Egyptians with
other troops. Arriving with their weapons at the fortress of
Yeb, they entered the temple and burned it to the ground...
The letter goes on to relate how Cambyses had come to Egypt and had
destroyed all of the Egyptian temples while allowing this temple to continue.
Finally permission is requested of Darius II for the temple to be
reconstructed.
If it seems good to our lord, remember this temple to

reconstruct it, since they do not let us reconstruct it. Look to
your clients and friends here in Egypt. Let a letter be sent
from you to them concerning the temple of the god Yahu to
construct it in the fortress of Yeb as it was before. And the
grain-offering, incense, and burnt-offering will be offered in
your name, and we will pray for you continuously—we, our
wives, and our children, and the Judahites who are here, all
of them—if you do this so that this temple is reconstructed.
And you shall have honor before Yahu, the God of the
Heavens, more than a man who offers him burnt-offerings
and sacrifices worth a thousand talents of silver and gold.
Because of this, we have written to inform you. We have also
set forth the whole matter in a letter in our name to Delaiah
and Shelemiah, the sons of Sanballat, the governor of
Samaria. Furthermore, Arsames (the Persian satrap) knew
nothing of all that was perpetrated on us.
On the twentieth of Marheshwan, the seventeenth year
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of Darius the King.
Other of the Elephantine Papyri include:
• An Aramaic version of the Behistun Inscription.

• A Jewish marriage contract.
• Permission from the Persian government for Jews to celebrate the
Passover at their temple in Elephantine.
THE LATER KINGS OF PERSIA

Artaxerxes died a natural death in 424 B.C. At the time of his death, he had
three sons. All three of them had aspirations for the throne.
Xerxes II was the first to take the throne. He held it for 45 days and was then
assassinated by his half-brother, Secydianus, while sleeping off a drunken
party.
Secydianus had no sooner come to the throne when he was also murdered by
his half-brother, Darius II.
1. Darius II (423-404 B.C.).
The reign of Darius II was filled with murder and court intrigue.
Although there were no battles fought with the Greeks during this
period, Persian diplomats were successful in inciting conflict between
Athens and Sparta, thus strengthening Persia’s hold over the Greek
cities of Anatolia.
However, this did not change the course of Persia’s history and
revolts continued to spread throughout the Empire, involving Sardis,
Media, Cyprus and Egypt.
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2. Artaxerxes II (404-359 B.C.).
Darius II had two sons when he died: Artaxerxes II and Cyrus III.
Artaxerxes was the oldest and so he was given the throne. At the
coronation ceremony of Artaxerxes II at Persepolis, Cyrus tried to
assassinate his brother. The attempt failed and Cyrus was caught.
Their mother, Queen Parysatis, interceded for Cyrus and the new king
allowed his brother to go free, giving him the satrapy of Anatolia. It
was to be a mistake.
Back in Anatolia, Cyrus raised an army made up largely of Spartan

mercenaries. With this forced, he marched east against his brother,
meeting him at Cunaxa on the Euphrates River on September 3, 401
B. C.
The army of Cyrus was greatly outnumbered, but even so, the Persian
chariot corps and infantry of Artaxerxes were no match for the
Spartan phalanx.
In the heat of the battle, Cyrus spotted his brother and personally
rushed in, striking him in the chest through his breastplate and
wounding him. Just as he was about to finish him off, Cyrus was
killed by a thrown javelin which hit him in the face.
There were 10,000 Spartan mercenaries still intact at the end of the
battle. They had won the battle, but had lost the king for whom they
were fighting. With Cyrus dead, they found themselves seven
hundred miles behind enemy territory. Their generals were invited to
meet with Artaxerxes II to discuss the situation. At the meeting, they
were taken and executed, leaving the Spartan army leaderless. The
Spartans chose new leaders including an Athenian named Xenophon
to lead them in their retreat. They managed to fight their way all the
way back to the Black Sea, fighting off one Persian attack after
another. Their success in this venture was taken by the Greeks as a
sign of Persian weakness. Others also saw this and took it as an
opportunity to revolt.
Egypt had declared her independence at the accession of Artaxerxes

II and had never been reconquered. Now Egypt allied herself with
other rebellious satrapies and prepared to march against Artaxerxes.
This imminent threat was postponed when an internal revolt broke
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out within Egypt, forcing Pharaoh Takhos to abandon his plans and
surrender to Persia. However, rebellious disturbances continued to
plague the Empire for the remainder of the reign of Artaxerxes II.
3. Artaxerxes III (359-338 B.C.).
Artaxerxes III (his real name was Ochos) came to the throne
following the death of his father. His first official act was to murder
all of his relatives, regardless of age or gender. The number ran up to
several dozen. He set out to put down all of the rebellions that had
been fermenting within the Empire.
• Egypt was reconquered, her cities taken and their walls pulled
down.
• The Phoenician city of Sidon had sympathized with Egypt. It

was burnt and left in ruins.
• The city-states of Greece had only now begun to recover from

the devastating effects of the Peloponnesian Wars (431-404
B.C.).
Now many patriotic Greeks urged their fellow countrymen to unite

against the Persian Empire. However there was still too much
jealousy between the cities for any unification to take place. Only to
the north was there any sense of unity. Philip of Macedon had
succeeded in conquering all of the neighboring kingdoms and he
proposed to invade Persia.
Thus, when Athens concluded a treaty with Persia, Philip attacked

Athens and won a decisive victory. He now formed the League of
Corinth, a coalition of all of the Greek states except for Sparta. This
League had as its goal the liberation of the Ionian cities from Persia.
That same year, Artaxerxes III was poisoned by a court eunuch who
had his own political ambitions. This eunuch’s name was Bagoas.
4. Arses (336-336 B.C.).
Arses was the youngest son of Artaxerxes III. Bagoas placed him on
the throne after the murder of his father, expecting to use him as a
puppet ruler. Evidently, Arses had too much of a mind of his own
and so, after a short reign of only two years, Bagoas also had him
poisoned.
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5. Darius III (336-331 B.C.)
Darius III was a cousin of Artaxerxes III who had managed to escape
the genocide of his predecessor. He had distinguished himself in
battle and then had become the satrap of Armenia. Bagoas chose him
to be the new king of the Persian Empire.
Too late, Bagoas learned that the new king could think for himself
and was not about to be used as a mere puppet in the hands of a
eunuch. When Darius discovered a plot against his life, he forced
Bagoas to swallow the poison that had been prepared for him.
Darius III became king of Persia in 336 B.C. That same year Philip
of Macedon died, leaving his kingdom in the hands of his 20-year old
son, Alexander the Great.
Alexander set out with his Macedonian force in 334 B.C. He met
Darius III in three major battles over the next three years, defeating
the numerically superior Persian army each time. After the third
defeat, Darius fled to the east and was murdered by his own forces.
The Persian Empire was left to Alexander and, in his hands, it
became a Hellenistic Empire.
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THE AEGEAN WORLD AND
THE GREEKS
Long time men lay oppressed with slavish fear.
Religious tyranny did domineer.
At length the mighty one of Greece
Began to assent the liberty of man. – Epicurus
The name “Greece”seems to be taken from the Latin term Graikos, describing
one of the Dorian tribes of early Greece. A similar term was used later in
history by the Turks as a derogatory phrase to describe the Greeks. The
Greeks themselves always described themselves as Hellenoi and their land
was Hellas.
THE GEOGRAPHY OF GREECE

The Greeks were molded and shaped by the geography of the land in which
they lived.
1. An Irregular Coastline.
Because of her highly

irregular coastline, Greece has
more coastal land than any
other area of the
Mediterranean World. This
irregular coastline produces
many natural harbors, leading
the Greeks to become a
seafaring people. The sea
turned them into fishermen,
traders, and explorers. It
would lead them to colonize a
great porti on of t he
Mediterranean.
The best of these harbors were to be found on the east coast of the
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The Aegean World and the Greeks
Greek peninsula. It would be here that the greatest centers of culture

and commerce would arise.
2. River Valleys.
The Greek peninsula is filled with mountains that spill over from the
Balkans to the north. These divide the land into many small valleys
that served to isolate one tribe from the next.
None of the rivers of Greece are navigable and so they have no

unifying effect as is found in other river systems throughout the
ancient world. It would be fairly late in history that there would be
any kind of unification within the Greek city-states.
3. The Peloponnese.
The southern part of the Greek peninsula is connected to its northern

neighbor by a narrow isthmus of a mere four miles in width. This
natural boundary would give way to two different geographic locales
and would eventually serve as a national boarder. It is no accident
that the earliest Greek civilization grew up south of this isthmus and
was protected by that natural boarder.
THE MINOAN CIVILIZATION

Homer’s Odyssey
describes the island of
Crete in his day as
“fruitful and fair, set like
a jewel in the wine-dark
sea, peopled by countless
multitude of men and
ninety cities” (Odyssey
19:171-4). Crete is the
southernmost and the
largest of all the islands
of the Aegean. It
stretches 160 miles from
east to west and 35 miles from north to south at its widest point. Its southern
shore is rimmed by steep cliffs where the mountains drop into the sea, but its
northern shore has an abundance of natural harbors.
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Until fairly recent times, the history and even the existence of the Minoan
Civilization was known to us only through the legends of Homer. Late in the
19th century, a businessman turned amateur archaeologist named Heinrich
Schliemann discovered the Mycenaean Civilization of Greece, excavating at
both Mycanae and at Troy. His discovery served as the motivation for
another archaeologist to begin a search for similar discoveries on the island
of Crete. His name was Sir Arthur Evans and after obtaining official backing
from the King of Greece, he went on to uncover a grand palace on Crete.
The palace covered five acres and consisted of hundreds of interlocking

rooms, reminding Evans of the mythological legends of Theseus, the
Minotaur, and King Minos. Accordingly, he dubbed this newly discovered
civilization the Minoans.
Being an island, Crete was effectively cut off from the outside world except
for those who would go to sea. As a result, the Minoan culture was to enjoy
a long period of uninterrupted prosperity and peace. The island has been
gifted with many small, natural harbors along its northern coast facing the
Aegean. This and the fact that farm lands make up only a tiny percentage of
the mountainous land mass means that the island was to become a major sea
power.
Crete sits at the center of the eastern Mediterranean. It is only natural that
this island was to become a major trading center between the east and the
west. Minoan pottery would be found throughout the Mediterranean world.
1. The Early Minoan Period (3600 - 2000 B.C.).
This early period saw various small settlements and towns all over the
island, with the greatest concentrations of population in the east and
southern parts of the island and the western section more sparse in its
settlements.
Migrations toward the end of this period saw peoples moving down
from the north and a population influx on the island of Crete.
2. The Rising Minoan Period (2000 - 1700 B.C.).
With the greater influx of population, cities began to grow and

prosper. The city of Knossos now began to assume the role of chief
political power. The multi-tiered palace perhaps gave rise to the
legend of the labyrinth where Theseus was supposed to have slain the
monstrous Minotaur.
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The architecture was highly advanced with elaborate frescos, running

water, and flush toilets. Because of the sovereignty of their navy, the
Minoans felt no need to build fortifications around their palaces.
Crete was unique in the ancient world as a land of unwalled villages.
3. The High Minoan Period (1700 - 1450 B.C.).
Sea-going merchant ships made the Minoans rich. They were now
masters of the sea, building a huge navy to protect their coasts. Their
growth during this period brings to mind the British Empire of the
19th century. They would typically gain permission from the local
king or chieftain to establish a trading post. Next, they would build
a port so that their ships would have a safe anchorage from which to
import and export their products. This would develop into a trading
colony that would hire them as protection from pirates. One of these
trading colonies on the coast of Canaan would eventually give rise to
the Philistines.
The religion of the Minoans seems to have been a form of nature

worship in which the “mother-goddess” was central and a double-
bladed axe was their cultic symbol. Their wall murals show acrobats
balancing themselves upon the horns of bulls.
The Minoans used a pictorial script prior to 1800 B.C. but two other
types of script were subsequently developed:
Linear A This script has not yet been deciphered, but it

consists of under a hundred characters that are
assumed to represent syllables.
Linear B This script was adopted by the Mycenaeans and
seems to borrow certain letters from Linear A
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The Mycenaean Greeks began to emerge as a culture around 1600

B.C. as they were influenced by their Minoan neighbors. These two
cultures were quite distinctive:
Minoans Mycenaeans
Lived in unwalled cities Their walled cities were
constructed like fortresses
Houses built as a collection of Houses built around the
rooms around a central central meeting hall with the
courtyard fireplace along the wall
Paintings depict smooth shaven Paintings depict bearded men
men
Paintings of people in social Paintings primarily military in
gatherings, animals, plants, character with some hunting
trees, and religious scenes scenes
Conquered by the Mycenaeans Conquered by the Dorians
Mycenaean artwork depicts the use of bows and arrows, spears, and
large body shields that are somewhat reminiscent of the Biblical
accounts of armor bearers in the days of Saul and David.
Artwork on a Mycenaean ceremonial short sword, Museum of Antiquities in Athens
The kings of Knossos did not decorate their palace walls with
inscriptions describing their military exploits. Instead, they had
colorful wall paintings of religious, natural, and social life. This does
not necessarily mean that they were ignorant to aspects of war, but
that is not how they chose to decorate their buildings.
While the Minoan realm had been a land of unwalled cities and
villages, the Mycenaean architecture was known for its massive walls
and solid fortifications.
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4. The Late Minoan Period (1450 -

1200 B.C.).
Around 1450 B.C. and near the

time when Moses was leading the
Israelites out of Egypt, the
Minoan Civilization suffered a
distinctive downturn. Some have
theorized that this was the result
of earthquakes and an eruption of
the volcanic island of Santorini to
the north of Crete and have even
linked this to later legends about
a civilization known as Atlantis
that sank beneath the sea, but
others have disputed the dates of
those events. There is some
e v i dence of M yc e n a e a n
The Lion’s Gate at Mycenae
occupation of some of the
Minoan cities during this period.
In 1200 B.C., both the Minoan as well as the Mycenaean cultures

were brought to a violent end as they were overwhelmed by the
onslaught of a group known as the Sea People.
THE DARK AGES (1200 - 800 B.C.)

In 1200 B.C. the brown-haired Dorians swept down from the north,
destroying everything in their path. This Dorian migration was taking place
in the context of a much larger series of movements of peoples, tribes, and
nations. The city of Troy was destroyed, giving rise to later legends about its
fall. The Hittite Civilization fragmented and collapsed. The cities of the
Mycenaeans and the Minoans fell to invaders. Rameses III of Egypt barely
managed to keep out the Sea Peoples from sweeping through Egypt. The
next 400 years would see a period of upheaval throughout the ancient world.
• A sharp decline in population. Either through war, famine, or plague,

or a combination of all three, the population of the Aegean world was
drastically reduced during this period.
• Economic and social upheaval. Palaces were burned and new ones
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were not constructed to take their place.
• Commercial superiority on the Mediterranean passed from the Greeks

to the Phoenicians as the latter became the dominant sea power and
their colonies sprang up and they established trading monopolies.
• The rise of the city-states. In the place of the ruined Mycenaean

Civilization, there eventually arose a number of small, barbaric states.
These small city-states were fragmented and prized their individuality
to the point of preventing any political unity within the Greek
peninsula.
The Iron Age began around 1200 B.C as the secret of smelting iron ore
gradually made its way through the Mediterranean world. The Bible speaks
of how the Philistines kept this a closely guarded monopoly during the days
of the Judges so that Israelites were forced to come to them to have their farm
implements sharpened. 1 Samuel 13:19 says that no blacksmith could be
found in all the land of Israel, for the Philistines said, “Lest the Hebrews
make swords or spears.” This led to a common saying that in time of war the
Israelites would beat their plowshares into swords and their pruning-hooks
into spears (Joel 3:10).
THE ARCHAIC PERIOD

By 776 B.C. the names of the winners of the Olympic games were being
recorded in the Phoenician alphabet. The use of this alphabet makes the
beginning of the historic period of Greek history. Homer’s epic poems, the
Iliad, and the Odyssey, were penned around this time, depicting the political
unrest of the previous era.
As population levels increased, the Greeks began to expand outward and to

establish colonies throughout the surrounding areas. Greek colonies sprang
up in southern Italy, in Sicily, in western Anatolia, in Lybia to the west of
Egypt, and even to the shores of France and Spain. To the north, they settled
and formed colonies around the Black Sea that would later give rise to
legends of Jason and the Argonauts.
However, there was no political unity within Greece; it continued to be a

scattered collection of independent city-states. Two of these city-states
would rise to prominence: Athens and Sparta.
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The city of Athens was located in central Greece about five miles from the
Aegean Sea. It was built around a high acropolis which provided a place of
refuge in time of war.
Acropolis of Athens
Early in her history, Athens began to move toward a system of democracy.

The term refers to the rulership of the people and this system brought with it
an inherent lack of unity. This democratic outlook did not mean that the
Athenians looked upon all people as equals. Only the landed aristocracy
were initially allowed a voice in government and this franchise was never
extended to either women or slaves.
The southern part of the

Greek peninsula was
populated with Dorian
Greeks who had settled
following the migrations of
1200 B.C. One of the cities
which rose to prominence
after the fall of the
Mycenaean Civilization was
Sparta. The Spartan
government was headed by
two kings from two separate
families who held equal
power. One of these kings
would lead the army while
the other stayed home.
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The Spartans were primarily a military nation. Every Spartan citizen was in
the military from the age of seven to his retirement at the age of sixty. As a
result, Spartans developed the reputation for being the fiercest soldiers in the
ancient world.
Although there were many sharp differences between Athens and Sparta, they
also shared some important similarities:
• They both looked to a common origin of a segment of Indo-European

population.
• Although they spoke different dialects, it was still a form of the Greek
language.
• For the most part, the Greeks of both Athens and Sparta worshiped
the same gods as described by Homer. Zeus was the chief of the
gods, commanding the sky and the storm. Posidon was the god of the
seas. Area was the god of war and, for obvious reasons, was favored
by the Spartans. Hades was the god of death and the underworld.
• They participated in the Olympic Games. These games were held

every four years and citizens of all the different Greek city-states
would stop their fighting to gather at the city of Olympia in western
Greece to compete in these various sporting events.
The Athenians struggled to find a balanced and fair code of laws. In the
seventh century, the scribe Draco succeeded in having his laws codified. The
death penalty was mandated for breaking nearly any law, from murder to the
theft of a cabbage. Even today, we use the word “draconian” to describe a
harsh rule.
A hundred years later, Solon brought about a series of legal reforms in Athens
that were fair and balanced. The democratic assembly had been changing the
laws so often that they were confused and contradictory. Solon’s laws
canceled all debts and helped to restore the economy. His final law was that
none of these laws could be changed by anyone but Solon for a period of ten
years and then he left Athens for ten years.
Herodotus tells the story of how Solon visited Croesus, the king of Lydia and
reputed to be the richest man in the world. Croesus showed Solon his great
wealth and proclaimed himself the happiest man in the world. Solon replied
that no one could be counted truly happy until he had died, for one could
never know how circumstances could one day change.
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In his later years, Croesus sought to expand his kingdom in the vacuum that
was left in Mesopotamia after the death of Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon.
Croesus consulted the Greek oracle as to the wisdom of going to war and the
oracle replied that, if he went to war, he would destroy a great kingdom.
However, the oracle did not point out that the kingdom which would be
destroyed was his own.
Croesus was repulsed by the Persian forces under Cyrus the Great and was
forced to retreat to Lydia. Cyrus followed up on his victory and another
battle took place at Sardis in which Cyrus brought the baggage camels up to
the front lines. The horses in the cavalry of Croesus would not go near the
unfamiliar camels and Croesus found himself besieged in his mountain
fortress at Sardis. The fortress was perched atop a sheer precipice and
seemed to be ready to withstand an interminable siege. Herodotus tells us
how one of the commanders of Cyrus
...had seen one of the Lydians fetch a helmet, which had

rolled down this precipitous slope, and the sight of the man’s
climbing down had set him thinking (Histories 1).
That night, the Persians followed this same pathway while the guards of
Sardis slept, climbed over the walls, and captured the city. Hundreds of years
later, the Apostle John would be instructed to write an epistle to the city of
Sardis and warn the church to awaken from its spiritual slumbers.
Fortress of Sardis on the cliffs above the city
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Croesus was brought before Cyrus and ordered to

be burned at the stake. As the Persians were
carrying out these instructions, Croesus muttered
that Solon had been right. Herodotus tells us:
He then related how Solon the

Athenian once came to Sardis, and
made light of the splendor which
he saw there, and how everything
he said – though it applied to all
men and especially to those who
imagine themselves fortunate –
had in his own case proven all too
true (Histories 1).
Croesus on the pyre to be burned
Herodotus goes on to tell us that Cyrus was so
impressed that he released Croesus and awarded him with a retainer that he
might serve as one of his advisors.
THE PERSIAN WARS

When Cyrus the Great conquered Sardis and the kingdom of Lydia, he also
inherited the Ionian Greek cities on the west coast of Anatolia. These cities
had enjoyed a measure of autonomy under the Lydians and these now became
part of the Persian Empire. This was to bring about a clash of cultures.
The Greeks The Persians

Believed in the freedom of the Submitted to a ruler whose
individual, though not in the power was absolute and to
case of slaves whom they bestowed worship
The Ionians submitted to the Persian rulership for a time, but conflict was
inevitable. This conflict received it impetus by the movement of Darius
across the Hellespont.
1. The Campaign of Darius against the Scythians.
The Scythians were a fierce tribe of nomadic horsemen living around

the northern shores of the Black and Caspian Seas. After the fall of
Nineveh, they had conducted raids down into northern Mesopotamia.
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Herodotus tells the story of how their tribal chieftains were invited by
Cyaxeres the Mede to a banquet and then massacred. This conflict
continued in the days of Darius, but when he tried to confront them
in open combat, they would simply retreat back into the steppes from
which they had come.
Darius hit upon a plan. He would cross the Bosphorus Strait into
Europe and circumnavigate the Black Sea, coming at the Scythians
from their rear. He began this campaign in 512 B.C., marching
through Ionian Anatolia and crossing the Bosphorus over a bridge
made of boats tied side to side. From here, he turned north to cross
the Danube. It was here that the Scythians began to conduct guerrilla
raids against his forces until he was finally forced to retreat with
considerable losses.
2. Revolt of the Ionian Cities.
The defeat of Darius at the hands of the Scythians did not go

unnoticed by the Greeks. It was not long before unrest began among
the Persian-controlled cities of Ionia. When the Ionian cities revolted
in 499 B.C., Athens responded by sending twenty ships to help them.
The Eretrians from the island of Euboea sent another five ships.
Encouraged by this assistance, the Ionians marched on Sardis, the

capital of the Persian satrapy, and burning it. Once this had been
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accomplished, the Athenian and Eretrian allies went home, leaving

the Ionians to face the enraged armies of Persia alone.
As punishment, the Persians burned the leading Ionian city of

Miletus, hauling away most of its surviving population to a settlement
on the Tigris River where it empties into the Persian Gulf. By 493
B.C., the rebellion had been crushed.
3. Darius Invades the Greek Peninsula.
Since the revolt of the Ionian Greeks had been actively encouraged by
those of the Greek mainland, Darius decided to take action against
them. In 492 B.C., he sent his son-in-law, Mardonius, with a fleet of
600 ships to punish the inhabitants of Greece. This fleet was
destroyed in a severe storm while rounding the cape at Mount Athos
in the Northern Aegean.
In 490 B.C., another Persian fleet sailed across the Aegean and laid
siege to the city of Eretria on the island of Euboea. Eretria was
captured, the city burned, and its population deported.
Now Darius turned his attention to Athens and the Persian fleet
landed their forces near the city of Marathon. They were met by the
Greek forces under the command of Miltiades. The Greek forces
were comprised of 10,000 spearmen and some lightly armed troops,
but they were outnumbered by the Persians by an order of two-to-one.
To avoid being out-flanked, Miltiades stretched out his troops along

the center and then doubled the depth of his forces along both flanks.
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His weakened center faced the Persian Immortals, the cream of the
Persian military. The greatest danger Miltiades faced was the Persian
archers. Persian strategy was to soften up the enemy by volley after
volley of arrows followed by the full weight of the charge of the
Immortals.
Miltiades marched his Greeks slowly forward until the two armies
were nearly within bowshot of each other. Then he ordered his army
to charge the Persians at a dead run. The Greek center, weakened as
it had been, retreated from before the stronger Persian Immortals. But
the two wings put the Persian flanks to route and then pivoted in to
attack the Persian center from its rear and cutting it to pieces.
The Persians hastily retreated out to their ships where the fighting
continued for some time in the water as the Greeks managed to set
fire to several of the Persian ships. The rest of the Persian navy
weighed anchor and sailed away, setting course to circumnavigate the
Achaian peninsula and come against Athens from the south.
Herodotus tells us that there were 6400 Persians dead on the field and
that the Greeks had lost 192 men.
A runner was dispatched to Athens with the news of the victory.

Tradition has it that he arrived at the city after a run of 26 miles to
declare, “We have won!” before falling down dead. This tradition is
the basis of the marathon race that is still held today.
Miltiades hurriedly marched his army back to Paleron to meet the

Persian navy that was sailing around Cape Sunium to approach
Athens from the south. When the Persian navy arrived, they found
Miltiades and the Greek force already waiting for them on the shore,
so they departed and returned home to Anatolia.
4. Xerxes and the Invasion of Greece.
Darius died before he could complete his plans for a new Persian
invasion and the Greeks enjoyed a respite for the next ten years while
Xerxes, the son of Darius, had to deal with revolts in Babylon and
Egypt. It was not until 480 B.C. that Xerxes was ready to attempt the
conquest of Greece.
Xexes was determined to have the advantage on both land and sea.
His plans called for a great army of a million men and a fleet of a
thousand warships assisted by three thousand smaller vessels.
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Herodotus tells us that he had a canal dug through the base of the
Mount Athos peninsula so that he could avoid the cape where some
of his father’s ships had been wrecked. He ordered Egyptian and
Phoenician engineers to build a mile-long bridge across the
Hellespont by tying small boats side by side and laying planks across
them.
When Xerxes arrived at the Hellespont, he found that violent storms

had shattered the bridge. The engineers were beheaded for their
incompetence and the waters of the Hellespont were ordered to be
lashed for her impertinence. Two more bridges were constructed and
the Persian army marched across into Europe.
The Greeks had consulted the Oracle at Delphi who had predicted
that Zeus would grant Athens that “a wall of wood alone shall be
uncaptured.” The Athenian admiral Themistocles argued that these
wooden walls were a reference to the Athenian fleet and he succeeded
in convincing the Athenians to abandon Athens and commit their
entire army to their ships while the rest of the citizens found refuge
in the Peloponnese. Themistoclese set out to engage the Perisan fleet
while the land forces prepared to defend the narrow pass at
Thermopylae.
The Spartan general

Leonidus marched to
Thermopylae with an
advanced force of 300
Spartans. Along the
way, he picked up an
additional 6000
Greeks. The Greeks
did not expect the
Persians to try to break
through immediately.
The pass at
Thermopylae was
particularly narrow
with high cliffs on one
side and the sea on the
other. Since it was Pass at Thermopylae
time for the Olympic
Games, they decided that only this advance guard would be necessary
for the time being. They planned for the rest of the army to follow
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Leonidas after the games.
The Persians did not wait, but decided to force the pass at once before
further reinforcements could arrive. It took four days for Xerxes to
march his long lines of Persian calvary into position. During this
time, he sent a spy to find out what the Greeks were doing and what
was the size of their force. The spy returned to report that the
Spartans were combing their long hair and engaging in gymnastic
exercise.
Xerxes attacked, but his forces were forced to withdraw with heavy
losses. A second and a third attack were ordered, but again the
Persians suffered high casualties with nothing to show for their pains.
Finally, a Greek traitor came before Xerxes and offered to show the
Persians a path through the mountains that led to a spot behind the
Greek lines.
A force of a thousand Greeks had been stationed along the path to

guard it against just this contingency, but when they saw the advance
of the Persians, they retreated. When Leonidus learned that the main
body of his force was in danger of being surrounded, he ordered most
of them to withdraw, keeping only his 300 Spartans and 700 Tespian
allies. His remaining force was surrounded and fought to the last man
until all had been killed.
Xerxes was now unopposed in his move into Achaia and he found
Athens abandoned except for a small group that had sought refuge on
the Acropolis. These defenders held out for two weeks, but they were
finally overwhelmed, slaughtered, and the city burned. Xerxes now
advanced to the Ocean harbor and found himself looking across the
bay to the island of Salamis where the Greek fleet had assembled.
Themistocles sent a trusted slave who pretended to be a runaway to

Xerxes. The slave told Xerxes that the Greeks were frightened and
planned to escape by means of their fleet which was now bottled up
inside the harbor of Salamis by the numerically superior Persian fleet.
Xerxes was just proud enough to believe it. He sent the Persian fleet
into the bay after the Greeks, but this was a trap and they found that
they had no room to maneuver their large number of ships. The
Greek ships were smaller and more agile and fitted with rams that
they were able to utilize to great advantage, darting in and out and
sinking Persian ships at will. The Persian fleet suffered a great loss
and was forced to retreat.
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In a rage, Xerxes executed all of the Phoenician captains. The rest of

the Phoenician sailors became furious and sailed back home. The
Egyptian ships followed. Xerxes left his land forces under the
command of Mardonius and left Greece, never to return.
Mardonius withdrew to Thessaly where he spent the winter. In the

spring of 479 B.C. he marched south to meet the Greeks again. This
time, he met a combined coalition of Greeks at Plataea and was killed
in the following battle while his main infantry force was put to route.
The last of the Persians departed from Greece.
THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR

Following the wars with Persia, the Greeks went back to doing what they
enjoyed most, fighting among themselves. They were encouraged in this
endeavor by the very Persians whom they had repelled and the Persians were
quick to financially back various parties as long as it meant fermenting
hostilities among the Greek city-states..
Tension began to develop between two city states in particular; Athens and
Sparta. There were several circumstances that helped to fuel the conflict
between these two:
• Athenian Imperialism.
In 477 B.C., Athens bound several of the Greek city-states into an

alliance as a guard against further Persian aggression. This federation
was known as the Delian League. Athens used her position as the
head of this League to build a virtual Athenian Empire. Before long,
she was forcing other nations to join this alliance upon pain of attack.
It was only a matter of time before she clashed with Sparta.
• Cultural Differences.
There were some distinctive cultural differences between Athens and

Sparta.
Athens Sparta
Democratic government Aristocratic monarchy
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Artistically advanced Culturally backward

Liberal in outlook Conservative
Imperialistic Provincial
• Economic Factors.
Athens was ambitious to control the Isthmus of Corinth which was

the major trade route between Greece and the west. Corinth, on the
other hand, was the chief ally of Sparta.
The Peloponnesian War was to last for 27 years (431 - 404 B.C.). It has been
likened to a grizzly bear fighting a great white shark. Athens was far richer
and had a greater navy, but was unable to stand up against the Spartan land
forces. The outcome would depend largely upon whether the battle was
being fought on land or on sea.
As the conflict began, Athens went on the defensive, allowing Sparta to

invade from the land and being content to find refuge behind her walled cities
while being supplied from the sea. The war might have gone on indefinitely
except for three factors that eventually turned the tide in favor of the
Spartans.
1. The Defection of Athenian Allies.
Many of the Athenian allies became disillusioned with Athens as they

saw her democracy fail to bring forth any strong military leaders.
Indeed, the one dynamic military leader that might have saved the day
for Athens became the object of Athenian jealousy and was
threatened with facing a trial and judgment.
2. Sparta’s Alliance with Persia.
The Persians were well aware that a divided Greece would be less of
a threat to their own interests than a Greece united under Athens.
Sparta received enough financial aid from the Persians to make up for
the economic imbalance with Athens.
3. The Construction of a Spartan Navy.
The early Spartan attempts to meet the Athenians at sea did not meet
with any great success. But finally, the Spartans succeeded in
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catching the bulk of the Athenian fleet while they were docked in a
Thracian harbor and winning a great victory. With their fleet gone
and threatened with starvation, Athens was forced to surrender.
The terms imposed on Athens were quite mild, though they were designed to
reduce Athens to the position of a vassal. Her walls were torn down and she
was forced to surrender all her foreign possessions and almost her entire
navy.
THE THEBAN WAR

Though Sparta had won the war against Athens, those that were appointed as
rulers over the conquered territories were not as competent in winning the
peace. The city of Thebes revolted in 371 B.C. and Sparta was defeated at
the Battle of Leuctra through the use of some unconventional tactics that
were witnessed by a young Macedonian prince named Philip. He would put
these tactics to good use in the future.
Thebes tried to organize a new league of all the city-states of Greece with
herself at the head, but this was doomed to failure. Athens rose up against
Thebes in 362 B.C. and defeated the Theban army and Greece was again left
fragmented. When unification did come, it would not be at the hands of
Sparta, Athens, or Thebes, but from a small, insignificant mountain kingdom
in the north known as Macedonia.
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THE INTERTESTAMENTAL
PERIOD
The period from the book of Malachi at the end of our Old Testament to the
opening of Matthew at the beginning of our New Testament comprises about
400 years. These 400 “silent years” were only silent in the sense that there
were no prophets from God who were writing Scripture. They were years
which brought about dramatic and sweeping changes throughout the ancient
world. These changes began with the arrival of a conqueror from the west
known as Alexander the Great.
ALEXANDER THE GREAT

Alexander was the son of King Philip of Macedon. It was a tiny backwoods
kingdom, considered barbaric even by the neighboring Greeks of Athens and
Thessaly. But from his earliest childhood, Alexander seemed destined for
greatness. Even as a child he dreamed of world conquest. The Iliad was his
Bible and Achilles was his hero. Alexander had grey eyes and a slight build.
His hair was blond and he kept his face
smooth-shaven.
1. Childhood.
When Alexander was seven years

old, a group of Persian envoys
came to the palace while Philip
was away. Alexander came in and
proceeded to cross-examine the
guests about the size and morale
of the Persian army, the distance
to Susa, and the condition of the
roads leading there.
Another tradition tells of an

account when Alexander was Alexander, Captioline Museum, Rome
about 9 years old. He had gone
with his father. Philip, to buy a stallion. However, the king’s grooms
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The Intertestamental Period
were not able to manage the horse who defied every attempt to ride
him.
Philip was on the verge of giving the horse back when Alexander
offered to ride him. Philip accepted. Alexander took the horse’s
bridle and turned him so that he was facing the sun and could not be
spooked so easily. Then, after calming him down, he mounted and
was able to ride him. The horse, whose name was Bucephalas, was
given to Alexander as a present and became his favorite, carrying him
into almost every major battle Alexander fought.
In 343 B.C. Philip commissioned Aristotle to be the tutor of

Alexander. Aristotle was a boyhood friend of Philip who had studied
under Plato. Alexander picked up much of Aristotle’s scientific
curiosity, his interest in medicine, biology and rhetoric, and even
certain of his political ideas. In fact, when Alexander finally set out
on his conquest of Persia, he took with him a whole group of
geologists, biologists, and experts in other fields of science.
Alexander commanded the Macedonian Heavy Cavalry under Philip

at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 B.C. Alexander was only 16 years
old, and yet it was his responsibility to hold the entire left flank
against the Theban Band who held the Athenian right flank.
When a gap opened up between the Allied Greek Infantry and the
Theban Band, Alexander personally led a charge through and opened
up a huge hole in the enemy line, breaking down all organized
resistance.
Thus, when Alexander came to the throne of Macedon in 336 B.C. he

was already used to the responsibility of authority, even though he
was only 20 years old.
2. Conquest of Asia.
Alexander’s ascension to the throne of Macedon galvanized him to

action. Within his first year, he conquered all of Achaia, leaving only
the Peloponnesian Peninsula out of his league of Greek nations. He
then crossed over the Hellespont and into Asia Minor. The Persians
were waiting for him and he defeated them at the battle of Granicus.
This left all of Asia Minor open to him and he wasted no time in
consolidating his hold upon that land.
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3. The Battle of the Issus.
A second Persian army had been assembled on the plains of Syria to

await Alexander’s coming. As he moved through the gates of Cilicia
and southward down the coast of the Mediterranean, this Persian
army moved in behind him, cutting off his supply lines. Alexander
was forced to turn and attack.
This time Alexander not only defeated the Persian army, he captured
the wife and daughters of the Persian king Darius III who was forced
to flee the field. Alexander was left free to make his way southward
virtually unopposed.
4. Tyre.
Early in January 332 B.C. Alexander came to Tyre, the most powerful
naval port in the Mediterranean at that time. The city of Tyre stood
on a rocky island about a half mile off the coast. It was surrounded by
massive walls that rose to a height of 150 feet. The city was
considered invincible.
Nebuchadnezzar had attacked Tyre in 586 B.C. and had finally

destroyed the mainland city. Even after a thirteen year siege he had
not been able to capture the island city.
Alexander sent envoys asking that the city come to terms with him.
The envoys were murdered and their bodies thrown into the sea.
Alexander settled down in what was to be the longest siege of his
career.
Alexander had no navy and so he decided to bring the island to him.

He began by demolishing the ruins of the mainland city and using the
rubble to construct a causeway across the water which separated the
island from the coast. It was grueling work and further hampered by
constant raids that the people of Tyre made in their swift warships.
Alexander went to Sidon and Byblos and confiscated a fleet of ships

which could bottle up the fleet of Tyre. The causeway was finally
completed and Alexander launched a three-pronged simultaneous
attack.
• His infantry attacked across the causeway.

• A portion of his new fleet assaulted the harbor on the north
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side of the island, bottling the enemy fleet inside.

• The rest of his fleet breached a weakened portion of the
southern wall of Tyre.
The city of Tyre fell to Alexander on July 29, 332 B.C. The siege had
taken seven long months. Thousands of the inhabitants were
slaughtered. The 30,000 remaining survivors were sold into slavery
while 2000 captured troops were crucified.
Writing at some time between 592 and 570 B.C., the prophet Ezekiel
gave the following predictions concerning the overthrow and eventual
destruction of the city of Tyre.
Behold, thus says the Lord God, “Behold, I am

against you, O Tyre, and I will bring many nations
against you, as the sea brings up its waves.
“And they will destroy the walls of Tyre and
break down her towers; and I will scrape her debris
from her and make her a hard rock.
“She will be a place for the spreading of nets
in the midst of the sea, for I have spoken,” declares
the Lord God, “And she will become spoil for the
nations.” (Ezekiel 26:3-5).
Beginning in verse 7, we are given a more detailed picture of the

destruction that will come against Tyre in the person of
Nebuchadnezzar. However, in verse 12, there is a change as Ezekiel
turns from what “he” will do to those whom he simply refers to as
“they.”
“Also they will make a spoil of your riches

and a prey of your merchandise, break down your
walls and destroy your pleasant houses, and throw
your stones and your timbers into the water.
“So I will silence the sound of your songs, and
the sound of your harps will be heard no more.
“And I will make you a bare rock; you will be
a place for the spreading of nets. You will he built no
more, for I the Lord have spoken,” declares the Lord
God. (Ezekiel 26:12-14).
There are a number of points to this prophecy:
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• Many nations will come against Tyre (26:3).

• Her walls and towers will be broken down (26:4).
• The debris of the city will be removed (26:4).
• Nebuchadnezzar will attack (26:7).
• Stones and timbers thrown into the water (26:12).
• Tyre will be a bare rock and a place for spreading of nets
(26:14).
• The city will not be rebuilt (26:14).
The fulfillment of this prophecy was not the product of blind chance.
There is not another city in all of the ancient world that had the same
kind of destruction which Alexander brought against Tyre. This
means Alexander was the unwitting servant of the Lord, bringing
Divine judgment against the pagan city.
If you go to the site of ancient Tyre today, you will find a place for the
spreading of nets. A small fishing village occupies the site while,
several miles down the coast, a modern city had taken for itself the
name of Tyre.
5. Alexander and Jerusalem.
Following the destruction of Tyre, Alexander continued south, finally

coming to the Philistine city of Gaza. Gaza was positioned on the top
of a steep hill which rose 100 feet above the surrounding plain.
Therefore, an enemy attacking Gaza faced walls that were 150 feet
high, the bottom part of which was solid mountain.
Alexander built huge movable towers which could he rolled up to the

walls of the city, allowing his archers in the tower to pick off the
defenders. Even so, it was two months before the city of Gaza could
be taken.
While the siege of Gaza was underway, Alexander took a small force
and rode east to Jerusalem. Josephus relates how the High Priest of
Jerusalem led a procession of priests out to meet Alexander. The
High Priest brought with him a scroll of the book of Daniel.
And when the book of Daniel was showed him,

wherein Daniel declared that one of the Greeks
should destroy the empire of the Persians, he
supposed that himself was the person intended; and
he was then glad. (Antiquities 11:8:5).
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Alexander was so impressed by the Jews and their Bible that he

allowed Jerusalem to remain semi-independent and the Jews to
practice their distinctive worship as long as they remained politically
loyal to him.
6. The World of Alexander.
During the next eight years, Alexander drove his armies all the way
to India. It was only when they refused to go any further that he
finally agreed to turn back toward home. Returning to Babylon, he
became sick and died. He was only 30 years old.
Alexander had reigned twelve years when he

died. His servants succeeded him, each in his own
domain. After his death they all put on crowns, as did
their sons after them. for many years, and they did
much evil on the earth.” (1 Maccabees 1:7-9).
When Alexander died in 323 B.C. he had conquered almost the entire
known world. From Macedonia in the west to India in the east; from
the mountains of Armenia in the north to the Indian Ocean in the
south were all under Greek dominion. The only direction where
Alexander had not extended his realm was to the west where lay the
growing kingdoms of Rome and Carthage.
Although Alexander’s military empire would quickly shatter apart

upon his death, many of his ideas and accomplishments would remain
to show their effect upon future generations.
a. Cultural Interchange from East to West.
Alexander stimulated trade between the east and the west.

This brought about prosperity as well as a change of cultures.
Both Alexandria and Antioch became important trading
centers.
b. Scientific Learning.
Alexander encouraged scientific investigations. Specimens of

plants and animals had been collected by biologists who had
accompanied his army. This brought about a renewed interest
in science into the ancient world.
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c. Hellenization.
Alexander began Hellenizing the Persian Empire. By bringing

in Greek settlers into the east and encouraging them to
intermarry with the Persians, he was able to indoctrinate the
conquered peoples with Greek ideas. He tried to advance the
idea that all men, whether Macedonian, Greek or Persian,
should feel a sense of brotherhood.
He was largely successful in this endeavor with one important

exception – the Jews. Alexander accomplished this in several
ways.
• Intermarriage. Alexander encouraged his soldiers to

intermarry with the Persians.
• Integrated military. He introduced Persians into his

army and even into his elite Companion Cavalry.
• Greek cities. Alexander had founded many cities

throughout his conquered territories. Alexandria in
Egypt eventually developed into one of the greatest
centers of learning in the ancient world. Another
great Greek city that would spring up would be
Antioch, located in western Syria near the
Mediterranean.
d. Language.
Perhaps one of the most significant changes was in the area of

language. Following Alexander’s conquests, Greek became
the common language of the ancient world. It was for this
reason that when the authors of the New Testament sat down
to write, they wrote in Greek and not in the Hebrew of the Old
Testament.
THE BREAK-UP OF ALEXANDER’S EMPIRE

Alexander had left no heir to the throne when he died. After his death, a son
was horn to his wife Roxanna. but both she and her son were eventually
murdered.
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As he lay on his deathbed, Alexander’s generals and friends had asked to

whom he was going to bequeath his kingdom. Alexander had answered, Hoti
toi kratiso – “To the strongest.” These words guaranteed a power struggle
among his generals. After seven years of war, several leaders emerged.
1. Antigonis.
Antigonis, also known as the “One-Eyed,” was 59 years old at the

death of Alexander. He took control of Anatolia. Northern Syria and
Mesopotamia.
2. Ptolemy.
It is generally believed that Ptolemy was an, illegitimate half-brother

to Alexander through their father, Philip. He had been one of
Alexander’s seven bodyguard generals.
Ptolemy took over Egypt, Palestine, Phoenicia, and Southern Syria.

Ptolemy’s number one general was a man named Seleucus who
would play a very important role in ancient history.
3. Cassander.
Cassander was only 31 years old at the time of Alexander’s death.

His father, Antipater, had been left as regent of Macedonia during
Alexander’s absence. When his father died, Cassander took the throne
of Macedonia, allying himself with Ptolemy. To form a tie with the
royal family, he married Alexander’s half-sister.
4. Lysimachus.
Lysimachus had also been one of the bodyguard generals. He was

given the governorship of Thrace to the east of Macedonia.
Of these four men, Antigonis was the strongest. His intention soon became
known, he sought to reunite the empire, setting himself up as the sole ruler.
He might have succeeded in taking over the empire if he had been allowed
to attack his enemies one by one. However, in 315 B. C. Ptolemy, Cassander
and Lysimachus formed an alliance against him.
The next 15 years saw a series of wars that left two major powers still
standing; Ptolemy in the south with Egypt and Seleucus holding the north
lands of Syria, Mesopotamia, Media and Persia. Between these two giants
364
lay the tiny kingdom of Judah.
PTOLEMY AND THE SEPTUAGINT

The Ptolemaic dynasty was to rule over Egypt for the next 300 years,
culminating in the infamous person of Cleopatra.
Name Reign Notes

Ptolemy I 323-284 One of Alexander’s generals; originally ruled
Soter B.C. in the name of Alexander’s half-brother and
Alexander’s son.
Ptolemy II 284-246 Organized Library of Alexandria. Erected
Philadelphus B.C. the Pharos Lighthouse; Septuagint translated.
Ptolemy III 246-222 Major building programs in Egypt.
Euergetes I B.C.
Ptolemy IV 222-205 Battle of Raphia in 217 B.C. stopped
Philopator B.C. Seleucid incursion.
Ptolemy V 204-180 Ascended throne as a child; lost Palestine to
Epiphanes B.C. Antiochus III.
Ptolemy VI 180-145 Also ascended throne as a child; Antiochus
Philmetor B.C. IV invaded Egypt.
Ptolemy VII, 145 Only a child at his father’s death; replaced
Neos B.C. on throne by his uncle.
Philopater
Ptolemy VIII 145-116 Uncle to Ptolemy VII.
Euergetes II B.C.
Ptolemy IX, 116-80 Ptolemy IX ruled 116-110 and was ousted by
Soter II B.C. his younger brother, Ptolemy X who ruled
for a year. The two brothers went back and
Ptolemy X, forth, bringing a series of revolts to Egypt.
Alexander I
Ptolemy XI, 80 B.C. Lasted only 19 days before being murdered
Alexander II after he had murdered his own stepmother.
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Ptolemy XII, 80-51 Illegitimate son of Ptolemy IX; bribed

Auletes B.C. Romans to retain throne.
Cleopatra 50-30 Took throne from her brother, Ptolemy XIII.
VII B.C. Had a son by Julius Caesar, but lost to
Octavius at Actium.
There were a number of cities named Alexandria in the ancient world. The
most famous is the one which resides on the western edge of the Nile Delta.
It was here that Ptolemy II Philadelphus had a great library/museum
constructed.
Aristeas (180-145 B.C.), a Jewish scholar who later worked in this Library,
tells of the building of the great library. This massive production was
commissioned by Ptolemy Soter and delegated to Demetrius, the former
tyrant of Athens, who had studied under Aristotle along with Alexander the
Great.
According to Aristeas, Demetrius recommended that Ptolemy gather a

collection of books on kingship and ruling in the style of Plato's
philosopher-kings, and furthermore to gather books of all the world’s people
that he might better understand subjects and trade partners. Ellen Brundige
gives the following description of the library’s interior:
They consisted of pigeonholes or racks for the

scrolls, the best of which were wrapped in linen or leather
jackets. Parchment skins--vellum-- came into vogue after
Alexandria stopped exporting papyrus in an attempt to
strangle its younger rival library, set up by the Seleucids in
Pergamum (2014).
As the head of the Library, Demetrius had the job of gathering books and
scrolls, as well as supervising a massive effort to translate other cultures’
works into Greek. This process began with the translation of the Old
Testament into Greek, for which project Ptolemy hired and housed 72
rabbis. Because of this, the translation was known as the “Septuagint”
(Latin: “Seventy”) and is often abbreviated by the Roman numeral LXX.
This was to become the most popular and widely used translation of the
Bible. It meant that people of every culture could now read the Scriptures
in a common language.
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The library of Alexandria would

continue to be the most important The variety of the translators is
proved by the unequal character
center of learning in the world until its of the version: some books
destruction by the Muslims in 642 show that the translators were
A.D. The story of its destruction is by no means competent to the
relayed in Ibn al Qifi’s History of the task, while others, on the
contrary, exhibit on the whole a
Wise Men. He tells how the Caliph of careful translation. The
Egypt ordered its destruction, Pentateuch is considered to be
commenting that if the books in the the best executed, while the
library did not agree with the Koran, book of Isaiah appears to be the
worst.
they needed to be destroyed and, if
they did agree with the Koran, then
there was no need for them. In reality, it is thought that many of the contents
of the library were confiscated and distributed throughout the Muslim world,
giving rise to a period of science and learning throughout that area of the
world.
THE SELEUCIDS
Seleucus had been one of the sub-commanders under Ptolemy. He had
captured Babylon in 311 B.C. and had set himself up as a sovereign
independent of Ptolemy. The dynasty which he founded has become known
as the Seleucids.
Name Reign Notes

Seleucus I 311-281 Carved out an empire extending from
B.C. Phoenicia to India.
Antiochus I 281-261 Founded the city of Antioch in Syria.
B.C.
Antiochus II 261-246 Married Bernice, the daughter of Ptolemy
B.C. II to form a temporary alliance.
Seleucus II 246-226 His stepmother Bernice was murdered,
B.C. sparking war with Egypt.
Seleucus III 226-223 Older brother to Antiochus III - he was
B.C. poisoned after 3 years.
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Antiochus III 223-187 Pushed Egypt back to the Sinai; conquered

(the Great) B.C. Anatolia and Parthia. Invaded Greece at
the urging of Hannibal, but was defeated
by the Romans at Magnesia (190 B.C.).
Seleucus IV 187-175 Older brother of Antiochus IV; he was
B.C. murdered.
Antiochus IV 175-163 Invaded Egypt, but retreated under threat
(Epiphanes) B.C. from Rome. Set up abominations in
Temple which led to Jewish war for
independence.
When Antiochus III was defeated by Rome

at Magnesia in 190 B.C., he was forced to 1st Punic War: 264-241 B.C.
surrender his navy, his war elephants, and 2nd Punic War: 218-202 B.C.
3rd Punic War: 149-146 B.C.
his youngest son, Antiochus IV was taken
to Rome as a hostage. In order to pay the
enormous tribute demanded by Rome, he was forced to raise taxes
throughout his empire, plunder the treasuries of the various cities, and even
plunder temples. It was as he was going into one temple for this purpose
that the citizens rioted and murdered him.
ANTIOCHUS IV
EPIPHANES
When his father, Antiochus
III, lost the Battle of Mag-
nesia to the Romans,
Antiochus IV was sent as a hostage to Rome where he spent 12 years.
Though he was nominally a prisoner, he was treated well in Rome and sent
to Latin schools. While he was here, he learned to respect the power and the
endurance of the Romans.
When Antiochus III was killed in 187 B.C. Seleucus IV came to the throne
and reigned for 12 years until he was murdered in 175 B.C. By this time.
Antiochus IV had escaped from Rome and returned to Syria so that, at the
death of his brother, he was able to take the throne.
Antiochus IV embarked on a policy of conquest and his first target was

Egypt. He heard that Egypt was making offers to Judah to turn against him,
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so he decided to make sure that his hold there remained undisturbed.
In order to stabilize his position in Judah, he appointed men whom he could

trust to positions of responsibility. One of these positions was that of high
priest. He could hardly have imagined what an impact this would have.
1. First Invasion of Egypt (170 B.C.).
Antiochus invaded Egypt in 170 B. C. Although he failed to capture

the capital city of Alexandria, he succeeded in gaining possession of
almost all of Upper Egypt. He even marched south to Memphis
where he had himself crowned as Pharaoh.
2. First Revolt in Judah.
While Antiochus was in Egypt, a rumor reached Jerusalem to the

effect that he had been killed. To celebrate the news, the Jews took
all of the Seleucid officials and threw them off the walls of the city.
Antiochus, still very much alive, heard the news of the rebellion
while he was still back in Egypt. He promptly left Egypt and
marched into the city of Jerusalem. In three days he killed 80,000
people and led an equal number away as slaves. He also entered the
Holy of Holies in the Temple and set up pagan idols there and
sacrificed pigs upon the altar.
Before returning to Syria, Antiochus established the following laws

in Jerusalem.
a. Jews could not assemble for prayer.
b. Observance of the Sabbath was forbidden.
c. Possession of the Scriptures was illegal.
d. Circumcision was illegal.
e. It was illegal to refuse to eat hogs or any other food that was
prohibited by the Mosaic Law.
f. It was illegal not to participate in the monthly sacrifice

honoring Antiochus. This involved eating of the meat that
had been offered in sacrifice.
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These laws were designed to extinguish the religious faith of the

Jews. The penalty for breaking any of these laws was death.
3. Second Invasion of Egypt (168 B.C.).
The Seleucid control over Egypt did not last long once Antiochus
left. He returned to Egypt in 168 B.C. to complete the job. Once
again, he was victorious. Only the capital city of Alexandria stood
against him.
Rome at this moment was heavily engaged in Macedonia in a war

with Perseus, son of Philip V. Antiochus had calculated that the
Romans would be able to do nothing to stop his Egyptian venture.
What he did not know was that the Roman Senate had sent an
emissary to meet him.
As Antiochus marched on Alexandria, who should come out of the

city to meet him but his old friend Popilius at the head of a small
embassy.
On their first approach he [Antiochus]

saluted them and held out his right hand to Popilius;
but Popilius put into his hand a written tablet
containing the decree of the Senate and desired him
first to read that. (Livy).
The Senate’s message was a crisp order to Antiochus to put an end

to his Egyptian campaign and retreat. Antiochus replied that he
would call his advisors together and consult them on what was to be
done. Popilius responded by taking a swagger stick that he had been
carrying and using it to draw a circle around Antiochus on the sand.
He warned Antiochus not to step out of the circle until he had given
his decision concerning the contents of the letter. Antiochus
hesitated for a few moments, astonished at the authoritative attitude
of Popilius. Then he agreed to leave.
4. Second Revolt in Judah.
As Antiochus left Egypt, he received news that the Jews had rebelled
again. He was furious. To let out his frustrations, he sent an army
under his general Apollonius to Jerusalem.
Apollonius entered Jerusalem under the guise of peace and was
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therefore unopposed. On the Sabbath day when the Orthodox Jews

would not fight, the Seleucid army fell upon the Jews, killing
thousands and carrying off the women and children as slaves.
Antiochus now began an intense persecution of the Jews. He set up

a statue of Zeus in the Temple and forced the Jews to worship it. The
statue had an uncanny resemblance to Antiochus.
Two women were brought in for circumcising their children and they
led them publicly about the city with their babies hanging at their
breasts, and then threw them down from the top of the wall (2
Maccabees 6:10).
There is another story told of one woman and her seven sons who
were dragged before the king. They were commanded to reject their
faith and to worship Antiochus. They refused and were killed one
by one in agonizing torture. The spark had been set to the powder
keg. It was only a matter of time before the explosion was set off.
THE MACCABEAN REVOLT

The Maccabean Revolt started in 166 B.C. in the small, village of Modi’in,
17 miles to the northwest of Jerusalem. A Seleucid officer arrived in the
village early one morning with a few soldiers. They proceeded to erect an
altar in the middle of the town square.
Assembling the villagers, the Seleucid official ordered that Mattathias, a

Jewish priest, slaughter a pig upon the altar and offer it to Zeus. The
villagers would then eat of the pig’s flesh, signifying their acceptance of the
Greek religion. When Mattathias did not respond, the old man was offered
wealth and honor if he would obey. Mattathias refused.
Suddenly one of the villagers stepped out of the crowd and walked up to the
altar, announcing that he was willing to make the sacrifice. Mattathias was
enraged. Grabbing the sacrificial knife from the villager, he slit the
villager’s throat and then turned and killed the Seleucid official. Before the
astonished soldiers could take in what was happening, the five sons of
Mattathias attacked them and slaughtered them.
The villagers banded together under the leadership of Mattathias and his five
sons, stripping the soldiers of their weapons and uniforms and hiding the
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bodies. The handful of rebels moved out into the hills. The revolt had
begun.
In the following months, Mattathias and his sons created a small guerrilla
force, attacking small Seleucid troops by night in ambush. The resistance
movement grew as small villages began to join. The decision was made to
fight on the Sabbath day if necessary. When Mattathias became sick and
died, one of his sons, Judas, took his place as leader.
JUDAS THE MACCABEE

Judas was given the nickname of Maccabee, meaning “Hammer” because
of his hammer strikes against the Seleucids.
1. Initial Attacks.
The first attacks of Judas were made against patrols that went out
from the Seleucid garrison in Jerusalem. These patrols failed to
come back. The Seleucid commander sent out a second series of
patrols when the first did not return. These were also ambushed and
wiped out.
Worried, the Seleucid commander in Jerusalem now sent out a larger

force to encamp in the hills north of Jerusalem to begin a systematic
search of the villages for the rebels. At the same time, he sent a
report to General Apollonius who was headquartered in Samaria.
2. Defeat of Apollonius.
General Apollonius marched south to attack the rebels. He had 2000

infantrymen marching in traditional Greek phalanx formation. He
also had a small cavalry detachment.
Judas ambushed them with 800 men as they marched through a

narrow gorge. The Jews closed in on all four sides, trapping the
Seleucids and massacring them. Apollonius was killed in the battle.
3. Defeat of Seron.
Back in Syria, Antiochus heard the news of the revolt, but he had
more important business at hand. The Parthians in the east had
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rebelled and so Antiochus was forced to take the greater part of his
army there to put it down.
Seron, the commander of the Syrian forces in the west, was given the
job of restoring law and order in Judah. Seron marched south along
the coast of the Mediterranean with 4000 infantry and a small
cavalry. Judas ambushed with a force of 1000 men. His force
attacked while the Seleucids were marching up from the coast
through the pass at Beth Huron. Seron was killed and the surviving
troops fled back to the plains in disarray.
4. Campaign of the Three Generals.
Lysias had been left as regent in the absence of Antiochus. He now

appointed three generals to lead an expedition against Judah. This
expedition was made up of 40, 000 infantry and 7000 cavalry. The
Seleucids marched south along the Mediterranean coast until they
came to Jaffa, then turned east to Lod, setting up camp in the same
place where Seron had several months before. They brought slave
traders with them and even set the price for Jewish slaves who
would be taken after Judas was defeated.
Meanwhile Judas had established his base at Mizpeh, several miles

northwest of Jerusalem. He had 6000 men. Both armies waited, the
Seleucids on the plains, the Jews in the hills.
One night, a portion of the Seleucid army moved out, marching up

into the hills to the camp of the Maccabees, intent on surprise. Judas
had learned of this move and so the Jews had left their camp with the
campfires still burning.
The Seleucid ambush force crept into the Jewish camp, only to find
it deserted. The Seleucids concluded that the Jews must have
retreated in fear. They began to fan out, searching for escaped
fugitives.
At daybreak, the Jews were down on the plain, ready to attack the
main Seleucid camp. As the Jews attacked, the Seleucids quickly
pulled into phalanx formation. However, the Seleucid cavalry did
not have time to organize itself for protective duty on the flanks.
Therefore as the Seleucid army attacked, the Jews fell back before
their main thrust and concentrated on attacking their flanks which
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had been weakened by the disorganized cavalry. As the flanks broke

up, the Seleucids were forced to retreat. The Jews came in and
burned the Seleucid camp. When the Seleucid ambush patrol saw
their own camp in ruins, they also fled.
5. The Campaign under Lysias.
Finally, in 164 B.C. Lysias himself marched south from Antioch

with 60,000 infantry and 5000 cavalry. By this time, Judas had
raised his force to 10,000 fighting men.
Lysias marched along the same route as his previous generals,

coming down to Jaffa and then across to Lad. From here, Lysias
moved south, thinking to surprise Judas by coming at Jerusalem
from the south. Judas was waiting for him at the pass near Beth Zur.
Lysias was defeated and forced to retreat.
6. Judas Takes Jerusalem.
Judas now moved into Jerusalem. The Temple was purged of all
idols and rededicated to the Lord. To this day, the Jews continue to
celebrate the Feast of Hanukkah which commemorates that victory.
It had been just over two years since the revolt at Modi’in.
7. Death of Antiochus IV.
Antiochus IV died in 163 B.C. while returning from his eastern

campaigns which had been largely unsuccessful. His son, Antiochus
Eupator, was only 9 years old. Before he died, Antiochus IV named
Philip, one of his leading generals, as regent.
Back in Antioch, Lysias had Antiochus Eupator crowned king and

set up himself as the real power behind the throne. Philip decided
to continue his campaigns in the east before returning to Antioch to
battle Lysias for the regency.
8. Battle for the Jerusalem Garrison (162 B.C.).
Even though Judah controlled Jerusalem, the Seleucids still

maintained a heavily fortified garrison within the city. Judas now
decided to take the Seleucid garrison. He calculated that Philip and
Lysias would not attempt to attack with the shaky political situation
at its present state in Antioch. He was wrong.
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An all-out assault was made against the garrison and it failed. The
Jews were compelled to fall back on a siege. Unknown to Judas,
messengers from the garrison escaped through underground tunnels
and arrived at Antioch appealing to Lysias for help.
Lysias and the young king Antiochus Eupator set out with a huge
array made up of 100,000 infantry, 5300 cavalry and 22 war
elephants. Marching down along the coast, they passed to the west
of Jerusalem and then swung around, coming up toward Jerusalem
from the south.
Judas and his army made their stand at Beth Zechariah, 11 miles to
the south of Jerusalem. The Jews were decisively defeated in the
following battle and Eleazer, the younger brother of Judas, was
killed when he tried to attack an elephant.
9. Siege of the Temple Mount.
Now Lysias and the boy-king marched to Jerusalem where they

entered without resistance. Only a small hand of Jews opposed them
and these had fortified themselves in the Temple. Lysias could do
nothing by a direct attack and so he laid a siege to the Temple
Mount.
As the siege continued, the Jews in the Temple began to suffer

greatly. Their food had been limited from the beginning since this
was the Sabbatical Year. Soon they were starving. However Lysias
did not know this.
At the last moment, news reached Lysias that Philip was on his way
back from his campaigns in the east and that he was seeking to take
over the government.
Anxious to return to meet this new threat, Lysias offered a peace

treaty with Judas which guaranteed religious freedom in Judah. He
then pulled his army out of Jerusalem and returned to Antioch, but
not before pulling down the walls of Jerusalem and establishing
Alcimus, a Hellenistic Jew, as high priest.
10. The Rise of Demetrius.
In the following conflict between Lysias and Philip, Lysias emerged

as the victor. However, that same year Demetrius, son of Seleucus
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IV, escaped from Rome and sailed to Syria where he was proclaimed
king by the population.
Lysias and the boy-king Antiochus Eupator were put to death.

Demetrius confirmed the selection of Alcimus as high priest of
Jerusalem, sending him with general Bacchides to rule over the
temple.
11. Alcimus.
What the Seleucids had not managed to do by force of arms, they

succeeded for a time in the person of the renegade Alcimus.
Because he was both a Jew and a descendant of Aaron, he was at
first accepted by the Jews.
He began an intense Hellenization program, ordering the execution

of those who did not go along with it. His popularity quickly fell
and Judas expelled him from the land.
12. The Death of Judas.
In 161 B.C. Judas sent delegates to Rome to negotiate an alliance.

He hoped that if Judah had an alliance with Rome the Seleucids
would be more hesitant to attack. It had just the opposite effect.
Demetrius reckoned correctly that the Senate, although willing to
become allies on paper, was not about to enter into a costly war over
the tiny kingdom of Judah.
Therefore he sent General Bacchides to attack Judah with a force of

20,000 infantry and 2000 cavalry. Bacchides took Jerusalem without
any opposition. Making his base there, he marched north to confront
Judas.
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It was here that Judas made the greatest tactical mistake of his entire
career. Rather than retreating and melting away into the hills under
the overwhelming odds, he met the Seleucids with a direct frontal
attack. It was a disaster and Judas was killed and his army
destroyed.
JONATHAN (160-143 B.C.)

The Maccabean veterans now chose Jonathan, the youngest of the brothers
of Judas, as their new leader. The Maccabean rebellion was little better off
than when it had begun under Mattathias five years earlier.
1. Renewed Operations.
Jonathan moved the remnants of the Jewish army into the desert
regions of Tekoa, 10 miles to the south of Jerusalem. Here they
began to rebuild their scattered forces.
Jonathan waited for an entire year until Alcimus died and Bacchides
and his army returned to Antioch before he resumed his guerrilla
operations.
As the rebellion began to renew itself in intensity, the Seleucid

garrisons in and around Jerusalem sent to Antioch, requesting that
Bacchides return and restore order. By this time, Jonathan had re-
fortified the ruined fortress of Beth-basai, less than a mile to the
southeast of Jerusalem.
2. The Battle of Beth-basai.
In 156 B.C. Bacchides marched to Jerusalem and then down to lay

siege to Beth-basai. Jonathan had been expecting this and had split
his forces in two, taking one to hide in the desert and the other to
hold Beth-basai. On an appointed signal, Jonathan attacked with his
hidden forces while the Jews in Beth-basai rushed out and attacked,
catching the unsuspecting Seleucids in a trap. Bacchides was forced
to retreat to Jerusalem with the remnants of his army.
3. Peace.
Jonathan dispatched envoys to Bacchides to negotiate for peace.
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Bacchides agreed and the terms were drawn up. Independence was
not granted to the Jews, since Bacchides did not have the power to
do this. However, he did agree to the following terms.
a. Amnesty for all rebels.
b. Permission for all Maccabean veterans to return and live in

Judah.
c. The return of all Jewish prisoners of war.
d. The affirmation of all Jewish religious freedoms. In return,

Jonathan promised to keep peace and accept the continued
status of Judah as a Seleucid dependency. This took place in
155 B. C. For a short time there would be peace.
4. Rise of Balas (152 B.C.).
In 152 B.C. a man named Balas arose in Syria who claimed to he the
son of Antiochus IV. Calling himself Alexander Epiphanes, he
enlisted the support of both Anatolia and Egypt.
In a struggle for popularity, both Balas and Demetrius sought to gain

Jonathan’s support which could very well have been the deciding
factor in the struggle. At this point, everyone got into the picture,
offering Jonathan titles, lands, governorships and even the high
priesthood. Jonathan took it all and then sided with Balas.
5. Jonathan as Governor (150 B.C.).
Balas and Demetrius met in battle in 150 B. C. In the following

battle, Demetrius was killed. Jonathan was officially appointed
governor of Judah because of his support. For the next three years,
the Jews prospered under Balas.
6. The Battle of Antioch (147 B.C.).
In 147 B. C. Demetrius II, the teenage son of the late Demetrius,

managed to take over the Phoenician coast and part of Syria. Egypt
turned her support from Balas to Demetrius II. Egypt’s policy was
always to support the weaker of any two rivals to the Seleucid
throne. She thought that in this way the Seleucid Empire would
grow weak.
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In the following Battle of Antioch, Balas was killed and Demetrius

II took the throne.
7. Antiochus VI and Tryphon.
When Balas was killed, he left an infant son named Antiochus VI.
One of his former officers named Tryphon now sought to place this
infant son on the throne.
Tryphon made an alliance with Jonathan in which his brother,

Simon, was made military commander of all the coast lands between
Egypt and Tyre.
In the following conflict, Tryphon was able to take all of the lands
as far north as Galilee and made successful campaigns all the way to
Damascus.
8. Murder of Jonathan.
Tryphon decided that Jonathan was becoming too powerful and so

he tricked him into coming to Ptolemais where he had him killed.
Under the rulership of Jonathan, the Kingdom of Judah had grown

to be very strong, and, although it was not yet independent, this was
only a matter of time.
THE HASMONEAN KINGS

Simon, the only remaining son of Mattathias, now became the leader of the
Jews. Tryphon decided that, if he were ever to defeat the Jews, now would
be the time. He marched south along the Mediterranean coast and then
moved inland to come up at Jerusalem from the south, outmaneuvering
Simon and the Jewish army which waited for him west of Jerusalem. Just
a few miles away from Jerusalem, Tryphon was caught in a snowstorm and
forced to retreat to the warmth of the Jordan Valley. Jerusalem was saved.
In May 142 B.C. Simon entered into negotiations with Demetrius II who still
held all of northern Syria. In the following agreement. Judah was
recognized as an independent state. Judah was once more a free nation.
The last king of Judah had been Zedekiah, son of Josiah. Since the
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Babylonian Exile, Judah had been ruled by governors and prophets. The
Maccabees were seen as military rulers, but did not take for themselves the
title of king. Jonathan was given the position of high priest. This position
continued to be held by the ruling sons of Mattathias.
For a time there was prosperity and a continued spiritual awakening. But as
the period of prosperity continued, the religion of the Jews began to take on
more of a ritualistic attitude. At the same time, the rulers of Judah became
greedy. Simon, the last of the sons of Mattathias was murdered by his son-
in-law in 135 B.C.
1. John Hyrcanus (135-104 B. C. )
In 135 B. C. both Simon and two of his sons were murdered by an

ambitious son-in-law. A third son managed to escape and take the
leadership of Judah. His name was John Hyrcanus. He went on to
reign for 31 years.
During his rule Hyrcanus hired foreign mercenaries and plundered

the tomb of King David. He conquered Samaria, taking the city after
a year-long siege and burning it to the ground. He also conquered
the Idumeans and the Galileans and forced them to convert to
Judaism. This would have major repercussions. It would make it
possible for an Idumean to ascend to the throne of Israel. It also
served to polarize the Jews into two distinct parties:
a. The Hasidim.
The term Hasidim literally means “the pious ones.” This

group came to be known as the Pharisees, the separated ones,
because they sought to retain the separation of their culture
from the Greek influences of Hellenization.
b. The Hellenists.
These were Jews who embraced Greek influences. They

came to be known as Sadducees. The name is taken from the
High Priest Zadok because this view was popular among the
priests as well as the aristocracy.
2. Judah Aristobulus (104-103 B.C.).
The death of Hyrcanus started a dynastic struggle for the leadership
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of Judah. Aristobulus, the eldest son, emerged as the victor and

promptly threw his mother and four brothers into prison where all
but one of the brothers died.
Not content with the office of High Priest, Aristobulus crowned

himself as king. This is significant because he was the first to carry
the title of king since the Babylonian Captivity. His reign, however,
was short-lived and his health quickly deteriorated so that he died
within a year of coming to power.
3. Alexander Janneus (103-76 B.C. ).
Aristobulus had been married to a remarkable woman named

Alexandria. When Aristobulus died, she immediately freed his one
surviving brother and married him. He was a teenager while she was
nearly 30 years old, but this served to secure his hold upon the
throne of Judah.
As Alexander Janneus grew to manhood, it became evident that he

was not much better than his murderous brother had been. Civil war
broke out during the Feast of Tabernacles when he took a libation
that was to be poured out on the altar in the Temple and instead
poured it on the ground at his own feet. The Jews responded by
pelting him with fruit. Janneus called in his soldiers and put 6000
Jews to death.
This action led to six years of civil war. The Pharisees looked to the
Seleucids for military aid and managed to drive Janneus into hiding
for a time. Realizing that they might be handing over the
independence of their nation, they made peace with Janneus. Instead
of keeping the peace, Janneus crucified 800 Pharisees after executing
their wives and children before their eyes.
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In the following years, he extended his kingdom all the way to the
borders of Egypt, eastward into the Trans-Jordan lands, and north to
Lake Hulah.
4. Salome Alexandra (76-67 B.C.).
When Alexander Janneus died in 76 B.C. his wife, Salome

Alexandra, took the throne for herself. She was nearly 70 years old.
Her brother was the leader of the Pharisee Movement and she was
a religious conservative. The nine years of her reign were to be the
golden age of Israel.
a. Public school system.
Alexandra started a public school system in Israel and

brought in compulsory education. 1 The result was that years
later in the time of Jesus, almost every Jew living in the land
of Israel could read.
b. Her two sons.
As a woman, Alexandra could not officiate as High Priest, so

she appointed her oldest son to this position. Her younger
son was made general of the armed forces.
(1) Hyrcanus II.
Being the oldest and the heir to the throne, he was

appointed to be High Priest. He was by nature a
peaceful man, following the teachings of the
Pharisees.
(2) Aristobulus II.
As general of the military, he was popular with the

Sadducees who envisioned an imperial Jewish state.
The differences between these two sons would eventually
1
Kenneth Atkinson points out that, “during her reign, children were required to
attend school, a decree that presumably included young girls” (Biblical Archaeology
Review, July/Aug 2008; Pg 65).
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make Israel a house divided and would lead to the fall of the
Jewish state.
c. Strife between Pharisees and Sadducees.
The Pharisees were dominant during the reign of Alexandra.

They used their dominance to seek revenge upon the
Sadducees for the persecutions that they had suffered under
Alexander Janneus. Leaders from the Sadducees were put to
death, bringing the nation to the brink of civil war.
5. Hyrcanus II (67 B.C.).
When Alexandra died, Hyrcanus, being the oldest and therefore the
heir, was placed upon the throne. Aristobulus gathered an army of
Sadducees and marched on Jerusalem. Hyrcanus surrendered without
a fight.
6. Aristobulus II (67-63 B.C.).
Hyrcanus gave up the office of High Priest and Aristobulus became

both King and High Priest. The two brothers swore eternal
friendship and even sealed their alliance by the marriage of their
children. For a time there was peace.
After a time, Aristobulus became jealous of his older brother and

Hyrcanus was forced to flee to Aretas, king of the Nabatean Arabs.
It was here that he met a young Idumean prince named Antipater
who would change the course of Jewish history.
POMPEY THE GREAT

Antipater became good friends with Hyrcanus and encouraged him to make
an attempt to regain his kingdom. Enlisting the aid of King Aretas, they led
a force of Nabateans against Jerusalem, catching Aristobulus by surprise and
besieging him within the city.
Meanwhile, far to the north, the Roman general Pompey the Great had just
conquered the Seleucid Empire and was marching south toward Jerusalem.
His arrival would completely change the life of the Jewish people.
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1. Solicitations to Pompey.
As Pompey marched down from Syria,

both Hyrcanus and Aristobulus sent
ambassadors to try to gain his favor.
• Antipater went representing

Hyrcanus.
• Aristobulus was represented
by a man named Nicodemus.
As they both came before Pompey,

Nicodemus began accusing Pompey’s
two commanding generals of
accepting a bribe from Hyrcanus. In
this way, Pompey’s military advisors
turned against the cause of Aristobulus Pompey the Great
from the very beginning.
2. The Peace of Pompey.
Pompey ordered that the two brothers should make peace with each
other and that Hyrcanus should lift the siege. Hyrcanus agreed and
was withdrawing his army when Aristobulus gathered his forces and
attacked those of Hyrcanus, inflicting a crushing defeat.
3. Pompey’s Judgment.
Pompey was angry at this breech of trust and he ordered both the
brothers to appear before him. When they did, Pompey indicated
that Hyrcanus should rule over the Jews.
4. Pompey Takes Jerusalem (63 B.C.).
Although Aristobulus had surrendered to Pompey, his followers did

not. They had taken control of the Temple Mount and the Old City.
Pompey marched to Jerusalem and besieged the defenders, throwing
up a wall around that portion of the city.
The siege lasted three months. Pompey took advantage of the

Jewish reluctance to attack on the Sabbath day and each Sabbath had
his work crews out building great ramps up to the Temple Mount.
Finally, an assault took them through the defenses.
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And no small enormities were committed

about the temple itself, which, in former ages, had
been inaccessible, and seen by none; for Pompey
himself went into it, and not a few of those that were
with him also, and saw all that which was unlawful
for any other men to see, but only for the high
priests. (Antiquities 14:4:4).
Josephus goes on to say that, though Pompey entered the Holy of

Holies in the Temple, he did not touch anything and ordered the
priests to cleanse and restore the Temple.
5. Pompey’s Territorial Arrangements.
Pompey annexed all of the lands of Israel to the Roman Empire.

With this annexation came a number of changes.
a. The province of Judea.
The Kingdom of Judah was placed under the authority of

Scaurus, the governor whom Pompey had placed over Syria.
The name of Judah was changed to “Judea.”
b. Liberation of Greek cities.
Pompey “liberated” the Greek cities along the coast and

granted the Samaritans a measure of independence. The
Greek cities on to the east of the Sea of Galilee were
organized into a federation known as the Decapolis.
c. Hyrcanus was reinstalled as High Priest.
Although he held no official position, Antipater remained a

dominant power in Judea.
ANTIPATER
Antipater had married the daughter of an Arabian noble. By her he had four
sons and a daughter. Of these children, one was destined to go down in
history as “the Great.”
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1. The Roman Civil War.
For a time there was peace and prosperity under the Roman rule.
Then in 49 B. C. the entire Roman Empire was plunged into a civil
war. The civil war which erupted at this time pitted the two greatest
military leaders that Rome had ever seen.
• On the one side was Julius Caesar, a military and

administrative genius who had just defeated the Gauls and
even invaded England.
• On the other side was Caesar’s old ally Pompey the Great,
conqueror of all of the lands to the east.
Hyrcanus and Antipater naturally sided with their friend and

benefactor, Pompey. It was to be the wrong decision.
2. Antipater and Caesar.
In 48 B.C. Caesar defeated Pompey at the Battle of Pharsalus on the

east coast of Greece. Pompey managed to escape and flee to Egypt.
Caesar followed Pompey to Egypt, but when he arrived, he found
that Pompey had been murdered by some of the Egyptians who were
trying to curry favor with Rome.
Now Caesar found himself in trouble. In his haste to capture

Pompey, he had come to Egypt with a very small force. To make
matters worse, he had stepped into the middle of another civil war
between the son and daughter of Ptolemy 12th. Caesar soon found
himself besieged within the royal palace at Alexandria.
It was Antipater who came to the rescue with a large force of

Nabateans. In gratitude, Caesar made Antipater a Roman citizen
with exemption from taxation and appointed him procurator of all of
the lands of Israel. Hyrcanus was confirmed as High Priest and
given the title of Ethnarch of the Jews.
3. Antipater as Procurator.
Antipater set about quelling the revolts that had flared up during the
Roman Civil War. He then set up two of his sons into positions of
responsibility.
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a. Phasael was made governor of Judea.
b. Herod was made governor of Galilee.
On March 15, 44 B. C. Julius Caesar was assassinated as he was

entering a meeting of the Senate. He died at the feet of the statue of
Pompey. This brought about a new power struggle as the Senate, led
by Brutus and Cassius, sought to overthrow an alliance made up of
the friends of Caesar, notably Marc Antony and Octavius.
4. Alliance with Cassius.
Cassius, one of the murderers of Caesar, came east and took the
governorship of Syria. In order to finance his war with the pro-
Caesar faction, he demanded heavy taxes from Antipater.
Antipater appointed Herod to collect these taxes and he did such a

good job that Cassius promised him the kingship of Judea.
5. Death of Antipater (43 B.C.).
Antipater was poisoned by his butler, leaving Phasael and Herod in

charge of the kingdom.
HEROD THE GREAT

The death of Antipater left Hyrcanus in the position of authority in Israel,
but Phasael and Herod were the real power behind the scenes. Herod at this
time was nearly 30 years old. He is described as being tall and handsome
with curly black hair and golden skin.
1. Herod and Cassius.
When Cassius left Syria to lead his armies westward against Antony,
he left Herod in charge of all of southern Syria. Herod had already
shown his ability by capturing an executing an infamous robber and
his band of outlaws.
Cassius met Antony and Octavius at Philippi in 42 B. C. Cassius

was defeated and committed suicide. This put Herod and Phasael in
a bad light because they had backed Cassius and Brutus.
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2. Herod and Marc Antony.
When Marc Antony came to Damascus, the Jews brought official

complaints to him against Herod and Phasael. Antony summoned
Hyrcanus and asked him who was the best qualified ruler. Hyrcanus
answered in favor of Herod and Phasael. Antony therefore
appointed Herod as Tetrarch of Judea and Phasael as Tetrarch of
Galilee.
3. The Jewish/Parthian Revolt (40 B.C.).
Some of the Jews who were in opposition to Herod and Phasael now
made an alliance with the Parthians, requesting them to come down
and assist them in a revolution. Their forces arrived at Jerusalem on
the Feast of Pentecost and were admitted into the city.
Phasael was captured and thrown into prison where he eventually

died. Hyrcanus was captured and his ears were bitten off so that he
would be unsuitable to hold the High Priesthood under the Levitical
Law.
Herod barely managed to escape with his family to the fortress of

Masada. From here, they moved across the Dead Sea and then to
Petra, the Nabatean capital.
4. King of the Jews (40 B. C.).
Herod made his way to Rome where he was warmly received by

Marc Antony. Antony and Octavius took him before the Senate
where he was appointed King of the Jews, also awarding him the
lands of Samaria and western Idumea.
Herod was now officially a king, but he was a king without a

country. The Parthians had placed Mattathias Antigonus, a
Hasmonean, upon the throne as a puppet king.
5. Conquest of Israel (39-37 B.C.).
Herod landed back in Palestine with a Roman legion in 39 B. C. It

took two years of fighting to wrest the kingdom from the rebels.
Jerusalem was finally taken in the summer of 37 B.C.
Herod moved in and ruthlessly took control, murdering almost the
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entire Sanhedrin. To secure his position upon the throne, he married

Maniamne, the last living Hasmonean.
6. Antony and Cleopatra.
Meanwhile Antony had fallen in love and married Cleopatra, the last
of the Ptolemies of Egypt. Together they now attempted to secure
Egypt’s independence. They were opposed by Octavius and the
Roman Senate.
Herod sided with Antony and remained loyal to him, even though
Cleopatra hated him and wished to add Judea to her possessions.
7. The Battle of Actium (31 B.C.).
Antony and Cleopatra were defeated by Octavius in the naval battle

of Actium, off the west coast of Greece. Antony and Cleopatra
escaped to Egypt where they both committed suicide.
Herod was summoned to appear before Octavius and to account for

his alliance with Antony. Herod came before Octavius at Rhodes
and admitted to having been a close friend and ally of Antony. He
went on further to say that he would have been at Actium to fight for
his friend had it not been for troubles from the Arabians. Then he
promised that he would now be as faithful to Octavius as he had
been to Antony.
Octavius confirmed Herod as King of the Jews and even added

certain lands to his domain.
8. Herod’s Building Projects.
Herod embarked on a fantastic series of building projects which

were rivaled only by those in the days of Solomon.
a. Herod’s Temple.
The Temple in Jerusalem had been rebuilt in 520 B.C. by

Zerubbabel after the Babylonian Captivity. However
Zerubbabel’s Temple had assumed the proportions of a
fortress. Herod now decided to expand it to greater
dimensions than had existed even in the days of Solomon.
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Construction began in 20 B.C. and continued throughout the

remainder of Herod’s reign. This construction was still
underway during the ministry of Jesus (John2:20) and would
not be completed until 63 A.D. The result would be one of
the most beautiful buildings in the world.
b. The Antonia Fortress.
The Hasmoneans had originally built a fortress which

overlooked the Temple Mount. Herod rebuilt it and named
it after his old friend, Marc Antony. It was located at the
northwest corner of the Temple Mount and had two sets of
stairs descending down into the Temple compound.
The Antonia Fortress was located on the northwest side of the Temple Mount
This later became the base of the Roman garrison at

Jerusalem. It was here that Paul was initially taken after his
arrest in the Temple.
c. Other Fortresses.
Herod built a long line of forts stretching from Galilee all the
way down to Masada. These fortresses gave Herod a strict
control over Israel. Among these were Herodium and
Masada.
d. Caesarea.
Israel did not possess any good natural harbors so Herod

decided to build one on the Mediterranean. He constructed
a 200 foot wide breakwater to enclose the harbor so that it
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was only open to the north. This city took 12 years to build.
These were only a few of the fantastic building programs of Herod.

The finances were managed so that the people were not heavily
taxed as they had been under Solomon.
9. Herod’s Domestic Troubles.
In spite of the financial prosperity of Israel under Herod, there was

much dissension in the land. It is said by historians that Herod made
two mistakes during his reign. The first. was to marry Mariamne,
the last of the Hasmoneans. The second was to fall in love with her.
Herod began to uncover numerous assassination plots against his life

which involved placing his two sons by Mariamne on the throne in
his place. Eventually he killed Mariamne in a fit of rage.
Later he murdered Mariamne’s two sons for conspiring to take over

the throne. It was this act that brought about the comment by
Octavius:
It is better to he Herod’s hus [pig]

than to be Herod’s huios [son].
Herod would not kill a pig and eat it because he followed the Jewish
dietary laws, but he had killed his own sons.
Herod never fully recovered from the death of Mariamne. From this
time on, he was moody, jealous, and suspicious of everyone. It is in
this context that we can read the account of the Magi coming to visit
Jesus and the attempt of Herod to put Jesus to death by murdering all
the male children of Bethlehem.
10. The Death of Herod.
Following the slaughter of the children of Bethlehem, Herod became

very sick and was afflicted with a horrible disease. Josephus
describes his condition.
There was a gentle fever upon him, and an

intolerable itching over all the surface of his body,
and continual pains in his colon, and dropsical
tumors about his feet, and an inflammation of the
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abdomen, and a putrefaction of his privy member

that produced wonms. Besides which he had a
difficulty of breathing upon him, and could not
breathe but when he sat upright, and had a
convulsion of all his members (Wars of the Jews
1:18:5).
As Herod lay on his deathbed, he commanded that all notable Jews

from all parts of the nation come to him. When they arrived, he had
them all locked up with orders that all of these leaders should he
killed at the moment of his death. Fortunately his orders were not
carried out and Herod died a miserable death in the spring of 4 B.C.
He died only five days after having put to death Antipater, his oldest
son.
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THE LIFE AND TIMES OF
JESUS
In this chapter we will look at the life of Jesus and the contributions which
archaeology and history make in understanding His life and times.
CHRONOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN
THE BIRTH OF CHRIST
1. The Calendar of Dionysius.
In 525 A.D. Pope John I asked a Scythian monk named Dionysius to

prepare a standardized calendar for the western world. At that time
there were several methods being used to record years.
• Events were tabulated from the founding of the city of Rome.

• The beginning of the reign of Diocletian was also used as a
standard
It was agreed that from henceforth the birth of Christ would be used
as the new standard. At that time, Christ was thought to have been
born on December 25, 753 AUC (Anno Urbis Conditae – “From the
foundation of the city”). Therefore Dionysius used 754 AUC as his
new Year One.
Christian 4 B.C. 3 B.C. 2 B.C. 1 B.C. 1 A.D. 2 A.D.

Year
Old Roman 750 751 752 753 754 755
AUC
The years prior to 754 AUC were denoted by B.C. (Before Christ)
while those after are A.D. (Anno Domini – “Year of our Lord”). It
was not until hundreds of years later that scholars suggested that
Dionysius had been in error as to the exact date of the birth of Christ.
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The Life and Times of Jesus
2. The Death of Herod.
Matthew 2 is very clear in stating that Herod the Great was still alive
when Jesus was born. The chronology of the reign of Herod is as
follows:
40 B.C. — Herod proclaimed King of the Jews by the Roman

Senate.
37 B.C. — Herod regained possession of Palestine with the
help of a Roman legion.
4 B.C. — Herod died.
Josephus tells us that there was a lunar eclipse shortly before Herod’s
death (Antiquities 17:6:4). Astronomers today are able to give us the
precise dates when lunar eclipses were visible from Palestine.
Date Observations
7 B.C. No eclipses
6 B.C. No eclipses
5 B.C. March 23 - center at about 8:30 p.m.
September 15 - center at 2:20 a.m.
4 B.C. March 13 - center at 2:20 a.m. (partial)
3 B.C. No eclipses
2 B.C. No eclipses
1 B.C. January 10 - center at 1:00 a.m.
Josephus also states that the Passover was celebrated shortly after
Herod’s death and that his total reign had been 37 years and that he
died 34 years after his recapture of Jerusalem. The Passover on that
year began on April 11. It is because of this that most scholars have
concluded that Jesus was born prior to March of the year 4 B.C.
The events of Matthew 2 took place at least 41 days after the birth of
Christ. Luke 2:22-24 tell us of Mary bringing Jesus to the temple and
this could not have taken place until she was ritually purified, a
process that required at least 41 days to complete.
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Time from Birth Events

— Birth of Jesus in Bethlehem
8 Days Circumcision of Jesus (Luke 2:21)
41 Days Mary and Joseph present Jesus in the
Temple (Luke 2:22-38)
After 41 Days The Magi come to Herod looking for the
King of the Jews
THE CENSUS OF AUGUSTUS

Now it came about in those days that a decree went
out from Caesar Augustus, that a census be taken of all the
inhabited earth.
This was the first census taken while Quirinius was
governor of Syria.
And all were proceeding to register for the census,
everyone in his own city. (Luke 2:1-3).
Luke’s account of the birth of Jesus is tied to the events of history. This is
not merely a story of long ago and far away, it is rooted in space and time,
solidly in the context of history.
1. Caesar Augustus.
This is a reference to Gaius Octavius

Augustus, the nephew of Julius
Caesar who became emperor after
defeating Antony and Cleopatra at
Actium.
Augustus was famed as an

administrative genius. His long reign
is said to have been the golden age of
Rome. Building projects abounded Octavius Augustus
throughout the empire. Augustus
once quipped that he had “found Rome brick and left her marble.”
This was the time of Pax Romana, the peace of Rome. It was during
this time that the Prince of Peace was born.
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2. The Census.
This census presents us with several problems. Verse 2 says that this
was the first census taken while Quirinius was governor of Syria.
• Quirinius was governor of Syria in 6-7 A.D. Herod the Great

died in 4 B.C. and we know from Matthew’s Gospel that
Herod was still alive when Jesus was born.
• We do not know of any census taken while Quirinius was

governor of Syria.
Critics have often pointed to this passage as being a case of a

historical mistake in the Bible. In response, Christians have proposed
the following solutions:
a. It has been suggested that the passage can be translated to

read: This census was taken before Quirinius was governor
of Syria.
b. Another proposed translation reads: This census was before

that while Quirinius was governor of Syria.
The problem is that the Greek text does not easily lend itself to these
translations. This would be a forced reading of the text.
An alternative and more likely answer is found in the specifics of

Quirinius and his role as “governor” of Syria. The term that Luke
uses is a general one. He says that this was the first census taken
while Quirinius was governing Syria. The specific word used by
Luke to describe this governing is used in Luke 3:1 both of Pontius
Pilate as well as of the Emperor Tiberius. This means that Luke uses
it in a general sense and not merely to refer to someone who held the
official title of governor.
An additional piece of the puzzle is seen in the Res Gestae Divi

Augusti, a resume of the acts of Octavius Augustus. A number of
copies have been found in various temples, most of them inscribed on
the walls. The following quotes are taken from Res Gestae Divi
Augusti 2:8.
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28 In my sixth consulship, with Marcus Agrippa as my

B.C. colleague, I made a census of the people. I performed the
lustrum after an interval of forty-one years. In this
lustration 4,063,000 Roman citizens were entered on the
census roll.
8 A second time, in the consulship of Gaius Censorinus
B.C. and Gaius Asinius, I again performed the lustrum alone,
with the consular imperium. In this lustrum 4,233,000
Roman citizens were entered on the census roll.
14 A third time, with the consular imperium, and with my
A.D. son Tiberius Caesar as my colleague, I performed the
lustrum in the consulship of Sextus Pompeius and Sextus
Apuleius. In this lustrum 4,937,000 Roman citizens were
entered on the census roll.
Note that the lustrum mentioned above was the expiatory sacrifice
made at the close of the census; it is synonymous with the census.
The census had not been taken since 69 B.C. At that time the number
of citizens of military age was only 450,000. The increase in the
census of 28 B.C. is probably due to the exact enumeration of citizens
throughout the empire.
Thus is it possible that Luke is referencing the census that is

described by the Res Gestae Divi Augusti as having been taken in 8
B.C. The problem is that this date seems to be rather early for the
birth of Christ, but such a problem is not insurmountable.
A possible reference to an earlier governorship of Quirinius can be

found in an inscription called the “Lapis Tiburtinus.” This is a
tombstone which records the achievements of an unknown governor
who served in the days of Augustus. Although the stone is broken in
such a way that we are not able to read his name, we can read that this
unknown governor served as pro praetor of Syria twice. The
interesting thing about this is that we have no record of any governor
of Syria serving two separate terms. Furthermore, we know that after
Quirinius served as co-consul with Augustus in 12 B.C. he traveled
to Syria where he commanded the Roman legions in the area.
Another possibility is that this census was one that was conducted
exclusively in the domain of Herod the Great. Josephus tells us that
Herod sent to Caesar his testament, wherein Antipater was appointed
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to be his successor (Antiquities 17:3:2). He goes on to indicate that

this resulted in Quintilius Varus being sent as an assessor to Herod
This would be in keeping with the testimony of Tertullian who states

that the census of Luke 2 “taken in Judea by Sentius
Saturnius”(Against Marcion 4:19). Saturnius was the governor of
Syria from 9-6 B.C. and was succeeded by Quintilius Varus around
the same time that Quirinius was serving as general of the legion and
therefore also holding a position of rulership over the area. If this is
the case, then Quirinius oversaw both a first and a second census.
It is noteworthy that in 1905 a Greek papyrus was discovered in

Egypt which mentions an imperial census taking place which
mandated people to return to their homes:
Gaius Vibius Maximus, the Prefect of Egypt,

declares: The census by household having begun, it
is essential that all those who are away from their
homes be summoned to return to their own hearths so
that they may perform the customary business of
registration and apply themselves to the cultivation
which concerns them. Knowing, however, that some
of the people from the countryside are required by our
city, I desire all those who think they have a
satisfactory reason for remaining here to register
themselves before... Festus, the Cavalry Commander,
whom I have appointed for this purpose, from whom
those who have shown their presence to be necessary
shall receive signed permits in accordance with this
edict up to the 30th of the present month...
Notice that this is said to be a “customary census.” We are not told

how long this custom had been in effect, but it apparently involved
each person returning to his home.
JESUS AND THE MAGI

Now after Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judea in
the days of Herod the king, behold, magi from the east
arrived in Jerusalem, saying, 2 “Where is He who has been
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born King of the Jews? For we saw His star in the east, and
have come to worship Him.” (Matthew 2:1-2).
When we read about the Magi, we are inclined to think of Christmas card
pictures of three kings or three “wise men.” The truth is that the Magi were
an ancient order of priests from Parthia. They believed in one God who had
created all things and who was the author of all that was good. They allowed
no images or statues into their temples.
In the days of Herod, the Magi had become a very powerful political body.
No Parthian King was ever permitted to rule on the throne of Parthia until he
had first been accepted by the Magi.
Do you remember who Herod had to fight to regain Israel in B.C. 40? It was
the Parthians. You can imagine his consternation as a delegation of Parthian
King-makers arrive in Jerusalem, seeking the one who has been “born King
of the Jews.”
Herod was the king of the Jews. But Herod was never born the King of the
Jews. He was a foreigner. He was not a true king. He was not of the royal
line of David. He was not even Jewish. He had never been accepted by the
Jews.
And when Herod the king heard it, he was troubled,

and all Jerusalem with him.
And gathering together all the chief priests and
scribes of the people, he began to inquire of them where the
Christ was to be born.
And they said to him, “In Bethlehem of Judea; for so
it has been written by the prophet, 6 ‘And you, Bethlehem,
land of Judah, are by no means least among the leaders of
Judah, for out of you shall come forth a Ruler who will
shepherd My people Israel.’” (Matthew 2:3-6).
I want you to try to picture the situation. One day a caravan arrives in
Jerusalem. This in itself is not unusual. Caravans are always arriving in
Jerusalem. However, these are no ordinary merchants. They are Magi from
the east. They are from the land of Herod’s enemies - the Parthians. They
are from the same Parthians who had forced him to flee for his life over 30
years ago. The Parthians have been continuously at war with Rome during
all these years. Herod has remained loyal to Rome. And now this group of
religious King-Makers have come to Jerusalem.
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We do not know how many were in the party. Undoubtedly there were many.
And they are all asking the same question: “Where is the new King who has
been born?” The news reaches Herod. Could this be a plot on the part of the
Parthians to overthrow him and place another on his throne? Herod has heard
nothing of a newborn king.
As Herod hears reports from the Magi, it becomes evident to him that they
have come to seek out the Messiah, the One whose coming was foretold in
the Old Testament Scriptures. Therefore Herod calls a convention. The chief
priests and the scribes are called in. These are the experts. When they have
all been assembled, Herod asks them a question:
“Where is the Messiah to be born?”
The experts all agree on the same answer. They are all of the same opinion.
There is no debate. The Old Testament prophet Micah has made it very clear.
The Messiah is to the born in Bethlehem.
You know the rest of the story. Herod pretends to have a desire for worship
while his plan is really that of an assassin. He engages the unwitting
assistance of the Magi, but they are warned by God in a dream. They leave
Bethlehem by an alternate route and Joseph, Mary and the baby escape to
Egypt. In a futile attempt to capture them, Herod orders the execution of
every child under 2 years of age.
Archaeology and history are silent with regard to the slaughter of the babies
of Bethlehem. But this is not especially surprising as Bethlehem was only a
tiny village and the slaughter of the infants would have been hushed up to
prevent it from becoming a source of rebellion.
Why did Herod permit

the Magi to go
unescorted through his
domain? The answer
is that he knew their
destination and he had
a method of keeping
abreast of any of their
movements. A signal
tower located atop the The Herodium as seen from Bethlehem
Herodium had an aerial
view of Bethlehem and was able to pass signals on to Herod in Jerusalem.
400
AFTER HEROD
Herod died in the Spring of 4 B.C. He left a number of surviving children.
Josephus tells us that Herod had ten wives. Five of them had children of
historical significance. Three of Herod’s sons were put to death by Herod
before he died.
Wife of Children Further Career

Herod
Doris Antipater Executed five days before Herod died
Mariamne, the Alexander Both brothers were strangled at the
granddaughter orders of Herod
of Hyrcanus Aristobulus
Mariamne Herod Married Herodias and moved to Rome.

Philip She later left him for Herod Antipas.
Malthace the Archelaus Became Ethnarch of Judea
Samaritan
Antipas Tetrarch of Galilee; put John the
Baptist to death; trial of Jesus
Cleopatra of Herod Tetrarch of Trachonitis & Iturea;
Jerusalem Philip married Salome.
The New Testament tells us that Joseph took Mary and the baby Jesus to
Egypt until the death of Herod. After this, Archelaus was made Ethnarch of
Judea. He would only last 10 years and then would be removed and replaced
by a series of procurators.
Roman Procurators in Israel

Name Dates Other Significant Data
Coponius 6-9 A.D. Judas of Galilee led revolt against
taxation (Acts 5:37).
Marcus 9-12 A.D.
Ambivius
Annius Rufus 12-15 A.D. Caesar Augustus died during his term
401
Valerius Gratus 15-26 A.D. Deposed Annas from the high

priesthood
Pontius Pilate 26-36 A.D. Ordered the crucifixion of Jesus
Marcellus 36-41 A.D. Caiaphas deposed from the high
priesthood; returned the high priest
garments which had been confiscated by
Rome
Herod Agrippa given Judea and Samaria from 41 to 44 A.D.
Cuspius Fadus 44-46 A.D. Took back the garments of the high
priest
Tiberius Julius 46-48 A.D.
Alexander
Ventidius 48-52 A.D. Riot in temple over a coarse Roman jest
Cumanus
Antonius Felix 52-60 A.D. Brought about the murder of the high
priest; heard the case of the apostle
Paul, but left him in prison to please the
Jews
Porcius Festus 60-62 A.D. Heard the case of Paul and sent him on
to Rome
Lucceius 62-64 A.D. James, the half-brother of Jesus, put to
Albinus death while Albinus is out of the
country
Gessius Florus 64-66 A.D. Culminated in the revolt of the Jews
The word “procurator” signifies that the primary duty of this government post
was the procurement of taxes for Rome. In some cases, these men might
have held a different title (Pilate was technically a prefect), but their duties
were largely the same, to keep the peace and collect taxes for Rome.
JESUS AND NAZARETH

But when he heard that Archelaus was reigning over
Judea in place of his father Herod, he was afraid to go there.
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And being warned by God in a dream, he departed for the

regions of Galilee, 23 and came and resided in a city called
Nazareth, that what was spoken through the prophets might
be fulfilled, “He shall be called a Nazarene.” (Matthew 2:22-
23).
Joseph brings his small family to the tiny village of Nazareth in Galilee and
settles there. This would be the location of the boyhood of Jesus. He would
live and work here until it was time for Him to begin His public ministry.
1. Nazareth.
Nazareth was such a small town that it was not even mentioned in the
Old Testament, the Talmud, or by Josephus. It was located in the
foothills just north of the Valley of Jezreel.
On the other hand, there was a major metropolis about four miles
away from Nazareth. It was the city of Sepphoris. Though it is not
mentioned in the Bible, Sepphoris has become a virtual treasure trove
for archaeologists seeking to find what life was like in first century
Galilee.
2. The Nazareth Inscription.
Discovered and brought to Germany in 1878, this inscription is

written in Greek and seems to be dated a little prior to 50 A.D.
Ordinance of Caesar: It is my pleasure that

graves and tombs remain undisturbed in perpetuity
for those who have made them for the cult of their
ancestors, or children, or members of their house.
However, if any man lay information that another has
either demolished them, or has in any way extracted
the buried, or has maliciously transferred them to
other places in order to wrong them, or has displaced
the sealing or other stones, against such a one I order
that a trial be instituted, as in respect of the gods, so
in regard to the cult of mortals. For it shall be much
more obligatory to honor the buried. Let it be
absolutely forbidden for anyone to disturb them. In
the case of transgression, I desire that the offender be
sentenced to capital punishment on charge of
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violation of sepulcher.
What was the cause of such an ordinance? The Jews of all people
did not meddle with graves since this would be the cause of
ceremonial uncleanliness. It is evidently because Jews had charged
Christians with having removed the body of Jesus from its tomb
(Matthew 28:11-15).
THE MINISTRY OF JESUS

Luke’s account gives us a very precise date for the beginning of the ministry
of John the Baptist and we are led to believe that the ministry of Jesus had its
beginning shortly thereafter:
Now in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius

Caesar, when Pontius Pilate was governor of Judea, and
Herod was tetrarch of Galilee, and his brother Philip was
tetrarch of the region of Ituraea and Trachonitis, and
Lysanias was tetrarch of Abilene, 2 in the high priesthood of
Annas and Caiaphas... (Luke 3:1-2).
There are a number of chronological pointers, but the most exact is the first.
Tiberius became the Emperor of Rome on August 19, 14 A.D. Fifteen years
from this date would bring you to 28-29 A.D. depending upon whether you
reckoned the first four months as the first year.
The ministry of Jesus can be outlined accordingly. Note that it is John’s

account that mentions a number of Passovers plus one unnamed feast that
might also have been a Passover.
Early Galilean Ministry Later Perean Jerusalem

Judean Judean Ministry Death, Burial
Ministry Early Middle Later Ministry & Resurrection
1st Year 2nd Year 3rd Year

Passover in Passover in Passover Passover in
John 2:13 John 5:1? in John John 11:55
6:4
Obscurity Popularity Growing Opposition
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The duration of this time of ministry seems to be a little over 3 years, judging
from the spacing of the various feasts that are mentioned.
GALILEE
Most of the ministry of Jesus was centered in the area of Galilee. The name
“Galilee” (literally, HaGalilee) means “the circle.” The name probably
reflects the circular shape of the lake.
Galilee was under the oversight of the Tetrarch Herod Antipas, son of Herod
the Great. Antipas served under the authority of Rome. There was a saying
among the Jews that went, “If you want to be spiritual, go to Jerusalem; if
you want to be rich, go to Galilee.” This is because Galilee enjoyed a
booming economy. Fishermen plied its lake. Farms lay scattered across its
rolling hills and upon the fields of Jezreel. It was to this area that Jesus came
to begin his ministry.
Why did Jesus begin His public ministry in Galilee? Perhaps it was because
Galilee tended to be
more receptive to new
ideas. It was something
of a proverb that Galilee
was the birthplace of all
sorts of seditions and
revolutionary ideas.
THE SEA OF
GALILEE
The Sea of Galilee has
been given several
different names
throughout its history. It is alternately known as the Sea of Tiberias (John
6:1; 21:1) and Lake Gennesaret (Luke 5:1). In Old Testament times it was
known as the Sea of Chinnereth (Numbers 34:11; Joshua 13:27).
The waters of the Sea of Galilee lie 680 feet below sea level. The Sea
measures some 13 miles from north to south and is surrounded by mountains.
This ring of mountains is broken by the Jordan River in the south and in the
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north by a narrow gorge to the north which winds its way 30 miles to the
snow capped heights of Mount Hermon. This gorge acts as a funnel for the
winds that blow off the surrounding mountains. When cool air currents from
the mountains rushing down the gorge collide with the heated air over the
lake, the result is sometimes a violent storm.
CAPERNAUM
The original Semitic name of the settlement is Kefar Nahum, i.e. the village
(kafar) of Nahum (Nahum means “consolation”). The composite name
Kefar Nahum is always rendered in non-Semitic languages as a single name,
and the guttural “h” has been dropped altogether.
Capernaum much more than Nazareth offered to Jesus a twofold advantage

as far as his messianic activity was concerned.
1. Capernaum was a crossroad of primary importance, being along the

Beth-shan/Damascus highway; whereas Nazareth was a mountainous
and isolated hamlet.
2. Capernaum was sufficiently apart from the big centers and especially
from Tiberias where Herod Antipas had set his capital. In that way
Jesus was able to spread his messianic message to many persons
without running too soon into trouble with the political and religious
leaders.
In contrast to Nazareth, the population of Capernaum was highly stratified:

fishermen, farmers, artisans, merchants and publicans lived in the same
village, but apparently without any strident economical inequality. Even the
relations between the inhabitants of Capernaum and the Romans were
surprisingly cordial. It was a Roman centurion who built the synagogue for
the Jewish community, while the elders of the village reciprocated in
kindness and pleaded earnestly with Jesus asking him to heal the centurion’s
servant (Lk 7:1-10). From the same community Jesus chose many of his
apostles either among fishermen (Peter, Andrew, James, John: Mt 4:12-22)
or publicans (Matthew: Mk 2:13).
The archaeological site, called at present Kefar Nahum in Hebrew and

Talhum in Arabic, is located on the northwest shore of Lake Kinneret in
Galilee some 600 feet below sea level, eight miles from Tiberias.
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When Robinson visited the site in 1838 he left the following description:
“The whole place is desolate and mournful. A few Arabs only of the
Semekiyeh were here encamped in tents, and had built up a few hovels among
the ruins which they used as magazines.”
From 1968 to 1991 Franciscan archaeologist Fr. Virgilio C. Corbo worked

almost without interruption in rediscovering ancient Capernaum. The
excavations concentrated first on the two public buildings of the town,
namely on the octagonal church and on the synagogue. His efforts were
rewarded by the sensational discovery of the house of Peter and of the first
century synagogue built by the Roman centurion.
The house of Peter, often mentioned by the Synoptic Gospels in relation to

the activity of Jesus in Capernaum, and recorded later on by pilgrims, was
rediscovered in 1968 under the foundations of the octagonal church some 30
meters south of the synagogue. The history of that house where Jesus lived,
can be summarized as follows:
1. The house was built in the late Hellenistic Period.
2. In the late first century A.D. it was changed into a “domus-ecclesia;”

a house for religious gatherings
3. In the fourth century A.D. the same “domus-ecclesia” was enlarged

and was set apart from the rest of the town through an imposing
enclosure wall.
4. In the second half of the fifth century A.D. an octagonal church was
built upon the house of St. Peter and remained in use until the seventh
century A.D.
CAESAREA PHILIPPI
As you travel north from the Sea of Galilee, you will find the upper reaches
of the Jordan River as it flows to the south. Moving upstream, you will find
Lake Hula (which today has dried up). Moving even further northward, you
would find yourself on the lower slopes of Mount Hermon, the source of the
Jordan River. Straddling these lower slopes was the Roman city of Caesarea
Philippi.
The city was named after Julius Caesar. Indeed, there was even a temple in
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honor of Caesar and the Romans who lived there celebrated him as divine.
It was an international metropolis with Syrians, Jews, Greeks, and Romans.
At least 14 temples to false gods were to be found in the city of Caesarea
Philippi. The city was dedicated to the Greek deity Pan, the god of nature.
It was in this setting that a penniless, homeless Nazarene asked a question of

His disciples.
13 Now when Jesus came into the district of Caesarea

Philippi, He began asking His disciples, saying, “Who do
people say that the Son of Man is?”
14 And they said, “Some say John the Baptist; and
others, Elijah; but still others, Jeremiah, or one of the
prophets.”
15 He said to them, “But who do you say that I am?”
16 And Simon Peter answered and said, “Thou art the
Christ, the Son of the living God.” (Matthew 16:13-16).
HEROD ANTIPAS
Antipas was given Galilee on the
west and Perea on the east bank of
the Jordan River. His title was that
of a Tetrarch (literally, “ruler of a
fourth part”). He built his palace at
Sepphoris, only four miles to the
north of Nazareth. He also built the
city of Tiberias on the southeastern
shore of the Sea of Galilee.
Herod Antipas was not actually a

king. He ruled at the whim of
Rome. Indeed, on one occasion he
traveled to Rome and requested that
Emperor Caligula make him a king,
but he was refused.
Although he was technically not a king, it was common for his subjects to
refer to him as their king. After all, if it walked like a duck and it quacked
like a duck, then it was only natural that they should call it a duck, even if
Rome chose to call it a Tetrarch.
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For Herod himself had sent and had John arrested

and bound in prison on account of Herodias, the wife of his
brother Philip, because he had married her.
For John had been saying to Herod, “It is not lawful
for you to have your brother's wife.”
Herodias had a grudge against him and wanted to put
him to death and could not do so; 20 for Herod was afraid of
John, knowing that he was a righteous and holy man, and he
kept him safe. And when he heard him, he was very
perplexed; but he used to enjoy listening to him. (Mark 6:17-
20).
During a visit to Rome, Herod Antipas had stayed in the home of his half-
brother, Herod Philip (not Philip the Tetrarch) and his wife and half-niece,
Herodias. Herodias was married to her half-uncle, Philip. They had a
daughter named Salome. However, Herodias was discontent to be the wife
of a commoner and she was impressed by the dashing young Antipas. They
entered into an adulterous affair and secretly plotted to divorce their own
spouses so that they could marry one another.
This presented some problems because Antipas was married to the daughter
of Aretas, king of Arabia. King Aretas was not going to take kindly to the
divorce of his daughter and they reasoned that it would be best if she met
with some kind of “accident.”
When the princess learned of the plot, she ran home to daddy. This would
ultimately lead to a war in which Antipas would suffer a crushing defeat at
the hands of his ex-father-in-law.
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Josephus relates that many of the Jewish people attributed the defeat of
Antipas to his murder of John the Baptist.
“Now, some of the Jews thought that the destruction

of Herod’s army came from God, and that very justly, as a
punishment of what he did against John, that was called the
Baptist; for Herod slew him, who was a good man, and
commanded the Jews to exercise virtue, both as to
righteousness toward one another, and piety towards God,
and so to come to baptism... Now the Jews had an opinion
that the destruction of this army was sent as a punishment
upon Herod, and a mark of God’s displeasure against him.”
The Bible tells the story of how this murder had come to pass. Herod Antipas
threw a party during which he made a rash promise to his stepdaughter.
A strategic day came when Herod on his birthday

gave a banquet for his lords and military commanders and
the leading men of Galilee; 22 and when the daughter of
Herodias herself came in and danced, she pleased Herod and
his dinner guests; and the king said to the girl, “Ask me for
whatever you want and I will give it to you.”
And he swore to her, “Whatever you ask of me, I will
give it to you; up to half of my kingdom.” (Mark 6:21-23).
Herod had a winter palace on the eastern shore of the Dead Sea located at the
extreme southern point of his domain in Perea. It was known as Macherus.
It had been built in the days of the Hasmoneans and had then been enlarged
by Herod the Great and surrounded with elegant defenses. The town stood
on the shoulder of the hill over which stood a mighty fortress, surrounded by
walls over 200 feet high. Within this fortress was a magnificent palace.
From the heights of this fortress, one could look across the Dead Sea 3800
feet below to see the mountains of Judea in the distance. Josephus tells us
that it was here that John the Baptist was brought and imprisoned.
The daughter of Herodias is not mentioned by name in the Bible, but

Josephus tells us that her name was Salome (Antiquities 18:5:4). We do not
know the nature of this dance, but it was sufficient to draw from Herod this
amazing promise of up to half his kingdom.
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We only understand the foolishness of this promise when we realize that it

was a promise which Herod could not possibly keep because his kingdom
was not his to give. He had begun to think of himself as an oriental king
when he was only an appointed puppet acting at the behest of Rome.
Herod was to come to an ignominious end. He would suffer defeat at the

hands of King Aretas of Arabia. Then at the urging of his ambitious wife, he
and Herodias would travel to Rome to seek the kingship of all of Palestine.
His request would be his undoing. As he stood before Emperor Caligula, he
was accused of conspiring against Rome and banished with his wife to Gaul
where he died as a penniless pauper.
RELIGIOUS SECTS IN THE DAYS OF JESUS

1. The Pharisees.
The Pharisees were the conservative party in Israel. Their name

comes from the Hebrew word meaning “to separate.” They held to
a strict separation from all things foreign. In this way, they trace their
roots back to the Hasidim, the “pious ones.” They held, not only to
the written Law of Moses, but also to the oral traditions that had
grown up around Judaism.
2. The Sadducees.
The Sadducees came mostly from the wealthy aristocracy. The high
priest and all of the chief priests in the Sanhedrin were almost
exclusively from the Sadducees. They can be best understood when
contrasted with the Pharisees.
Pharisees Sadducees
Name means “separated ones” Name means “righteous ones”
Held to the authority of all of Viewed the Torah as having
the Old Testament Scriptures greater authority
as well as of the oral law
Believed in miracles, angels & Rejected the miraculous,
immortality angels & immortality
Held to a future resurrection Denied any resurrection
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Popular in the synagogues Ruled the Temple
The Sadducees would move against the early Christians as they

proclaimed that Jesus had risen from the dead. The Sadducees did
not believe in a resurrection.
But the doctrine of the Sadducees is that souls

die with the bodies. Nor do they perform any
observance other than what the Law enjoins them.
They think it virtuous to dispute with the teachers of
the wisdom they pursue. This doctrine is accepted but
by a few, but those are of the highest standing. But
they are able to accomplish almost nothing, for when
they hold office they are unwillingly and by force
obliged to submit to the teachings of the Pharisees,
because the multitude would not otherwise tolerate
them. (Antiquities 18.2.4:16-17).
3. The Essenes.
The Essenes were a separatist sect who rejected all pleasure as being
sinful. They lived a communal existence and often practiced
celibacy, something very rare among the Jews who generally took the
command to be fruitful and multiply very literally. Initiates to the
group underwent a one-year probationary period before taking oaths
of fidelity and piety toward God. Only after this were they permitted
to partake of the communal meals with the rest of the group.
It is commonly thought that Qumran was an Essene community and

that it was they who copied and hid the Dead Sea Scrolls in the caves
in the surrounding area.
4. The Zealots.
These were more of a political than a religious party. They were the
nationalists and they wanted to foment a rebellion against Rome.
They refused to pay taxes and sometimes went so far as to murder
government officials. Simon, one of the 12 disciples of Jesus, was a
Zealot (Luke 6:15; Acts 1:13).
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JERUSALEM IN THE DAYS OF JESUS

“There were four hundred and eighty synagogues in
Jerusalem and each of them had its own school (bet sefer),
and seminary (bet talmud) and Vespasian destroyed them all”
(Jerusalem Talmud, Megillah 73d).
The city of Jerusalem had grown extensively since the days of the kings of
old. It was now a major metropolis with outlying suburbs. Herod the Great
had brought many Hellenistic influences to the city. It now boasted a circus
where chariot races could be held as well as a Greek theater.
The city was built upon two parallel ridges which were divided by a steep
valley. The lower hill to the east was the site of the original city dating back
to the days of the Jebusites. The Temple sat at the northern edge of this
ridge.
• The Upper City was located on the western ridge. Back in the days
of King David, it had been called the Citadel. Herod’s palace was
located here. This was the wealthier quarter. The home of the high
priest was located here.
• The Lower City was the older portion of the city that started on
Mount Ophel and spilled down into the Tyropoeon Valley.
The newest part of the city was located to the north. This area was as of yet
still unprotected by a wall; it would be enclosed by Agrippa I.
To the east of the city is the steep ravine known as the Kidron Valley.
Opposite the city on the east side is the Mount of Olives, rising a hundred feet
above the city. On the lower slopes of the Mount of Olives is the traditional
site of the Garden of Gethsemane.
THE TEMPLE
In 1969 archaeologists found an inscribed stone which had originally been a
portion of the pinnacle of the temple at the southwestern wall of the Temple
mount. It read, “To the place of trumpeting.” It was apparently to this
location that a priest would come each morning and each evening to
announce by trumpet call the morning and evening sacrifices.
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1. The Western Wall.
Following the Israeli occupation of Jerusalem after the Six Day War
in 1967, long sections of the Western Wall of the Temple Mount were
uncovered.
This Western Wall is 1590 feet long and exhibits the crafted Heriodan
stones that are characteristic of that era.
The southern end of this

wall was exposed for most
of its history and was
traditionally the Jewish
place of prayer. It was the
portion of the wall north of
this “Wailing Wall” that was
now uncovered.
Moving north of the place of

prayer, one enters through a
long corridor containing
both Roman and medieval
construction. The Herodian
stones are characteristically
larger (see photo). Josephus
speaks of a walkway that
connected the Temple
Mount to Herod’s Palace in
the Upper City (Antiquities
15:11:5). This bridge is Author under the Temple Mount showing the size of the
thought to have been a part stones of the Western Wall
of the aqueduct system that
brought water from Solomon’s pools, far to the south.
2. The Temple Mount.
There has been considerable debate in recent years as to the exact

location of the Temple upon the Temple Mount. The most popular
view is that it was located on the site of the modern Dome of the
Rock. Josephus points out that the temple stood on the highest part
of the bedrock of what originally served as the precipice of the
mountain and how, over time, the surrounding areas had been raised
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up by generations of construction. The bedrock for which the Dome

of the Rock receives its name fits this description.
3. Entrances to the Temple Mount.
There were five primary means of egress onto the Temple Mount.
Four of these were regularly used.
a. The Eastern Gate.
The road leading up to the eastern gate was joined to a great

bridge that spanned the Kidron Valley.
b. The Hulda Gates.
Named for the

prophetess Hulda
who had advised
Josiah, these large
double gates ran up
a long stairway from
the south side of the
Temple complex.
This was the main
entrance to the
Temple Mount.
c. Robinson’s Arch.
Not far from the

southwestern corner
of the Temple Robinson’s Arch with diagram showing rest of arch
Mount, the remains
of “Robinson’s Arch” can be seen projecting from the wall.
This arch once supported a monumental staircase which gave
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access to the Temple Mount from the main street below it.
d. Barclay’s Gate.
Also known by its ancient name, Coponius’ Gate, apparently

named after the Roman proconsul who served in Palestine
during the first century. 1 It is located on the western wall just
south of Wilson’s Arch. It is mostly covered today by modern
construction, but portions of the lintel and one of the
gateposts are still visible.
e. The Royal Bridge and Wilson’s Arch.
The Temple Mount was separated from the western portion of

the city by the deep Tyropoeon Valley. Today this valley has
been filled in and is no longer visible.
The Royal Bridge was built on huge spanning arches and

traversed the Tyropoeon Valley, joining the western portion
of the city to the Temple. Each arch spanned 41 feet and stood
on stones measuring 24 feet in length. The present arch dates
to the Muslim period, but it is thought to have been
reconstructed on the foundations of an original arch taking to
the time of Herod.
f. Warren’s Gate.
Located north of Wilson’s Arch, this gate today is buried, but

a small portion of the lintel has been uncovered. This lintel
dates to the Muslim period, but the gateposts are believed to
be from the Herodian era.
g. The Fortress Stairs.
A narrow stairway ran down from the Antonia Fortress to the

Court of the Gentiles. It was from here that Paul addressed
his fellow Jews when he was being arrested in Acts 21:40.
1
Meir Ben-Dov, In the Shadow of the Temple: The Discovery of Ancient
Jerusalem, translated by Ina Friedman, Harper & Row, New York, NY, 1985, Page 141.
The author also suggests the possibility that Coponius may have been the name of a
Jewish donor.
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4. The Court of the Gentiles.
Surrounding the Court of the Gentiles were a series of “porches” or

cloisters through which ran double rows of Corinthian pillars, each
cut from marble and measuring 37 feet in height and covered by a flat
roof. The entire court was paved with marble. The southernmost of
these porches was known as “Solomon’s Porch” (Acts 3:11).
This court derived its name from the fact that Gentiles were permitted
into this area provided they conducted themselves in a reverent
manner.
5. The Dividing Wall.
A low wall ran completely around the Temple structure. It had

periodic gates and a stone inscription located at each gate. Two
separate copies have been found of this same inscription. It was
evidently posted at regular intervals around the Temple.
Language Greek
Size 33.5 cm long
22.5 cm high
14.5 cm thick
1st Copy - 7 lines of writing
2nd Copy - 6 lines of writing
Genre Warning inscription against Gentiles entering the
Temple
Discovery 1st Copy - 1871
2nd Copy - 1935
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No outsider shall enter the protective enclosure around the

sanctuary. And whoever is caught will only have himself to
blame for the ensuing death.
It was because the apostle Paul was falsely suspected of breaking this
rule that a mob came together leading to his arrest (Acts 21:27-30).
Beyond the Dividing Wall was a flight of 14 steps that led up to a

terrace on which stood the inner wall of the Temple. This inner wall
had a number of gates, but the main gate was located on the eastern
side. This was the “Beautiful Gate” (Acts 3:2). There were 12 steps
leading up to this gate. The doors of the gate were made of
Corinthian brass and mounted on massive hinges. Entering through
this gate brought one into the Court of the Women.
Court of the Women in the foreground with steps leading up to the Nicanor Gates.
6. The Court of the Women.
The Court of the Women was not exclusive to women. It was called
this because this was as far within the Temple as women were
permitted to enter. The court was surrounded by colonnades. Along
the walls there were thirteen jars which served as receptacles for
various offerings. Worshipers would come in and drop their offering
into one of the jars. It was in such a manner that Jesus and His
disciples would have watched the poor widow bringing her offering
into the Temple (Mark 12:43).
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Offerings 1 The Half-shekel Offerings 8 Sin offering

which tribute left over
were 2 from 9 Trespass offering
mandated sacrifices
3 Turtledove offering Voluntary 10 Offerings of birds
Offerings
4 Pigeon offering 11 Nazarite offerings
5 Wood 12 Cleansed leper
6 Incense 13 General voluntary

offering
7 Golden vessels
On the west side of the Court of Women were 15 steps that led up to
the Nicanor Gate, also made of Corinthian Brass. This gate led into
the inner courtyard of the Temple.
7. The Inner Courts.
The inner courts were made up of the Court of the Men, the Court of
the Levites, and the Court of the Priests. Within the Court of the
Priests there were two objects which stood before the Temple.
a. The Altar.
The altar was made of rough, unhewn stones. It stood 15 feet

high and was surrounded by a raised platform so that the
priests could reach its surface. In contrast to the Altar of
Incense within the Temple, this altar was used for sacrificing
animals.
b. The Laver.
This was an immense brass bowl of water supported by the

statues of twelve oxen. It was drained every evening and
refilled each morning. It was also known as the “sea.” This
is significant when we read in Revelation 4:5 of the Throne of
God, the elders and a sea of glass like crystal.
Twelve more steps led up to the Temple itself. Two great columns
flanked the doors leading into the Temple.
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8. The Interior of the Temple.
The Sanctuary proper was divided into two parts. There was an inner
part and an outer part. They were separated by a thick inner veil. The
outer sanctuary was the scene of daily activity. Into this section
would come a priest each morning and each evening. It held several
articles of furniture.
a. The lampstands.
Whereas in the original tabernacle there had been only a

single golden lampstand, since the days of Solomon, there
were now seven such lampstands. Titus’ Arch of Triumph in
Rome pictures Jewish captives being forced to carry one of
these golden lampstands as a part of the Roman spoils of war.
These lampstands brought light to the Temple. But the
lampstands were not the source of the light. The source of the
light was the oil which was retained in the various bulbs and
cups and flowers on the lampstands. These were oil lamps.
Arch of Titus in Roman Forum showing the lampstand from the Temple
The Jews had an annual celebration called Hanukkah, the

Feast of Lights. It was a time of commemoration of the
cleansing of the Temple in the days of the Maccabees. The
story was told of how there had been only enough oil to last
for a single day, but how it had miraculously lasted for an
entire week until more could be brought.
b. The Table and the Sacred Bread.
The table of shewbread was a wooden table overlaid with

gold. Onto this table, the priests would lay out twelve loaves
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of bread.
c. The golden altar of incense.
The altar of incense was a cubit wide and a cubit long and two
cubits in height. It was overlaid in gold.
“And you shall put this altar in front

of the veil that is near the ark of the testimony,
in front of the mercy seat that is over the ark
of the testimony, where I will meet with you.
“And Aaron shall burn fragrant
incense on it; he shall burn it every morning
when he trims the lamps.
“And when Aaron trims the lamps at
twilight, he shall burn incense. There shall be
perpetual incense before the Lord throughout
your generations.” (Exodus 30:6-8).
Incense was offered upon this altar every morning and every
evening. This incense created a sweet-smelling aroma. It
would sweeten the entire Temple. The smoke of this incense
represented the sweet prayers of God’s people ascending to
heaven.
d. The inner veil.
There was an outer veil located at the door of the Tabernacle.

It separated the outside from the inside. Beyond this veil and
past the golden lampstand and the table of shewbread and the
altar of incense was the second veil. It served to separate the
Holy Place from the innermost sanctum known as the Holy of
Holies.
Embroidered on the veil were the images of cherubim. They

served as guardians of the veil, keeping even the priests from
entering in. They are reminiscent of the cherubim stationed
at the entrance to the Garden of Eden. They were stationed
with a flaming sword in order to keep out all who might enter.
When Luke 23:45 tells us that the veil was torn from top to
bottom at the death of Jesus, which veil was being described?
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Remember that there were two veils. The Scriptures do not

specify which one was torn. What is interesting is the
following passage from the Jewish writings:
Forty years before the Temple was

destroyed....the gates of the Hekel opened of
their own accord, until Rabbi Yohanan ben
Zakkai rebuked them (the priest) saying:
“Hekel, Hekel, why alarmist thou us ? We
know that thou art destined to be destroyed.
For of thee hath prophesied Zechariah ben
Iddo [Zech. 11:1]: Open thy doors, O
Lebanon, and the fire shall eat thy cedars.”
(Yoma 39b).
Josephus records a similar event as having taken place just

prior to the destruction of Jerusalem.
At the same feast (Passover) the

eastern gate of the inner court at the 6th hour
of the night (at midnight) opened of its own
accord. This gate was of brass and very large
and heavy, seeing that when it was closed
each evening it took 20 men to shut it. It had
bolts sunk to a great depth into a threshold
made of a solid block of stone. The guards of
the temple ran and reported the matter to the
captain, and he came forward and with great
difficulty managed to close it. This again to
the uninitiated seemed like the best of signs,
since they thought that God had opened to
them the gate of blessings; but the wise
understood that the security of the temple was
leaving of its own accord and that the opening
of the gate meant it was a gift to the enemy,
interpreting the sign in their own minds as
showing its impending desolation. (War
6:5:2).
e. The Holy of Holies.
When you want to emphasis something in Hebrew, you do it
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by means of repetition. You can find a number of examples

of this:
• “Truly, truly” (John 3:3).

• “Woe, woe” (Ezekiel 16:23).
• “The song of songs, which is Solomon’s” (SS 1:1).
This was a designation for the most holy place of all. It was
the holiest of holies. It was the innermost sanctum of the
Tabernacle. It’s dimensions were in the form of a perfect
cube measuring 10 cubits by 10 cubits by 10 cubits. When
the temple was constructed, these dimensions were repeated,
but everything was twice as big.
In Solomon’s day, the Ark of the Covenant had sat within the
Holy of Holies. But that was no longer the case. The Ark had
been lost many hundreds of years earlier. There was now
only the bedrock of the mountain where the Ark had once
stood.
Now when these things have been so

prepared, the priests are continually entering
the outer tabernacle performing the divine
worship, 7 but into the second, only the high
priest enters once a year, not without taking
blood, which he offers for himself and for the
sins of the people committed in ignorance.
(Hebrews 9:6-7).
Priests entered into the Temple every morning and every

evening to offer the morning incense and the evening incense.
These were acts of prayer and of worship. But these priests
were not permitted to go any further than the inner veil. Only
one priest was allowed to pass beyond the veil. He was the
high priest. He was only permitted to do so once a year.
It would be on Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement that the

High Priest would pass through the veil and into the holy of
holies. He would approach the place where the Ark of the
Covenant had once rested and he would sprinkle the blood
upon the bedrock.
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CAIAPHAS
The Caiaphas family tomb was accidentally discovered by public workers
constructing a road in a park just south of the Old City of Jerusalem in 1990.
Archaeologists were called to the scene. When they examined the tomb they
found 12 ossuaries (limestone bone boxes) containing the remains of 63
individuals. The most beautifully decorated of the ossuaries was inscribed
with the name “Joseph son of (or, of the family of) Caiaphas.” That was the
full name of the high priest who arrested Jesus, as documented by Josephus
(Antiquities 18:2:2; 4:3). Inside were the remains of a 60-year old male,
almost certainly those of the Caiaphas of the New Testament.
The inscription on his craved ossuary, fit for a high priest, was the name
Yehosef bar Qafa (Joseph, son of Caiaphas). Coins found in the cave were
bronze minted in 42 A.D. during the reign of Herod Agrippa I.
PONTIUS PILATE
Outside of the New Testament, nearly all of our information about Pilate
comes from either Josephus or Philo of Alexandria. Pilate was appointed to
the position of Procurator by Emperor Tiberius. His area of jurisdiction was
Judea and Samaria - that which had been formerly held by Archelaus prior to
his being deposed. During his term of office, he had several serious conflicts
with the Jews.
• Pilate created a stir among the Jews when he had the Roman military
standards brought into Jerusalem. The Jews saw this as idolatry and
rioted.
• Pilate appropriated the corban money from the Temple to finance the
construction of an aqueduct. A number of Jews were killed in the
ensuing riot (Luke 13:1-2).
• When a Samaritan claimed that there was a golden treasure which had
been hidden by Moses on Mount Gerizim, a great crowd assembled.
Pilate interpreted this as a rebellion and ordered his soldiers to attack.
There were so many killed that a complaint was filed in Rome for
Pilate’s removal. He was ordered to return to Rome and was
banished to Gaul where he is said to have eventually committed
suicide.
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Although Josephus makes considerable mention of Pontius Pilate as the

procurator of Israel, there has been discovered only a single ancient
inscription bearing his name. This inscription was discovered in Caesarea in
1961where it had been utilized in the construction of a third century staircase.
Language Latin
Medium Limestone
Size 82 centimeters high

65 centimeters wide
4 lines of writing
Genre Building dedication by Pontius Pilate
Place of Discovery Caesarea, 1961
Most of the actual inscription is missing. All that is left is the following
lines:
. . . . . . S TIBERIEVM
. . . . . . NTIVS PILATVS
. . . . . . ECTVS IVDA E
From this portion of the text, archaeologists have suggested the following
translation:
To the honorable gods (this) Tiberium

Pontius Pilate,
Prefect of Judea,
had dedicated
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THE NEW TESTAMENT
CHURCH
The Gospels are a tough act to follow. But that is exactly what the book of
Acts does. The book of Acts is the bridge that spans the gap between the four
Gospels and the Epistles.
The Gospels The Epistles

Acts
End in Jerusalem with BRIDGES Directed to churches
no church the Gap throughout the Roman world
The gospel is given Churches filled with Gentile
mainly to the Jews believers
Ends in Jerusalem Ends in Rome
The abrupt ending of the book of Acts indicates that it was written
immediately after the events described in the book and prior to the death of
Paul or the destruction of Jerusalem. There is no mention of Nero’s
persecutions which began A.D. 64/65. Indeed, there is no mention of any
persecution at the hands of Rome. Neither is there any mention of the Jewish
revolt of A.D. 66 which eventually resulted in the fall of Jerusalem.
We conclude that Acts was written immediately after the events described in
the book. It was written by Luke who had been an eye-witness of many of the
events described in the book. The following dates are helpful for dating the
events found in the book of Acts:
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The New Testament Church
A.D. 45 - Herod Agrippa dies suddenly (Acts 12:20-23).
A.D. 49 - Emperor Claudius issues an edict banning all Jews

from Rome (Acts 18:2).
A.D. 51 - Gallio appointed as proconsul of Achaia for a one-

year term (Acts 18:12-17).
A.D. 59 - Porcius Festus takes the office of Procurator of Judea

(Acts 24:27). Paul has already been imprisoned in
Caesarea for two years.
THE PENTECOST EVENT

The theme of the book of Acts was summed up in Acts 1:8 - it is the account
of the witness of the Apostles.
Chapter 1 is prepatory to the witness of the apostles.

Chapter 2 begins that work of being a witness.
Acts 1:1-11 Acts 1:12-14 Acts 1:15-26 Acts 2:1-42

The Church’s The Church’s Workers Selected The Church’s
Work Foretold Birth
Jesus Identifies The Church The Apostles The Spirit
the Task Prepares for Choose a Worker Comes
the Task
Promising Praying Replacing Proclaiming
40 days Period of 10 days One day
When the day of Pentecost had come, they were all

together in one place. (Acts 2:1).
When we say the word “Pentecost,” we think of charismatics and speaking

in tongues and the birth of the church. But the Jews living in the first century
had a different idea when they heard this word. Pentecost was not a new
concept to them. It was something from antiquity, going back over a
thousand years.
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Pentecost was one of the festivals which was established by the Lord in
Leviticus 23. It took place 50 days after the Passover. For this reason, it was
named after the Greek word for fifty. It Hebrew it was known as the Feast
of Weeks or the Feast of Sevens. It took place after a week of weeks - after
seven weeks.
During this feast, Jews would come from all over the world to celebrate the
promise of the harvest. It was a celebration of freedom and a celebration of
the Law. The Jews would come in their caravans, carrying baskets filled with
the firstfruits of their crops as an offering to the Lord.
The Jews had come to associate the Feast of Pentecost with the giving of the
Law. The rabbis taught that the Law was given to Moses 50 days after the
Passover. There were three Springtime Feasts observed by the Jews:
Passover Firstfruits Pentecost

14th of Nisan First day of the week 50 days after Passover
following the Passover
Passover lamb slain Sheaves of grain waved Two loaves of bread
& eaten in a meal of before the house of the prepared from the
remembrance Lord grain
Commemorated Celebrated the promise Commemorated the
deliverance from of the harvest giving of the Law at
Egypt Mount Sinai
And suddenly there came from heaven a noise like a violent

rushing wind, and it filled the whole house where they were sitting.
And there appeared to them tongues as of fire distributing
themselves, and they rested on each one of them. (Acts 2:2-3).
It does not say that the wind In verse 15 we will read that this took place
began to blow. It says that at the third hour. This was the hour of the
morning sacrifices. It was a time of prayer
there was a sound which when, as the incense from the Temple
sounded like the wind. It was arose into the sky, the prayers of God’s
people would ascend to heaven.
the sound of this wind that
filled the entire house.
They saw what appeared to be tongues of fire. These tongues distributed

themselves over each of the believers. What was the significance of these
tongues of fire? It was a new event. There had never been an instance of
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tongues of fire in the Old Testament. Or had there? When the children of
Israel were in the wilderness, they were led in their travels by a cloud of
smoke by day and a pillar of fire by night. When they were not traveling, this
smoke and fire would position itself over the Tabernacle. This was the place
where God manifested His presence. It was the Tent of Meeting. It served
as the dwelling place of God. The smoke and the fire were a sign that God
was there.
Now it is happening again. But this time there is a difference. This time the
manifestation of the flaming presence of God is not positioned over a tent.
This time it is over people. Why? Because they are the new tabernacle and
the temple of God.
And they were all filled with the Holy Spirit and began
to speak with other tongues, as the Spirit was giving them
utterance. (Acts 2:4).
What does it mean to speak with other tongues? It simply means to speak in
a different language. These disciples were Jews who had grown up in
Galilee. They would have been tri-lingual.
a. Hebrew was their native language and the language of both

the synagogue and the Temple..
b. Aramaic was the trade language of that part of the world.
c. Greek had become the common language of all men in the

known world since the days of Alexander the Great.
At least to some degree, these men could speak these three languages. They
probably did so with a Galilean accent. But now something spectacular
began to happen. They began to speak in all sorts of other languages. These
were languages with which they were not familiar.
The diversity of tongues had first taken place at the Tower of Babel. It had
been the result of sin and judgment. It was a curse. Now something has
taken place that overturns sin and judgment. And the curse of languages is
reversed by the gift of tongues. Where there was confusion of languages,
now there will be order. And where men have lived in darkness, they shall
see the light of the gospel.
We often come to this passage and see only the issue of tongues. But if we
do that, we will miss what is happening here. Tongues was the outward sign.
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But to what did this outward sign point? It pointed to the Spirit.
Peter stands and speaks. It had been Peter who had spoken up in chapter 1
regarding the necessity of appointing a replacement for Judas Iscariot. Once
again, he is acting as the leader of the apostles, speaking as their spokesman.
This is the first Post-Resurrection Sermon. These men had preached before.
This is not the first sermon that Peter had ever preached. He had been a part
of an Israelite Mission Team. He had gone out with many other disciples in
a ministry of preaching and teaching and healing and casting out demons.
But something new had happened. Jesus had instituted a New Covenant -
one involving His own body and blood. No longer would the presence of
God as signified by a cloud or a pillar of fire come into a tabernacle or a
temple in Jerusalem. From now on, the spirit of God would come and reside
in His living temple - the church.
The Pentecost Experience was a renewal of the covenant. That is a part of

what Pentecost commemorated, the first giving of the Law and the covenant
which accompanied that Law. Remember Sinai? There was fire and noise
and a message from God. Now it is happening again.
The Giving of the Law on Mount The Filling of the Holy Spirit at
Sinai (Exodus 19). Pentecost (Acts 2).
 Sons of Israel came to the  They were all gathered
foot of Mount Sinai (19:16). together in one place
 A very loud trumpet sound  A noise like a violent
(19:16). rushing wind
 Smoke of a furnace (19:18).  Tongues of fire
 They are given the Law  They were all filled with
through Moses and Aaron the Holy Spirit
(19:24).
40 And with many other words he solemnly

testified and kept on exhorting them, saying, “Be
saved from this perverse generation!”
41 So then, those who had received his word were
baptized; and that day there were added about three
thousand souls. (Acts 2:40-41).
The church underwent a new birth on this day. They went from 120 meeting
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in an upper room to 3,000 who were spread throughout Jerusalem. This

growth would continue to explode outward until it met persecution from the
hands of the Jewish rulers.
GROWTH AND A GROWING OPPOSITION

Throughout the first 7 chapters of Acts, we continue to see the unprecedented
growth of the church. They had no building of their own. Instead they met
from house to house and in the Temple. The Temple had a very large outer
court known as the Court of the Gentiles. It was given this designation
because Gentiles were permitted into this section but could come no further.
The Court of the Gentiles was large enough to hold many thousands of
people.
At the hands of the apostles many signs and wonders

were taking place among the people; and they were all with
one accord in Solomon's portico. (Acts 5:12).
Solomon’s portico had not been built by Solomon, but was only named after
him. It was to the Temple Mount what the Washington Monument is to the
Capitol. Located in the outer court - the Court of the Gentiles - it consisted
of a series of great colonnades with massive pillars which surrounded the
Temple structure.
This became one of the meeting places for the New Testament Church. They
were exclusively Jewish in nature and continued to be a part of the Temple
sacrificial system. Acts 3 tells of a healing that took place while Peter and
John were coming to the Temple at the appointed hour of prayer.
Every morning and every evening, there were sacrifices offered in the temple.
A sacrifice would be offered, an animal slain, its blood applied to the altar
before the Temple, and then a priest would enter the Temple in order to offer
incense upon the altar. This incense would fill the temple with a pleasing
aroma and would represent the sweet smell of the prayers of God’s people
ascending to heaven.
It was in such a setting that Peter healed a lame man. This immediately
caused a stir. What is more, Peter had healed him in the name of Jesus.
When questioned about it, Peter delivered a sermon. It is essentially the same
sermon which he had preached at Pentecost.
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A Profile of Two Sermons

Acts 2 Acts 3
Men of Judea (2:14) Men of Israel (3:12)
Men of Israel (2:22)
“Jesus of Nazareth, a man “Why do you gaze at us, as if by
attested by God with miracles and own power we made him walk...
wonders and signs” (2:22) the God of our fathers has glorified
His servant Jesus” (3:12-13).
You nailed to a cross by the You delivered up and disowned in
hands of godless men and put the presence of Pilate... put to death
Him to death (2:23) the Prince of Life (3:13-15)
God raised Him (2:24,32) God raised Him (3:15)
We are witnesses (2:32) We are witnesses (3:15)
(Several prophecies quoted in God announced beforehand by all
verses 25-28 and 34-35) the prophets (3:18)
Repent and be baptized for the Repent and return that your sins
forgiveness of your sins (2:38) may be wiped away (3:19)
The promises are for you and for The covenant God made with your
your children and for all who are fathers... In your seed all the
far off (2:39) families of the earth shall be
blessed (3:25)
These are the only two sermons which we have of Peter’s. They are
essentially the same sermon. Peter had one basic message. It was a message
about the coming and death and resurrection of Jesus and a warning of future
judgment to follow.
1 As they were speaking to the people, the

priests and the captain of the temple guard and the
Sadducees came up to them, 2 being greatly disturbed
because they were teaching the people and
proclaiming in Jesus the resurrection from the dead.
3 And they laid hands on them and put them in
jail until the next day, for it was already evening.
4 But many of those who had heard the message
believed; and the number of the men came to be about
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five thousand. (Acts 4:1-4).
The opposition to Peter’s preaching came from three groups, all of which
were associated with the Temple hierarchy.
1. The Priests.
There were 24 courses of priests which rotated the duties within the
temple so that each course served two weeks each year with all of the
courses being at the Temple for the major feast days.
2. The Captain of the Temple Guard.
It was the “officers of the Temple” who had arrested Jesus in the
Garden of Gethsemane (Luke 22:52). These were officials who were
charged with keeping the peace in the Temple precincts.
3. The Sadducees.
The Sadducees were the liberal party within the nation of Israel.
Their ranks came mostly from the wealthy aristocracy. The high
priest and all of the chief priests in the Sanhedrin were almost
exclusively from the Sadducees. They can be best understood when
contrasted with the Pharisees.
Pharisees Sadducees
Name means “separated ones” Name means “righteous ones”
Held to the authority of all of the Viewed the Torah as having
Old Testament Scriptures greater authority
Believed in miracles, angels & Rejected the miraculous, angels &
immortality immortality
Held to a future resurrection Denied any resurrection
Popular in the synagogues Ruled the Temple
The Sadducees were bothered by the fact that Peter was proclaiming that
Jesus had risen from the dead. The Sadducees did not believe in a
resurrection. If it was true that Jesus had risen from the dead, then their entire
doctrinal system would be in error.
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5 On the next day, their rulers and elders and

scribes were gathered together in Jerusalem; 6 and
Annas the high priest was there, and Caiaphas and
John and Alexander, and all who were of
high-priestly descent.
7 When they had placed them in the center, they
began to inquire, “By what power, or in what name,
have you done this?” (Acts 4:5-7).
The Sanhedrin normally met
Peter and John must have experienced a sense in the Chamber of Hewn
of deja vu. Stone located alongside the
Court of the Men within the
Just a few months earlier they had been in Temple area.
this same court.
The same priests had been present. The same
jury had been seated. Even Peter and John had been present. Only then it
had been Jesus on trial.
Jesus is no longer physically present. In His place stand Peter and John.
They are his representatives. And yet, the question which is asked by the
leaders of the court show that it is still Jesus who is on trial.
Annas had been appointed to the Most of the priests were now
position of high priest in 6 A.D. by Sadducees and all the chief priests
Quirinius, the Roman governor of since John Hyrcanus had deserted
the Pharisees (Josephus, Antiquities
Syria. Although the high priesthood of 17:10:6; 18:1:4; 20:9:1).
Israel was designed to be a lifelong
position, the Romans were fearful that
the person holding this station would become too powerful and so they
deposed Annas when they feared that he had become too powerful.
Annas’ influence was such that he continued to be spoken of as the high

priest, even though he had not officially held that office since 15 A.D.
Caiaphas was the son-in-law of Annas. He held the office of high priest from
18 to 36 A.D. He had presided over the trial of Jesus and now he is present
for the trial of the followers of Jesus. Indeed, it had been his servant whose
ear Peter had cut off in the Garden of Gethsemane. I can’t help but wonder
if that servant was present on this day. Did he touch his ear in remembrance?
13 Now as they observed the confidence of Peter

and John and understood that they were uneducated
and untrained men, they were amazed, and began to
recognize them as having been with Jesus.
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14 And seeing the man who had been healed

standing with them, they had nothing to say in reply.
(Acts 4:13-14).
The Jewish rulers recognize from their simple speech that Peter and John are
uneducated and untrained men. This does not mean that they were ignorant.
They obviously were not. Neither does it mean that they were lacking in a
basic education. For the past hundred years every freeborn Jewish man living
in Palestine had been taught to read and to write. But Peter and John had not
attended seminary. There was no string of degrees behind their names. They
held no titles or honorifics. They were not known as Reverend or Holiness
or Father or Pope. And yet, they possess an uncommon sense of authority.
It soon becomes obvious that they had been with Jesus. Picture their reaction.
“Oh, no! Now there are two of them!” To make matters worse, there are ten
more in the Upper Room. In the end, the apostles were warned against
further preaching and released. Instead of quenching the fires of the fledgling
church, this served only to increase the zeal of the early Christians.
Acts 3-6 relate a series of problems which struck at the church from both
within and without.
Chapter 3:1 - 4:22 5:1-16 5:17-42 6:1-7

Distress External Internal External Internal
in the Problem Problem Problem Problem
Church
Peter & John Sin within Apostles Schism &
• Arrested the Church • Jailed Complaint
• Tried • Tried
• Released • Released
Growth Number of Fear of the Disciples Disciples
in the believers rises Lord increase in increase &
Church to 5,000 numbers Priests
converted
Of particular interest to us is the mention of Gamaliel in Acts 5. The apostles

had again been arrested because of their persistent preaching. They were
again brought before the Sanhedrin and placed on trial. When ordered to
cease and desist, they replied that they must obey God rather than men. As
the court began its deliberations, one of the members of the Sanhedrin stood
and spoke in the defense of the apostles.
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But a Pharisee named Gamaliel, a teacher of the Law,

respected by all the people, stood up in the Council and gave
orders to put the men outside for a short time. (Acts 5:34).
We know Gamaliel from other Jewish writings. He was the head of a school
of teachers; one of his students was a young man named Saul of Tarsus (Acts
22:3). Tradition has it that he was the grandson of Hillel. He would later go
on to become the president of the Sanhedrin. He is often quoted in the
Mishnah, that body of oral tradition of wisdom which has been passed down
by the Jews. His forte was in the practical and his advice always shows a
strong degree of common sense.
In this case, Gamaliel calls for restraint on the part of the court. He urges
them to take a “wait and see” approach to Christianity.
PAUL’S CONVERSION AND DAMASCUS

Evidently not content with his teacher’s advice, young Saul of Tarsus became
one of the chief Jewish persecutors of early Christianity. He went on a
manhunt throughout Jerusalem and Judea searching for Christians. When he
had run out of Christians here, he gained
permission to travel to the main
governmental center in Damascus to
pursue Christians there.
1. Damascus.
Damascus is located in a high

plain 2200 feet above sea level.
It is surrounded on three sides
by mountains. The lowlands
toward the east give way to
marshy lakes and low hills after
which comes the desert.
Although the rainfall is only 10
inches a year, rivers flow down
out of the mountains and allow
farmers to irrigate their crops,
turning Damascus into an oasis
in the surrounding desert.
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Damascus was an old city, going back as early as 4000 B.C. It has
gone by a variety of names including Sham - some have suggested
that this is derived from Shem, one of the sons of Noah. The Ebla
Tablets make reference to the city of Dimaski. It had served as the
capital of the Aramaean Kingdom during the Old Testament times
and for a time served as the seat of the Roman proconsul.
Damascus was technically a part of the Decapolis, one of the ten “free
cities” to the east of the Sea of Galilee. It served as something of a
boarder outpost in that there were few Roman holdings to the east.
It stood as one of the boarder cities of the Roman Empire. Because
of this, there were other kingdoms which were able to exert a strong
influence in Damascus. Among these was the Nabatean Kingdom of
Aretes (2 Corinthians 11:32).
2. Saul’s Conversion.
On the road to Damascus, Saul was struck to the ground by a bright

light and received instructions from the Lord to come to the city. He
was blinded for three days and then healed by a Christian named
Ananias who was sent to heal him and to lead him to Christ.
Saul turned from persecuting Christians to proclaiming the name of

Christ. This soon brought about open hostility against him and he
was forced to flee the city.
In Damascus the ethnarch under Aretas the

king was guarding the city of the Damascenes in
order to seize me, 33 and I was let down in a basket
through a window in the wall, and so escaped his
hands. (2 Corinthians 11:32-33).
Aretas seems to be a dynastic name since there were several kings of

the Nabateans who bore this name. Their capital was the city of Petra
and they had been ruling in Arabia for 200 years. The Romans had
been in control of Damascus, but that seems to have changed. There
are no Roman coins found in Damascus between the years of 34-62
A.D.
Josephus tells us that war broke out between Aretas and Herod
Antipas after Antipas plotted to murder his wife so that he could
legitimize his relationship with Herodias.
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1. Herod Antipas has an affair with Herodias and plots to do

away with his wife, the daughter of Aretas.
2. The daughter of Aretas learns of the plot and flees to

Arabia where she informs her father of the treachery.
3. Aretas eventually goes to war against Antipas and defeats

him in battle (36 A.D.).
4. Aretas goes on to defeat two legions under Vitellius (the

governor of Syria from 35-37 A.D.).
5. Tiberius dies in 37 A.D. and Vitellius calls for a cease-fire

until he can receive new orders from the new emperor,
Caligula.
6. Antipas goes to Rome with Herodias and is stripped of his

office and banished to Gaul (39 A.D.).
3. Saul Versus Paul.
Throughout his early career, we read of Saul. Then in Acts 13:9 we

read about Saul, who was also known as Paul. From this time
onward, only the name “Paul” is used. What brought about this
change?
It has been customary to think that Paul changed his name from its
original “Saul” to “Paul” so that he could better identify with the
Gentiles (Saul is a Hebrew name, while Paul is a Latin name).
However, I do not believe that this is completely the case. In the days
in which Paul lived, all Roman citizens had three names.
a. Praenomen - an individual name given at birth.
b. Nomen - a tribal name. In Rome there were about 1000 tribes

which could trace their ancestry back to a common origin.
c. Cognomen. At first, the cognomen was given as a family

nickname, usually referring to some outstanding feature in the
individual. Here are a few examples...
Crassus (Fat)
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Longus (Tall)
Rufus (red)
Felix (Happy)
Paulus (Little)
All Roman citizens possessed three names. Here are a few well-
known examples...
- Gaius Julius Caesar

- Publius Cornelius Scipio
- Lucius Sergius Paulus
As you can see in the above example, Paulus was a cognomen. It was
always used as a cognomen. As such, it was a family name.
Although Paul was a Jew, he had also been born as a citizen of Rome
(Acts 22:27-28). At some time in the past, one of his ancestors had
been “adopted” into one of the families of Rome and given a Roman
name. Thus, when Paul uses this name for himself, he is not making
it up. He is merely using one of his names which would serve to
better identify himself with the Gentiles. It is rightfully his own
name.
HEROD AGRIPPA
Agrippa was the son of Aristobulus, one of the two sons of Herod by
Mariamne who was put to death by Herod.
1. As a young man, Agrippa lived in Rome

where he came to know a young nephew of
the emperor named Caligula. One day while
riding with Caligula, Antipas expressed the
opinion that he secretly wished Tiberius
would die and that Caligula could become
emperor in his place. Word got back to
Tiberius, and Agrippa was thrown in prison.
The story is told that while he was in prison,

Agrippa was leaning against a tree. A Caligula
German prisoner happened to look over and
see an owl sitting in the tree against which Agrippa was leaning. He
told Agrippa that it was an omen that he would soon be released, but
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that the next time he saw such an owl it would mean that he would
soon die.
2. Tiberius died six months later and Caligula became emperor.

Agrippa was released from prison and his iron chains were removed
and Agrippa was awarded a gold chain of equal weight. Caligula also
gave him the former tetrarchy of his uncle, Herod Philip. Agrippa
hung the golden chain in the Temple as a memorial.
3. Agrippa’s uncle, Herod Antipas, was jealous of his nephew. At the

prodding of his wife Herodias, Antipas traveled to Rome with
accusations against Agrippa. Meanwhile Agrippa sent word to Rome
that Antipas had conducted secret negotiations with the Parthians and
that he had stored away enough armor to outfit 70,000 men, in case
a Roman-Parthian war involved Judea. When Antipas came before
the emperor, he was questioned as to whether this was the case and
he was forced to admit that it was. Caligula removed him from
office, banishing him to Gaul for the rest of his life; the tetrarchy of
Antipas was handed over to Agrippa.
4. Soon after this, Caligula decreed that every man should worship him
as a god. Petronius, the prefect of Syria, was ordered to place a statue
of the emperor in the Temple in Jerusalem. An embassy of Jews, led
by the author Philo, tried to talk Caligula out of it, but he would not
listen.
Petronius was met by a crowd of 10,000 Jews who said that they
would die before allowing such a sacrilege and they pleaded for him
not to do this thing. Petronius was impressed with their loyalty to
their faith and agreed to wait while he sent a letter to Rome
explaining the Jewish point of view. Agrippa happened to be in
Rome at the time and he also went to Caligula to plead for the Jews.
Caligula rescinded the order, but because Petronius had delayed in
carrying out the emperor’s previous orders, he was ordered to commit
suicide. Fortunately for Petronius, he did not get the order until after
Caligula was assassinated, so it no longer mattered.
5. When Caligula was assassinated, it was Agrippa who suggested to the

Praetorian Guard that Claudius would make a good candidate for
emperor. Claudius responded by enlarging Agrippa’s domain to
include all of Judea and Samaria in addition to his holdings in Galilee
and the lands to the east of Galilee.
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6. Persecution against the Church.
Now about that time Herod the king laid

hands on some who belonged to the church, in order
to mistreat them.
And he had James the brother of John put to
death with a sword.
And when he saw that it pleased the Jews, he
proceeded to arrest Peter also. (Acts 12:1-3a).
Agrippa was a follower of the Jewish ceremonial law and was

popular with the people. He sought to increase his popularity by
persecuting the early church, putting James to death and arresting
Peter. Peter was miraculously released and Herod responded by
having the prison guards put to death.
7. The Death of Agrippa.
Now he was very angry with the people of

Tyre and Sidon; and with one accord they came to
him, and having won over Blastus the king’s
chamberlain, they were asking for peace, because
their country was fed by Herod’s country.
And on an appointed day Herod, having put
on royal apparel, took his seat on the rostrum and
began delivering an address to them.
And the people kept crying out, “The voice of
a god and not of a man!”
And immediately an angel of the Lord struck
him because he did not give God the glory, and he
was eaten by worms and died. (Acts 12:20-23).
In 44 A.D. Agrippa gave a festival at Caesarea; games were held and

prayers were said for the safety and health of Emperor Claudius. The
second day began when Agrippa entered the theater wearing “a
garment made wholly of silver and of a texture truly wonderful.”
When the sun shone on this outfit it made him look radiant. The
people proclaimed him a god, and he did nothing to stop their flattery.
At that moment, Agrippa looked up, saw an owl perched on a rope

above his head, and remembered the second part of the German
prisoner’s prediction. He immediately began suffering severe pains,
and died five days later.
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THE CHURCH AT ANTIOCH

...and the disciples were first called Christians in
Antioch. (Acts 11:27).
There were a number of cities throughout the ancient world named

“Antioch.” They were all named for Antiochus, one of the descendants of
Seleucus, the general of Alexander who founded the Seleucid Dynasty. This
particular Antioch was located in Syria, 15 miles in from the Mediterranean
on the Orontes River. Its sister city of Seleucus was actually located on the
coast. Antioch stood astride the main caravan routes through the area and
had become the center of government for all of Syria.
Antioch was an international city. Begun as a Greek city, it had been

influenced by the Parthians, by the Romans and by the Jews. Herod the Great
had assisted in the construction of two magnificent boulevards made of
marble. Tiberius had added a line of colonnades to these main streets.
There was a synagogue at Antioch One of the original deacons of the

which had been dedicated to the Jerusalem church had been
Jewish martyrs of the Maccabean Nicolaus, a proselyte from Antioch
Wars and there was a strong Jewish (Acts 6:5).
influence in the city. There were
many among the Gentile inhabitants
who had become “god-fearers” — people who believed in the God of the Old
Testament Scriptures but stopped short of circumcision and fully
proselytizing to Judaism. It was from many of these God-fearing Greeks that
the early Christians came.
PAUL’S FIRST MISSIONARY JOURNEY

Now there were at Antioch, in the church that was
there, prophets and teachers: Barnabas, and Simeon who was
called Niger, and Lucius of Cyrene, and Manaen who had
been brought up with Herod the tetrarch, and Saul.
And while they were ministering to the Lord and
fasting, the Holy Spirit said, “Set apart for Me Barnabas and
Saul for the work to which I have called them.”
Then, when they had fasted and prayed and laid their
hands on them, they sent them away. (Acts 13:1-3).
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The church at Antioch was a diverse group. They were Jewish and Gentile,
scholar, noble and tradesman. This became the sending group of the first
organized mission team.
1. Cyprus.
So, being sent out by the Holy Spirit, they went

down to Selecucia and from there they sailed to
Cyprus. (Acts 13:4).
The large island of Cyprus has The fact that Barnabas was from
two ranges of mountains. One Cyprus (Acts 4:36) may have been
follows the northern coastline; the reason that Cyprus was the
the other is to be found at the first stop on the missionary
journey.
southwest corner of the island.
The ancient designation for the
island was Kittim (Genesis 10:4; Numbers 24:24; Daniel 11:30). Our
English word “copper” seems to be derived from the land in which
this metal was once mined. Culture on the island had a history in
antiquity. The Phoenicians had a colony there and archaeology
reflects a strong Mycenaean influence in the 2nd millennia.
In Paul’s day, Cyprus was a part of the Roman Empire. The island
was governed by its own proconsul, Sergius Paulus (Acts 13:7). Luke
tells us that this proconsul believed when he saw what had happened,
being amazed at the teaching of the Lord (Acts 13:12). Sir William
Ramsey found an inscription in 1912 in Antioch reading: “To Lucius
Sergius Paulus, the younger, one of the four commissioners in charge
of the Roman streets...” Ramsay theorized that this might be a
relative of the Sergius Paulus of whom Luke speaks.
2. Perga in Pamphylia.
Now Paul and his companions put out to sea

from Paphos and came to Perga in Pamphylia; and
John left them and returned to Jerusalem. (Acts
13:13).
The entire southern coast of Asia Minor is hemmed by steep

mountains that offer a forbidding purchase. There are only two
places where these mountains give way to coastal plains. The first
place is in eastern Cilicia and the other is here in Pamphylia.
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Perga was located eight miles in from the Mediterranean Coast. The
reason the city was not built on the coast was because of the history
of pirates who had frequented this part of the world prior to the
coming of Rome. The city itself was built around a large rocky
acropolis which rises 160 feet over the surrounding area.
Archaeological excavations have uncovered a stadium which was

able to seat up to 12,000 people. The marketplace was ringed by
Corinthian columns.
We are not told why it was that John left the mission team to return
to Jerusalem. The fact that Paul did not consider it to be a sufficiently
good reason is seen in that he felt that John was disqualified for
further mission work when it came time to go out on a second
missionary journey (Acts 15:38). Some have felt that it was because
of the hostile regions to the north which were notorious for its
bandits. Another possibility might have been health reasons.
3. Pisidian Antioch.
But going on from Perga, they arrived at

Pisidian Antioch, and on the Sabbath day they went
into the synagogue and sat down. (Acts 13:14).
Strictly speaking, Antioch was not in Pisidia. But it was commonly

called Pisidian Antioch to distinguish it both from Antioch in Syria
444
as well as another Antioch in Phrygia.
There is a river valley which runs from down from the central
highlands of Asia Minor to the coastal plains of Pamphylia. As you
follow the path of the Cestrus River to the central highlands, you find
a region of great lakes. It is near one of these lakes that the city of
Antioch in Pisidia lies astride the main east-west highway through
Asia Minor.
As was the case of many of the cities throughout Asia Minor, Antioch
had a mixed population of Phrygians, Greeks, Jews and Latins, the
latter who had settled here after having served in the Roman military.
Paul and Barnabas preached in the synagogue on two consecutive

Sabbaths. When many of the Jews rejected the gospel, Paul and
Barnabas took their message to the Gentiles of the city. This caused
a persecution at the hands of the Jews and the two missionaries were
banished from the city.
4. Iconium.
The next stopover took place at Iconium. Located 80 miles from

Antioch, Iconium was an ancient Phrygian town that had seen
influences of the Greeks and, to a lesser degree, Romans as well as
the Jews. It was surrounded by fertile farmlands and forests.
Paul and Barnabas saw converts both from the Jews as well as from
the Gentiles. Again persecution arose so that the two missionaries
were forced to move on.
5. Lystra.
Lystra was 24 miles to the south of Iconium. The town was built on
a small hill that rises 100 feet above the surrounding plain and near
to two small rivers which water the area. In contrast to Antioch and
Iconium which were on the major trade route, Lystra was off the
beaten path. It lay eight miles to the south of the main road.
When Paul and Barnabas healed a lame man, the Gentile crowd took
them to be an incarnation of Zeus and Hermes, two of the gods of the
Greek pantheon. There was an old Phrygian legend that the same two
gods had once visited an aged couple who, not recognizing them as
gods, had invited them to dinner and had shown them hospitality. In
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return, they had been delivered from a flood which swept over the
area (Ovid, Metapmorphoses 8:626-724). Apparently the people of
the area equated the coming of Paul and Barnabas with that myth.
This period of initial popularity did not last. Paul and Barnabas
disclaimed any such deified identity and it was not long before a
Jewish delegation from Iconium arrived to brand the two missionaries
as troublemakers. This time Paul was stoned and dragged from the
city and left for dead.
6. Derbe.
All of the cities which Paul visited during this trip into the interior of
Asia Minor were Roman cities. Derbe was the last of these. To the
east of Derbe were the Cilician Mountains. This made Derbe a
frontier town and off the beaten track.
Paul and Barnabas then retraced their steps, visiting each of these four cities
of Asia Minor before sailing home to Syria to finally return to the church at
Antioch.
CHRISTIANITY COMES TO EUROPE

Two missionary teams set out from Antioch, one made up of Barnabas and
John Mark, the other made up of Paul and Silas. The book of Acts records
the travels of this second team. This time they took the land route through
Cilicia, moving through the Tarsus Gates and to come to the region of Derbe
and Lystra where they added Timothy to their team.
1. Travels through Asia Minor.
And they passed through the Phrygian and

Galatian region, having been forbidden by the Holy
Spirit to speak the word in Asia; 7 and when they had
come to Mysia, they were trying to go into Bithynia,
and the Spirit of Jesus did not permit them; 8 and
passing by Mysia, they came down to Troas. (Acts
16:6-8).
We are given a very brief account of the travels of this mission team
through Asia Minor. For the most part, only the regions are
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mentioned and we can only guess at which individual cities were

visited.
• Phrygia,
Galatia,
Asia and
Mysia
are all
regional
areas.
They are
given in
the order
t hro u gh
which
Paul and
company
would
have visited as they moved northwest through Asia Minor.
• Their plan was to turn to the northeast and enter Bithynia, but
they were prevented from doing so by the leading of the
Spirit.
• Instead they found themselves at Troas. This was a port on

the western coast at the mouth of the Dardanelles and ten
miles from the ancient city of Troy. It was a Greek city and
had been built in 300 B.C. Its importance is seen in the fact
that Julius Caesar had once considered making it his eastern
capital.
It was at Troas that Paul had a vision which directed his team to move
across the Dardanelles and into Europe.
2. Philippi.
Therefore putting out to sea from Troas, we

ran a straight course to Samothrace, and on the day
following to Neapolis; 12 and from there to Philippi,
which is a leading city of the district of Macedonia, a
Roman colony; and we were staying in this city for
some days. (Acts 16:11-12).
447
Named for Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, Philippi was
located on a plain between the Strymon and Nestos Rivers. The city
itself was situated on the banks of the swiftly flowing Gangites. The
Egnatian Way ran through Philippi and reached its eastern terminus
at the Port of Neapolis, ten miles away. Philippi enjoyed a booming
economy with its position on the major trade route as well as from the
gold mines in the mountains to the north.
Archaeologists have unearthed the forum of the city, on the center of

which was a large rostrum. There were two large temples and a
Roman theater built into the side of the acropolis.
Paul’s ministry in this city began with a women’s prayer group that
commonly met outside the city gates by the bank of the river. It was
here that he met Lydia, a business merchant who converted to
Christianity and who opened her home to the missionaries.
When Paul healed a demon-possessed girl, he and Silas were dragged

before the magistrates of the city and beaten and thrown into prison.
An earthquake during the night brought about a respite and the
jailer’s conversion. The next day they were released after Paul
appealed to his Roman citizenship.
3. Thessalonica.
Now when they had traveled through

Amphipolis and Apollonia, they came to
Thessalonica, where there was a synagogue of the
Jews (Acts 17:1).
As you traveled westward on the Egnatian Way, you came to
448
Thessalonica, the Roman capital of Macedonia. It was an old city,

having been founded by Cassander in 315 B.C. and named for his
wife, the daughter of Philip of Macedon and half-sister of Alexander.
It was a port city and had served in its day as the naval base for
Macedonia.
During the Roman Civil Wars, Thessalonica had sided with Antony
and Octavius against Cassius and Brutus. Because of this, the city
had been granted a degree of independence and was ruled by a board
of five or six “politarchs” - they are mentioned as the rulers of the city
in Acts 17:6-8.
Paul and Silas came to Thessalonica and, as was their custom, Paul
entered the synagogue and began proclaiming Jesus as the promised
Messiah. A number of people believed, including Greeks and some
of the “leading women.”
The Jews responded to these conversions by instigating a mob which

dragged their host, Jason, to the politarchs of the city. The case was
dismissed and Paul and Silas left town for Berea.
4. Berea.
And the brethren immediately sent Paul and

Silas away by night to Berea (Acts 17:10a).
Berea was both politically and Cicero describes how the Roman
strategically insignificant. It governor Piso was so unpopular
was several miles off the that he was forced to leave
Egnatian Way, located in the Thessalonica and withdraw to
this same town of Berea (Against
foothills of Macedonia.
Piso 36).
They found a temporary respite

in Berea along with a much more open-minded attitude toward the
gospel. But eventually, trouble from Thessalonica necessitated Paul
leaving and traveling south to come at last to Athens.
5. Athens.
Athens was a thoroughly pagan city. The crown of the city was its
Parthenon, dedicated to the city’s namesake, the goddess Athena. As
usual, Paul began ministering to those within the city’s synagogue.
But soon he found an audience among the Greeks.
449
So he was reasoning in the synagogue with the

Jews and the God-fearing Gentiles, and in the market
place every day with those who happened to be
present.
And also some of the Epicurean and Stoic
philosophers were conversing with him. And some
were saying, “What would this idle babbler wish to
say?” Others, “He seems to be a proclaimer of
strange deities,” – because he was preaching Jesus
and the resurrection. (Acts 17:17-18).
There are two philosophical groups mentioned here who had dealings
with Paul in Athens.
Epicureans Epicurus founded a school in Emphasized

Athens in 300 B.C. His philosophy pleasure
was that of 1 Corinthians 15:32 -
“Let us eat and drink, for tomorrow
we die.” They denied a future
judgment or even that God has a
hand in any present actions. There
is no afterlife and when you are
dead, you are dead so enjoy the
present.
Stoics Zeno (342-270 B.C.) founded this Emphasized
philosophy. All reality is that virtue
which is corporeal - that which is
sensory. To learn of such reality
required a high morality.
And they took him and brought him to the

Areopagus, saying, “May we know what this new
teaching is which you are proclaiming? 20 For you
are bringing some strange things to our ears; we want
to know therefore what these things mean.”
Now all the Athenians and the strangers
visiting there used to spend their time in nothing other
than telling or hearing something new. (Acts 17:19-
21).
The term “Areopagus” is taken from Ares, the Greek god of war
450
(corresponding to the Roman “Mars”) and pagos, the word for “hill.”
The Areopagus was a large outcrop of limestone rising 380 feet above
the city. It is connected to the Acropolis by a low, narrow ridge and
overlooks the agora of the city. The Areopagus was the courthouse
of Athens.
The Acropolis of Athens as seen from the Areopagus
It was to this location that Paul was brought to share his teaching
concerning Jesus. His sermon was to a completely Gentile audience
and he begins by pointing out a Gentile phenomenon — they are so
religious that they have erected an altar to “the unknown god.” He
then proclaims to them the God about which they have no knowledge.
6. Corinth.
After these things he left Athens and went to

Corinth. (Acts 18:1).
The city of Corinth lay astride a narrow isthmus which connected

mainland Greece to the Peloponnesian Peninsula. Today there is a
canal which has been cut through the isthmus to allow ships to pass,
and the digging of such a canal had been attempted, but the
technology of the day found it too costly of a task. Instead, there was
a port located at each side of the isthmus so that cargo could be off
loaded at one port and then carried the four intervening miles to the
other port. This allowed ships to avoid the long and dangerous
passage around Cape Malea at the southern end of the Peloponnesian
Peninsula.
451
Just south of the isthmus was a high plateau known as the

Acrocorinth, an acropolis rising to a height of 1800 feet. This was the
original site of the city, though Corinth in Paul’s day was sprawled
out on the plain beneath the plateau. The isthmus put Corinth on the
map as the central trading city for all of Greece.
The Temple of Apollo in Corinth with the Acrocorinth in the distance
The Romans had destroyed the city in 146 B.C. and it lay abandoned
for a hundred years until Julius Caesar ordered its rebuilding in 46
B.C. Under Roman rule, Corinth had now become the capital city for
all of Achaia. The Isthmus Games were re-instituted and the Temple
of Aphrodite, located at the top of the acropolis, became renown for
its temple prostitutes. Notorious for its immorality, the term
corinthianzomai (“to act like a Corinthian”) came to refer to an act of
fornication.
Archaeological excavations since 1995 have revealed buildings with

marble floors and inlaid frescos, fountains and Corinthian columns.
The picture is one of extravagant luxury.
7. The Decree of Claudius.
And he found a certain Jew named Aquila, a

native of Pontus, having recently come from Italy with
his wife Priscilla, because Claudius had commanded
all the Jews to leave Rome. He came to them, 3 and
because he was of the same trade, he stayed with them
and they were working; for by trade they were
tentmakers. (Acts 18:2-3).
Claudius had become emperor of Rome in 41 A.D. following the

assassination of his nephew, Caligula. The Roman historian
452
Suetonius records the events which led up to Claudius expelling the

Jews from Rome.
Because the Jews at Rome caused continuous

disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, he
expelled them from that city. (Suetonius 5).
Suetonius does not go on to further elaborate as to the identity of

Chrestus. Many scholars believe that this is a reference to Christ. If
this is the case, then the issue over which the Jews were evicted from
Rome was the Jewish persecution of Christians.
8. Lucius Junius Gallio.
While Paul was in Corinth, the Jews brought Paul to trial before the
Roman proconsul.
But while Gallio was proconsul of Achaia, the

Jews with one accord rose up against Paul and
brought him before the judgment seat, 13 saying,
“This man persuades men to worship God contrary to
the law.”
But when Paul was about to open his mouth,
Gallio said to the Jews, “If it were a matter of wrong
or of vicious crime, O Jews, it would be reasonable
for me to put up with you; 15 but if these are
questions about words and names and your own law,
look after it yourselves; I am unwilling to be a judge
of these matters.”
And he drove them away from the judgment
seat. (Acts 18:12-16).
The Jews attempted to put Paul on trial, but Gallio refused to hear the
case, being only concerned with infractions of Roman law. This
would suggest that Christianity was deemed to be legal in the eyes of
the state.
The various pieces of the Gallio Inscription was discovered in Delphi.

It was not until 1905 that a doctoral student in Paris was sorting
through these and other inscriptions. He happened to notice that four
separate fragments, if joined together, formed the nucleus of an
imperial letter. Written by the Emperor Claudius, the inscription
affirms that Gallio was the proconsul of Achaia.
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Language Greek
Medium Limestone
Length 11 lines of writing
Genre Imperial Decree
Author Tiberius Claudius Caesar
Date 52 A.D.
Place of Discovery Delphi, Greece
Date of Discovery 9 fragments found between 1885-1910
Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus G[ermanicus, Highest

Priest, invested with tribunician auth]ority [for the twelfth
time, acclaimed Imperator for t]he twenty-sixth time, F[ather
of the Fa]therland, Consul for the fifth time, Censor, sends
greetings to the city of the Delphians.] For a long time I have
been well disposed toward the city of Delph[i, but also
solicitous for its [pro]sperity, and I have always protec[ted
th]e cul[t of t]he [Pythian Apol[lo .... But] now [since] it is
said to be desti[tu]te of [citi]zens, as [L. Ju]nius Gallio, my
fr[iend] an[d procon]sul [recently reported to me; and being
desirous that Delphi] should continue to retain [inta]ct its
for[mer rank, I] ord[er you to in]vite [well-born people also
from ot]her cities [to Delphi as new inhabitants and to]
all[ow] them [and their children to have all the] privi[leges
of Del]phi as being citi[zens on equal and like (basis)]. For
i[f] so[me . . .] were to trans[fer as citi]zens [to these
regions, ...]
This inscription helps us to date the proconsulship of Gallio. It is

written after the 26th acclamation of Claudius as emperor, making it
52 A.D.
Following Gallio’s term in Achaia, he traveled to Egypt where the

dryer climate helped him to heal from a lung hemorrhage. Returning
to Rome, he served as consul during Nero’s reign. When he was
implicated in a plot to overthrow Nero, he was put to death (Dio
Cassius, History 62:25).
9. Ephesus.
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And Paul, having remained many days longer,

took leave of the brethren and put out to sea for Syria,
and with him were Piscilla and Aquila. In Cechrea he
had his hair cut, for he was keeping a vow.
And they came to Ephesus, and he left them
there. No he himself entered the synagogue and
reasoned with the Jews. (Acts 18:18-19).
This is Paul’s first visit to Ephesus. He would spend much more time
here during his Third Missionary Journey. The city of Ephesus was
located at the mouth of the Cayster River on the southwest coast of
Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey). There were three major river
valleys leading from the west coast of Asia Minor into the high
country. Major cities grew up at the entrance to each of these
valleys.
Hermus River Smyrna

Cayster River Ephesus
Maeander River Miletus
She had been a historic trading city in the past, though recent silt
deposits in her harbor were bringing present economic pressures to
bear. The harbor would eventually become completely clogged and
unusable and the city would ultimately be abandoned.
In Paul’s day, Ephesus was the seat of the local Roman proconsul for
the province of Asia. It was also the center of a pagan cult which was
associated with a meteorite thought to have fallen down from the god
Zeus (Acts 19). The most significant feature of the city was its
temple to the goddess Artemis (Diana of Roman mythology), the
fertility huntress-goddess. This temple was said to be four times the
size of the Parthenon at Athens.
The religion of Ephesus reflected both east and west in that it was a
mixture of Greek paganism and oriental mysticism.
Paul had first come to this city with Priscilla and Aquila during his
second missionary journey (Acts 18:19). After preaching in the
Jewish synagogue, he had been invited to remain, but he had declined
the offer, continuing instead to Caesarea and then to Antioch.
Priscilla and Aquila did remain in Ephesus where they met and
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discipled a young preacher named Apollos.
Paul returned to Ephesus during his third missionary journey (Acts

18:1) and stayed for a period of three years, teaching daily Bible
classes in the school of Tyrannus so that all who lived in Asia heard
the word of the Lord (Acts 18:10). Paul’s ministry was so successful
that the silversmith trade which manufactured pagan idols fell
sharply. The local idolater’s labor union staged a picket line and even
went so far as to incite a mob to demonstrate against the Christians.
Paul returned to Miletus near Ephesus a final time on the last leg of
his third missionary journey. He called for the elders of the church at
Ephesus and they traveled to Miletus to meet with him and be
exhorted and encouraged by him (Acts 20:17-38).
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THE WAR OF THE JEWS
For then there will be a great tribulation, such as has
not occurred since the beginning of the world until now, nor
ever shall. (Matthew 24:21).
For the days shall come upon you when your enemies
will throw up a bank before you, and surround you, and hem
you in on every side, 44 and will level you to the ground and
your children within you, and they will not leave in you one
stone upon another, because you did not recognize the time of
your visitation. (Luke 19:43-44).
The ministry of Jesus was very specific in its exclusion of the head officials
of Israel. During His three years of preaching, teaching and healing, He
specifically avoided contact with Antipas, the tetrarch of Galilee, with
Pontius Pilate, the procurator of Judea, and with Caiaphas, the High Priest at
Jerusalem.
Although He was no stranger to the city of Jerusalem, it was a stated fact that
He never spent the night within the city. When He did visit the Temple, He
made it His practice to spend His evenings in one of the small villages
outside the city.
On the last week of His ministry, He came for the last time to Jerusalem. It
was the season of the Passover. As He appeared openly in the Temple, the
multitudes saw Him challenge the religious leaders. Finally He was betrayed
by one of His own disciples and arrested. He was brought before Caiaphas,
the High Priest. Several charges were brought against Him, but none could
be substantiated. Finally Caiaphas cut to the heart of the matter by asking
Jesus if He were truly the Messiah, the Son of God. Jesus answered in the
affirmative. The trial ended at this point as Caiaphas judged Him guilty of
blasphemy.
It must be remembered that this was the only charge for which Jesus was ever
found guilty. Since the Jews did not possess the legal right to enforce capital
punishment, they took Jesus to Pilate in the Antonia Fortress. Pilate found
Him innocent and tried to pass the buck by sending Jesus to Herod Antipas
who happened to be in town for the Passover. Antipas also found Him
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The War of the Jews
innocent and refused to judge the case. When Jesus was brought back to
Pilate, the procurator protested the innocence of the accused. In desperation,
Pilate offered to release Jesus on the basis of a popular custom of clemency,
due to the Passover. The crowd called for a convicted murderer named
Barabbas instead.
And when Pilate saw that he was accomplishing

nothing, but rather a riot was starting, he took water and
washed his hands in front of the multitude, saying, “I am
innocent of this Man’s blood; see to that yourselves.”
And all the people answered and said, “His blood be
on us and on our children.”
Then he released Barabbas for them; but after having
Jesus scourged, he delivered Him to be crucified. (Matthew
27:24-26).
The crowd called for a curse to be brought upon themselves and their
children. It would be in this same courtyard that the Romans would break
through in 70 A.D. and slaughter the unbelieving Jews of Jerusalem.
JERUSALEM AND THE EARLY CHURCH

Although Jesus was crucified and buried, He refused to stay dead. Even a
Roman guard could not keep Him in the grave. He arose and made numerous
appearances before finally being caught up bodily into heaven.
1. The Pentecost Incident.
The disciples of Jesus remained in Jerusalem following His

ascension, waiting for an event which He had promised. They waited
for ten days, and then, on the day of the Feast of Pentecost, something
spectacular happened.
And when the day of Pentecost had come, they

were all together in one place. 2 And suddenly there
came from heaven a noise like a violent, rushing
wind, and it filled the whole house where they were
sitting. 3 And there appeared to them tongues as of
fire distributing themselves, and they rested on each
one of them. 4 And they were all filled with the Holy
Spirit and began to speak with other tongues, as the
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Spirit was giving them utterance. (Acts 2:1-4).
Jews were gathered together from all over the world to celebrate this
Feast. Suddenly, in the midst of the crowded city, something took
place that can only be explained in terms of the supernatural.
The followers of Jesus began to speak in other languages, relating the

news that Jesus has risen from the dead. When the crowd gathered
around to see what all of the commotion was about, Peter stood up
and delivered a passionate sermon. As a result, 3000 people were
baptized.
2. Persecutions.
The initial persecutions of the early Jerusalem church were conducted

exclusively by the Jewish religious leaders. These involved beatings
and imprisonment. They escalated to the point where a mob took
Stephen and stoned him to death. Instead of destroying the church,
these persecutions had the result of scattering the Christians to other
lands. Within a few years, churches began to grow up in foreign
cities.
THE ROAD TO REVOLUTION

Conditions in Judea were made ripe for a revolution by the continued
mismanagement of the Roman procurators.
1. Early Procurators.
Following the deposing of Archelaus from the position of Ethnarch

(A.D. 6), the province of Judea was placed under a series of Roman
procurators.
Pontius Pilate (26-36 A.D.) has the distinction of crucifying Jesus. He

made several other mistakes in ruling the province, bringing graven
images of eagles into Jerusalem and then confiscating Temple funds
for civil projects.
In 39 A.D. the Emperor Caligula demanded that a statue of himself

be set up for worship in the Temple in Jerusalem. The Jews pled their
case to the Legate in Syria and the action was postponed. Before it
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could be carried out by force of arms, Caligula was assassinated and

the order was rescinded.
2. Herod Agrippa I (41-44 A.D.).
All of Palestine was united for a brief period under the rule of Herod
Agrippa 1st in A.D. 41. This time was a brief period of peace for the
Jews.
3. Ventilius Cumanus.
Following the death of Agrippa, Judea was placed back under the
authority of a Roman governor.
a. The Passover Incident.
Josephus describes one of the events which took place under

the procuratorship of Cumanus. It took place on the Passover.
For when the multitude were come

together to Jerusalem, to the feast of
unleavened bread, and a Roman cohort stood
over the cloisters of the temple (for they were
always armed and kept guard at the festivals,
to prevent any innovation which the multitude
thus gathered together might make), one of the
soldiers pulled back his garment and
cowering down after an indecent manner,
turned his buttocks to the Jews and spoke
words as you might expect upon such a
posture. At this the whole multitude had
indignation and made a clamor to Cumanus,
that he would punish the soldier; while the
rasher part of the youth, and such as were
naturally the most tumultuous, fell to fighting
and caught up stones and threw them at the
soldiers. (Wars of the Jews 2:12:1)
Cumanus tried to smooth things over, but the crowd would

not be quieted. He called for more reinforcements and a panic
ensued. Josephus estimates that 20,000 people were killed in
the riot.
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b. The Samaritan Conflict.
Further unrest was unleashed when a Jewish pilgrim traveling

from Galilee to Jerusalem was murdered while passing
through Samaria.
A Jewish mob, upon hearing the news, set out from Jerusalem
to take vengeance upon the Samaritans.
Cumanus was recalled to Rome to answer for his inability to

keep the peace. Cumanus was deposed and banished.
4. Antonius Felix (52-60 A.D.).
Felix had been the governor of Samaria and had been just as remiss
as Cumanus in keeping the peace. However, Felix had some strong
political connections in Rome so that Cumanus was given the blame
while Felix was given the position of procurator of Judea, Samaria
and Galilee.
It was while Felix was procurator that the Apostle Paul came to the
Temple in Jerusalem. Antagonistic Jews began a riot and the Roman
garrison in the Antonia Fortress intervened, arresting Paul. Finding
that he could not receive a fair trial in Jerusalem, Paul appealed to his
Roman citizenship and was therefore transported to Caesarea to
appear before Felix.
Felix heard the case, but refused to make a final decision. Paul was
kept under house arrest for a period of two years. During this time,
Felix had regular audiences with him.
5. Porcius Festus (60-62 A.D.).
When Festus came to power, there was already a complete breakdown

of law and order in Palestine. Realizing the nature of the situation, he
resolved to do nothing that would add to it. At the same time, he
realized that he had little familiarity with Jewish laws and customs.
Accordingly, he brought in Agrippa II to hear the case of Paul and

agreed with the result that Paul was innocent of any wrongdoing.
However, since Paul had already appealed to Caesar, he was sent to
Rome. Festus did not rule for long, dying early in his tenure of office.
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6. Albinus (62-65 A.D.).
It was remarked once that Roman governors generally spent their first
year in office collecting taxes to pay the bribes which had served to
acquire the governorship, the second year collecting taxes to pay the
bribes to the judges who would try them for mismanagement, and the
remainder of their years collecting taxes from which to make them
wealthy for life. Albinus was an excellent example of this.
He did not only, in his political capacity, steal

and plunder everyone’s substance, nor did he only
burden the whole nation with taxes, but he permitted
the relations of such as were in prison for robbery...
to redeem them for money. (Wars of the Jews 2:14:1)
7. Gessius Florus (65-66 A.D.).
Florus was even worse than Albinus. He made it known that he did
not care for the Jews. Thousands were put to death in senseless
slaughter. Even Roman citizens were crucified.
Bernice, the sister of Agrippa II tried to intercede, but her requests

were ignored and she was forced to flee for her own life. As
Jerusalem balanced on the brink of revolt, Agrippa II himself came
to the city to urge the Jews to be patient. The crowds pelted him with
stones.
THE REVOLT
There had been a growing antisemitism in Palestine for many years now,
especially in those cities which were predominantly Greek. This flared into
an eruption when a pagan sacrifice was made at the entrance of the synagogue
in Caesarea.
1. The Temple Sacrifice.
For many years there had been a regular sacrifice offered in the
Temple on behalf of the Roman Emperor. Eleazer, the Temple
captain, ordered that these sacrifices be stopped.
2. Florus at the Temple.
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Florus, the Roman procurator, responded by marching to Jerusalem

with the soldiers under his command and raiding the Temple
Treasury. When the Jews protested, he set his troops on the people,
allowing them to murder, rape, and plunder at will. About 3600 Jews
were killed.
3. Jerusalem Liberated.
The spark of revolt was now fanned into an open flame. The Romans
within the city of Jerusalem were slaughtered. In the riot that
followed, the High Priest was killed and his house burned along with
the official archives in which all public records were kept.
4. Capture of Masada.
Menahem, son of Judas the Galilean, attacked and captured the

fortress of Masada with its armory. This palace fortress had been
constructed by Herod the Great.
THE ROMAN DEFEAT

Josephus speaks of an ambiguous oracle that was also found in their sacred
writings, how “about that time, one from their country should become
governor of the habitable earth.” The Jews took this prediction to belong to
themselves in particular, and many of the wise men were thereby deceived in
their determination (Wars of the Jews 6:5:4).
1. The Attack of the 12th Legion.
Cestius Gallus, the Roman governor of Syria marched against Israel

with the 12th Legion. He fought his way into Jerusalem, but was
stopped before the walls of the Temple.
For a week he made repeated attacks until the defenders were on the
point of surrender. At the last moment and for no apparent reason, he
pulled back and retreated from the city. As he began to withdraw, the
Jews counterattacked, inflicting enormous losses. The 12th Legion
lost its eagle and its siege equipment.
2. The Results of the Jewish Victory.
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This loss turned the revolt into a full-scale war for independence.
The Jews were ecstatic. They set up their own government in
Jerusalem, organized the country into seven military districts, and
minted their own silver coins.
Only one group saw these events through different eyes. The Jewish
Christians in Judea remembered the warning of Jesus.
But when you see Jerusalem surrounded by

armies, then recognize that her desolation is at hand.
21 Then let those who are in Judea flee to the
mountains, and let those who are in the midst of the
city depart, and let not those who are in the country
enter the city, 22 because these are days of vengeance,
in order that all things which are written may be
fulfilled. (Luke 21:20-22).
“
The Christians remembered these words and they began to pack up

and move out of Judea. Eusebius relates a tradition how that the
members of the Jerusalem church, by means of an oracle given by
revelation to acceptable persons there, were ordered to leave the city
before the war began and settle in a town in Peraea called Pella
(1988:111).
VESPASIAN’S CAMPAIGN
Learning about the defeat of the 12th Legion, Nero commissioned his top
general with the task of subduing the rebels. His name was Titus Flavius
Vespasianus.
1. Rendezvous at Ptolemais.
Vespasian landed in Antioch and took

command of the 10th and the rebuilt 12th
Legions. Marching south along the coast,
he set up his headquarters in Ptolemais on
the southern edge of Phoenicia in 67 A.D.
Vespasian’s son, Titus, marched up from
Egypt with the 15th Legion.
Vespaisian
Linking up with his father, the Romans
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now moved inland into the region of Galilee. Battles were fought on both
land and on the lake of Galilee.
...one might then see the lake all bloody, and

full of dead bodies, for not one of them escaped. And
a terrible stink, and a very sad sight there was on the
following days over that country; for as for the
shores, they were full of shipwrecks and of dead
bodies all swelled; and as the dead bodies were
inflamed by the sun, and putrified, they corrupted the
air... (Wars of the Jews 3:10:9).
2. Josephus.
The Jewish defenders in Galilee were led by a young priest named

Josephus. He had no military experience and his forces were no
match for the Romans. They retreated to the fortress of Jotapata
where they held out for 47 days.
Josephus and a small band broke out of the fort and hid themselves
for several days in a well before being captured.
When Josephus was brought before Vespasian, he managed to flatter

him into keeping him instead of sending him on to Nero in Rome.
Josephus went to be become a personal friend and supporter of

Vespasian and Titus, eventually writing a history of this war. To the
Jews, Josephus was perceived as a traitor to his people.
3. Conquest of Samaria.
The Romans attacked the Samaritans at Mount Gerizim and dispersed

them. Then the city of Joppa was attacked in a two-pronged assault
by land and by sea. The Jewish navy was captured, giving Vespasian
complete command of the sea.
Meanwhile, the Jews had fallen to fighting among themselves as

various factions tried to gain control.
4. Conquest of Judea.
Beginning in the spring of 68 A.D. Vespasian began to whittle away

at the province of Judea, first cutting off Perea and then advancing
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down the lowlands to Emmaus.
Later in the year, Vespasian marched down the Jordan River Valley,
capturing Jericho and Qumran, the center for the Essenes.
Realizing that the Romans were coming, the Essenes took their copies
of the Scriptures, sealed them in jars and pots, and hid them in the
caves on the northwest side of the Dead Sea. These “Dead Sea
Scrolls” were not discovered until 1948.
By the summer of 69 A.D. the Jews held only Jerusalem, Herodium,

Masada and Macherus.
5. Revolt in Rome.
In 68 A.D. a revolt broke out against Emperor Nero in Gaul and

Spain. Fearing the worst, Nero committed suicide. The year of 69
A.D. has come to be known as the “Year of the Four Emperors”
because four different men were proclaimed Emperor of the Roman
Empire. The last of those men was Vespasian.
Leaving his son, Titus, to complete the conquest of the Jews,

Vespasian returned to Rome to assume the mantle of Emperor.
THE SIEGE OF JERUSALEM

Titus brought another Legion up from Egypt, giving him a total strength of
four Legions to attack the city of Jerusalem.
1. There were three primary Jewish factions within the city of Jerusalem.
John of He had been a general in the Jewish army. He

Gischala hated Josephus and had predicted that he would
betray the Jews to the Romans. He had become
the leader of the Zealots. He held the central
part of the city.
Simon Bar He headed the remnants of the army of
Gioras Josephus. They numbered several thousand, but
had degenerated into a band of looters. He held
the outer perimeter of the walls.
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Eleazer, son He began as an ally of John’s, but broke away

of Simon from him and headed a group that was more
religious in nature, desiring to establish
Judaism. He held the Temple complex.
These groups had begun to fight among themselves. During one of

these fights, a torch was thrown into a supply depot and a great deal
of the food reserves were destroyed.
2. Titus Arrives at Jerusalem.
In January of 70 A.D. Titus advanced with his forces to a point

several miles to the north of Jerusalem.
Leaving his army there, he took 600 horsemen to reconnoiter. As he

approached Jerusalem, he was attacked by a band of Jews which
scattered his cavalry unit. Titus barely escaped with his life.
The next day, Titus advanced his camp to the hill of Scopus from
which he could view the entire city.
3. The Defense of Jerusalem.
With the Roman array outside the city, the factions in Jerusalem put
aside their differences and formed an alliance. Their combined force
numbered less than 25,000 men. Against them were four full Legions
plus their auxiliaries, numbering a total of 80,000 men.
4. The Jews Attack.
The Jews launched an attack from the Woman’s Gate on the north
wall of the New Quarter. They rushed out against the 10th Legion and
drove them from their camp. The Romans had been working on
fortifications and had laid aside their arms.
5. Attack Against the New Quarter.
After bitter fighting during which the Jews repeatedly rushed out and
set fire to the siege engines, the Romans managed to break through
the northern wall and enter the New Quarter of Jerusalem. This
breakthrough was made on May 25, 70 A.D.
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6. Attack Against the Second Quarter.
The Jews had retreated to the second wall. This time, it took the
Romans only five days to knock out a narrow breach in the wall. They
poured through the breach and found themselves in that area of the
marketplace which housed the wool shops, the blacksmith shops and
the cloth markets. This section was honeycombed with narrow alleys
leading from the wall at different angles.
The Jewish defenders counterattacked inside the wall. The Romans

became disoriented in the winding maze and were forced to retreat to
the safety of the second wall.
This position held for three days. On the fourth, Titus overran the
Jews in a massive attack. Once in possession of the wall, Titus
proceeded to tear it down.
7. Propaganda Tactics.
Titus now suspended the siege operations for a while to see if the
famine within the city and the demoralization of the Jewish rebels
might lead to a surrender.
To add to this demoralization, he paraded his entire army before the

northern wall of the Temple area. This parade lasted for four days.
8. Earthworks.
When the rebels refused to surrender, Titus began building

earthworks and siege engines for the assault on the Antonia Fortress.
These were completed on the 16th of June.
While the siege engines were being brought up into position, the Jews
dug tunnels under the ground, out underneath the walls of the city and
right up to the Roman earthworks. As they were digging, they
supported these tunnels with wooden beams. When they were done,
they pulled back and set fire to the supporting wooden beams which
caused them to collapse. The Roman earthworks toppled over with
a thundering crash as the ground gave way beneath them in a smoking
pit.
The Romans brought up more siege engines and the Jews rushed out
in a lightning attack, setting fire to them and destroying them. For a
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time the Romans were forced to pull back.
9. A Wall Around the City.
Titus now had a wall constructed around the entire city of Jerusalem
so that no one could go in and no one could go out. This wall was
reputed to be as high as the defensive walls of the city. All hope for
escape for the Jews was cut off. This action was a direct fulfillment
of the prophecy of Jesus.
For the days shall come upon you when your

enemies will throw up a bank before you, and
surround you, and hem you in on every side. (Luke
19:43).
Famine now began to rage through the city. Starving people turned to
cannibalism, even killing and eating their own children. Those who
were captured trying to escape from the city were crucified.
So the soldiers, out of the wrath and hatred

they bore the Jews, nailed those they caught, one after
one way, and another after another, to the crosses by
way of jest; when their multitude was so great, that
room was wanting for the crosses, and crosses for the
bodies. (Wars of the Jews 5:11:1).
The wall around Jerusalem, the city which had crucified her Messiah,
was now ringed with its crucified inhabitants.
10. Assault on the Antonia. Fortress.
Next Titus began construction of more earthworks opposite the

Antonia Fortress. Building materials for this construction came from
as far as ten miles away. Not a tree was left standing around
Jerusalem. The siege machines were brought up, but they only
managed to dislodge four stones.
That night, the portion of the wall where the rams had been pounding,
further weakened by the cave-in of the Jewish tunnel, suddenly
collapsed. The Roman found a second wall which the Jews had built
behind it.
Four nights later, the Romans mounted a surprise attack. The Jews
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abandoned the Antonia Fortress and fled to the Temple.
Model of the Temple Mount with the Fortress Antonia in the upper left
11. Fight for the Temple.
The Romans attacked down into the Temple compound, but had
limited access and were forced to retreat. Titus spent seven days
dismantling the Antonia Fortress, using the materials to build a
roadway up to the Temple. Now his entire force was brought up into
the Court of the Gentiles. This was the last stand for the Jews. They
fought bitterly, keeping the Romans at bay for a time by sheer
determination.
On August 27, Titus issued orders to set fire to the Gate Beautiful.
This was done and the fire raged all day.
On August 30, the Romans finally gained entrance into the Temple,
setting it on fire and slaughtering thousands. Women and children
had hidden themselves in the treasury chambers and these were also
set on fire. The Temple was burned to the ground. In fulfillment of
the prophecy of Jesus, not one stone was left upon another.
Caesar gave orders that they should now

demolish the entire city and the temple... the wall was
so thoroughly laid even with the ground by those that
dug it up to the foundations, that there was left
nothing to make those that came there believe it had
ever been inhabited. (Wars of the Jews 7:1:1).
The temple was destroyed so completely that later archaeologists

would argue as to exactly where it was originally located. Not a
single stone was left standing.
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12. The Fall of the Remainder of the City.
The Romans now swept down into the Lower City, but it took another
month for them to take the Upper City and Herod’s Palace.
Titus ordered that the city be leveled and that all of the surviving
inhabitants to be taken captive. Some of these were sent to the salt
mines while others were held in reserve to be paraded in the Triumph
of Titus.
Now this vast multitude is indeed collected out

of remote places, but the entire nation was now shut
up by fate as in prison, and the Roman army
encompassed the city when it was crowded with
inhabitants. Accordingly, the multitude of those that
therein perished exceeded all the destructions that
either men or God ever brought upon the world; for,
to speak only of what was publicly known, the
Romans slew some of them, some they carried
captives, and others they made a search for under
ground, and when they found where they were, they
broke up the ground and slew all they met with. (War
of the Jews 6:9:4).
The Romans began a search through the sewers for the hidden rebels.
John gave himself up and was imprisoned. Simon was caught while
digging his own tunnel under the walls. He was also thrown into
chains.
13. The Escape of the Christians.
Though there is no mention of this in Josephus, a later church

historian tells of how the Christians had already made their escape
from Jerusalem: "But the people of the church in Jerusalem had been
commanded by a revelation, vouchsafed to approved men there
before the war, to leave the city and to dwell in a certain town of
Perea called Pella. And when those that believed in Christ had come
there from Jerusalem, then, as if the royal city of the Jews and the
whole land of Judea were entirely destitute of holy men, the judgment
of God at length overtook those who had committed such outrages
against Christ and his apostles, and totally destroyed that generation
of impious men" (Eusebius, Church History 3:5:3).
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MASADA
With Jerusalem destroyed, the only place of resistance in Palestine was the
isolated fortress of Masada, located on the western shore of the Dead Sea.
The fortress had been built by John Hyrcanus and then refurbished by Herod
the Great. It had enough food and water to last for ten years. Located atop a
flat mesa surrounded by 1200 foot sheer cliffs, it was considered to be
impregnable.
Mountain fortress of Masada with the Dead Sea in the distance
1. The Defenders.
The fortress had been captured by a. group of Zealots at the beginning

of the Jewish revolt. It was held by a group of 960 men, women and
children. They were led by Eleazer, a descendant of Judas the
Galilean.
2. The Siege.
The 10th Roman Legion was sent under governor Flavius Silva to
take the fortress in 72 A.D. They encamped around it and surrounded
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it with a wall.
The lot of the Romans was difficult. Both food and water had to be
transported from long distances to support the Legion.
3. The Ramp.
Model of the Masada Fortress with the Roman ramp on the right
Unable to scale the steep cliffs, Silva built a giant ramp up to the
plateau. His siege engines were pushed up this ramp and, in the spring
of 73 A.D. they managed to break through the wall of the fortress,
only to find that the Jews had built another wall behind the first wall.
This second wall was inset so that the siege engines could not reach
it. However, it had been constructed of combustible materials and the
Romans set it on fire.
4. Suicide.
Seeing their last defense go up in flames, Eleazer called his people

together and suggested that they commit mass suicide rather than fall
into the hands of the Romans. The entire group agreed except for two
women and five children who hid themselves among the buildings of
the fortress.
The next morning when the Romans advanced, they found nothing
but silence to greet them. Walking through the fortress, they came
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The War of the Jews
upon the entire group, lying together by families with their throats
cut.
Nor could they do other than wonder at the

courage of their resolution, and at the immovable
contempt of death which so great a number of them
had shown, when they went through with such an
action as that was. (Wars of the Jews 7:9:2).
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THE ROMAN REPUBLIC
I do honestly believe that no country has ever been
greater or purer than ours or richer in good citizens and
noble deeds; none has been free for so many generations from
the vices of avarice and luxury; nowhere have thrift and plain
living been for so long held in such esteem. Indeed, poverty,
with us, went hand in hand with contentment (Livy 18).
The world that was Rome spanned a thousand years and serves as the central
lake into which all the streams of ancient history flowed and from which all
the streams of modern history now flow. Rome is the culmination of all the
advancements and the learning of the ancient world. She reflects its culture,
its architecture, and its religion. Rome is also the basis for our modern
history. Our present culture, architecture, philosophies, and even our politics
find their origins in Rome.
The geography of the Italian peninsula played a significant part in the

formation of Rome. That peninsula is shaped like a giant boot that is kicking
the triangular island of Sicily. Surrounded by water on three sides, the Alps
in the north served to cut off the peninsula from the outside world. However,
the nautical distances of the other land masses in the Mediterranean are not
that great. From the heel of Italy to the Greek mainland is only fifty miles
and the western tip of Sicily is only a hundred miles from Africa. This placed
the Italian peninsula in a uniquely central position in the Mediterranean, just
as the city of Rome would be centrally located in the peninsula of Italy.
The eastern coast of Italy is mountainous with only a few natural harbors and
this tended to turn the population to the western coast with its rich, fertile
plains. Most of the principle settlements were therefore located on that west
coast.
The Romans were an amalgamation of many different races and cultures,

similar to the citizens of the United States of America.
• The Villanovans settled primarily in the Po Valley where they were

known for raising horses.
• The Etruscans settled in the lands between the Arno and the Tiber
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The Roman Republic
Rivers, building a confederation of twelve cities. According to

Herodotus, they were descended from the Lydians of Anatolia who
had migrated to Italy in antiquity. They were far more culturally
advanced than the other tribes already in Italy and they brought its
first real contact with the eastern Mediterranean. Their ruins have
produced artifacts from Egypt and Phoenicia. They used the same
kind of burial grounds that can be found in Anatolia and they passed
this practice to the Latins and it continued to be practiced throughout
the history of Rome.
• The Sabines lived in the mountains on the eastern side of Italy and
gave rise to a tribe known as the Samnites.
• The Latins had a legend that said they were descended from Trojans
who fled to Italy after the fall of Troy in 1200 B.C.
• Greek colonies were originally established on the coasts of southern

Italy and Sicily. These grew to be very wealthy and later played a
part in the expansion of Rome.
The city of Rome was located on the Tiber River near to where it is joined by
the Aniene River. An island in the Tiber gave a strategic ford across the
waterway and made this location something of a crossroads. The city was a
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The Roman Republic
mere 16 miles from the sea and thus Rome was linked to the rest of the world
both by land and by sea, making it a center of trade and commerce. The city
eventually sprawled across seven hills, but, as the saying goes, Rome was not
built in a day.
THE ETRUSCANS
Very little has been known of the Etruscans until recent times. Their
language was not of the Indo-European branch and is only now beginning to
be deciphered, thanks largely to the discovery of the Pyrgi Tablets in Italy in
1964 that contained a bi-lingual inscription in Phoenician and Etruscan.
Herodotus tells the story of how they migrated from Lydia at a time when that
country was going through a great famine.
The king determined to divide the nation in half, and

to make the two portions draw lots, the one to stay, the other
to leave the land. He would continue to reign over those
whose lot it should be to remain behind; the emigrants should
have his son Tyrrhenus for their leader. The lot was cast, and
they who had to emigrate went down to Smyrna, and built
themselves ships, in which, after they had put on board all
needful stores, they sailed away in search of new homes and
better sustenance. After sailing past many countries, they
came to Umbria, where they built cities for themselves, and
fixed their residence. Their former name of Lydians they laid
aside, and called themselves after the name of the king’s son,
who led the colony, Tyrrhenians. (Herodotus, Histories 1:94).
DNA testing of Etruscan remains have demonstrated some validity to the

report of Herodotus that the Etruscans came from Anatolia.
The Etruscan culture was advanced beyond that of the surrounding tribes and
the Etruscans held dominance over the area for several hundred years,
solidifying their economic position by entering into a trade agreement with
the Phoenician colony of Carthage in North Africa.
One of the devices introduced into Italy by the Etruscans was the six-spoked
iron chariot. This, along with other technological innovations, gave the
Etruscans a military advantage over their neighbors.
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The excavated sarcophagus lids of Etruscan nobility suggest that they were
a monogamous people who valued the marriage relationship and who held
their wives in high esteem. This was in contrast to most ancient cultures that
viewed the place of women only a little higher than livestock.
ROMAN FOUNDATION LEGENDS

The Romans traced their ancestry back to the legend of Aeneas, one of the
characters out of Homer’s Iliad, a Trojan survivor who escaped the fall of the
city carrying his aged father on his back and holding the hand of his young
son. After many wanderings around the Mediterranean world, their ship is
said to have landed in Italy where they met King Latinus, who gave his name
to the Latins. These two groups joined forces to become the Latin people.
The semi-legendary
founders of the city of
Rome were Romulus and
Remus. Supposedly born
after the god Mars raped a
vestal virgin of noble
blood, the twin boys were
placed by the banks of the
Tiber River. They were
suckled by a mother wolf
and then found by a kindly
farmer who raised them as
his own. When they were Romulus and Remus
grown to adulthood, they
found their grandfather, the king of Numitor. But rather than inherit a
kingdom from him, they set out to build their own city on the banks of the
very river where they had been exposed as infants.
As the brothers were twins, they argued over which would be the king of this
new city. Unable to reconcile, they each began to build walls for a city of
their own on the neighboring hills of the Palatine and the Aventine. When
Remus mocked the wall of his brother by jumping over it, Romulus killed
him in a fit of rage, adding the threat, “So perish whoever else shall overleap
my battlements” (Livy 24). Romans looked to 753 B.C. as the year of the
founding of Rome. This reckoning of time would continue up until the
Christianization of Rome and the establishment of a new calendar starting
with the birth of Christ.
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THE KINGS OF ROME

From the founding of the city of Rome under Romulus to the birth of the
Roman Republic, Rome had seven kings. This period of history comes to us
partly as history and partly as myth.
1. Romulus, the Warrior-King: Ruled 753 - 715 BC.
As the first king of Rome, Romulus is said to have invited all to come
and build a new life within his city. The city became a haven for
anyone who was seeking asylum, whether because he was fleeing
oppression or even if he was an escaped criminal. According to the
legend, this resulted in an imbalanced population as most men who
came to the city did not bring wives with them. Romulus devised a
plan whereby some seven hundred women of the Sabines were
kidnaped and forcibly taken as wives for his people. This led to war
with the Sabines, though it took some time before the two armies
actually clashed. By that time, the forced marriages had led to the
birth of children. As the armies were about to engage in battle, the
Sabine women brought their children onto the battlefield and begged
their fathers and brothers and husbands to call a halt to the hostilities.
Their plea was heard and a treaty was drawn up in which the Sabines
and the Romans joined forces with their kings reigning jointly over
the land. When the Sabine king subsequently died, Romulus and his
descendants continued to rule the united people.
2. Numa Pompilius: Ruled 715-673 B.C.
He was a Sabine and introduced Rome to its religious rites, its

priesthood, its vestal virgins, and the temple of Janus. His reign was
a period of peace.
3. Tullius Hostilius: Ruled 672 - 641 B.C.
He was the opposite of his predecessor in that he was a man of war.

Livy says, “In his view, Rome had been allowed to lapse into senility,
and his one object was to find cause for renewed military adventure”
(History 1:18). Legend has it that Tullius Hostilius neglected the
gods and so brought about a plague on the city of Rome. He was
subsequently struck down by a bold of lightning.
4. Ancus Marcius: Ruled 640-616 B.C.
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He was the grandson of Numa Pompilius and he balanced the roles of

administrator and military leader. He conquered several of the Latin
tribes. He also built the first bridge across the Tiber River. He also
built the port city of Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber that would serve
as the port of Rome.
5. Tarquinius Priscus (Tarquinius I): Ruled 616-579 B.C.
Tarquin was an Etruscan and he continued the tradition of conquest

and construction. He founded the Circus Maximus and the Roman
games. Upon his return in victory, he gave himself the honor of a
triumph, a victory parade. This was to become a tradition in Rome.
6. Servius Tullius: Ruled 578-534 B.C.
He established a constitution that made wealth the deciding factor

upon a person’s placement in society. The people were divided into
various social classes.
• The Patricians were the wealthy landowners. They dominated

the Roman politics and their representative body was known
as the Senate.
• The Plebeians were the poorer class who owned little or no

land. The majority of the people fell into this class and it
included the merchants and professional men. They were the
working class.
Servius Tullius had a great wall built around the city of Rome that
encompassed all seven hills on which the city rested. He was
assassinated by his daughter Tullia and her husband Tarquin.
7. Tarquinius Superbus (Tarquin the Proud): Ruled 534-510 B.C.
Tarquin was known as an Etruscan tyrant. He had gained the throne

through murder and he held to it by means of violence. The seeds of
revolt were sown at a drinking party where a number of Roman
princes began to discuss whose wife was the most virtuous. The
discussion grew more heated until is was decided that they should all
return to their homes unannounced to see what their wives were doing
in their absence. Livy continues the story:
They reached the city as dusk was falling; and there
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the wives of the royal princes were found enjoying

themselves with a group of young friends at a dinner-
party, in the greatest luxury. The riders went on to
Collatia, where they found Lucretia very differently
employed: it was already late at night, but there, in the
hall of her house, surrounded by her busy maid-
servants, she was still hard at work by lamplight upon
her spinning. Which wife had won the contest in
womanly virtue was no longer in doubt (1965:82).
This event had put the beautiful and dutiful Lucretia into a place of
honor and now Sextus Tarquinius, the son of King Tarquin, hatched
a plot to seduce her. He came to her house when her husband was not
home and entered her bedchamber where she was sleeping.
Sextus urged his love, begged her to submit, pleaded,

threatened, used every weapon that might conquer a
woman’s heart. But all in vain; not even the fear of
death could bend her will. ‘If death will not move
you,’ Sextus cried, ‘dishonor shall. I will kill you
first, then cut the throat of a slave and lay his naked
body by your side. Will they not believe that you
have been caught in adultery with a servant – and paid
the price?’ (1965:82-83).
Lucretia finally yielded and Sextus had his way before abandoning
her. She sent word to her father and husband and when they came to
her, each bringing their closest friends. Before them all, she related
the entire story. They tried to comfort her and to assure her that there
was no fault in her, but rather than serve as a precedent for future
women to live unchaste lives, she drove a knife into her heart and
died.
One of those friends who was present was Brutus. He was filled with
righteous indignation and he led the people in a revolt against
Tarquin. No longer would they be subject to the petty whims of a
king. From now on, the power of rulership would lie in the hands of
a republic, a government in which the citizens would elect their
officials who would then pass and execute laws and in which no man
would inherit the right to hold a political office.
Tarquin escaped from Rome and sought the aid of another Etruscan king by
the name of Lars Porsenna who came with his armies and besieged Rome.
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Legend has it that the armies of Lars Porsenna were held at bay on the Tiber
Bridge by the Roman soldier Horatius who asked that the bridge be destroyed
behind him. Horatius at the bridge became something of a byword among the
Romans, picturing their determination and self-sacrifice.
THE BIRTH OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

A republic is a form of government in which leaders are elected by the
people. These leaders pass and execute laws binding to all. Under a
republic, no man inherits the right to hold political office. The Roman
republic had three bodies:
1. The Centuriate Assembly.
This consisted of all citizens who performed their military duties.

They were empowered with the choosing of two consuls.
2. Two Consuls.
Instead of a president, they selected two consuls, each who served a

one-year term. They shared the power of a monarch and controlled
the military. Each consul had the power of veto over the other in time
of peace
3. The Senate.
This was made up of all former consuls and anyone appointed to the
senate by a consul. The senate directed foreign affairs, controlled the
tax system, and accepted or rejected any bill passed by the assembly.
A series of laws were codified and established, written on twelve tablets of

copper. These were known as the Twelve Tables and they were set up in a
public place where anyone could come and read them.
• Death sentences could only be issued by the law courts.

• There was a maximum rate of interest.
• One who could not pay his debts could be sold into slavery by his
creditors.
• If a thief was a freeman he was flogged and had to repay what was
stolen. If he was a slave he was flogged and then put to death.
• No burials or cremations were allowed within the city walls.
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• Marriage between patricians and plebeians was forbidden.

• The death penalty was evoked for the theft of crops, for slander, and
for giving false witness.
• A father had an obligation to kill his deformed child.
• If a father sold his son into slavery on three different occasion, the
son would from that time onward be free from his father
As time went on, there emerged two social classes among the Romans. First
were the patricians. They were wealthy landowners who dominated Roman
politics. The Senate was made up exclusively of the Patricians. The second
group were the Plebians. They were generally the poorer class who owned
little or no land. The majority of people fell into this class and it included the
merchants and the professional men, though some were men of financial
means.
After a long struggle, the Plebians were permitted to meet in their own
assembly and to elect officials known as “tribunes.” Tribunes could veto any
decision made by the Senate that affected the Plebians. The Plebians
gradually gained other rights such as intermarriage with patricians and the
right to hold the office of consul.
THE SPREAD OF ROMAN POWER

It was during these domestic struggles that Rome began to extend both her
power and her influence. The immediate reason for Roman expansion was
a desire to neutralize her immediate neighbors and thereby nullify the a
perceived threat. Such neighbors were eventually brought into the republic,
but each acquisition brought new neighbors who were seen to constitute a
new threat and demand another such neutralization.
The Romans finally succeeded in joining the neighboring Latin tribes into a
league for mutual military defense. Rome was the leader of this league and
so continued to grow in strength. By 400 B.C., Rome was the leading city of
central Italy.
This expansionist policy eventually brought Rome into contact with the
Gauls. During the fifth century, a group of Celtic-speaking Gauls pushed out
the Etruscan settlers from northern Italy and settled there. This area around
the Po River became known as Cisalpine Gaul, literally, “Gaul on this side
of the Alps.”
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These Gauls brought with them When the Gauls sacked Rome, the
several innovative weapons, Romans stayed and continued to contest
including mounted cavalry with the ownership of the city. Livy tells the
story of how, in a night attack by the
iron horseshoes and large Gauls, the Romans were alerted by the
broadswords. In 386 B.C. they cackling of Juno’s sacred geese that
awoke the Romans to their danger.
moved south against the city of
Rome. The Romans were routed
and Rome was sacked and burned. The Romans never forgot this terrible
event and they vowed that it would never happen again. It would not for 800
years.
As the Romans extended their boundaries southward, they clashed with the
Greek colonies in southern Italy. Rome soon found herself at war with the
Greeks. The Greeks possessed a first class military, compliments of the days
of Alexander the Great, with heavy phalanxes and war elephants from India.
In the first battle, King Pyrrhus of Epirus defeated the Romans. The
casualties were reported with Rome losing 7000 men to Pyrrhus’s 4000 men.
In a second battle, the losses were about the same and again Pyrrhus won. He
was known to say, “Another such victory and I am lost.” It is from this event
that we have our term “Pyrrhic victory” to describe
a victory that is too costly. After a third battle, the
Romans defeated Pyrrhus and he sailed back to
Greece, leaving the Romans as the masters of
Italy.
There are two reasons the Romans were able to

achieve their conquests. The first was because of
their innate discipline. This combined with the
Romans a high standard of training and
organization within their army. It is said that a
Roman mother sending her son off to war would
exhort him to come back with his shield or on it.
Pyrrhus of Epirus
This underscores an important feature in the
Roman psyche. The Romans were not bigger or stronger than their
neighbors. Indeed, they were considered to be relatively short when
compared to some of their enemies. What set them apart was an
unwillingness to quit. This resolute endurance would serve them for a
thousand years.
A second reason for Roman success was that the Romans normally treated
their conquered people fairly well. They were often allowed a certain amount
of self government and sometimes even partial citizenship.
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THE PUNIC WARS

Rome’s expansion inevitably brought it into direct conflict with the
Phoenician colony of Carthage, located in North Africa. The name Carthage
means “New City” in the Phoenician language. The Phoenicians had long
since been conquered and that made Carthage an independent state. The
Carthaginians, like their ancestors, the Phoenicians, were a great sea people
and boasted the most powerful navy in the world. They had colonies in
Sicily, Corsica, and Spain.
1. The First Punic War (364-241 B.C.).
The first war was fought over possession of Sicily, the stepping stone
between Italy and Africa. The Romans did not have a fleet and were
very poor sailors when compared to the Carthaginians. Since this war
was fought primarily on the sea, the Romans were at a distinct
disadvantage.
At the outbreak of the war, the Romans built a fleet of ships and
launched it. Most of the ships in the fleet sank in a storm without
ever meeting the enemy. While the Romans were excellent soldiers,
they knew little about sailing and their ships had a high casualty rate
in rough weather.
After losing several fleets in such a manner, the Romans found a

Carthaginian warship that had been beached in a storm. With the
help of Greek architects, they made a hundred replicas. The Romans
still could not match the Carthaginian sailing ability, so they
developed their own brand of naval warfare. Their favorite tactic was
to get within range of an enemy vessel and then drop a bridge across
to the enemy decks with a large hook that would secure the bridge in
place. Then they would sweep their infantry across onto the enemy
decks and fight as if they were on land. Using such tactics, the
Carthaginians were beaten and driven out of Sicily.
2. The Second Punic War (218-202 B.C.).
This war was fought largely on land. One of the key figures of the
conflict was a young Carthaginian general named Hannibal. He
started out from a Carthaginian settlement in Spain with an army of
100,000 men and 80 war elephants. He marched north over the
Pyrenees and then east across France, crossing the Alps to come into
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Italy from the north. He arrived in Italy with 28,000 men and 22
elephants, having lost 75 % of his force on the march.
Hannibal won two successive victories over the Romans and when
news of these spectacular victories was spread, the Gauls aligned
themselves with him to augment his forces.
Hannibal moved south to threaten Rome and he was met by the

Roman general Quintus Fabius Maximus who had been given the title
of dictator during this military crisis. Maximus knew better than to
engage Hannibal in open battle and, instead, conducted a guerrilla
campaign in which he harassed the Carthaginian troops. He became
known to the Romans as "The Delayer" and they resolved to take
more direct action.
Two newer consuls were given authority over the Roman army and
they met Hannibal in the Battle of Cannae in southern Italy. Hannibal
presented what looked to be a weak center in his battle lines and the
Romans marched forward, pushing back that center. It was a trap and
Hannibal's strong cavalry swept around both Roman flanks to come
in behind the Romans and trap them. The Roman army of 80,000
men was completely destroyed. It was the worst defeat ever
experienced in the history of Rome.
As a result of this defeat, certain cities from the Roman possessions

threw in their allegiance to Hannibal. Sicily came over to his side and
King Philip V of Macedon declared war on the Romans. The defeat
showed that Maximus had been correct in his strategy. The Romans
went back to the use of guerrilla tactics, allowing Hannibal to march
up and down the Italian peninsula at will.
Finally, Rome sent a fleet In their later years, Scipio and Hannibal had the
across the Mediterranean opportunity to meet. Scipio asked Hannibal who
he thought had been the world’s greatest general.
to attack Carthage Hannibal replied that it was Alexander. He then
directly. Hannibal was asked who would have been the second greatest
and Hannibal nominated Pyrrhus. Scipio asked
recalled to defend who would have been the third greatest and
Carthage and there he Hannibal chose himself. Scipio asked, “What
would you have said if you had defeated me?”
was defeated by the Hannibal replied, “I would have put myself as first.”
Roman general Scipio at Livy comments how Scipio took this as a great
compliment because “Hannibal had set him apart
the Battle of Zama in 202 from the ordinary run of military captains as an
incomparable commander.”
B.C.
In the peace treaty, Rome took possession of Spain and oversaw a
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The Roman Republic
general disarmament of the Carthaginian military. Between the

Second and Third Punic Wars, the Romans conquered Macedonia and
Anatolia, effectively neutralizing Antiochus III of Syria and his son
Antiochus Epiphanes.
3. The Third Punic War (149-146 B.C.).
This third war was the shortest, lasting

The Roman senator Cato
only three years. At the end of the would end every speech, no
Second Punic War, Carthage had matter what the topic, with the
statement, “And Carthage
agreed to disarm her military. She was should be destroyed.”
allowed to keep ten warships and a
small army, but this force was not
permitted to fight without the express permission of the Roman
Senate.
When the Numidians of central Africa began to conduct raids upon

Carthage, numerous delegations were sent to Rome, asking for
permission for the army to defend itself against these attacks. The
Roman Senate procrastinated without giving any definite answer.
Finally, Carthage attacked the Numidians and defeated them.

Immediately, a Roman army was sent to punish Carthage for her
disobedience. In order to satisfy the demands of Rome, Carthage
court-martialed all of her commanders and executed them, disarming
her military.
Not satisfied, Rome resolved to destroy Carthage. The Carthaginians

held out for three years before the Romans finally broke through the
city’s defenses. Carthage was burned, her lands were sown with salt
so that nothing would grow there, and those inhabitants who were not
slaughtered were hauled away as slaves.
THE ROMAN CIVIL WARS

The Punic Wars left conditions in Italy The price of slaves during this
unsettled. Although Rome’s military period reached an all-time low
since so many of Rome’s
victories had made her rich, they had also enemies had been enslaved.
caused a deep rift in her social and political
life. Wealthy Romans had become wealthier
while the ordinary farmer found it harder and harder to make a living. The
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result was that the people were split into two clashing groups that replaced
the old Plebian and Patrician classes.
• The Optimates were made up of Patricians and the wealthy Plebians.

They tended to be conservative in their outlook, desiring to maintain
the status quo. This is understandable. Those who have all the
wealth are not naturally motivated to seek change.
• The Populares were the common people who wanted to see the social
order changed, hoping that it might lead to better things for
themselves. Their number included some rich men with liberal
sentiments and it also included many farmers who had served as
soldiers in the Punic Wars. During the wars, they had been unable to
work their lands or pay taxes because they had been away fighting.
When they returned, it was to find that their farms had been sold
because of non-payment.
In such a political climate, certain men would rise to prominence who would
make a stand for the Populares.
1. Tiberius Gracchus.
Tiberius Gracchus, along with his brother, Gaius, was the grandson
of Scipio Africanus, the Roman general who had defeated Hannibal
at the end of the Second Punic War. Tiberius was elected tribune in
134 B.C. He saw the distribution of captured territories was going
primarily to the large landowners while the poorer classes were
receiving nothing. One of his first acts in office was to try to limit the
size of these newly acquired farms and estates so that no one person
could take over great amounts of land. It was not actually a new law,
but an enforcement of an old law that had come to be bypassed and
ignored.
The Senate convinced a fellow tribune to veto this plan and a political
battle ensued. When Tiberius tried to run for a second term as
tribune, something that was not allowed under the Roman
constitution, Tiberius was accused of trying to make himself into a
king. A riot ensued and Tiberius was killed. In order to placate the
people, the Senate subsequently passed a number of the legislative
reforms that Tiberius had championed.
2. Gaius Gracchus (154-121 B.C.).
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The younger brother of Tiberius became tribune in 124 B.C. and

made the following proposals:
• Roman citizenship should be granted to other Italian cities.

• The state would sell grain to the poor at greatly reduced
prices.
• Foreign colonies would be used as places of settlement for
unemployed Romans.
• The size of new farm estates would be limited. In this area,
Gaius suggested even more drastic measures than his brother
had done.
The Senate declared Gaius a public enemy and ordered his arrest. To
avoid the disgrace of a public execution, he had himself killed by his
own servant. His body and the bodies of three thousand of his
supporters were thrown into the Tiber while their properties were
confiscated by their enemies.
3. Gaius Marius (157-86 B.C.).
Marius was an Equestrian who supported the Populares. He was

elected as consul in 108 B.C. and he held that position six times over
the next seven years in spite of the fact that he was a “new man”
(novus homo), one who was new to politics. Indeed, there had been
an old law that had prohibited second consulships altogether.
He launched a campaign against Jugurtha, an African chieftain who

had seized control of Numidia. Jugurtha was defeated, captured, and
sent back to Rome where he died in prison. Next, Marius fended off
a threatened invasion of Gauls from the north of Italy.
During the course of these operations, Marius brought a number of

changes to the Roman military. Up to this time, Roman soldiers had
been drawn from the ranks of Roman citizens who were called by the
state to serve in a particular campaign for a one year term. When
their year of service ended, they went home. This had met with some
disastrous results in the past when the year ended and the war was
still going. At times, the entire army had packed up and gone home,
leaving their officers to be defeated.
Marius now made provision for terms of service to be extended. He

also permitted landless people to enlist and he furnished them with
weapons. In this way, the army became an organization of
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professionals who made a career of military service. Their general

became more important to them than the government officials.
4. Marcus Livius Drusus.
Drusus was elected as tribune in 91 B.C. He was a spokesman for the

Populares, yet managed to get considerable senatorial assistance as
his negotiations offered to strengthen the power of the Senate.
He fell into disfavor with the Senate when he proposed to extend

citizenship to all of the cities of the Italian peninsula. This proposal
was opposed by nearly all Roman citizens.
Drusus was assassinated that same year and his death sparked the
beginning of the Social War (91-88 B.C.). This war involved the
cities of the Italian Alliance attempting to secede from Rome. The
war ended only when Rome agreed to grant citizenship to all Italians
who had not revolted.
5. Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 B.C.).
In later life, Sula was given

Sulla was an aristocrat who supported the the agnomen Felix (“the
Optimates. As a young man, he had served Lucky”) for his good fortune
in military campaigns.
under Marius in the Jugurthine War and
had been personally responsible for the
capture of Jugurtha. He was elected consul in 88 B.C. at the age of
50.
Sulla tried to curb civil disorder by giving more power to the Senate.
He was vigorously opposed in this by Marius. Soon after he had
taken command, Sulla went to Naples to prepare an expedition
against Mithridates, the King of Pontus who had taken over Anatolia
and had murdered 80,000 Roman colonists in a single day. While
Sulla was still in Naples, Marius tried to undermine his authority by
transferring an army command from Sulla to himself.
Sulla responded by leading his army back to Rome. Marius fled to

Africa and Sulla entered Rome without resistance, condemning all of
his enemies to death and further strengthening the Senate. He then
set out for Anatolia.
Mithridates of Pontus was descended from a line of kings that traced

their lineage back to the Royal Persian House of Alexander’s day.
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Located on the southern shore of the Black Sea, the people of Pontus
had used their pine forests to build a strong navy. These ships had
carved out a small empire encompassing all the lands around the
Black Sea. With Rome embroiled in civil war, Mithridates had taken
the opportunity to push the Romans completely out of Asia.
Over the next three years, Sulla defeated Mithridates and severely
punished all his allies, including Athens. Roman power in the east
was restored. Mithridates was left in control of Pontus after he had
signed a treaty of friendship with Rome. Two more wars with
Mithridates would be fought before Asia became a Roman
possession, but for the time being, Sulla’s attention was directed back
to Rome where Marius had returned, seizing control of the
government and murdering many of Sulla’s friends and supporters
before dying in Rome.
Sulla returned to Rome in 83 B.C. and fought a pitched battle at the

gates of Rome against the supporters of Marius. When Sulla emerged
victorious, he declared all the former followers of Marius to be
enemies of the state and had them executed. He took ten thousand
slaves, gave them their freedom and made them Roman citizens, and
then hired them as his personal band of agents. They were known as
the Cornelli and acted as his mob to keep him in power.
For the remainder of his life, Sulla was an absolute dictator. He

initiated the following laws:
• He gave the Senate more power and curtailed the power of the
tribunes.
• He limited the judiciary to members of the Senate.
• He increased the size of the Senate.
• He made it a mortal offense for a commander to lead his
troops outside his assigned province or to make war without
the approval of the Senate.
• He made it illegal for a consul to hold office for more than
one year at a time.
Sulla voluntarily retired from office in 79 B.C. and died the following
year. He had begun a new period in Roman history. From now on,
it would be military strength and not the representative government
that would decide who was going to rule Rome and the Empire.
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THE ROMAN EMPIRE
Behold them, conquerors of the world, all clad in Roman
gowns! (Livy, quoted by Suetonius 77).
The history of Rome can be divided into two distinct periods. First is the
period of the Roman Republic. It lasts from the founding of the city of Rome
in 753 B.C. to the advent of Octavius Augustus. During most of this period,
Rome was ruled by an elected body of leaders. The transition from republic
to empire was not easily distinguished. The Roman emperors continued to
practice the outward forms of the old republic, but the true power now
resided in the hands of a single man, an emperor.
The second period is that of the Roman Empire. It is said to have begun with
Octavius Augustus and lasted until 476 A.D. when Romulus Augustus was
removed from his position of emperor by a Gothic king. Although the city
of Rome would continue to be a major influence after this for many hundreds
of years, it would no longer be the seat of an empire.
THE SITUATION AT THE DEATH OF SULLA

Sulla died in 78 B.C. The civil strife had been going on for about fifty years.
This had been a time of rebellions, assassinations, and power struggles
between individuals and between social classes.
Sulla had left the Senate in complete control over Rome. The power of the
tribunes had been cut down so that the common people had practically no
voice at all in government affairs. Officials were thoroughly corrupt, stealing
money from the treasury to build up their own personal fortunes.
It was often said that one would receive the office of governor over a
province and use the money that was stolen during the first year in office to
pay back all the bribes that had been necessary to obtain the office in the first
place. Then the governor would save the money he stole in his second year
in office to pay the bribes to those who would judge him once he was
removed from office. For the rest of his term, he would steal enough money
to serve as his retirement for the rest of his life.
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The population in Rome was divided among the very rich, numbering a few
thousand, and the very poor, numbering in the hundreds of thousands. Many
survived through a system of patronage in which they would offer their
services to a wealthy patron in exchange for food and sustenance.
Meanwhile, the changes in the military which Marius had instituted had taken
hold. Non-property owners were now allowed to join the army and many of
the poor in Rome went into the military. As a result, these professional
soldiers would be more loyal to their generals than to the government.
There were three men in the Empire who would eventually change the course
of history. These men were seeking power at the time of the death of Sulla
and they would join to form an unofficial triumvirate.
1. Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus.
He is known to us as Pompey the Great. Pompey began as one of

Sulla’s generals. He had a special gift when it came to naval warfare.
He was 28 years old at the death of Sulla.
2. Marcus Licinius Crassus.
Crassus also had been one of Sulla’s generals. Sulla had given him
large grants of confiscated property for assisting in the overthrow of
the Marian party. Crassus temporarily retired from the military and
went into business. One of his businesses was a fire department. Fire
was always a problem in Rome and Crassus’ fire fighters would only
protect those buildings that had signed over a major share of the
contents. The buildings not under his protection had a tendency to
catch fire, so a great many in Rome found themselves paying the
exorbitant fire protection rates. He would become one of the richest
men in the Roman world. At the death of Sulla, Crassus was 34 years
old.
3. Gaius Julius Caesar.
. Caesar was the nephew of Marius and therefore an enemy of Sulla,

but he had been overlooked in the purges because of his youth. He
was 22 years old at the death of Sulla.
Of the three, Caesar was the youngest and the least known. Yet he would
eventually be the one to gain fame, power, and the rulership of the empire.
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POMPEY THE GREAT

Pompey was born in 106 B.C., the son of a
well-known Roman general. His own
military career began when he was still in
his teens and by the time he was 23, he was
a general under the command of Sulla.
Immediately after the death of Sulla,

rebellion broke out under the leadership of
Aemilius Lepidus who was consul at that
time. Pompey defeated Lepidus in a battle
at the Milvian Bridge just north of Rome.
Next, Pompey was sent by the Senate to

Spain to put down another revolt, this time
led by guerrilla leader Sertorius. Pompey
returned in triumph in 71 B.C., just in time
to take credit for a new victory. Pompey the Great
1. The Spartacus Revolt.
In 73 B.C., while Pompey was still in Spain, a Thracian gladiator

named Spartacus broke out of a Roman training camp at Capua, home
to one of the largest gladiatorial schools in Italy. His initial revolt
consisted of about 72 other gladiators, but runaway slaves quickly
flocked to his side and his force quickly multiplied to an army of
100,000 men.
Several Roman armies were sent against him and he defeated each
one. Finally, in 71 B.C., the command of the Roman forces was
given to Crassus who was victorious against Spartacus. Six thousand
slaves were crucified, their crosses lining the Apian Way.
Pompey returned from Spain soon after Crassus had achieved his
initial victories over Spartacus. Pompey assisted in finishing off the
last of the rebels. In doing so, much of the glory and fame that would
have gone to Crassus was now shared with Pompey.
2. Consul.
In 70 B.C., both Pompey and Crassus sought the consulship and both
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were opposed by the Senate. By joining forces, they managed to

secure their joint election that same year. During their term, they
accomplished the following:
• They released the tribunes from the restrictions Sulla had

placed upon them.
• They expelled 64 senators that Sulla had placed into office.
• They gave the Populares more power.
3. Military Dictator.
Rome’s supply of grain from Egypt was being threatened by the

growing boldness of pirates. To deal with this threat, Pompey was
given the office of Imperium in 67 B.C. This made him a temporary
military dictator over a force of 120,000 infantry and 800 ships. His
commission was to last for a three year period. Within three months,
he had accomplished the task.
After capturing the pirate base on Crete, Pompey moved through

Anatolia to defeat Mithridates, the king of Pontus who had taken over
most of Anatolia and Syria in an attempt to revive the Seleucid
Empire. Mithridates fled to Crimea where he committed suicide.
While Pompey was in Damascus, reorganizing that country into a

Roman province which would become known as Syria, he received
messages from two Hasmonean brothers who were fighting a civil
war over possession of Jerusalem. Pompey marched down and
captured Jerusalem in 63 B.C., annexing the land of Judah and
renaming it Judea.
4. Return to Rome.
Pompey returned to Rome to find it once again in the midst of civil

disorder. A rebellion had been put down, but the city was a powder
keg, waiting for a spark to touch it off. Pompey disbanded his army
outside the city and entered Rome in a magnificent triumphal
procession.
The Senate refused to approve the agreement he had made with the
eastern monarchs and also refused to make the land grants he had
promised to his veterans. Rebuffed by the Senate, Pompey entered
into a secret alliance with Crassus and Julius Caesar. This alliance
would come to be known as the First Triumvirate.
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JULIUS CAESAR
Gaius Julius Caesar was born on July 12, 100 B.C.,
the only son of an old and noble family. He grew up
during the Sulla years of civil war and strife and,
because of his family connection to Marius, he was
under threat of death. To make matters worse, he
was married to Cornelia, the daughter of Cornelius
Cinna who had been the right hand man of Marius.
When Sulla ordered Caesar to divorce Cornelia,

Caesar refused and was forced to flee for his life.
Julius Caesar Caesar’s family in Rome interceded with Sulla for
his life. Sulla is recorded as commenting that “there
are many Mariuses in this fellow Caesar” (Suetonius 14), but the amnesty
was granted.
In 81 B.C. at the age of nineteen, Caesar was sent to Anatolia to fight with the
armies that were making war against King Mithridates of Pontus. Caesar was
awarded the civic crown, the highest decoration of the Roman army. After
the death of Sulla, Caesar returned to Rome.
After a year in Rome, Caesar decided to study rhetoric at the school of

Apollonius Molo on the island of Rhodes. On his way there, he was captured
by pirates who held him for a ransom of twenty talents. He told them they
had set the ransom far too low and offered them fifty, but he also promised
to return and punish them for their insult to his honor. As soon as he was
free, he made good on his promise, crucifying the ringleaders and selling the
rest into slavery. Back in Rhodes, he learned that Mithridates was attacking
the coast of southern Anatolia. He raised his own fighting force and drove
the forces of Mithridates from the area until the regular Roman troops could
arrive.
Caesar returned to Rome in the spring of 73 B.C., Suetonius tells us that,

the same year that Spartacus led the slaves in revolt. upon seeing a statue of
Alexander the Great,
While Pompey and Crassus were winning military Caesar complained
honors, Caesar was rising in the political world. that “at an age when
Alexander had already
After the death of Cornelia, Caesar married conquered the whole
Pompeia, the granddaughter of Sulla, but divorced world, he himself had
her several years later due to a sexual scandal. He done nothing in the
least epoch-making”
went on to hold the offices of quaestor, praetor, and (1980:16).
finally that of propraetor in Spain.
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1. The First Triumvirate.
On his return to Rome in 60 B.C., Caesar tried to stand for the

consulship but was opposed by the Senate. He joined forces in a
secret pact with Pompey and Crassus and, with their help, became
consul in 59 B.C. During his year as consul, he accomplished several
things:
• He secured land for Pompey’s war veterans by going over the

Senate’s head to the People’s Assembly.
• He approved Pompey’s reorganization of the east.
• He passed laws which would punish Roman officials who
used their position to exploit and rob subjugated peoples.
• He decreed that all decisions made by the Senate had to be
made public for every Roman citizen to see.
• He secured the governorship of Gaul for himself for the next
five years after his consulship.
2. The Gallic Wars.
The Gauls had been traditional enemies of Rome for hundreds of

years. In 386 B.C. they had swept down into Italy with their
thundering cavalry and their great broadswords, routing the Roman
army and sacking the city of Rome. They had invaded again in 101
B.C. and had been barely stopped in northern Italy by Marius.
When Caesar was made the governor of Gaul, this referred to what
was known as Cisalpine Gaul, “Gaul on this side of the Alps.” By the
end of his term of office, it would include all of present day France.
His governorship was originally to be for five years, but in 55 B.C. it
was extended for another five years.
During these years, Caesar smashed the Gallic tribes in France into
submission. Twice he sailed his armies across the English channel
into Britain. He also built a bridge across the Rhine River and
marched his armies into Germany where no Roman commander had
ever gone. In 52 B.C. a great insurrection broke out under the Gallic
chieftain Vercingetorix. Though vastly outnumbered, Caesar crushed
the rebellion.
3. Actions of the First Triumvirate.
Pompey and Crassus were not idle while Caesar was effecting his
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conquests of Gaul. Pompey was awarded a five year commission in

57 B.C. that gave him proconsular control over Rome’s food supply
in an attempt to avoid famine.
To cement the First Triumvirate, Caesar had arranged for his

daughter, Julia, to divorce her husband so that she could marry
Pompey. When she died in childbirth in 54 B.C., it left a strain on the
relationship between Caesar and Pompey.
The following year, Crassus went east to fight against the Parthians.
He was defeated at Haran by hordes of Parthian horse archers and
captured. When he offered a great sum of gold for his release, the
Parthians took molten gold and poured it down his throat, killing him.
By 52 B.C. Rome was once again on the brink of civil war. Pompey
was elected at the sole consul, the equivalent of a dictator. Although
another consul was eventually elected, the significance of the event
was noted.
THE CIVIL WAR

While Caesar had been adding to his military fame with victories in Gaul,
Pompey had been carefully consolidating his political power in Rome. On
November 19, 50 B.C., the Senate voted martial law, entrusting the republic
to Pompey, and commanded Caesar to disband his army and return to Rome
to face trial.
On the night of January 10, 49 B.C., Caesar led a single legion across the
Rubicon River, the boundary between Gaul and Italy. In doing so, he was
breaking Rome’s law of treason that forbade a governor to lead his army out
of his own province. Caesar quipped, “The die is cast.” It meant civil war.
As Caesar advanced to Rome, Pompey fled to Greece along with most of the
Senate and the entire Roman fleet, leaving Italy for Caesar. Having no ships
with which to purse Pompey, Caesar turned first to the west. He marched the
overland route to Spain where he forced the surrender of Pompey’s generals
in forty days. Consolidating his holdings in Spain, Caesar returned to Italy
to prepare for war against Pompey.
In the winter of 49 B.C. Caesar carried the war into Greece where each side
tried to blockade the other. This went on for several months. The two forces
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finally met on August 9, 48 B.C. at Pharsalus. Caesar had 22,000 men;

Pompey had 40,000. By attacking Pompey’s superior cavalry with infantry
armed with long spears, Caesar’s army broke through and hit Pompey’s rear.
Pompey escaped and fled to Egypt.
With a small force, Caesar followed Pompey by ship to Egypt. When he

arrived in Alexandria, he found that Pompey had been murdered by the
Egyptians who were seeing to curry favor with Caesar.
Now Caesar found himself in trouble. In his haste to capture Pompey, he had
come to Egypt with a very small force. Egypt was in the midst of a civil war
between the young Ptolemy XIII and his half-sister Cleopatra. The story is
told how she had herself wrapped in a carpet and smuggled into the palace
where Caesar was staying. She pled her case, using all her seductive charms.
Ptolemy’s forces learned of this and besieged Caesar within the palace.
When the Egyptians attempted to capture the harbor of Alexandria, Caesar

set fire to all the ships. This fire spread to the warehouse district where a
great many scrolls from the Library of Alexandria were stored. Thousands
of priceless works were destroyed in this fire.
Help came from an unexpected source. Josephus tells us that Antipater, the
father of Herod the Great, sent a force of three thousand Jewish soldiers to
Caesar’s aid and that this gave Caesar some breathing room until further
reinforcements arrived from Mithridates of Pergamum (Antiquities 14:8:1).
Ptolemy was defeated and killed and the twenty two year old Cleopatra was
confirmed as the queen of Egypt.
Caesar gathered his forces and proceeded to Syria and then to Pontus where
he defeated Pharnaces at the Battle of Zela in a quick confrontation. His
message to the Senate was equally short:
Veni, Vide, Vici!

I came, I saw, I conquered!
In the next two years, Caesar stamped out the last of Pompey’s forces led by
his two surviving sons. He returned to Rome in 45 B.C.
JULIUS CAESAR AS EMPEROR

At the age of 55, Julius Caesar was the master of the Roman Empire and the
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ruler of most of the known world. He had already demonstrated that he was
a military genius. Now he manifested an equal ability in his administration
of the Empire.
Nobody can deny that during the Civil War, and after,
he behaved with wonderful restraint and clemency. Whereas
Pompey declared that all who were not actively with the
government were against it and would be treated as public
enemies, Caesar announced that all who were not actively
against him were with him (Suetonius 1:75).
Caesar also pardoned many of his old enemies and even reinstated them in
government. He gave rights of self government to towns in Italy and
extended citizenship privileges to many people in the provinces. All
physicians and professors residing in Rome were granted full citizenship.
Caesar reorganized the calendar, borrowing from the Egyptian calendar of

365 days and then adding an extra day every four years to make a leap year.
The current calendar had long grown out of date, so he made the year 46 B.C.
to have an extra two months to bring it into a proper schedule.
He set up colonies that could serve as farming settlements for the

unemployed. In addition to colonies in Italy, he rebuilt the cities of Corinth
and Carthage, making them the capital cities of Greece and Africa.
Despite Caesar’s acts of clemency and his excellent administration, there

were Romans who hated him for acting as a dictator. A conspiracy formed
that was led by Cassius and Marcus Brutus, two noblemen who had served
under Pompey in the war who had subsequently been restored to public office
by Caesar. They gathered sixty fellow conspirators. Meanwhile, Caesar took
no thought of his personal safety and even disbanded his personal bodyguard
of Spaniards.
On March 15, 44 B.C. the conspirators attacked Caesar as he was entering a

meeting of the Senate. As he was on his way to the meeting, someone had
handed him a note, warning of the impending assassination, but he added it
to the stack of notes that he was carrying without reading it.
...one of the Casca brothers with a sweep of his dagger

stabbed him just below the throat. Caesar grabbed Casa’s
arm and ran it through with his stylus; he was leaping away
when another dagger blow stopped him (Suetonius 1:82).
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Caesar managed to defend himself against his attackers until he saw Brutus
among them. He had always felt a special tenderness for Brutus and it was
even rumored that Brutus was his illegitimate son as a result of an adulterous
affair.
Some say that when he saw Marcus Brutus about to deliver

the second blow, he reproached him in Greek with: “You too,
my child?” (Suetonius 1:82).
OCTAVIUS AND ANTONY

Caesar’s death left a power vacuum in Rome. Caesar had been one of the
ruling consuls, his former general, Marcus Antonius, was the other. He was
a large man and people often commented that he looked like an ancient
Hercules. He had started his military career in Syria and had seen action in
the east before joining Caesar during the Gallic Wars. He had served as
Caesar’s second in command against Pompey.
When Caesar’s will was opened and read, it was discovered that he had
adopted his grandnephew Octavius to be his son and heir. Octavius was
eighteen years old at the time of Caesar’s death. He is described as a skinny,
pale young man. He was also rather short and regularly wore special shoes
that make him taller than he really was.
Octavius was studying in Greece when he heard

the news of Caesar’s death. He returned to
Rome immediately, only to find that Antony
had confiscated all of Caesar’s money and land.
Antony refused to turn the inheritance over to
Octavius, so Octavius turned to the Senate who
considered him to be an easily manipulated
youth that could be instrumental in dealing with
Antony. Accordingly, Octavius led an army
against Antony, but before the battle was
engaged, Octavius managed to bribe two of the
legions of Antony into deserting him. When a
battle did take place, Antony was defeated, but
the two consuls who had accompanied Octavius
were killed. Octavius returned to Rome as the
Octavius Augustus victor, occupied the city with his army, and had
himself elected consul.
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1. The Second Triumvirate.
Realizing that he could not rule for long in the face of the Senate’s
strong opposition, Octavius formed an alliance with Antony and
another of Caesar’s former generals named Lepidus. These three men
divided the empire among themselves.
Octavius Antony Lepidus

Italy, Gaul, and Greece, Anatolia, the North Africa
Spain Levant, and Egypt
The First Triumvirate had been a secret agreement; this one was clear
to all and was sealed by Antony’s marriage to Octavia the Younger,
sister to Octavius.
The first order of business for

the Triumvirate was the capture
and execution of the murderers
of Caesar. The members of the
Triumvirate began with their
own personal enemies in
Rome. More than three
hundred senators and two
thousand nobles were executed.
Others fled to Greece where
they rallied around the armies
of Brutus and Cassius.
Antony and Octavius crossed

the Adriatic and won two
successive battles at Philippi
against Brutus and Cassius,
both who committed suicide.
While Antony remained in the Mark Antony
east, Octavius returned to
Rome where he began to strengthen his hold on the western
provinces. In 36 B.C. his top general and former schoolmate,
Agrippa, defeated Sextus, a surviving son of Pompey, in a naval
battle off the coast of Sicily. That same year, Octavius took over the
twenty two legions of Lepidus, forcing that member of the
Triumvirate into partial retirement.
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2. Antony and Cleopatra.
Antony began an adulterous affair with Cleopatra that culminated in

his divorcing Octavia and marrying the Egyptian queen. This
reopened the hostilities between Antony and Octavius.
In 32 B.C. Octavius demanded that the Senate open and examine

Antony’s will. It bequeathed all of Rome’s eastern territories to
Cleopatra’s children by Antony. The Senate promptly annulled
Antony’s powers and declared war on Cleopatra.
3. The Battle of Actium (31 B.C.).
The campaign against Cleopatra started with Agrippa sailing from

Italy to Greece and capturing strong points on the mainland. Antony
and Cleopatra sailed to Greece, but found their fleet trapped by the
fleet of Octavius (captained by Agrippa) in the Gulf of Actium.
When Antony and Cleopatra tried to break through the lines, the
forces clashed in one of the most famous naval battles in history. The
Egyptian ships retreated early in the battle, leaving Antony’s ships to
be chewed up by Octavius. Antony and Cleopatra escaped and fled
to Egypt where they committed suicide, leaving Octavius as the sole
ruler of the Mediterranean world.
OCTAVIUS AUGUSTUS AS EMPEROR

Octavius now began to demonstrate an exceptional genius for administration.
By continuing the work begun by Julius Caesar, he developed a system of
organization that would carry the Roman Empire for the next 500 years.
1. Relationship with the Senate.
Octavius allowed the Senate and other bodies to continue to function,

but he greatly reduced their power while maintaining the appearance
of the old republic. In their place, he organized a cabinet that saw his
various programs were carried out.
2. Taxation.
Octavius regulated taxation and reformed the provincial government.

One of these reforms involved the establishment of a regular census
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to be taken every fifteen years. It would be this type of program that

would result in Joseph and Mary traveling from Nazareth to
Bethlehem where Jesus would be born.
3. Roman Citizenship Curbed.
Octavius reversed Caesar’s previous policy of granting citizenship to

outsiders, feeling it should be confined only to a select few. Because
of this, citizenship became highly prized throughout the empire.
When the Apostle Paul indicated that he had been born as a Roman
citizen, this was a special status.
Octavius also made it more difficult for slaves to gain their freedom.
It was decreed that no slave who had been placed in irons or who had
suffered torture could ever become a citizen.
4. Military Reform.
Octavius established an effective military system for protecting the

frontiers. Garrisons were placed along the borders to keep out
barbarian invaders. At his death, he advised his successors that they
should keep the Rhine and Danube Rivers as their northern
boundaries and not seek to press beyond these.
5. Building Programs.
Octavius supervised the construction of many public buildings such

as temples and theaters. Before he died, he was known to say, “I
found Rome brick, and left her marble” (Suetonius 2:28).
A system of major roads were built and kept clear of bandits, thereby
making them safe for travel. The seas were kept clear of pirates,
encouraging trade. As a result of these accomplishments, the empire
prospered and the period of his reign was known as the golden age of
Rome.
6. The Wives of Octavius.
Divorce and remarriage had become commonplace in Rome during

this era. This was reflected in the life of Octavius.
• Claudia.
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Octavius was first married to the step-daughter of Antony.

This marriage ended in divorce even before it was
consummated.
• Scribonia.
She had already gone through two husbands, both of whom

had been consuls. She and Octavius had a daughter together
named Julia. They divorced when Octavius grew tired of her
complaints.
• Livia Drusilla.
Octavius took Livia away from her husband, even though she
was pregnant at the time. Tiberius, her son by this previous
marriage, was eventually adopted by Octavius and made his
heir.
7. Augustus.
Octavius was awarded the title of Augustus by the Senate and he

subsequently took this as his name. The month of August was
renamed to honor him; it had formerly been called Sextilis, meaning
“sixth.”
Octavius died on August 19, 14 A.D. Tacitus tells a story of how his
daughter, Julia, murdered him by feeding him poisoned figs. Tiberius was
named his heir and became the new emperor.
TIBERIUS
Tiberius had been required by Octavius to divorce his wife and marry Julia,
the twice-widowed daughter of Octavius. The marriage did not last and Julia
was banished for adultery in 2 B.C. In spite of this, Octavius had adopted
Tiberius as his son and heir. Tiberius had shown himself to be an effective
military commander in campaigns on the Rhine and Danube frontiers. He
occupied one of the seats of consul at the time of the death of Octavius.
He was nearly 55 years old when he became emperor. Although he was a fair
administrator, he soon gained a reputation for being suspicious and brutal,
quickly disposing of anyone whom he suspected of treachery.
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Not a day passed without an execution, not even days that

were sacred and holy, for he put some to death even on New
Year’s Day. Many were accused and condemned with their
children and even by their children (Suetonius).
On the other hand, Tiberius allowed freedom of speech, even when it was at
his expense. He was known to say that liberty to speak one’s mind is the test
of a free country.
Expansion of the Empire came to a halt under his

reign. He concentrated instead upon consolidation.
1. Jesus and Early Christianity.
It was during the reign of Tiberius that Jesus

of Nazareth was crucified in Jerusalem by
order of the Roman prefect, Pontius Pilate.
The primary duty of Roman governors was to
keep the peace and oversee the collection of
taxes. When some of these governors
recommended an increase in taxes, Tiberius
Tiberius noted that “a good shepherd shears his flock;
he does not flay them” (Suetonius 3:32).
It was also during his reign that the early church first started.
Although Christians received much persecution at the hands of the
Jews, the Romans tended to ignore Christianity at this early date.
2. Anti-Semitism.
Tiberius sought to remove all non-Roman religions from Italy. To

this end, all Jewish citizens of Rome were forbidden to have any
distinctly Jewish clothing or other religious objects.
Jews of military age were removed to unhealthy

regions, on the pretext of drafting them into the army;
the others of the same race or similar beliefs were
expelled from the city and threatened with slavery if
they defied the order (Suetonius 3:36).
3. Retirement.
In 26 A.D. Tiberius retired and moved to the Island of Capri. He was
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68 years old. He ruled from here through the commander of his

imperial bodyguard, Sejanus. Suetonius lists the various sexual
depravities in which he now indulged and the entire Empire began to
enter a period of decline as the Parthians overran Armenia and the
German tribes invaded Gaul.
Sejanus was ambitious and began to remove all the heirs of Tiberius
so as to clear the way for himself. Before he could complete his
designs, he was assassinated. Tiberius died soon after this and his
grandson was chosen to succeed him.
CALIGULA
Gaius Caesar Germanicus, known to us as Caligula, was the son of
Germanicus, a famous Roman general and nephew to Tiberius. Though he
was born in Italy, he grew up in Germany in his father’s army camp. He was
given the nickname “Caligula” by the solders when they saw him wearing
small soldier’s boots (kaligae) when he was a child. He was a tall, thin,
balding man, given to bouts of epilepsy and fits of cruelty.
When his father died, Caligula went to Capri where he won the friendship of
Tiberius. He also became friends with a young Idumean named Herod
Agrippa, the grandson of Herod the Great. Agrippa got into trouble one day
when he commented on the desirability of having Caligula as emperor in
place of Tiberius. When Tiberius heard of this, he threw Agrippa into chains.
At the death of Tiberius, which Caligula was suspected of hastening, Caligula

was declared the new emperor. One of his first acts was to release Agrippa
from prison and give him the title of King of Ituria and Trachonitis, the lands
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to the northeast of the Sea of Galilee.
Caligula was hailed as a popular hero as he pardoned many political

prisoners. He banished informers, reduced taxes, and sponsored public
games. After a few months, his health failed and he became very sick. He
emerged from his illness as a neurotic sadist who often repeated the line, “Let
them hate me, so long as they fear me” (Suetonius 4:30).
• He engaged in every possible sexual vice.

• He had a shrine built to himself, complete with priests and a life-sized
golden image of himself and he demanded that he be addressed as a
god.
• He made plans to have his horse elected to the position of consul.
• He led his legions to the Atlantic coast, as if for an invasion of
Britain, and then commanded his men to pick up seashells as trophies
of victory from the ocean. Then he turned and led them away.
• When his extravagance had exhausted the treasury, he forced rich
noblemen to give all their money to the state, on pain of death.
• He gave order for a statue of himself to be set up in the Holy of
Holies in Jerusalem. The legate of Syria stalled and postponed this
action, realizing that it would lead to revolt in Palestine. Caligula
rescinded the order, but demanded that legate be executed for his
delay. Before this could be carried out, Caligula was murdered.
In 41 A.D. after a reign of only four years, a group of officers from the
Praetorian Guard murdered Caligula and secretly buried his body, leaving
Rome without an emperor. He had been only 29 years old and had not named
a successor. In the confusion, someone suggested Caligula’s aging uncle
Claudius. The call went up through the Praetorian for Claudius, but he could
not be found. Finally some soldiers discovered him hiding behind a curtain.
The Praetorian Guard promptly declared him emperor.
CLAUDIUS
Claudius was 50 years old when he became emperor and was to reign for
thirteen years (41-54 A.D.). He was a paralytic and, because of his ungainly
appearance, many people thought the he was a moron. His grandfather,
Augustus, had admitted that Claudius was bright, but had still been ashamed
to have the boy sit with him in public. Suetonius says that:
...he had several disagreeable traits. These included an
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uncontrolled laugh, a horrible habit, under the stress of

anger, of slobbering at the mouth and running at the nose, a
stammer, and a persistent nervous tic of the head, which was
apparent at all times but especially when he exerted himself
to the slightest extent (Suetonius 5:30).
Caligula had kept Claudius around for the sole purpose of insulting him and
making him the palace fool. However, beneath the ridiculous appearance was
a man of learning who turned out to be a steady, sensible ruler. He did not
look for honors and even refused to take the title of Imperator.
1. Extension of Roman Citizenship.
Claudius gave Roman citizenship to various provincials who were in

positions of high authority. Up to now, Roman citizenship had been
rarely granted to provincials. This means the Apostle Paul had a rare
privilege in his day when he was a Roman citizen from birth. In 48
A.D. Claudius went even further by admitting Gallic chieftains to
membership in the Senate.
At the same time, it now became illegal for foreigners to adopt the
names of Roman families. Paulus was such a name and Paul is an
example of one who had a Roman name.
2. Campaign in Britain.
Claudius made a brief military campaign into Britain, subduing the

southern portion of the island without a single major battle. The
Roman presence in Britain would continue for the next four hundred
years.
3. Dealings with the Jews.
Claudius was favorable to the Jews during the first part of his reign.
He passed edicts that granted them religious toleration and exemption
from military service. This policy changed when conflicts arose in
Rome and Claudius ordered that all Jews be banished from Rome.
Suetonius says:
Because the Jews at Rome caused continuous

disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, he
expelled them from the city (Suetonius 5:25).
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It seems likely that this “Chrestus” around whom this conflict was
centered was a reference to Jesus Christ.
4. Marital Problems.
In 48 A.D. Claudius ordered the execution of his wife, Messalina, for

conspiring against him. She had a reputation for her adulterous
relationships and scandals. She had gone so far as to sign a formal
marriage contract with her own brother.
Claudius had no better luck with his next wife. He married his niece,
Agrippina, even though this was considered to be incest. She already
had a son named Nero by a previous marriage. She persuaded
Claudius to adopt Nero in favor of his previous son Britannicus. In
54 A.D. she poisoned Claudius, making way for the seventeen year
old Nero to take power.
NERO CLAUDIUS CAESAR

Nero was to reign as emperor for fourteen
years (54-68 A.D.). In his early years, he was
dominated by his mother and his wife,
Octavia, the daughter of Claudius. He had
been in office only a year when he poisoned
his stepbrother, Britannicus. Several years
later, he decided that his mother should also
die, so he also tried to poison her. She had
apparently suspected something, for she had
built up an immunity to the poison after seeing
what had happened to Britannicus. When the
poison did not work, Nero arranged for the
ceiling over Agrippa’s bed to collapse, but it
missed her. Next, he sent her on an ocean
cruise in a ship that had been designed to fall
apart at sea. Agrippina swam to shore. Finally, Nero accused her of plotting
against the empire and had her executed.
1. Divorce and Remarriage.
In 62 A.D. Nero divorced his wife, Octavia, and then had her
executed on a charge of adultery. He married Poppea twelve days
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later, but subsequently murdered her by kicking her to death when she
was pregnant.
Having tried to turn the boy Sporus into a girl by

castration, he went through a wedding ceremony with
him – dowry, bridal veil and all – took him to his
palace with a great crowd in attendance, and treated
him as a wife (Suetonius 6:28).
2. Patron of the Arts and Games.
Nero had a great admiration of the Greeks. He thought that he was an

accomplished artist, so he painted, wrote poetry, and sang at public
concerts which high-ranking nobles were required to attend. In the
eyes of the Romans, it was a scandal for a nobleman to be seen on a
stage or to participate in public games. Such conduct was considered
to be worthy only of a lowly slave.
Despite public opinion, Nero competed in the Olympic Games in 67

A.D. For obvious reasons that had nothing to do with his own talent,
he won every event in which he participated. When he fell out of his
chariot, the other chariot racers prudently stopped until he had
remounted.
3. The Burning of Rome.
In 64 A.D. a great fire broke out in the poorer section of Rome,

destroying half the city. A rumor began to spread that Nero had
mounted his private stage overlooking the flames and sung of the
destruction of Troy. People began to suspect Nero of having started
the fire. To turn these suspicions away from himself, Nero accused
the Christians of having set the fire.
4. Christian Persecutions.
Up to now, Christian persecution had been largely confined to that

which they received at the hands of the Jews. Nero changed that and
it seems that he delighted in the various forms of persecution and
torture.
• Many were crucified, including the Apostle Peter.

• Some were sewn up in animal skins and then large dogs were
set upon them and they were torn to pieces.
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• Women were tied to mad bulls and dragged to their deaths.

• In the evenings, Christians were tied to stakes, soaked in oil,
and burned alive to light Nero’s garden parties.
Nero’s excesses created wide discontent and finally rebellion broke out in
Gaul, Spain, and Judea. Nero fled from the city of Rome and committed
suicide in 68 A.D.
THE YEAR OF THE FOUR EMPERORS

The death of Nero touched off a period of anarchy. As Tacitus notes, “the
secret of empire was out. Emperors could be made elsewhere than in Rome”
(1:5).
1. Galba.
Galba was an elderly Spanish aristocrat when Nero committed

suicide. He was the commander of the Spanish army and he rebelled
against Nero’s rule. Upon hearing of Nero’s death, Galba quickly
moved his forces to Rome where he became emperor with the support
of the Praetorian Guard. This support did not last long because Galba
was deemed to be too stingy with the pay received by the Praetorians
and they murdered him and proclaimed Otho to be emperor.
2. Otho.
Otho had been the former husband of Nero’s wife, Popaea, but when
Nero had married her, Otho had been effectively banished by being
given the governorship of the province of Lusitania, comprising
modern day Portugal. He initially joined Galba in his revolt, but
turned against him when he learned that Galba had picked another
man to succeed him.
Meanwhile, another claimant to the office of emperor arose in the

person of Vitellius who held the legions of the Rhine. Otho marched
north to meet him and their armies clashed in Northern Italy. Facing
defeat, Otho committed suicide.
3. Vitellius.
Vitellius had been made governor of Lower Germany by Galba. He
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had already held three consulships and was no stranger to politics.

Following the death of Otho, he ruled from April to December of 69
A.D., having had himself appointed as consul for life. Suetonius
speaks of how Vitellius sacrificed to the ghost of Nero (9:11).
Following in the spirit of Nero, he quickly became renowned for his
murderous cruelty, killing or torturing friend or foe on the slightest
pretext.
4. Vespasian.
The armies of the eastern provinces nominated their own choice for
emperor to be Vespasian who was putting down a revolt in Palestine.
When Vitellius realized that his support was quickly failing, he
sought to surrender the title of emperor in favor of Vespasian and go
into hiding. He was captured and killed, leaving Vespasian the
undisputed emperor.
THE FLAVIAN DYNASTY An ancient superstition was

current in the East, that out
of Judea at this time would
None of the Flavian family had ever before held come the rulers of the world
(Suetonius 10:4).
high office. Instead, they were a family of military
officers. Yet Vespasian and his two sons were to
rule the empire for the next 27 years (69 to 96 A.D.). This would be a time
of national recovery.
1. Vespasian.
Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasianus

was about sixty years old when he
became the emperor of the Roman
Empire and would rule for the next
ten years. At the time of Nero’s
death, Vespasian was in Palestine
putting down the Jewish revolt.
When he was acclaimed as emperor,
he left his oldest son, Titus, in charge
of the Roman legions in Palestine and
returned to Rome.
Vespasian
As emperor, Vespasian found himself
faced with numerous problems. The entire empire was in a state of
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chaos following the civil wars. Rebellions were still in progress in

Gaul, Germany, and Judea. Finances were in disarray and his
political situation was not yet firmly established. All three rebellions
were suppressed that year; only the stronghold of Masada in southern
Judea held out until 73 A.D.
Vespasian reorganized the Roman military system by recruiting men

of different nationalities to serve in all the legions rather than placing
them only on the frontier from which they came. In this way, their
loyalty would now be to Rome and not to the border region against
who they might have to fight. He also established extensive
fortifications on the frontiers, extended conquests in Britain, and
came to terms with the Parthians in the east.
Vespasian took very careful control over the ruined economy through
a variety of cost-saving measures. He kept sufficient control over the
bureaucracy to prevent embezzlement and, since he had such a firm
control over the military, he did not have to bribe them to retain their
loyalty.
Vespasian taxed everything. One of his taxes was placed upon the
Jews for their part in rebelling against Rome.
When the marine fire brigade, the detachment of

which had to be constantly on the move between Ostia
or Puteoli and Rome, applied for a special shoe
allowance, Vespasian not only turned down the
application, but instructed them in the future to march
barefoot (10:8).
Vespasian built many public buildings, the most famous of which is

the great Colosseum in Rome. It was left to his son, Titus, to finish
the Colosseum.
In contrast to his immediate imperial predecessors, Vespasian died

peacefully on 23 June, A.D. 79, after contracting a brief illness. The
occasion is said to have inspired his deathbed quip: “Oh my, I must
be turning into a god!”
2. Titus.
Titus had been a general cut from the same mold as his father. He
had been left to complete the conquest of Judea when his father was
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made emperor. While Titus was capturing Judea, he met Queen

Berenice, the daughter of Herod Agrippa I. Berenice and her brother,
Agrippa II had met with the Apostle Paul and heard his testimony
(Acts 25:23; 26:30). Although she was eleven years older than Titus,
they became lovers and eventually reunited back in Rome where they
lived together until public opinion forced him to send her away.
Following the good example of his father, Titus showed great

moderation in the treatment of political enemies. His administration
was an extension of his father’s. Three catastrophes took place
during his reign.
• In August 79 A.D. Mount Vesuvius erupted, burying the cities

of Pompeii and Herculaneum.
• A plague swept through Campania, just north of Vesuvius.
• Another fire burned in Rome for three days, destroying

thousands of homes and many public structures.
Titus fell ill and died in 81 A.D. remarking that “only a single sin lay
on his conscience” (Suetonius 11:10), but he went to his grave
without declaring what the sin was. His younger brother, Domitian,
now came to power.
3. Domitian.
Domitian had lived all his life in the shadow of his older brother and
he had hated him for it. Evidence seems to indicate he had plotted
against Titus on more than one occasion.
Domitian was a high handed dictator who quickly incurred the hatred
of the Senate by his autocratic manner. The repressive measures
taken against his opponents quickly turned into a reign of terror as
they were sought out and slaughtered. At the same time he passed a
number of laws aimed at moral reform.
He expelled one ex-quaestor from the Senate for being

over-fond of acting and dancing; forbade women of
notoriously bad character the right to use litters or to
benefit from inheritances and legacies; struck a
knight from the jury-roll because he had divorced his
wife on a charge of adultery and then taken her back
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again (Suetonius 12:8).
Unchastity among the

vestal virgins was
made a death penalty.
These moral reforms
do not mean that
Domitian was
personally moral. To
the cont rary, he
seduced his own niece
and then, when she
became pregnant,
forced her to have an
abortion during which
she died.
Eusebius tells us that

Vespasian had tried to
hunt down any
surviving descendants
of King David lest a
future Jewish revolt be Part of a statue of Domitian in Ephesus
started in their name
(Eusebius 3:12). When Domitian became emperor, he issued the
same order and arrested the grandchildren of Judas, the half brother
of Jesus. They were brought for questioning but were then
subsequently released (Eusebius 3:19).
The tax which Vespasian had imposed upon the Jews was expanded
to include all who practiced the Jewish religion, whether or not they
were Jewish themselves. Suetonius gives this personal recollection:
As a boy, I remember once attending a crowded court

where the imperial agent had a ninety year old man
inspected to establish whether or not he had been
circumcised (12:12).
Domitian demanded that he be worshiped as a god. While Jews were

excluded from this order, Christians were not. When they refused,
they were charged with treason and many were executed. Eusebius
speaks of the persecution that was instigated by him:
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He was, in fact, the second to organize persecution

against us, though his father, Vespasian had had no
mischievous designs against us (3:17).
Finally, his wife, Domitia, believing that her life was in danger,
conspired with two members of the Praetorian Guard and some other
nobles. Domitian was assassinated in 96 A.D.
THE ANTONINE EMPERORS

The period following the death of Domitian is known as the Era of the Five
Good Emperors. It would be during this period that the geographic
boundaries of the Roman Empire would reach their largest extent.
1. Nerva (96-98 A.D.).
After the death of Domitian, the Senate designated one of its own
choice to be emperor, a respectable old lawyer named Cocceius
Nerva. While his reign was short, he left as his legacy a rational
approach to the problem of imperial succession by adopting a
qualified candidate and training him for the job of running the empire.
This procedure would be followed for the next seventy years,
resulting in a long period of stability.
2. Trajan (98-117 A.D.).
Ulpius Trajan had been the commander of the Roman legions in

Spain. Although his ancestors were Italian immigrants, he had been
born in Spain. He was the first emperor to have come from outside
of Italy.
Trajan avoided honors and treated the Senate with respect, mixing
with individual senators as their social equal. At the same time, he
did not hesitate to intervene in senatorial matters when necessary.
Trajan pushed the boundaries of the Empire to their largest extent,

leading expeditions into Germany, Armenia, and Mesopotamia.
We have a series of letters written back and forth between Trajan and
Pliny, the governor of Bithynia in Anatolia. One of the topics regards
the imperial order of persecution against Christians who were to be
executed if they did not renounce their faith.
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3. Hadrian (17-138 A.D.).
Hadrian felt that the Empire was overextended and he gave up

Trajan’s foothold in Armenia and Mesopotamia. In England, he had
a wall constructed that divided the island into a north and south
section, indicating that Rome would be content with holding to the
southern portion of the island.
He promised the Jews that they could rebuild their temple, but he
changed his mind and in 131 A.D. he unveiled plans to rebuild the
ruined city of Jerusalem into a Roman city named Aelia Capitolina.
The Jews responded with a bloody revolt that caused widespread
devastation. They were led in their rebellion by a military leader
known as Simon Bar-Kochba (“son of the star”). He was
accompanied by an accomplished scholar named Rabbi Akiba. This
team of a conquering messiah and a holy scholar became a catalyst to
unite the Jews in revolt.
The revolt took Hadrian by surprise. He thought of the Jews as a

defeated people who had lost their will to fight. He was mistaken.
It took three long years of fighting before the Romans succeeded in
putting an end to the revolt. Bar-Kochba was killed in battle while
Rabbi Akiba was captured and tortured to death. Those Jews who
escaped fled to Parthia where they were given refuge.
Hadrian had a statue of Zeus placed on the temple mount and all Jews
were subsequently forbidden to approach the site of Jerusalem. Judea
was renamed Syria Palestine and Jerusalem was made over into a
Roman city and renamed Aelia Capitolina.
4. Antonius Pius (138-161 A.D.).
Unlike Hadrian, Antonius spent nearly all of his time in Italy. His
reign was characterized by peace and economic prosperity. At
Hadrian’s request, Antonius adopted both Marcus Aurelius and
Lucius Verus as his heirs. When Antonius died in 161 A.D., these
two reigned jointly until the death of Verus in 169 A.D.
5. Marcus Aurelius (161-180 A.D.).
As soon as Antonius Pius died, the Parthians moved against Armenia

which was a Roman buffer state. The legion that moved against them
was massacred. More legions were sent to the area and they fought
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their way to Mesopotamia, driving the Parthians back into their

homeland.
When the Roman army returned, they brought both the spoils of war
as well as a plague that ravaged the empire over the next twenty
years. It has come to be known as the Antonine Plague and would
bring about the death of both Verus and eventually Marcus Aurelius.
The Antonine Plague, as it has come to be called, is commonly
thought to have been smallpox.
It may have been the result of this plague and the desire for a
scapegoat that caused an intensification of persecution against
Christianity. It was decreed that the property of a convicted Christian
should go to his accuser. Suddenly it became profitable to hunt down
Christians. Justin Martyr was killed during this period.
6. Commodus (180-192 A.D.).
Marcus Aurelius abandoned the adoptive system of succession and

arranged for his son to be his heir, having him first serve as consul
and then as co-emperor. Commodus was vain, frivolous, and
unstable.
• He ordered that the city of Rome be renamed “Commodiana”

and the day of the week on which it was enacted be called by
the same name.
• He centered his primary interests in chariot racing and
gladiatorial combat.
• He filled almost all of the major public offices with his
relatives and friends, whether they were capable or not.
• After a fire damaged a sizeable section of Rome, he declared
that he was henceforth the “new Romulus” who would rebuild
the city.
The Colossus statue of Nero standing by the Colosseum and giving

it the name by which it is still known today had its head removed and
replaced with the head of Commodus.
Cassius Dio, himself a senator at the time, tells how Commodus

demanded that the senators shout out to him, “Thou art lord, and thou
art foremost, of all most fortunate: thou dost conquer, thou shalt
conquer; from everlasting, Amazonian, thou dost conquer!” (73:20).
After twelve years of mismanagement, he was assassinated.
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THE SEVERAN EMPERORS

The assassination of Commodus led to a period of anarchy during which the
Praetorian Guard proceeded to auction off the imperial office to the highest
bidder. Two such emperors came and went before the commanding general
of the Danube marched upon Rome and took the throne for himself. His
name was Septimus.
1. Septimus Severus (193-211 A.D.).
Severus struggled to hold together an empire that was splitting at the

seams. He worked at making the Roman army more professional,
though this also meant it was less Roman. Officers as well as soldiers
were often barbarian recruits from the frontiers. This gradual change
resulted in a lessening of discipline for which the Romans had been
known. In order to keep their loyalty, Severus had to grant lavish
privileges to his men. As the cost to support the military rose, taxes
also rose.
One ancient source reports that Severus issued a decree forbidding

conversion to Judaism or Christianity. If this is accurate, then it
assumes that Christianity had attained something of a legal status,
even as attempts were made to limit its further growth.
2. Caracalla (211-217 A.D.).
When Severus died on a campaign in Britain, his son Caracalla was

with him and was immediately proclaimed emperor by his troops.
However, he had a brother who was a rival to the imperial purple.
The brothers talked about coming to a meeting of the minds, but it
was only a ruse and Caracalla had his brother assassinated.
To keep the troops loyal to him, he raised the army’s pay

substantially, doubling taxes in the process. He granted citizenship
to all freeborn men with the result that he was able to increase his tax
rolls and revenues. Citizenship had now become a burden rather than
a privilege.
Caracalla was assassinated by a member of his own Praetorian Guard

who attempted to take the throne for himself. In the fighting that
followed, a cousin to Caracalla emerged victorious. His name was
Elagabalus.
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3. Elagabalus (218-222 A.D.).
Elagabalus was only fourteen years old when those supporting him
won their victory. He became known for his debased sexual
proclivities, shocking even the most flagrantly hedonists of his day.
The Praetorian Guard finally tired of him and but him to death, along
with a number of his male lovers. His cousin, young Severus
Alexander, was made emperor.
4. Severus Alexander (222-235 A.D.).
Severus Alexander was only thirteen years old when he became

emperor. He served as a puppet to the direction of his mother while
the Praetorian was content to have him as emperor as long as they
were not hindered from exercising their own will. His troops finally
killed him when he tried to bribe invading barbarians whom they
preferred to fight.
THE CIVIL WARS

A period of Roman civil wars was to last from 235 to 284 B.C. It would
bring the empire to the edge of collapse. This internal strife began with the
murder of Severus Alexander. The army proclaimed as emperor a Greek
shepherd named Maximus who had enlisted in the army. He had never even
been to Rome. He lasted four years before being replaced and this sent the
pace for the next fifty years. The average reign of an emperor during this
period was about three years, all meeting with violent deaths. Most were
made and unmade at the whim of the Roman soldiers who appointed and
assassinated emperors for their own profit.
During these years, barbarians moved in from all of the border frontiers. In
the east, the Persian Sassanids overthrew the Parthian Empire and invaded
Anatolia, Palestine, and Egypt. The Goths moved into the Balkan Mountains
of northern Greece. The Franks and Brugundians moved across the Rhine
River into Gaul and Spain. In Africa, Berber tribes raided Roman cities and
towns.
Political instability was mirrored in the economy as the government began to

issue copper coins which had only an outer layer of silver. Inflation soared
as merchants in Egypt refused to accept Roman money.
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DIOCLETIAN
The Roman Empire was on the verge of collapse when Diocletian came to the
throne in 284 A.D. He was a soldier who had risen through the ranks to
general. He abandoned all pretense of constitutional rule. Declaring himself
divine, he demanded that all who came before him prostrate themselves in
worship.
To prevent what had become a regular practice of military coups, he broke up

the commands of the legions into smaller units so that no one general would
have a great amount of power. The overall size of the military was expanded
and the frontier was fortified.
Realizing that the size of the empire made it nearly impossible for any one
man to administer effectively, Diocletian divided the empire into two separate
administrative parts going east and west. He continued to rule in the east
while he picked an old friend, an officer named Maximus, who ruled from
Italy in the west. To ensure an orderly succession, he and Maximus each
chose a junior partner who was given the title of Caesar and who would serve
as heirs to the empire.
In order to stabilize the faltering economy, Diocletian issued an edict fixing

the prices on all goods. Real gold and silver were issued in place of the
devalued coins. A system of taxation was developed that called for a
percentage of wealth rather than a fixed amount so that the wealthy paid more
taxes than the poor.
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Christians had been forbidden from holding any sort of public office or from
serving in the military, but in 303 A.D. Diocletian was urged by his Junior
Caesar Galerius to begin a more intense persecution. He complied, ordering
that all churches be destroyed, all copies of Scripture be burned, and that
Christians be forbidden to assemble. Christian leaders were imprisoned and
forced by torture to sacrifice to the gods.
In 305 A.D. Diocletian retired from office so that he could spend his days
raising cabbages. At his insistence, Maximus also retired, and the two heirs
took their places, although Maximus tried to return to power a few years later.
Diocletian died peacefully, one of the few emperors to have died a natural
death.
It took less than a year for the

arrangement of orderly succession
to break down. By 311 A.D. there
were four rival emperors contending
for the throne. The eventual winner
in the conflict would be
Constantine.
CONSTANTINE
Flavius Galerius Constantine would
be the first Roman emperor to
publicly convert to Christianity,
though at least one of the former
emperors of an earlier generation
had been friendly toward Christians.
1. The Battle of the Milvian

Bridge.
Constantine invaded Italy in

312 A.D. defeating his rival
at the Milvian Bridge, just
north of the city of Rome.
He related the story that, on
the way to the decisive The author with a bust of Constantine the Great
battle, he had seen a sign in
the sun; a Greek Chi superimposed with a Greek Rho. He took this
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symbol to refer to Christ and he claimed to have heard a voice saying,

“In this sign conquer.” He had this symbol of Christianity, known as
the “Labarum,” placed on the shields of his soldiers going into battle.
2. The Edict of Milan.
The following year, Constantine signed an edict effectively making

Christianity legal within the western part of the empire and returning
previously confiscated property and church lands. It would not be
until 324 A.D. that he completed the conquest of his rival emperor
and took over the entire empire.
3. The Reforms of Constantine.
There were two phases in which Christianity came to prominence

under Constantine. First was the edict of Milan which made
Christianity equal to all other Roman religions. Once Constantine
had won his final victory, Christianity was given favored status over
all the other Roman religions.
Constantine became personal friends with such highly placed church

leaders as Eusebius of Caesarea and Hosius, Bishop of Cordova.
Eusebius went so far as to write a highly euphemistic Life of
Constantine. Bishops were given the legal right to judge civil cases
among Christians and Sunday was made into a public holiday.
4. Constantinople.
Constantine ordered that a new capital city should be built on the

Bosporus on the site of the ancient village of Byzantium. It would
replace Rome as the center of the empire and would continue to claim
that title for the next thousand years.
In the spring of 337 A.D. Constantine became very sick and received baptism
at the hands of Eusebius, the Arian bishop of Nicomedia. It had been
customary for some converts to Christianity to delay baptism until late in life,
believing that baptism washed away all sin and so limiting their opportunity
to engage in post baptismal sins. Constantine had desired to make a trip to
Palestine to be baptized in the Jordan, but it was not to be. He died a few
days later.
Constantine had a two-fold effect on Christianity and the church. On the one
hand, be brought a lasting freedom from persecution so that the gospel could
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be proclaimed unhindered throughout the empire. On the other hand, as it

became popular to be a Christian, the church began to be filled with those
who had a less than sincere faith.
Before Constantine After Constantine

There was a purity within the There was a lessening of purity
church within the church
There were long periods of There was a lessening of the
catechism training prior to required training to become a
receiving baptism Christian
Christians lived a strict lifestyle A loosening of standards
A martyr mentality among the A monastic mentality among the
pious pious
Christianity would continue to grow in influence until it became the official

religion of the Roman Empire under the decree of Emperor Theodosius in
381 A.D.
BARBARIAN INVASIONS
It is a common maxim that Rome was not built in a day. It is equally true that
Rome did not fall in a day. Its fall was manifested in a series of successive
invasions of barbarian tribes.
1. The Goths.
Bordering the Roman Empire on the north were a number of tribes

known collectively as the Goths. They would eventually divide into
two groups as they moved down into the Roman Empire.
• Visigoths (West Goths).

• Ostrogoths (East Goths).
Both of these tribes were converted to Christianity through the

preaching ministry of Ulfias, a bishop who translated portions of the
Bible into their Gothic language.
To the east of the Goths were Mongolian tribes known as the Huns.
525
The Roman Empire
The Goths lived in fear of the Huns and in 376 the Goths were
permitted by the Romans to cross the Lower Danube and to settle in
Roman territory. However, they were mistreated by Roman officials
and they revolted. The Emperor Valens subsequently attacked them,
but was killed in the Battle of Adrianople in 378. He was followed
by Emperor Theodosius who made peace with the Goths and that
turned to open friendship as they fought common enemies.
The Goths began a new migration under their chieftain Alaric in 395.
Entering Italy, they marched on Rome, taking the city in 410. It was
in response to the fall of Rome that Augustine wrote his famous
work, The City of God. He sought to demonstrate that, even though
the city of Rome had fallen, it did not mean that the plans and
purposes of God had been thwarted, for the Lord has another city that
is not of this world.
Following the sack of Rome, Alaric prepared a fleet to invade North

Africa, but it was sunk in a storm. Alaric died shortly thereafter and
the Goths departed from Italy, moving into Gaul and then into Spain.
2. The Vandals.
The incursions of the Visigoths had left the northern borders of the
empire undefended. There was little resistence when the Vandals
crossed the Danube in 406. Like the Goths who were before them,
the Vandals were Arian Christians. They attempted to enter Italy, but
were driven back by the Goths.
Instead, they moved through Spain and crossed the Straits of Gibralter
into North Africa. From there, they used Carthage as their base of
operations and sailed across the Mediterranean to take Rome,
“vandalizing” the city for two weeks.
3. The Huns.
The Huns were fierce nomadic warriors who fought for profit and
plunder. They were united under the leadership of Attila and in 440
they ravaged the border cities along the Danube, pausing for a period
when the Romans sued for peace, but then continued southward to
attack Constantinople. He was unable to capture Constantinople, but
he did destroy the trapped Roman army at Gallipoli and exacted an
enormous tribute from the Romans.
526
The Roman Empire
In the spring of 450, the emperor’s sister, Honoria, sent a ring to

Attila, asking him to rescue her from a marriage that had been
arranged for her to a local Roman senator. He took this as a proposal
of marriage and demanded half the western empire as her dowry,
using this as a pretext to march into Gaul. At the Battle of Chalons,
he was defeated by a combined force of Romans and Visigoths and
forced to withdraw from Gaul. Next he turned toward Italy, marching
into the Po Valley. It was here that Pope Leo I came to meet with
Attila, interceding on behalf of Rome. Attila agreed and left Italy,
returning to his homeland where he died in his sleep in 453. With his
death, the Huns divided into groups of small tribes and ceased to be
a threat to Rome.
Modern historians normally mark the end of the Roman Empire to 476 when
the German chieftain Odoacer forced the young emperor Romulus Augustus
to abdicate. Odoacer made himself king of Italy and the western arm of the
Roman Empire now became a Germanic kingdom.
REASONS FOR THE DECLINE AND FALL OF

ROME
Edward Gibbon, in his monumental work on The Decline and Fall of the
Roman Empire, lists a number of reasons why the empire fell.
1. The Injuries of Time and Nature.
Rome suffered bouts of destruction several times throughout her

history. The city was vulnerable to fire, flood, and disease and these
left their marks on the city.
2. Barbarians and Christians.
As we have noted, the Roman Empire saw a number of migrations

take place in the 4th and 5th centuries. These migrations were often
violent as invaders moved against the empire. It has been argued that
these outward attacks were assisted by Christianity, the new state
religion.
Christianity taught men to love their neighbors and this can be

difficult to accomplish when one is seeking to kill them on the
battlefield. Likewise, it taught men to worship God rather than
527
The Roman Empire
Caesar and was therefore a battle of loyalties. This should not be

thought of as a failure on the part of Christianity. Though it is true
that the barbarians conquered Rome, it is also true that Christianity
conquered the barbarians. Thus, when the vandals entered Carthage,
they had already converted to an Arian form of Christianity and were
shocked at the presence of houses of prostitution. They promptly
destroyed these while leaving the churches intact.
3. Abuse of Natural Resources.
Octavius Augustus had once said, “I found Rome brick; I left her
marble.” But later Romans tore down the marble from the great
buildings to mix with lime for roadways. The great monuments were
not so much destroyed by fire or by sword, but by the greed of
Rome’s own inhabitants. High taxes forced the small farmers out of
business and into the cities where they lived in poverty. As
merchants and business owners were taxed even heavier, they also
collapsed.
4. Domestic Quarrels.
In its later years, the empire was plagued by civil wars and internal
strife as one ruler after another sought to take power for himself. The
Romans who had once prided themselves on their laws became a
nation of rebels and law-breakers.
As the ranks of the Roman armies were filled with men from the
provinces, they lost their patriotic spirit and discipline, becoming
more interested in loot. It had been this self discipline that had been
the source of Rome’s initial greatness.
Thus, Rome did not fall because of external forces such as invasion
by the barbarians. Rome fell because she had no sufficient inward
base. The barbarians only completed the breakdown and Rome
gradually became a ruin.
We should also note that the eastern part of the empire centered in
Constantinople would continue to stand as a “Christian kingdom” for the next
thousand years. Though it will not be the topic of this study, the legacy of
Rome would continue to be seen in Constantinople until its fall in 1453.
528
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aharoni, Yohanan & Avi-Yonah, Michael
1977 The MacMillan Bible Atlas, Revised Edition. New York, NY:
MacMillan
Allen, Lindsay
2005 The Persian Empire. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press
Arnold, Bill T. & Beyer, Bryan E.

2002 Readings from the Ancient Near East: Primary Sources for Old
Testament Study. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker
Beek, Martin A.
1962 Atlas of Mesopotamia: A Survey of the History and Civilization of
Mesopotamia from the Stone Age to the Fall of Babylon. Translated
by D. R. Welsh, Longdon, England: Thomas Nelson
Breasted, James Henry

1909 History of Egypt From the Earliest Times to the Persian Conquest.
New York, NY: Charles Scribner’ Sons
Brundige, Ellen N.
2014 The Library of Alexandria, Perseus Project.
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Museum.html
Burge, Gary M. & Cohick, Lynn H. & Green, Gene L.

2009 The New Testament in Antiquity: A Survey of the New Testament
within its Cultural Contexts. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan
Cartledge, Paul
2004 Alexander the Great: The Hunt for a New Past. Woodstock, NY:
Overlook Press
Cline, Eric H.
2014 1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press
Cohen, Shaye J. D.
1987 From the Maccabees to the Mishnah. Philadelphia, PA:
Westminster Press
529
Dio, Cassius
2004 Dio’s Rome: Project Gutenberg E Book. Translated by Herbert
Baldwin Foster, Project Gutenberg
Edersheim, Alfred
1977 The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah. Grand Rapids, MI:
Eerdmans
1979 The Temple. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans
Eusebius
2006 Eusebius’ Ecclesiastical History. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson
Evans, James Allan

2008 Daily Life in the Hellenistic Age: From Alexander to Cleopatra.
OK: University of Oklahoma Press
Faulstich, E. W.
1986 History, Harmony & the Hebrew Kings. Spencer, IA: Chronology
Books
Free, Joseph & Vos, Howard

1992 Archaeology and Bible History. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan
Herodotus
1965 The Histories. Translated by Aubrey de Selincourt, Baltimore, MD:
Penguin
Hindson, Edward E.
1971 The Philistines and the Old Testament, Grand Rapids, MI: Baker
Hoehner, Harold W.
1977 Chronological Aspects of the Life of Christ. Grand Rapids, MI:
Zondervan
Hoffmeier, James Karl

1996 Israel in Egypt : The Evidence for the Authenticity of the Exodus
Tradition. New York, NY: Oxford Univeristy Press
Ironside, H. A.
1914 The Four Hundred Silent Years, Neptune, NJ: Loizeaux
530
Josephus, Flavius
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MA: Hendrickson Publishers
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Baltimore, MD: Penguin
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1997 Old Testament Parallels: Laws and Stories from the Ancient Near
East. New York, NY: Paultist Press
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ABC-CLIO
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Testament Narratives. Brentwood, TN: Holgemuth & Hyatt
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Blinders to Better Understand the Bible. Downers Grove, IL: IVP
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1964 The Histories. Translated by Kenneth Wellesley. Baltimore, MD:
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Walton, John H. (General Editor)

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Volumes). Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan
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Woolley, Charles Leonard

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Dakyns. Project Gutenberg EBook
533

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Ancient History

A Framework for the

Unless otherwise noted,

Doctrines of the Bible: Outlines in Systematic Theology

1. To Aid us in Understanding the Bible.

Each book of the Bible was written to a particular audience.

Our problem is that we are reading ancient Scriptures from a 21st

2. To Affirm the Scriptural Narrative.

Make no mistake, this is no easy conflict. There are many

3. To Aid us in the Work of Bible Translation and Interpretation.

Language is not a constant. It is always changing. One has only to

a. The Old Testament was written primarily in Hebrew with a

How are we to determine the meanings of such words? It is

b. The New Testament is written in Koine Greek. The Greek of

Understanding the Bible is not simply a case of gaining a correct

THE SCOPE OF BIBLICAL HISTORY

1. Old Testament History.

The lands of the Old Testament

2. New Testament History.

Although still centered

Between these two periods is a time known as the “Silent Years.” It is a

Old Testament New Testament

MILESTONES IN THE HISTORY OF

1. The Rosetta Stone.

Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Egypt in 1798.

army to escape back to France, a French soldier digging a trench at

It was a dark, irregular-shaped stone

Height 44 inches 111 centimeters

Hieroglyphs 14 These were Egyptian symbols in which

As the spoils of war, the Rosetta Stone ended up in the British

Scholars had recognized immediately that all three inscriptions were

There were actually three types of hieroglyphs:

a. Pictures: Some symbols did indeed represent a single word or

b. Related Sounds: Some pictures came to stand for things

c. Syllable Sounds: The symbol for “swallow” came to be used

2. The Behistun Inscription.

In 1833 British officer Sir Henry Rawlinson traveled to Persia to

In 1842, Rawlinson succeeded in climbing the wall and copying a

the inscription was inaccessible. It was not until 1847 that he

All three languages are written with cuneiform characters. An

It was ultimately determined that the pictorial relief was of King

Rawlinson managed to decipher the Persian part of the inscription.

Made of black basalt, this stela

The inscription parallels Biblical

Tall 3 feet, 8½ inches 113 centimeters

The French consul in Jerusalem commissioned an Arab to make a

Origins Erected by King Mesha at Dibon

Discovered in 1908 at Tell el-Jazari by Irish archaeologist R.A.S.

Two months are harvest

This inscription dates

5. Ras Shamrah - The Lost City of Ugarit.

In the spring of 1928, Mahmoud az-Zir, was ploughing land he had

When archaeologists were sent in to investigate, they discovered a

The style of writing discovered at Ugarit is known as alphabetic

Ugaritic greatly helps us in correctly translating difficult Hebrew

In 1964 Italian archaeologists directed by Paolo Matthiae of the

A royal library was found in 1974 consisting of 20,000 clay tablets,

7. Tell Dan Inscription.