Microbial Bioreactors For Industrial Molecules - Wiley (2023)

0005549961.
INDD 2 05-29-2023 14:24:23

Microbial Bioreactors for Industrial Molecules
0005549961.INDD 1 05-29-2023 14:24:23

0005549961.INDD 2 05-29-2023 14:24:23
Microbial Bioreactors for Industrial Molecules
Edited by
Sudhir P. Singh
Center of Innovative and Applied Bioprocessing (DBT-CIAB)
Mohali
India
Santosh Kumar Upadhyay

Department of Botany
Panjab University
Chandigarh
India
0005549961.INDD 3 05-29-2023 14:24:24

This edition first published 2023
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Singh, Sudhir P., editor. | Upadhyay, Santosh Kumar, editor.
Title: Microbial bioreactors for industrial molecules / edited by Sudhir P
Singh, Santosh Kumar Upadhyay.
Description: Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2023. | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2023000234 (print) | LCCN 2023000235 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119874065 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119874072 (adobe pdf) | ISBN
9781119874089 (epub)
Subjects: MESH: Bioreactors | Microbiological Phenomena | Molecular
Biology–methods | Industrial Microbiology–methods
Classification: LCC QP517.M65 (print) | LCC QP517.M65 (ebook) | NLM QW 40
| DDC 572/.33–dc23/eng/20230331
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023000234
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023000235
Cover Design: Wiley

Cover Image: © JUAN GAERTNER/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY/Getty Images
Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Straive, Pondicherry, India
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v
Contents
List of Contributors xv
Preface xxii
1 Microbial Bioreactors: An Introduction 1

Ashish Kumar Singh, Santosh Kumar Upadhyay, and Sudhir P. Singh
1.1 Microbial Bioresources 1
1.2 Microbial Bioresources for the Production of Enzymes 2
1.3 Microbial Bioresources for Therapeutic Application 3
1.4 Microbial Bioresources for Biogenesis 4
1.5 Microbial Fermentation 5
1.6 Microbial Biodegradation 6
1.7 Microbioresources for High-Value Metabolites 7
Acknowledgments 8
References 9
2 Microbial Bioresource for the Production of Marine Enzymes 17

Lorena Pedraza-Segura, Karina Maldonado-Ruiz Esparza, and Ruth Pedroza-Islas
2.1 Introduction 17
2.2 Prokaryotes 17
2.2.1 Amylases 19
2.2.2 Proteases 19
2.2.3 Bactericide 19
2.2.4 l-Asparaginase 19
2.2.5 Carbohydrases 20
2.3 Marine Archaea 20
2.4 Eukaryotes 23
2.4.1 Yeasts 23
2.4.2 Enzymes from Marine-Derived Fungi 24
References 30
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vi Contents
3 Lactic Acid Production Using Microbial Bioreactors 39

Juliana Botelho Moreira, Ana Luiza Machado Terra, Whyara Karoline Almeida da Costa,
Marciane Magnani, Michele Greque de Morais, and Jorge Alberto Vieira Costa
3.1 Introduction 39
3.2 Microbial Lactic Acid Producers 40
3.2.1 Bacteria 40
3.2.2 Fungi and Yeast 41
3.2.3 Microalgae 41
3.3 Alternative Substrates for Lactic Acid Production 42
3.4 Fermentation Process Parameters 42
3.5 Mode Improvement of Lactic Acid and Reactor Configuration 43
3.6 Challenges 47
3.7 Conclusions 49
Acknowledgments 50
References 50
4 Advancement in the Research and Development of Synbiotic Products 55

Anna María Polanía, Alexis García, and Liliana Londoño
4.1 Introduction 55
4.2 Probiotics, Prebiotics, and Synbiotics 56
4.2.1 Probiotics 56
4.2.2 Requirements and Selection Criteria for Probiotic Strains 57
4.3 Prebiotics 57
4.3.1 Requirements and Selection Criteria for Prebiotic Strains 59
4.4 Synbiotics 60
4.4.1 Synbiotic Selection Criteria 61
4.4.2 Mechanism of Action of Synbiotics 61
4.5 Health Benefits from Synbiotics 63
4.6 Bioreactor Design for Synbiotic Production 65
4.7 Microencapsulation and Nanotechnology to Ensure Their Viability 67
4.8 Nanoparticles 68
4.9 Applications in Various Fields such as Dermatological Diseases, Animal Feed,
and Functional Foods 68
4.9.1 Dermatological Diseases 68
4.9.2 Functional Foods 70
4.9.3 Animal Feed 71
4.10 Conclusions 72
References 73
5 Microbial Asparaginase and Its Bioprocessing Significance 81

Susana Calderón-Toledo, Amparo Iris Zavaleta, and Adalberto Pessoa-Junior
5.1 Introduction 81
5.2 Classification of l-Asparaginase 82
5.3 Bioprocessing 82
5.3.1 Sources of microbial l-Asparaginase 82
5.3.2 Upstream Bioprocessing 83
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Contents vii
5.3.3 Downstream Bioprocessing 87

5.3.3.1 Protein Concentration 87
5.3.3.2 l-Asparaginase Release 88
5.3.3.3 Chromatography 88
5.4 Scaled Up to Bioreactor 89
5.5 Characterization of l-Asparaginase 90
5.6 Applications of l-Asparaginase 92
5.6.1 Pharmaceutical Industry 92
5.6.2 Food Industry 92
5.7 Conclusions 93
References 93
6 Bioreactor-Scale Strategy for Pectinase Production 103

Javier Ulises Hernández-Beltrán, Carlos Alberto Acosta-Saldívar, Genesis Escobedo-
Morales, Nagamani Balagurusamy, and Miriam Paulina Luévanos-Escareño
6.1 Introduction 103
6.2 Pectinase Classification and Origin Sources 104
6.2.1 Pectinases 104
6.2.2 Origin Source of Production of Microbial Pectinase 106
6.3 Substrates Used for Pectinase Production 107
6.4 Fermentation Strategies 107
6.4.1 Solid-State Fermentation 107
6.4.2 Submerged Fermentation 113
6.5 Bioreactor-Scale Strategies 116
6.6 Conclusions 121
References 124
7 Microbes as a Bio-Factory for Polyhydroxyalkanoate Biopolymer

Production 131
Daniel Tobías-Soria, Julio Montañez, Iván Salmerón, Alejandro Mendez-Zavala,
James Winterburn, and Lourdes Morales-Oyervides
7.2 Microbial Polyhydroxyalkanoates as a Novel Alternative to Substitute
Petroleum-Derived Plastics 132
7.3 Microbial PHAs Classification, Synthesis, and Producing Microorganisms 133
7.3.1 PHAs Classification 133
7.3.2 Biosynthetic Pathways for PHAs Production 134
7.3.3 PHAs Producing Strains 137
7.3.4 Bacteria as the Main Species for the PHA Production 139
7.3.5 Algae as a Feasible Alternative for PHA Production 140
7.4 Trends and Challenges in the PHAs Synthesis Process 141
7.4.1 Upstream Processing Trends and Challenges 142
7.4.2 Downstream Processing, Trends and Challenges 144
7.5 Process Economics and Perspectives Toward Industrial Implementation 145
7.6 Concluding Remarks 151
References 151
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viii Contents
8 Microbial Production of Critical Enzymes of Lignolytic Functions 161

M. Indira, S. Krupanidhi, K. Vidya Prabhakar, T. C. Venkateswarulu,
and K. Abraham Peele
8.2 Sources of Lignolytic Enzymes 162
8.2.1 Plants 164
8.2.2 Insects 164
8.2.3 Bacteria 165
8.2.4 Fungi 165
8.2.5 Actinomycetes 166
8.2.6 Extremophiles 166
8.3 Lignolytic Enzymes 167
8.3.1 Lignin Peroxidase (EC 1.11.1.14) 167
8.3.2 Manganese Peroxidase (EC 1.11.1.13) 168
8.3.3 Versatile Peroxidase (EC 1.11.1.16) 168
8.3.4 Dye Decolorizing Peroxidases (DyPs) (EC 1.11.1.19) 169
8.3.5 Laccases (EC 1.10.3.2) 169
8.3.6 Feruloyl Esterase (EC.3.1.1.73) 170
8.3.7 Aryl Alcohol Oxidase (EC 1.1.3.7) 170
8.3.8 Pyranose-2-Oxidase (EC 1.1.3.10) 171
8.3.9 Vanillyl Alcohol Oxidase (EC 1.1.3.38) 171
8.3.10 Quinone Reductase (EC 1.6.5.5) 171
8.4 Microbial Production of Lignolytic Enzymes 171
8.5 Mechanism of Action of Lignolytic Enzymes 175
8.6 Conclusions 177
Acknowledgments 177
References 178
9 Microbial Bioreactors for Biofuels 189

Paulo Renato Souza de Oliveira, Allana Katiussya Silva Pereira, Iara Nobre Carmona,
and Ananias Francisco Dias Júnior
9.2 General Classification of Bioreactor 190
9.3 Liquid-Phase Bioreactor 190
9.3.1 Cell-Free 190
9.3.1.1 Mechanically Stirred 190
9.3.1.2 Pneumatically Stirred 190
9.3.2 Immobilized Cell 191
9.4 Reactors for Solid-State Cultures 192
9.5 Bioreactor Operation Mode 193
9.6 Biofuels 194
9.6.1 Bioethanol 194
9.6.2 Biodiesel 196
9.6.3 Butanol 197
9.6.4 Biogas and Methane 198
9.6.5 Hydrogen 199
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Contents ix
9.6.6 Biohythane 200

9.7 Considerations and Future Perspectives 201
References 201
10 Potential Microbial Bioresources for Functional Sugar Molecules 211

Satya Narayan Patel, Sweety Sharma, Ashish Kumar Singh, and Sudhir P. Singh
10.2 d-Allulose 212
10.3 d-Tagatose 215
10.4 Trehalose 217
10.5 Turanose 218
10.6 Trehalulose 221
10.7 d-Allose 222
10.8 d-Talose 224
10.9 Conclusions 224
Acknowledgment 225
References 225
11 Microbial Production of Bioactive Peptides 237

Adriano Gennari, Fernanda Leonhardt, Graziela Barbosa Paludo, Daniel Neutzling
Lehn, Gaby Renard, Giandra Volpato, and Claucia Fernanda Volken de Souza
11.2 Microbial Production of Peptides with Antioxidant Activity 238
11.3 Microbial Production of Peptides with Antimicrobial Activity 239
11.4 Microbial Production of Peptides with Antihypertensive Activity 240
11.5 Microbial Production of Peptides with Antidiabetic Activity 242
11.6 Microbial Production of Peptides with Immunomodulatory Activities 243
11.7 Microbial Production of Peptides with Antitumoral Activity 243
11.8 Microbial Production of Peptides with Opioid Activity 247
11.9 Microbial Production of Peptides with Antithrombotic Activity 248
11.10 Production of Recombinant Peptides in Microbial Expression Systems 249
11.11 Purification and Identification of Microbial Bioactive Peptides 251
11.12 Conclusions and Perspectives 252
References 253
12 Trends in Microbial Sources of Oils, Fats, and Fatty Acids for Industrial Use 261
Alaa Kareem Niamah, Deepak Kumar Verma, Shayma Thyab Gddoa Al-Sahlany,
Soubhagya Tripathy, Smita Singh, Nihir Shah, Ami R. Patel, Mamta Thakur, Gemilang
Lara Utama, Mónica L. Chávez-González, and Cristobal Noe Aguilar
12.2 Microbial Sources 263
12.2.1 Microalgal Sources 264
12.2.2 Bacterial Sources 266
12.2.3 Fungal and Yeast Sources 267
12.3 Application in Food and Health 269
12.4 Opportunities and Prospective Future 270
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12.5 onclusion 271

C
References 271
13 Microbial Bioreactors for Secondary Metabolite Production 275

Luis V. Rodríguez-Durán, Mariela R. Michel, Alejandra Pichardo,
and Pedro Aguilar-Zárate
13.2 Design of Bioreactors 276
13.3 Types of Bioreactors for Secondary Metabolite Production 278
13.3.1 Stirred Tank Bioreactor (STB) 278
13.3.2 Bubble Column 280
13.3.3 Air-Lift 282
13.3.4 Biofilm Bioreactor 283
13.3.5 Solid-State Fermentation (SSF) Bioreactors 285
13.3.6 Tray Bioreactor 286
13.3.7 Packed Bed Bioreactor 287
13.3.8 Stirred and Rotating Drum Bioreactor 288
13.4 Conclusion 289
Acknowledgment 289
References 289
14 Microbial Cell Factories for Nitrilase Production

and Its Applications 297
Neerja Thakur, Vinay Kumar, and Shashi Kant Bhatia
14.2 Nitrilase Categorization, Sources, Metabolism, and Production Process 298
14.2.1 Nitrilase Categorization 298
14.2.2 Nitrilase Sources 298
14.2.3 Nitrilase in the Metabolism of Nitriles 298
14.2.4 Isolation and Screening of Nitrilase-Producing Microorganisms 299
14.2.5 Cultivation of Nitrilase-Producing Microbes 299
14.2.6 Nitrilase Production in Bioreactor 301
14.2.6.1 Factors Affecting Nitrilase Production in a Bioreactor 301
14.3 Nitrilase in the Biotransformation of Nitriles 302
14.3.1 Aliphatic Acids 305
14.3.1.1 Acrylic Acid 305
14.3.1.2 Glycolic Acid 305
14.3.2 Aromatic Acids 305
14.3.2.1 Nicotinic Acid 305
14.3.2.2 Isonicotinic Acid 306
14.3.2.3 Benzoic Acid 306
14.3.3 Arylacetic Acids 306
14.3.3.1 Mandelic Acid 306
14.3.3.2 Phenylacetic Acid 307
14.4 Conclusion 307
References 307
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Contents xi
15 Chemistry and Sources of Lactase Enzyme with an Emphasis on Microbial

Biotransformation in Milk 315
Alaa Kareem Niamah, Shayma Thyab Gddoa Al-Sahlany, Deepak Kumar Verma,
Smita Singh, Soubhagya Tripathy, Deepika Baranwal, Nihir Shah, Ami R. Patel,
Mamta Thakur, Gemilang Lara Utama, Mónica L. Chávez-González, and Cristobal
Noe Aguilar
15.2 Lactase Enzyme 316
15.3 Sources of Lactase 318
15.3.1 Plants 318
15.3.2 Bacteria 319
15.3.3 Yeasts 321
15.3.4 Molds 322
15.4 Microbial Biotransformation of Lactase Enzyme 322
15.4.1 Improvement of Microbial Strains 322
15.4.2 Galactooligosaccharide Synthesis and Transglycosylation 324
15.4.3 Lactose Intolerance 325
15.5 Conclusion 326
References 327
16 Microbial Biogas Production: Challenges and Opportunities 333

Diana B. Muñiz-Márquez, Christian Iván Cano-Gómez, Jorge Enrique Wong-Paz,
Victor Emmanuel Balderas-Hernández, and Fabiola Veana
16.2 Generalities of Biogas Production: the Process and Its Yields 334
16.3 Feedstocks Used in Biogas Production and Their Characteristics 336
16.4 Microbial Biodiversity in Biogas Production 337
16.4.1 Generalities 337
16.4.2 Anaerobic Fungi in Biogas Production 338
16.4.3 Anaerobic Bacteria in Biogas Production 340
16.4.4 Methanogenic Archaeal and Algae in Biogas Production 340
16.5 The Role of the Enzymes in Biogas Production 341
16.6 Challenges and Opportunities in Biogas Production 344
16.6.1 Challenges for Biogas Production 344
16.6.2 Opportunities for Biogas Production 346
References 347
17 Molecular Farming and Anticancer Vaccine: Current Opportunities

and Openings 355
Yashwant Kumar Ratre, Arundhati Mehta, Sapnita Shinde, Vibha Sinha, Vivek
Kumar Soni, Subash Chandra Sonkar, Dhananjay Shukla, and Naveen Kumar
Vishvakarma
17.2 Vaccines and the Possibility in Noncommunicable Diseases 356
17.3 Vaccine Production 357
17.3.1 Cancer Vaccine 358
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xii Contents
17.4 ypes of Cancer Vaccine 359

T
17.5 Microbial Production of Anticancer Vaccine: Challenges
and Opportunities 361
17.5.1 Yeast-Based Cancer Vaccine (YBCV) 362
17.5.2 Bacteria-Based Cancer Vaccine (BBCV) 364
17.6 Conclusion 365
References 366
18 Microbial Bioreactors at Different Scales for the Alginate Production by

Azotobacter vinelandii 375
Belén Ponce, Viviana Urtuvia, Tania Castillo, Daniel Segura, Carlos Peña,
and Alvaro Díaz-Barrera
18.2 Bacterial Alginate 376
18.2.1 Compositions and Structures 376
18.2.2 Applications 376
18.3 Alginate Biosynthesis and Genetic Regulation 376
18.4 Production of Bacterial Alginate on a Bioreactor Scale 380
18.4.1 Cultivation Modality for Alginate Production 380
18.4.2 Influence of Oxygen on Alginate Production 382
18.4.3 Influence of Cultivation Modality on the Molecular Weight of Alginate 384
18.5 Chemical Characterization of Alginate Quality 384
18.5.1 Scale-up of Alginate Production 385
18.6 Prospects and Conclusions 388
Acknowledgment 390
References 390
19 Environment-Friendly Microbial Bioremediation 397

Areej Shahbaz, Nazim Hussain, Tehreem Mahmood, Mubeen Ashraf,
and Nida Khaliq
19.2 Principle of Bioremediation 400
19.3 Types of Bioremediations 402
19.3.1 Biostimulation 402
19.3.2 Bioattenuation 402
19.3.3 Bioaugmentation 403
19.3.4 Genetically Engineered Microorganisms (GEMs) 403
19.4 Factors Affecting Microbial Bioremediation 404
19.4.1 Biological Factors 405
19.4.2 Environmental Factors 405
19.4.2.1 Availability of Nutrients 405
19.4.2.2 Temperature and pH 406
19.4.2.3 Concentration of Oxygen and Moisture Content 406
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Contents xiii
19.4.2.4 Site Characterization and Selection 406

19.4.2.5 Metal Ions and Toxic Compounds 407
19.5 Bioremediation Techniques 407
19.6 Methods for Ex Situ Bioremediation 408
19.6.1 Solid Phase Treatment 408
19.6.1.1 Slurry Phase Bioremediation 409
19.6.1.2 In Situ Bioremediation 409
19.6.2 Engineered Bioremediation 409
19.6.3 Intrinsic Bioremediation 410
19.7 Bioremediation Using Microbial Enzymes 410
19.7.1 Laccases 411
19.7.2 Lipases 411
19.7.3 Proteases 411
19.7.4 Peroxidases 411
19.7.5 Hydrolytic Enzymes 412
19.7.6 Oxidoreductases 412
19.8 Bioremediation Prospects 412
19.9 Future Prospective 414
19.10 Conclusion 415
References 415
20 Microbial Bioresource for Plastic-Degrading Enzymes 421

Ayodeji Amobonye, Christiana Eleojo Aruwa, and Santhosh Pillai
20.2 Classification of Plastics: Biobased, Biodegradable, and Fossil-Based
Plastics 423
20.2.1 Fossil-Based Plastics 423
20.2.2 Biobased Plastics 423
20.2.3 Biodegradable Plastics 424
20.3 General Mechanism of Plastic Biodegradation 424
20.4 Microbial Sources of Plastic-Degrading Enzymes 426
20.4.1 Actinomycetes 426
20.4.2 Algae 427
20.4.3 Bacteria 427
20.4.4 Fungi 428
20.5 Biotechnological Strategies for Identifying/Improving Microbial Enzymes
and Their Sources for Plastic Biodegradation 429
20.5.1 Conventional Culturing Approach 429
20.5.2 Metagenomics 430
20.5.3 Recombinant Technology 431
20.5.4 Protein Engineering 431
20.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 432
References 434
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xiv Contents
21 Strategies, Trends, and Technological Advancements in Microbial Bioreactor

System for Probiotic Products 443
Soubhagya Tripathy, Ami R. Patel, Deepak Kumar Verma, Smita Singh, Gemilang Lara
Utama, Mamta Thakur, Alaa Kareem Niamah, Nihir Shah, Shayma Thyab Gddoa
Al-Sahlany, Prem Prakash Srivastav, Mónica L. Chávez-González, and Cristobal
Noe Aguilar
21.2 Bioreactors and Production of Probiotics 444
21.2.1 Conventional Batch Bioreactor System 447
21.2.2 Membrane Bioreactor System 449
21.2.3 Co-culture Fermentation 452
21.2.4 Recent Methods for Producing Multiple Probiotic Strains 454
21.3 Strategies Employed for Harvesting and Drying Probiotic Cells 455
21.4 Final Remarks and Possible Directions for the Future 456
Abbreviations 457
References 457
22 Microbial Bioproduction of Antiaging Molecules 465

Ankita Dua, Aeshna Nigam, Anjali Saxena, Gauri Garg Dhingra,
and Roshan Kumar
22.2 The Aging Process: An Overview 466
22.3 Human Health and the Aging Gut Microbiome 468
22.4 The Antiaging Bioproducts from Microbes 469
22.4.1 Bacteria 469
22.4.2 Fungi 471
22.4.3 Algae 471
22.5 The Impact of Microbial Bioproducts on Gut Diversity 472
22.6 Microbial Bioproduction of Extremolytes 472
22.7 The Role of Antiaging and Antioxidant Molecules 473
22.8 Conclusions 480
References 480
Index 487
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xv
List of Contributors
K. Abraham Peele Christiana Eleojo Aruwa

Department of Biotechnology, Vignan’s Department of Biotechnology and Food
Foundation for Science Science, Faculty of Applied Sciences
Technology & Research, Vadlamudi Durban University of Technology, Durban
Andhra Pradesh, India South Africa and Department of
Microbiology, School of Sciences
Carlos Alberto Acosta-Saldívar Federal University of Technology
Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas Akure, Nigeria
Universidad Autonoma de
Coahuila, Torreón Mubeen Ashraf
Coahuila, Mexico Department of Microbiology
University of Central Punjab
Cristobal Noe Aguilar Lahore, Pakistan
Bioprocesses and Bioproducts Research
Group, Food Research Department Nagamani Balagurusamy
School of Chemistry, Autonomous Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas
University of Coahuila, Saltillo Universidad Autonoma de Coahuila, Torreón
Coahuila, Mexico Coahuila, Mexico
Pedro Aguilar-Zárate Victor Emmanuel Balderas-Hernández

Engineering Department, Tecnológico División de Biología Molecular
Nacional de México/I. T. de Ciudad Valles Instituto Potosino de Investigación
Ciudad Valles Científica y Tecnológica, A. C. San Luis Potosí
San Luis Potosí, Mexico San Luis Potosí, Mexico
Shayma Thyab Gddoa Al-Sahlany Deepika Baranwal

Department of Food Science Department of Home Science
College of Agriculture Arya Mahila PG College
University of Basrah Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi
Basra City, Iraq Uttar Pradesh, India
Ayodeji Amobonye Shashi Kant Bhatia

Department of Biotechnology and Food Department of Biological Engineering
Science, Faculty of Applied Sciences College of Engineering
Durban University of Technology Konkuk University
Durban, South Africa Seoul, South Korea
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xvi List of Contributors
Susana Calderón-Toledo Michele Greque de Morais

Laboratorio de Biología Molecular Laboratory of Microbiology and
Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica Biochemistry, College of Chemistry and
Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos Food Engineering, Federal University of
Lima, Peruz Rio Grande, Rio Grande
Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
Christian Iván Cano-Gómez
Tecnológico Nacional de México/IT de Paulo Renato Souza de Oliveira
Ciudad Valles, Ciudad Valles Department of Forest Sciences
San Luis Potosí, Mexico University of São Paulo – Luiz de Queiroz
College of Agriculture, USP – ESALQ,
Iara Nobre Carmona Piracicaba
Department of Forest Sciences Sao Paulo, Brazil
University of São Paulo – Luiz de Queiroz
College of Agriculture, USP – ESALQ, Claucia Fernanda Volken de Souza
Piracicaba Food Biotechnology Laboratory
Sao Paulo, Brazil University of Vale do Taquari – Univates
Lajeado, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil and
Tania Castillo Biotechnology Graduate Program
Departamento de Ingeniería Celular y University of Vale do Taquari –
Biocatálisis, Instituto de Biotecnología Univates, Lajeado
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
México, Cuernavaca
Morelos, Mexico Gauri Garg Dhingra
Department of Zoology
Mónica L. Chávez-González Kirori Mal College
Bioprocesses and Bioproducts Research University of Delhi
Group, Food Research Department New Delhi, India
School of Chemistry, Autonomous
University of Coahuila, Saltillo Ananias Francisco Dias Júnior
Coahuila, Mexico Department of Forestry and Wood Sciences
Federal University of Espírito Santo, UFES,
Jorge Alberto Vieira Costa Jerônimo Monteiro
Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering Espírito Santo, Brazil
College of Chemistry and Food
Engineering, Federal University of Rio Alvaro Díaz-Barrera
Grande, Rio Grande Escuela de Ingeniería Bioquímica
Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil Pontificia Universidad Católica del
Valparaíso
Whyara Karoline Almeida da Costa Valparaíso, Chile
Laboratory of Microbial Processes in Foods
Department of Food Engineering Ankita Dua
Center of Technology, Federal University Department of Zoology, Shivaji College
of Paraíba, João Pessoa University of Delhi, Raja Garden
Paraíba, Brazil New Delhi, India
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List of Contributors xvii
Genesis Escobedo-Morales Nida Khaliq

Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas Department of Microbiology
Universidad Autonoma de Coahuila, University of Central Punjab
Torreón Lahore, Pakistan
Coahuila, Mexico
S. Krupanidhi
Karina Maldonado-Ruiz Esparza Department of Biotechnology
Department of Chemical, Industrial and Vignan’s Foundation for Science
Food Engineering, Universidad Technology & Research, Vadlamudi
Iberoamericana, Lomas de Santa Fe Andhra Pradesh, India
Mexico City, Mexico
Vinay Kumar
Alexis García Department of Physiology and Cell Biology
School of Food Engineering The Ohio State University Wexner Medical
Faculty of Engineering Center, Columbus
Universidad del Valle, Tuluá OH, USA
Valle del Cauca, Colombia
Roshan Kumar
Post-Graduate Department of Zoology
Adriano Gennari
Magadh University, Bodh Gaya
Food Biotechnology Laboratory
Bihar, India
University of Vale do Taquari – Univates
Lajeado, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil and
Daniel Neutzling Lehn
Biotechnology Graduate Program
University of Vale do Taquari –
University of Vale do Taquari – Univates
Univates, Lajeado
Lajeado
Javier Ulises Hernández-Beltrán

Fernanda Leonhardt
Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas
Universidad Autonoma de Coahuila,
University of Vale do Taquari –
Torreón
Univates, Lajeado
Coahuila, Mexico
Nazim Hussain Liliana Londoño

Center for Applied Molecular BIOTICS Group, School of Basic Sciences
Biology (CAMB) Technology and Engineering
University of the Punjab Universidad Nacional Abierta y a
Lahore, Pakistan Distancia – UNAD
Bogota, Colombia
M. Indira
Department of Biotechnology Miriam Paulina Luévanos-Escareño
Vignan’s Foundation for Science Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas
Technology & Research, Vadlamudi Universidad Autonoma de Coahuila, Torreón
Andhra Pradesh, India Coahuila, Mexico
fbetw.indd 17 05/26/2023 19:18:04

xviii List of Contributors
Marciane Magnani Diana B. Muñiz-Márquez

Laboratory of Microbial Processes in Foods Facultad de Estudios Profesionales Zona
Department of Food Engineering Huasteca, Universidad Autónoma de San
Center of Technology, Federal University Luis Potosí, Ciudad Valles
of Paraíba, João Pessoa San Luis Potosí, Mexico
Paraíba, Brazil
Alaa Kareem Niamah
Tehreem Mahmood Department of Food Science
Department of Biotechnology College of Agriculture, University
Quaid-i-Azam University of Basrah
Islamabad, Pakistan Basra City, Iraq
Arundhati Mehta Aeshna Nigam

Department of Biotechnology Department of Zoology, Shivaji College
Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya, Bilaspur University of Delhi, Raja Garden
Chhattisgarh, India New Delhi, India
Alejandro Mendez-Zavala Graziela Barbosa Paludo

Facultad de Ciencias Quimicas Food Biotechnology Laboratory
Universidad Autonoma de Coahuila, Saltillo University of Vale do Taquari – Univates
Coahuila, Mexico Lajeado, Rio Grande do Sul
Brazil and Biotechnology Graduate
Mariela R. Michel Program
Engineering Department University of Vale do Taquari –
Tecnológico Nacional de México/I. T. de Univates, Lajeado
Ciudad Valles, Ciudad Valles Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
San Luis Potosí, Mexico
Satya Narayan Patel
Julio Montañez
Center of Innovative and Applied
Facultad de Ciencias Quimicas
Bioprocessing (DBT-CIAB), Mohali
Universidad Autonoma de Coahuila, Saltillo
Punjab, India
Coahuila, Mexico
Lourdes Morales-Oyervides Ami R. Patel

Facultad de Ciencias Quimicas Division of Dairy Microbiology
Universidad Autonoma de Coahuila, Saltillo Mansinhbhai Institute of Dairy and Food
Coahuila, Mexico Technology-MIDFT, Dudhsagar Dairy
Campus, Mehsana
Juliana Botelho Moreira Gujarat, India
Laboratory of Microbiology and
Biochemistry Lorena Pedraza-Segura
College of Chemistry and Food Department of Chemical
Engineering Industrial and Food Engineering
Federal University of Rio Grande Universidad Iberoamericana, Lomas de
Rio Grande Santa Fe
Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil Mexico City, Mexico
fbetw.indd 18 05/26/2023 19:18:04

List of Contributors xix
Ruth Pedroza-Islas Belén Ponce

Department of Chemical Escuela de Ingeniería Bioquímica
Industrial and Food Engineering Pontificia Universidad Católica del Valparaíso
Universidad Iberoamericana, Lomas de Valparaíso, Chile
Santa Fe
Mexico City, Mexico Yashwant Kumar Ratre
Department of Biotechnology
Carlos Peña Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya, Bilaspur
Departamento de Ingeniería Celular y Chhattisgarh, India
Biocatálisis, Instituto de Biotecnología
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Gaby Renard
México, Cuernavaca Quatro G Pesquisa &
Morelos, Mexico Desenvolvimento Ltda
TECNOPUC, Porto Alegre
Allana Katiussya Silva Pereira Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
Department of Forest Sciences
University of São Paulo – Luiz de Queiroz Luis V. Rodríguez-Durán
College of Agriculture, USP – ESALQ, Biochemical Engineering Department
Piracicaba UAM-Mante
Sao Paulo, Brazil Universidad Autónoma de Tamaulipas.
Ciudad Mante
Tamaulipas, Mexico
Adalberto Pessoa-Junior
Department of Biochemical and
Iván Salmerón
Pharmaceutical Technology
School of Chemical Science
School of Pharmaceutical Sciences
Autonomous University of Chihuahua
University of São Paulo
Chihuahua, Mexico
São Paulo, Brazil
Anjali Saxena
Alejandra Pichardo
Department of Zoology, Bhaskaracharya
College of Applied Sciences
Universidad Autonoma Metropolitana-
University of Delhi, Dwarka
Unidad Iztapalapa, Colonia Vicentina
New Delhi, India
Mexico City, Mexico
Daniel Segura
Santhosh Pillai Departamento de Microbiología Molecular
Department of Biotechnology and Instituto de Biotecnología
Food Science Universidad Nacional Autónoma de
Faculty of Applied Sciences México, Cuernavaca
Durban University of Technology Morelos, Mexico
Durban, South Africa
Nihir Shah
Anna María Polanía Division of Dairy Microbiology
School of Food Engineering Faculty of Mansinhbhai Institute of Dairy and Food
Engineering Technology-MIDFT, Dudhsagar Dairy
Universidad del Valle, Tuluá Campus, Mehsana
Valle del Cauca, Colombia Gujarat, India
fbetw.indd 19 05/26/2023 19:18:04

xx List of Contributors
Areej Shahbaz Subash Chandra Sonkar

Center for Applied Molecular Biology (CAMB) Multidisciplinary Research Unit
University of the Punjab Maulana Azad Medical College and
Lahore, Pakistan Associated Hospitals
University of Delhi
Sweety Sharma New Delhi, India
Center of Innovative and Applied
Bioprocessing (DBT-CIAB), Mohali Prem Prakash Srivastav
Punjab, India Agricultural and Food Engineering
Department, Indian Institute of
Sapnita Shinde Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur
Department of Biotechnology West Bengal, India
Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya, Bilaspur
Chhattisgarh, India Ana Luiza Machado Terra
Laboratory of Microbiology and Biochemistry
Dhananjay Shukla College of Chemistry and Food Engineering
Department of Biotechnology Federal University of Rio Grande
Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya, Bilaspur Rio Grande
Chhattisgarh, India Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
Ashish Kumar Singh Mamta Thakur

Center of Innovative and Applied Department of Food Technology
Bioprocessing (DBT-CIAB), Mohali School of Sciences
Punjab, India ITM University, Gwalior
Madhya Pradesh, India
Smita Singh
Neerja Thakur
Department of Allied Health Sciences
Department of Biotechnology and
Chitkara School of Health Sciences
Microbiology, RKMV, Shimla
Chitkara University, Rajpura
Himachal Pradesh, India
Punjab, India
Daniel Tobías-Soria
Sudhir P. Singh Facultad de Ciencias Quimicas
Center of Innovative and Applied Universidad Autonoma de Coahuila, Saltillo
Bioprocessing (DBT-CIAB), Mohali Coahuila, Mexico
Punjab, India
Soubhagya Tripathy
Vibha Sinha Agricultural and Food Engineering
Department of Biotechnology Department, Indian Institute of
Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya, Bilaspur Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur
Chhattisgarh, India West Bengal, India
Vivek Kumar Soni Santosh Kumar Upadhyay

Department of Biotechnology Department of Botany
Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya, Bilaspur Panjab University, Chandigarh
Chhattisgarh, India India
fbetw.indd 20 05/26/2023 19:18:04

List of Contributors xxi
Viviana Urtuvia Naveen Kumar Vishvakarma

Escuela de Ingeniería Bioquímica Department of Biotechnology
Pontificia Universidad Católica del Valparaíso Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya, Bilaspur
Valparaíso, Chile Chhattisgarh, India
Gemilang Lara Utama Giandra Volpato

Faculty of Agro-Industrial Technology Federal Institute of Education
Universitas Padjadjaran, Sumedang Science and Technology of Rio Grande
Indonesia and Center for Environment and do Sul, Porto Alegre
Sustainability Science Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
Universitas Padjadjaran, Bandung
Indonesia James Winterburn
Department of Chemical Engineering
Fabiola Veana The University of Manchester
Tecnológico Nacional de México/IT de Manchester, UK
Ciudad Valles, Ciudad Valles
San Luis Potosí, Mexico Jorge Enrique Wong-Paz
Facultad de Estudios Profesionales Zona
T. C. Venkateswarulu Huasteca, Universidad Autónoma de San
Department of Biotechnology Luis Potosí, Ciudad Valles
Vignan’s Foundation for Science San Luis Potosí, Mexico
Technology & Research, Vadlamudi
Andhra Pradesh, India Amparo Iris Zavaleta
Laboratorio de Biología Molecular
Deepak Kumar Verma Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica
Agricultural and Food Engineering Universidad Nacional Mayor de San
Department, Indian Institute of Marcos
Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur Lima, Peru
West Bengal, India
K. Vidya Prabhakar
Vikrama Simhapuri University, Nellore
Andhra Pradesh, India
fbetw.indd 21 05/26/2023 19:18:04

xxii
Preface
The presence of microorganisms is found virtually everywhere in the environment, as the

unseen majority on earth. On the planet, any branch of science cannot be imagined to be
unaffected by the dynamics of the natural microbial communities. Recent advances in
interdisciplinary studies have helped in enhancing our understanding of the association
between microbiomes and human beings. The potential of microbial bioresources has been
realized in the advancement of various sectors, such as biotechnology, food technology, agri-
cultural development, and health. The plentiful diversity in the microbiome of the earth’s
biosphere fosters many known and unknown solutions to the socio-economic issues. Many
such microbial strains identified in research collections are required to be evaluated for the
scope of technological value. The holistic approach to the maintenance and use of the earth’s
bioresource can facilitate the development of innovative bioreactors based on microbial
wealth. Microorganisms are the source of a variety of biomolecules, such as enzymes, fatty
acids, antibiotics, exopolysaccharides, biosurfactants, organic acids, rare sugars, functional
metabolites, bioactive peptides, specialized metabolites, and nutraceuticals. The microbial
enzymes are of enormous usage in food, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and agricultural industries.
The genomic resource of the microflora can be edited and/or engineered for continuous and
upscale production of desirable biomolecules. Microbial cell systems can be developed into
bio-factory for the production of high-value molecules. The scientific vision should be to
exploit the basic and applied aspects of the strain metadata with environment safety and
management. This book covers the diverse knowledge about industrial and innovative
aspects of microbial cells and the derived biomolecules in numerous fields, including phar-
maceuticals, nutraceuticals, food, biomass processing, etc. This book will act as a repository
to get information on the application of microbial resources as bioreactors. This comprehen-
sive wealth of information is useful for graduate students, academicians, researchers, and
the general public.
Sudhir P. Singh,
Center of Innovative and Applied Bioprocessing (DBT-CIAB),
Mohali, Punjab, India
Santosh Kumar Upadhyay,
Department of Botany, Panjab University,
Chandigarh, India
fpref.indd 22 05/26/2023 19:18:07

1
Microbial Bioreactors: An Introduction

Ashish Kumar Singh1, Santosh Kumar Upadhyay2, and Sudhir P. Singh1
1
Center of Innovative and Applied Bioprocessing (DBT-CIAB), Mohali, Punjab, India
2
Department of Botany, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India
1.1 Microbial Bioresources
Organisms that are too small for the human eye and whose structure cannot be deciphered
by the naked eye without a microscope are known as “microorganisms” or “microbes.” All
unicellular organisms are included in the group of microorganisms. Along with archaea
and eubacteria, the term “microbes” is used for different members of algae, fungi, viruses,
and protozoans [1]. Microbes are ubiquitous; some are beneficial, and some are harmful to
human beings [2]. The diverse role of microorganisms on the planet makes the earth a
greatly sustainable and inhabitable ecosystem. Microbial resources have good potential to
produce a broad range of high-value compounds [3]. The microbial communities in
different ecological niches are gaining more attention due to the increasing demands of
various bioactive molecules for food, neutraceutical, and pharmaceutical industries [1, 4, 5].
The microbes present in traditional fermented products such as cheese, bread, and wine
have also been broadly used in industries for the bulk production of different polymers,
high-value chemicals, monomers, and biopharmaceuticals such as hormones, enzymes,
vitamins, antibiotics, and vaccines [6, 7]. Together with the availability of complete genome
sequencing data, progress in molecular biology techniques, recombinant DNA technology
(RDT), CRISPR-Cas9 as a genome editing tool has allowed easy genetic manipulation of
microbes to enhance or improve the production of different high-value biomolecules
that could be carbohydrates, proteins, hormones, enzymes, lipids, etc. [6, 8–12]. These
engineered or native microbial cells that act as biological devices for producing natural
molecules as pharmaceuticals and industrial significance could be called as “microbial
bioreactors.” These microbial resources have the potential to make a variety of high-value
chemicals, enzymes, bioactive peptides, secondary metabolites, etc. In addition, microbial
systems are used to produce biofuel and biogas and for environmentally friendly bioreme-
diation applications. A few specific examples have been discussed in this section; the
upcoming chapters will go into greater detail on these topics.
Microbial Bioreactors for Industrial Molecules, First Edition.

Edited by Sudhir P. Singh and Santosh Kumar Upadhyay.
© 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
c01.indd 1 05/26/2023 19:15:15

2 1 Microbial Bioreactors: An Introduction
1.2 Microbial Bioresources for the Production of Enzymes
The ocean or marine environment is one of the most extensive untapped frontiers to human
beings [13]. The largest aquatic ecosystem on the planet is the marine environment, which
has the most critical biodiversity, including animals, plants, and microbes such as fungi,
bacteria, and viruses [5, 14–20]. The ocean has moderate atmospheric pressure on the
surface and massive pressure in the deepest ocean area. They also have zero sea ice tem-
perature to extremely high temperatures above 300 °C in hydrothermal vents and low
saline conditions to salt-saturated areas. This diverse range of environmental conditions is
adapted by different life forms present in marine settings. They are metabolically diverse to
produce various enzymes that can perform uniquely in industrial environments [13, 21].
As the ocean or marine contributes approximately half of the global primary production, they
act as a vital nutritional source and a favorable alternative for food security. The marine
environment has huge biological and ecological diversity, and this variability permits the
production of several natural compounds used for humankind in agriculture, remediation,
nutrition, health, etc. [21, 22]. Based on their ecological function and habitat, marine bacteria
and fungi secret different novel enzymes and enzyme variants unique to nature [14]. The
marine environment acts as a library for the various inimitable and potential enzymes such as
lipase, chitinase, protease, pectinase, nucleases, and xylanase [22].
Many microbe-borne enzymes, viz., invertase, cellulase, xylanase, lipase, keratinase,
amylase, lactase, and protease, have been industrially produced and commercialized in the
past few decades due to their diverse vital role, eco-friendliness, cost-effectiveness, and
economical feasibility [23, 24]. Pectinases have received significant attention worldwide as
biological catalysts since they have wide applications in different industries like juice,
paper, and food [25–27]. Pectinases have been most widely studied in plant origin, mainly
from fruits, but their extraction and purification often need special conditions due to their
thermolabile nature [25]. Therefore, the production of pectinases from the microbial origin
is getting more attention nowadays as an alternative strategy due to its stability and easy
extraction process.
The nitrile compounds or organic cyanides are carboxylic acids substituted by cyanide
with the chemical formula R-CN, which are widely spread in the environment. Plant nitrile
compounds in their natural state are cyanolipids, β-cyanoalanine, ricinine, cyanoglyco-
sides, etc. [28–31]. Nitriles can also be found as metabolic intermediates in microor-
ganisms. These compounds are essential for synthetic purposes and widely used at the
industrial level to produce compounds such as carboxylic acids, amides, pharmaceutical
products, polymers, heterocyclic compounds, and pesticides [28]. However, due to the
presence of the cyano group, these are highly toxic, carcinogenic, and mutagenic [28, 30].
Therefore, the widespread usage of these substances could cause environmental issues [28].
Microorganisms can degrade many nitrile compounds by using the enzyme nitrilase and
nitrile hydratase. These microbes use nitriles in the form of carbon or nitrogen source for
their growth. In recent years, microbial-originated nitrilase enzymes have been used to
convert nitriles into beneficial chemical compounds and clean up nitrile-contaminated soil
and water [28]. Due to their ease of handling, manipulation, and culture under controlled
conditions, microbes are attractive candidates for synthesizing economically significant
enzymes.
c01.indd 2 05/26/2023 19:15:15

1.3 Microbial Bioresources for Therapeutic Applicatio 3
1.3 Microbial Bioresources for Therapeutic Application
The age-old quote, “Let food be the medicine and medicine be the food,” is given by
Hippocrates, and it has become an ideology of the health-conscious population in today’s
lifestyle [32–34]. Afterwards, a Russian Nobel Prize winner, Eli Metchnikoff, recognized
the beneficial role of some selected bacteria on the human gastrointestinal tract and
proposed the “Theory of Longevity” [35, 36]. Several microorganisms used for the treatment
of disease led to the development of the concept of “probiotics.” In the year 1954, Ferdinand
Vergin first gave the term “probiotika,” i.e. probiotics [32, 36]. The probiotic history
commenced with the early civilization when humans started consuming fermented foods
in their diet. Elie Metchnikoff suggested that human health could be boosted after manipu-
lating the gut microbiome with the help of good bacteria in the yoghurt [32, 35, 36]. The
beneficial effect of undigestible food constituents such as fibers on the host’s health is
known as “prebiotics.” Prebiotics generally modulate or enhance the growth of some
selective bacteria, such as Lactobacillus and Bifidobacteria, in the colon [33, 34].
The term “synbiotics” was first introduced in 1995, which is less popular than prebiotics
and probiotics. The combination of prebiotics and probiotics is known as synbiotics. Gibson
and Roberfroid first proposed the term “synbiotics” in 1955. After several revisions, the
International Scientific Association for Probiotics and Prebiotics (ISAPP) proposed the
definition of synbiotics as “The mixture of live microorganisms and substrate, selectively
utilized by host microorganisms that offer the health benefits on host health” [37]. The
host microorganisms include the normal microflora of the host gastrointestinal tract
and the externally cultured microorganisms taken in the form of probiotics [34–36, 38, 39].
Synbiotics have several health benefits, including immunomodulatory, antiallergenic,
antimicrobial, antidiarrheal, hypoglycemic, anticarcinogenic, and hypolipidemic. They
also increase minerals’ absorption and act as an anti-osteoporotic activity [35].
Several enzymes have also been used as therapeutic drugs [40]. Among the enzymes,
l-asparaginase has received substantial attention due to its prospective use as an oncological
and acrylamide-decreasing agent in the food industry. In addition, l-asparaginase is also
used in the pharmaceutical industry to treat various illnesses, including chronic
lymphosarcoma, acute lymphoblastic leukemia, Hodgkin’s disease, reticulosarcoma, and
lymphocytic leukemia [41, 42]. Several microorganisms and some plants have been reported
to have l-ASNase activity. However, due to the complex process of extraction and purifica-
tion of enzymes from plants and animals, microorganisms act as a precious alternative for
producing l-asparaginase [40–44]. Currently, industrial production of l-asparaginase has
been carried out using the microbial strains of Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas, Staphylococcus,
Rouxiella, Pseudonocardia, Lactobacillus, Acinetobacter, and Erwinia chrysanthemi,
isolated from different environmental, clinical, and food samples [43].
Cancer has become a leading cause of mortality worldwide and is an essential barrier to
improving life expectancy in both developed and developing countries [45]. According to
World Health Organization (WHO) 2019, in 112 of 183 nations, cancer is the first or
second major cause of death before the age of 70, and it ranks third or fourth in another
23 countries [45–47]. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) estimates
that in 2020, cancer will account for more than 19.3 million new cases and 10 million
mortality worldwide [45]. The key hurdles to managing cancer are aggressiveness, drug
c01.indd 3 05/26/2023 19:15:15

resistance, and cancer burden. Until recently, different types of traditional therapies, such
as radiotherapy, hormonal therapy, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and surgery, were
used to treat all types of cancer [48, 49]. Vaccination is one of the most significant and suc-
cessful disease prevention and control methods. Vaccines successfully eradicate harmful
microorganisms and are employed as preventative and therapeutic strategies against dis-
eases. Conventional vaccinations have high production costs, laborious purifying proce-
dures, and biosafety concerns, necessitating time-consuming biosafety evaluations for
commercial production. Molecular farming of vaccines, utilizing biomolecules’ production
in microorganisms or plant cells, offers several benefits compared to conventional systems,
including simplicity in manufacture, storage, better yields, stability, and safety [50–52].
The microbial systems can be exploited for the biosynthesis of specialized metabolites,
secondary products, pigments, toxins, and other substances that are helpful to the organ-
ism but are not involved in primary metabolism. Some of these items have the potential to
be therapeutic medicinal agents. Microbial bioproduction has primarily met the
ever-increasing need for medications made from natural resources, which has shown to be
beneficial for the growing population. The many wear-and-tear processes continuously
affect us, causing aging [53]. Skin beauty has been considered a crucial indicator of personal
health throughout history and culture. Additionally, it influences social traits like behavior,
attractiveness, and self-esteem [54]. New products called nutricosmetics and cosmeceuti-
cals are currently being developed for the food and cosmetic industries [54]. Antiaging
products have become more popular due to economic expansion, changing lifestyles, and
improved health awareness. The most effective strategies for delaying aging and extending
life include calorie/dietary restriction, genetic modification, and antiaging chemical
therapy [55]. A chapter in this book focuses on the origin, bioproduction, and connections
between antiaging chemicals from the microbial world and human health.
1.4 Microbial Bioresources for Biogenesis
Today, fossil fuel-derived conventional plastics are one of the most crucial materials in dif-
ferent fields: industrial, domestic, packaging, machinery frames, and furniture. Due to
their versatile nature, such as strength, durability, degradation resistance, and lightness,
they have almost replaced wood, glass, and metals in several cases [56, 57]. However, the
excessive production and use of plastic have become an environmental concern because it
is persistent and nonbiodegradable. As a result, it accumulates in the environment, posing
a threat to life on earth [58]. Therefore, researchers are exploring biologically produced
plastics, i.e. bioplastics, with ecofriendly and biodegradable properties [56]. These
bioplastics include polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), polylactic acid, polyesters, etc. [57, 58].
PHAs accumulate in microbial cells during unbalanced growth conditions as intracellular
carbon and act as energy reserves in several microorganisms [57]. Therefore, it is essential
to discuss a general overview of the upstream and downstream microbial biosynthesis of
PHAs and their challenges.
Excessive use of petroleum or fossil energy sources for fuel production poses adverse
environmental and socioeconomic effects [59]. It creates an energy crisis and boosts the
search for new alternatives to mitigate fossil fuel energy consumption with negative
environmental impact [59, 60]. Bioreactors provide a suitable environment for microbial
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1.5 Microbial Fermentatio 5
biomass to carry out biochemical reactions and energy conversion [61]. Bioreactor
technology is one of the most promising methods for microbial biomass production and
energy conversion due to its simplicity, sustainability, moderate reaction condition,
minimum carbon output, and low raw material utilization [59, 62].
The biogas plant is an appealing technology for sustainable renewable energy production.
An intricate microbiological community converts organic wastes into biogas during anaer-
obic digestion [63]. As a result, this energy production and waste management method is
an example of sustainability [63, 64]. The biomass used for digestion and the amount of
microbial inoculum in plants controlled the quantity and quality of biogas, such as the
composition of methane, carbon dioxide, and other gases produced [63, 65, 66]. The principal
constituent of biogas is CH4 (50–70%), CO2 (30–50%), nitrogen (0–3%), and water vapor
(95–10%), along with ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, hydrocarbons, and siloxanes [67].
Alginates are linear polysaccharides comprising different fractions of β-d-mannuronate
(M) linked to α-l-guluronate (G) residues by β-1,4 bond [68–73]. Alginates are significant
biopolymers employed as stabilizing, thickening, and gelling agents in the medical, indus-
trial, and commercial sectors [68, 70]. In addition, alginate microspheres have been utilized
therapeutically to release medicines, proteins, vaccines, and cells under controlled condi-
tions. Brown algae are currently used to produce alginate. However, depending on the
surrounding environment, the polymer’s composition changes. Therefore, alginates should
be biosynthesized with the specific physicochemical characteristics needed in specialized
applications. As an exopolysaccharide, this polymer may be produced by Pseudomonas and
Azotobacter [68, 70–72, 74]. Extensive research is going on for the production of alginate
using microbial bioresources. A chapter in this book comprehensively describes the micro-
bial biosynthesis of alginate and its genetic regulation, bacterial production of alginate at
the bioreactor level, and different cultivation methods for enhancing alginate production at
quality and quantity levels.
Around the world, plants and animals account for most oils and fats [75]. Lipids are a
group of naturally occurring organic molecules, e.g. triacylglycerol, phospholipids, and
glycolipids. They are classified according to their solubility in organic or nonpolar solvents
like benzene, acetone, and chloroform [76]. Lipids, such as fats (solids) and oils (liquids), are
classified as nutritional sources with a high level of metabolic energy [76, 77]. Lipids are
significant in many biological processes, including cell signaling cascade, energy storage, and
structural components of plasma membranes [76]. Microorganisms make up a significantly
smaller fraction of the fat. Therefore, it is far more expensive to produce oils and fats from
microorganisms than from plants [77, 78]. Animal fats were previously relatively inexpensive
since they are frequently produced as byproducts or main products of the meat and dairy
industries [75]. Biotechnological processes need to be explored to produce high-value oils and
lipids at an economical cost [79, 80]. This book dedicates a chapter describing the wide range
of microorganisms, such as algae, bacteria, fungi, and yeast, for oil, fat, and fatty acid sources.
1.5 Microbial Fermentation
From an historical point of view, lactic acid has a very long history. Swedish chemist Carl
Wilhelm Scheele first discovered it in the year 1780 from sour milk in brown syrup. Based
on its origin, it was given the name “Mjolksyra.” Until 1857, it was considered a milk
c01.indd 5 05/26/2023 19:15:16

component, but later on, Louis Pasture suggested that lactic acid is a fermentation product
of milk produced by certain microorganisms. After that, French scientist Fremy used
fermentation to produce lactic acid. In 1881, this event contributed to the first industrial
production of lactic acid in the United States using microbes [81, 82]. Lactic acid is a type
of organic acid and is authorized as generally regarded as safe (GRAS) by the US Food and
Drug Administration. Lactic acid has diverse roles in the food industry. It acts as a fermen-
tation agent, food preservative, decontaminant, acidulant, flavor enhancer, viscosifier,
cryoprotectant, etc. The chemical industry uses it as a pH regulator, mosquito repellent,
green solvent, metal complexing agent, and neutralizer. It is also used in the cosmetic
industry in the form of moisturizers, anti-acne agents, humectants, skin rejuvenating
agents, etc. It is also helpful in the medicine or pharmaceuticals industry as dialysis
solutions, surgical sutures, immune stimulants, controlled drug delivery systems,
etc. [83–86]. Industrial synthesis of lactic acid is done through either chemical synthesis or
microbial fermentation. However, microbial fermentation has some advantages; they are
produced in the pure form, whereas synthesis of lactic acid via a chemical process always
gives a racemic mixture [81]. Globally, the fermentation of carbohydrates through homol-
actic bacteria is used to produce lactic acid commercially. For example, different modified
or optimized bacterial strains of lactobacilli are used to produce lactic acid. The industrial
production of pure lactic acid can be done through microbial fermentation using different
carbohydrates such as sucrose, maltose, starch, and glucose, derived from various feed-
stocks such as whey, barley malt, molasses, and beet sugar [81, 83–85].
For human consumption, milk can be derived from various animals, including cows,
goats, sheep, buffalo, and humans [87]. However, the rich nutrient content of this milk –
which contains proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, and vital amino
acids – provides a perfect habitat for the growth of numerous bacteria [87]. The enzyme,
β-glycosidase, breaks down lactose in milk, producing lactose-free milk, which is sweeter
than regular milk and suitable for lactose-intolerant people [88–92]. The food industry uses
the lactose-breaking enzyme β-galactosidase to improve the flavor, sweetness, solubility,
and ease of digestion of dairy products [91]. So successive book chapters describe a brief
history of β-galactosidase, its structure, recombinant manufacture, and significant altera-
tions made to the enzyme to enhance its functionality.
1.6 Microbial Biodegradation
One of the essential components of renewable bioresources on the earth is lignocellulosic

biomass [93]. The lignocellulosic biomass comprises three major components, namely
lignin (15–20%), hemicellulose (25–30%), and cellulose (40–50%) [94–97]. Lignin is a
complex biopolymer consisting of polyphenols with a molecular weight of approximately
20,000 daltons and low biodegradability [94]. Due to the complex structure of lignin, its
degradation becomes challenging compared to cellulose and hemicellulose [95]. Different
chemical methods, such as treatment of aqueous ammonia, steam explosion, and acid
hydrolysis, are used to degrade lignin, but this method generates toxic byproducts and
requires high costs [98]. Therefore, biological processes of lignin degradation using differ-
ent ligninolytic enzymes from microbial cell factories are gaining more attention
nowadays. The biological methods of lignin degradation are more cost-effective and
c01.indd 6 05/26/2023 19:15:16

1.7 Microbioresources for High-Value Metabolite 7
ecofriendly [94, 95]. The microbial enzymes of lignolytic functions have been discussed in
the subsequent chapter.
A large spectrum of anthropogenic chemicals has been introduced into the soil, water,
and air due to rising human activity in areas like agriculture, industry, and urbanization
during the past few decades [99]. These harmful chemicals include a variety of organic
substances such as petroleum hydrocarbons, xenobiotic substances, polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons, halogenated substances, phenolic substances, volatile organic compounds
(VOCs), pesticides, nitroaromatic substances, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and
inorganic substances such as salts, nitrates, phosphates, and heavy metals such as arsenic
(As) and copper (Cu). The growth and metabolic processes of plants, soil microbes, soil
structure and fertility, aquatic species, and the biogeochemical cycling of elements are all
negatively impacted by a contaminated ecosystem, which ultimately affects the ecosystem
and human health [99–101]. Therefore, removing organic and inorganic pollutants from
the contaminated region to support our society’s sustainable growth is necessary [99]. The
term “bioremediation” describes a collection of processes that uses biological systems
to restore or purge damaged environments [102–104]. Bioremediation is an established
method of decontaminating a polluted environment that is sustainable and kind to the
environment. Of the microorganisms recovered from various environmental samples, only
a tiny percentage are easily culturable [100]. We now better understand the bacteria that
live in a given environment because of molecular techniques like metagenomics, transcrip-
tomics, and fluxomics [100, 105].
Plastics are synthetic polymers that have a wide range of uses. Plastics are suitable for
various applications due to their flexibility, strength, and erosion resistance [106]. Plastics
made from petroleum offer a lot of good qualities. They are highly durable due to their
small weight and extremely stable chemical and physical characteristics. They are produced
in bulk and are well-established, resulting in meager costs. As a result, they are now
commonplace in the global economy. However, because petro-plastic wastes are resistant
to natural biodegradation processes, they significantly accumulate in the environment.
Micro-and nano-sized plastic particles are already pervasive in terrestrial and aquatic envi-
ronments due to their massive accumulation in municipal waste systems [105, 107, 108].
A large amount of waste is produced in which about 40% of plastics are used as single-use
applications [105]. Numerous industrial and home uses have made considerable use of
synthetic polymers, such as polyurethane (PUR), polyethylene terephthalate (PET),
polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), polystyrene (PS), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) [100,
105–107, 109, 110]. Therefore, the biodegradation of plastics by different microorganisms
and enzymes is a promising method for depolymerization reactions used for petrochemi-
cals to turn them into monomers for recycling or mineralizing them into carbon dioxide,
water, and fresh biomass with the concurrent creation of higher-value bioproducts [107].
Microbial bioresource for plastic-degrading enzymes has been discussed in this book.
1.7 Microbioresources for High-Value Metabolites
Sugars that have distinct physiological and structural characteristics are known as
functional sugars. Due to their availability in traces in nature, they are also called “rare
sugars” [111]. Functional sugars have various applications in pharmaceuticals, chemical,
c01.indd 7 05/26/2023 19:15:16

nutritional, and food industries [112, 113]. The low-calorie value and several health benefits
make functional sugars preferable food ingredients [113]. However, as functional sugars
are in trace amounts in honey and plant materials, their extraction from plants becomes
very challenging. Also, the chemical synthesis of functional sugars creates difficult reaction
conditions, limited product yield, several byproduct formations, the use of expensive chem-
icals, and environmental and safety issues [113, 114]. Exploring microbial bioresources for
the synthesis and bioproduction of functional sugars is a necessity for developing feasible
industrial processes.
The central ideology of science is to upgrade the quality of human life, and for several
years, many people have concentrated on improving this quality [115]. The exploration
of bioactive peptides is one of the promising approaches among the prior attempts.
Bioactive peptides comprise short-chain amino acids usually 2–20 amino acids, derived
from different plants, animals, and microbial sources [115–117]. These bioactive peptides
have several known and unknown beneficial effects on animal and human health. These
peptides act as antimicrobial, antidiabetic, antioxidant, antitumor, and antihypertensive
agents [117]. Due to their distinctive qualities, bioactive peptides are used extensively
in the pharmaceutical and food industries. However, its industrial production is still
c hallenging, particularly regarding purity, cost, yields, and environmental sustain-
ability [116, 117]. Chemical synthesis is the primary method used to produce bioactive
peptides, which consume many solvents and increase residue production [115]. To over-
come these obstacles and enable the large-scale bioproduction of these microbial pep-
tides, it is crucial to research the metabolic engineering of the bacterial host to obtain
bioactive peptides in bulk.
Antibiotics, pigments, growth hormones, anticancer drugs, and other microbial
metabolites have been demonstrated as promising agents for improving human and
animal health [118, 119]. Bacterial and fungal communities synthesize a wide range
of aforementioned bioactive molecules with emerging benefactions to human
health [118–120]. The secondary metabolites are typically produced during the
microorganisms’ late growth phase, and they are inhibited during the logarithmic
phase [118]. Therefore, a well-designed bioreactor is necessary for producing secondary
microbial metabolites in addition to nutrition. To enhance the production of the desired
secondary metabolites, the bioreactor must provide microorganisms with the culture
conditions required for the growth of microorganisms. The subsequent chapter describes
different types of bioreactors, their design, and their impact on the production of sec-
ondary metabolites.
In conclusion this book compiles the global perspectives of microbes as bioreactors,
crucial for the production of high-value biomolecules of emerging benefaction to human
health and the environment.
Acknowledgments
The Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Govt. of India, is acknowledged for all kinds of
support. AKS acknowledges ICMR fellowships.
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Reference 9
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17
Microbial Bioresource for the Production of Marine Enzymes

Lorena Pedraza-Segura, Karina Maldonado-Ruiz Esparza, and Ruth Pedroza-Islas
Department of Chemical, Industrial and Food Engineering, Universidad Iberoamericana, Lomas de Santa Fe, Mexico City, Mexico
2.1 Introduction
Marine biotechnology, or “blue” biotechnology, explores and exploits the biodiversity of

the marine environment to obtain compounds that are applied in the food, cosmetic,
pharmaceutical, and chemical industries in general. Among the vast marine diversity,
microorganisms (archaea, bacteria, and fungi) isolated from both pelagic and benthic
habitats, from sources such as marine sponges, algae, sediments, and coasts, are studied for
various reasons, such as their adaptability to environmental conditions with adverse effects
on most terrestrial microorganisms. They are halo-and osmotolerant and can be found in
temperate, hot, and extremely cold climates, for example. Bioprospecting in marine
environments allows knowing the large number of species of cultivable and non-cultivable
microorganisms via either traditional techniques or metagenomics [1].
Among biomolecules, enzymes have a market size valued at US$10.69 billion in 2020 [2];
therefore, the search for new sources of enzymes or molecules with special properties is a
preponderant activity [3]. Bioprospecting for marine enzymes has been carried out in a
traditional way, starting from isolated and cultivated microorganisms, but also with the
support of metagenomic analysis, since there are microorganisms that are non-cultivable
or living in symbiosis with other organisms, in such a way that they cannot be isolated [4].
This has contributed to the knowledge of the variety of enzymes derived from
microorganisms within the marine ecosystem, which are found within all the classes
proposed by the Enzyme Commission (EC), as shown in Table 2.1.
2.2 Prokaryotes
Marine bacteria are good sources of enzymes as most of the nutrients they require are not
easily accessible compared to their terrestrial counterparts [8, 9]. Marine niches are so varied
that they offer unique enzymatic characteristics and are related to marine biogeochemical

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18 2 Microbial Bioresource for the Production of Marine Enzymes
Table 2.1 Examples of marine enzymes.
EC class Enzyme Microorganism Reference
1 Alcohol dehydrogenase Moraxella sp. [5]

2 Glutathione transferase Pseudoalteromonas sp. [5]
3 Cellulase Bacillus sp. [6]
4 Alginate lyase Microbulbifer sp. [7]
5 Triose phosphate isomerase Pseudomonas sp. [5]
6 DNA ligase Pseudoalteromonas haloplanktis [5]
cycles [10]. Marine bacteria use at an industrial level has been increasing, due to their
hyperthermostability, halophilicity, barophilicity, cold adaptability, chemoselectivity,
regioselectivity, degradability of recalcitrant molecules, stereoselectivity, and tolerance to
solvents that is almost always shown in halophilic enzymes. In addition to this, marine
bacteria are more stable than enzymes obtained from animals and plants [11, 12].
Marine bacteria associated with other organisms through biotic relationships can be found,
and these interactions can occur in invertebrate organisms such as corals, marine sponges, sea
cucumbers, crustaceans, or even vertebrates such as fish, and relationships can be beneficial
for both or solely for one. In the marine environments of Antarctica, competition for resources
is greater due to temperature, and bacteria are the most abundant life form, with adaptations
at the genetic level that are not always reversible, thus giving them an advantage [13].
Low-temperature enzymes are of such interest that they have their own classification
(psychrophilic); the temperatures they require to carry out enzymatic reactions make them
special [14]; the cold environment is characterized by the challenging conditions that it
has, in terms of salinity and temperature; and both characteristics affect the viscosity of the
water, which makes chemical reactions difficult; therefore, it could be assumed that the
density of the microorganism decreases under these conditions; however, in reality it is
maintained. Reference [15] provides a comparative table between psychrophilic and
mesophilic enzymes, showing the values of entropy, enthalpy, and free energy and noting
the variations in these values since the enthalpy and entropy are greater for mesophilic
enzymes. The action mechanism of psychrophilic enzymes serves to decrease the enthalpy
of reaction. In a study by Marx et.al. [15] chitinases from Serratia and Arthrobacter were
compared, and the results obtained show that the enthalpy of reaction is lower for the latter.
Psychrophilic enzymes have been of biotechnological interest for the following reasons:
they have a better cost-effective relationship, which translates into a lesser quantity of
enzyme at lower temperatures; they can catalyze reactions at temperatures where
undesirable chemical reactions can be reduced; they can be deactivated at medium
temperatures, which decreases energy expenditure and the use of chemical products; and
they can catalyze reactions at temperatures where there is less bacterial contamination [5].
A large number of marine enzymes have been detected, isolated, characterized, and
purified for industrial use, such as proteases, chitinases, keratinases, pullulanases,
amylases, xylanases, agarases, lipases, peroxidases, tyrosinases, cellulases, glutaminases,
and laccases [16]. One group of interest is antifouling enzymes produced by marine
c02.indd 18 05/26/2023 19:15:20

2.2 Prokaryote 19
bacteria, since coatings commonly used for buildings and ships have shown negative effects
on the environment. The function of these enzymes is the decomposition of the adhesive
components and the production of repellents, and they can be oxidoreductases, lyases,
ligases, among others [17].
2.2.1 Amylases
Among the most used enzymes in industry are amylases, due to their use in food to produce
emulsifiers, in the textile industry for starch saccharification, among others. Among the
amylase-producing bacteria are the actinomycetes, some examples of which are Streptomyces
griserorubens, Streptomyces rochet, and Streptomyces parvus. Bukhari et al. [18] carried out
an experimental design developed by Plackett Burman (PB), in which they observed that the
maximum production of amylase is with yeast extract (YE) and CaCl2, and the enzymatic
activity varies depending on the strain, but in general they have 123 U/mL at 42 °C.
Rathore et al. [19] reported that Streptomyces lopnurensis is capable of producing amylases and
proteases simultaneously, obtaining 104 and 189 U/mL, respectively, in an optimized medium.
2.2.2 Proteases
Proteases have been widely studied in industries such as food, detergents, and cosmetics,
and the proteases obtained from archaea have potential use because they can withstand
high temperatures, osmotic pressure, and salinity, making them more resistant to detergent
conditions and in some cases useful in salty foods [20].
Proteases are used to improve detergents by removing dirt from fabrics, and they can be
used with biosurfactants and at different pH ranges. Added to foods, they eliminate turbid-
ity in juices, make bread/pastry dough uniform, coagulate milk to make cheeses, modify
flavors, etc.
2.2.3 Bactericide
Among the different types of proteases, fibrinolytic enzymes have been shown to be of
medical interest for cardiovascular diseases such as thrombosis, which is characterized by
the formation of fibrin coatings [21] and caused 31% of deaths worldwide in 2017, according
to the World Health Organization (WHO) [22]. Marine bacteria have the ability to produce
this type of enzyme, including Streptomyces radiopugnans [23], Streptomyces parvulus [24],
Marinobacter aquaeolei [25], Bacillus licheniformis [26], Bacillus velezensis [27], among
others, but those that have shown the best characteristics are of the genus Bacillus.
2.2.4 l-Asparaginase
Another important example of hydrolases is l-asparaginase, which is an enzyme capable of

carrying out the hydrolysis of l-asparagine into aspartic acid and ammonium. Asparaginase
can be divided into two main groups, according to the way it is obtained, which can be type I
(intracellular) and type II (extracellular) [28], but the enzyme that is used commercially is
type II, and within the marine microorganisms there are various bacteria and archaea capable
c02.indd 19 05/26/2023 19:15:21

of producing type II, such as Pyrococcus furiosus, Thermococcus kodakaraensis, Thermococcus

gammatolerans, Mesoflavibacter zeaxanthinifaciens, Enterobacter hormaechei, and B. velezen-
sis [29–34]. The interest in this enzyme lies in the fact that it is of interest in the medical area,
where it has been used for more than 40 years and is in the “WHO Model List of Essential
Medicines 2021,” which means that it is on the list of minimum necessary medicines for the
health system, generated by the WHO and renewed every two years. Another more recent area
of application for this enzyme is in the area of food where it is used for the reduction of acryla-
mide, whose discovery in 2002 led to the development of regulations in some countries.
2.2.5 Carbohydrases
Glucanases can be used in animal feeds for increasing feed digestibility and improving
nutritional value.
Carrageenan is one of the major sulfated polysaccharides and is a common food additive
with about 80% usage in this area. Carrageenanase breaks down the polysaccharides into
smaller molecules (oligosaccharides) with antiviral, anticoagulant, and antitumor
activities [8]. Cellulophaga flavobacteria are producers of carrageenan enzymes. In a study
by Howlader et al. [35], six different species of Cellulophaga were compared; the concentra-
tions of NaCl and YE in the medium were 30 g/L and 3 g/L, respectively; the optimal growth
temperature was 25 °C; and there was a period of 48 hours of incubation. The species show
different characteristics in terms of growth conditions, but for enzymatic production the one
with the best characteristics is Cellulophaga algicola, which is why the enzyme was charac-
terized. Zhao et al. [36] reported the production of cold-adapted carrageenan obtained from
Pseudoalteromonas sp. ZDY3, which grows in 5% NaCl and 0.5% YE and has a concentration
of 0.453 U/mg of carrageenan. The enzyme showed to have good stability at temperatures
below 35 °C, which makes it an important candidate for industrial applications.
Cellulase is used in the textile and paper industries, in cotton and linen processing, as a
biofertilizer, and in biorefineries. Xylanase is applied to obtain high value-added products,
such as xylitol, in the paper industry since it helps to solubilize lignin and thus less
chlorine is used. Further, it can degrade polysaccharides in fruit/vegetable juices or beer,
helping in clarification, etc. Some examples of xylanase-producing microorganisms are
Saccharophagus degradans, Microbulbifer sp. [37], Pantoea ananatis [38], and Bacillus
aquimaris [39], which is capable of tolerating solvents, for which it is considered ideal for
industrial uses, and in addition its optimal temperature is 30 °C instead of 50 °C, which
demonstrates a reduction in operating costs.
Xylanases can be used in the xylitol production process to improve the stability and
texture of bread dough, in addition to modifying the flavors of some foods. It is used in the
paper industry to provide more shine and resistance for paper.
2.3 Marine Archaea
Archaea belong to the Monera kingdom and prokaryotic domain, being of interest for their
unique biochemical and physiological characteristics whose potential in the biotechnologi-
cal area is wide, since they can function as factories for compounds of interest or for
bioremediation because they are capable of degrading hydrocarbons, metals, and
dehalogenating compounds [40].
c02.indd 20 05/26/2023 19:15:21

2.3 Marine Archae 21
Being tolerant to high temperatures and salt concentrations, the polymerases of

hyperthermophilic archaea are of interest to the medical and research areas, since high
temperatures are used in PCR to make copies of DNA, and some examples of microorgan-
isms from which this polymerase can be obtained are: T. gammatolerans [41] and
Thermococcus onnurineus [42], which have good polymerase activity at temperatures of 94
and 80 °C, respectively, making their use suitable in molecular biology.
Chitinases are hydrolytic enzymes that degrade chitin, an insoluble polymer, and the most
abundant polysaccharide in nature, which is commonly found in the cytoskeletons of insects,
crustaceans, and fungal cell walls [43]. Potential applications of chitinases range from their
use in biorefineries, for treating the waste obtained from some industries such as food for the
treatment of crustacean residues, to later be used to obtain some bioproducts of interest such
as bioethanol, while in medicine its use can be to modify chitin for reuse in membranes,
tissue engineering, and the direct use of the enzyme in the lysis of some cancer cell lines [44].
Archaea chitinases are less studied than bacterial chitinases, but they have the advantage of
halotolerance and thermostability, and among the producing species is Thermococcus
chitonophagus that is isolated from a deep-sea hydrothermal vent environment [45].
In several cases, the enzymes of marine and terrestrial archaea are produced by bacteria,
from the expression of the genes of the former in microorganisms that are better known and
manageable in mesophilic conditions, such as Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis [46].
Table 2.2 summarizes the most relevant enzymes of microorganisms of marine origin,
grouped by the type of enzyme.
Table 2.2 Enzymes, microbial origin, and applications.
Enzyme Microorganism Applications References
Hidrolases EC 3
Glucanase Willopsis saturnus, Glaciozyma Prebiotics [47–53]
antarctica, Pichia anomala, Sulfolobus
shibatae, Zobellia galactanivorans,
Formosa agariphila, Bacillus lehensis
Alginate lyase Yarrowia lipolytica, Pseudoalteromonas Biofuels and [54, 55]
carrageenovor, Cobetia sp., Agarivorans biochemical
sp., Vibrio sp., Photobacterium sp., products
Microbulbifer sp.
Invertase Leucosporidium antarcticum HFS [54]
Polygalacturonase Cryptococcus liquefaciens, Thalassospira [47, 56]
frigidphilosprofundus, Fusarium
moniliforme
Phytase Kodamaea ohmeri, Rhodotorula Animal feed [47, 49, 54,
mucilaginosa, Penicillium polonicum 57–59]
Xylanase Candida davisiana, Cryptococcus Biorefinery, food [54, 60–62]
adeliensis, Guehomyces pullulans, and paper
Ochrovirga pacifica, Marinimicrobium industries
sp., Cladosporium sp., Aspergillus niger
(Continued)
c02.indd 21 05/26/2023 19:15:21

Table 2.2 (Continued)
Esterases Vibrio sp., Plexaura homomalla, Detergents [10, 63–65]

Pseudoalteromonas haloplanktis,
Bacillus licheniformis, Staphylothermus,
Pyrodictium sp., Archaeglobus sp.,
Teredinibacter sp., Sulfolobus sp., Vibrio
fischeri, Pelagibacterium halotolerans,
Bacillus subtilis, Erythrobacter
seohaensis SW-135, Thalassospira sp.,
Oleispira antarctica, Pseudomonas
oryzihabitans HUP022, Vibrio fischeri,
Pseudoalteromonas arctica, Bacillus sp.,
Pseudonocardia antitumoralis, Bacillus
sp., Pseudoalteromas sp. strain
l-Glutaminase Vibrio costicola, Bacillus velezensis, Medicine [63–66]
Providencia sp., Streptomyces
olivochromogenes, Halomonas
meridiana, Alcaligenes faecalis,
Kosakonia radiciantans, Vibrio axureus,
Brevundimonas diminuta, Pseudomonas
aeruginosa, Streptomyces rimosus
Proteases Aureobasidium pullulans, Food, detergents, [26, 49, 56,
Leucosporidium antarcticum, bactericide 67–69]
Metschnikova reukafii, Rhodotorula
mucilaginosa, Yarrowia lipolytica,
Bacillus halodurans, B. licheniformis
Inulinase Candida kefyr, Cryptococcus aureus, [14, 49, 54,
Debaryomyces cantarelli, Debaryomyces 58]
hansenii, Kluyveromyces fragilis,
Kluyveromyces marxianus, Pichia
guilliermondii, Yarrowia lipolytica,
Alkalibacillus filiformis
β-Galactosidase Arthrobacter sp., Pseudoaletromonas Food [5, 63]
haloplanktis, Enterobacter ludwigii,
Alkalilactibacillus ikkense
Cellulase Aureobasidium pullulans, Geotrichum Agriculture, [49, 54, 67,
candidum, Pichia salicaria, biorefinery, food, 70–72]
Streptomyces variabilis, Kocuria rosea, paper industry,
Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, textiles,
Bartalinia robillardoides, Penicillium detergents
pinophilum
Lipase Aureobasidium pullulans, Candida Bactericide, [47, 49, 56,
antarctica, Candida intermedia, medicine, 58]
Candida parapsilosis, Candida rugosa, bioremediation,
Candida tropicalis, Geotrichum biorefinery,
marinum, Leucosporidium scotia, chemical industry
Lodderomyces elongisporus, Pichia
guilliermondii, Rhodotorula
mucilaginosa, Yarrowia lipolytica,
Oceanobacillus, Halobacillus truperi
c02.indd 22 05/26/2023 19:15:21

2.4 Eukaryote 23
α-Amylase Aureobasidium pullulans, Cryptococcus Food, pharmacy, [47, 49,

antarctica, Engyodontium album, chemical industry, 58, 62]
Penicillium sp. bioremediation
Oxidoreductases
EC 1
Alcohol Flavobacterium frigidimaris, Biocatalysis [5, 63]
dehydrogenase Moraxella sp.
Superoxide Cryptococcus sp., Debaryomyces [47, 73]
dismutase hansenii, Rhodotorula spp.,
Udeniomyces spp.
Transferases EC2
Polymerase Thermotoga marítima, Thermotoga Medical [64]
neapolitana, Pyrococcus furiosus applications
(PCR)
2.4 Eukaryotes
2.4.1 Yeasts
If the terms “marine bacteria,” “marine fungi,” and “marine yeasts” are entered in a
specialized search engine, it will be seen that references to yeasts are much less. Perhaps
this is a reflection of the proportion of bacteria and yeasts existing in the ocean, in terms of
gigatons of carbon (GtC). Bacteria represent 1.5 GtC vs. 0.3 for fungi (yeasts and molds),
and few fungal species have been discovered and identified [74]. However, marine yeasts
are investigated, among other purposes, for the production of enzymes for commercial
applications because, like those of bacterial origin, they present resistance to extreme
conditions of salinity, temperature, and pressure [54, 58].
Marine yeasts can be found in sediments, water columns, associated with algae,
invertebrates, and mammals and belong to several genera such as Kluyveromyces, Candida,
Saccharomyces, Pichia, Geotrichum, Hanseniaspora, Torulopsis, Cryptococcus, Debaromyces,
Yarrowia, Wickerhamomyces, among others [54, 75]. Even in smaller numbers than bacteria,
yeasts are an important source of enzymes and produce several of industrial importance,
and there are already bioprocesses developed for the production of enzymes [47].
In the specialized body of literature, there are several works focused on different enzymes
from marine yeasts, and most of them are hydrolases. For example, microorganisms isolated
from cold environments receive special attention because their enzymes (amylases, pro-
teases, lipases) can act at low temperatures and be applied in detergents, in the modification
of starch, and processes in the food industry, since their reaction conditions are favora-
ble [76]. Yeasts also stand out in the production of enzymes such as inulinases, which break
the fructosidic bonds of inulin, to obtain oligosaccharides (prebiotics) and monosaccharides.
They are also used in the production of high-fructose syrups (HFSs) [49, 54, 58, 77].
c02.indd 23 05/26/2023 19:15:21

Apart from hydrolases, another enzyme of interest is superoxide dismutase (SOD), whose
action allows marine microorganisms to survive in their habitat, facing oxidative stress,
together with other enzymatic and non-enzymatic systems. This enzyme has important
applications in the preservation of biologicals, reduction of damage caused by smoking,
removal of the products of the Amadori and Maillard reactions, and protection from skin
damage by oxidation, through cosmetics, among others [73]. SOD is common in organisms,
but marine yeasts such as Debaryomyces hansenii produce it efficiently [47, 73].
In general, in the consulted literature, most of the research focuses on hydrolytic
enzymes, probably because they have the largest market share, whether it is in detergents
or various processes. The relevant information is also shown in Table 2.2.
2.4.2 Enzymes from Marine-Derived Fungi

Fungi are among the great diversity of microorganisms in the marine environment.
It is estimated that they represent more than 1500 species [78, 79], although it may be an
underestimated number [80]. They have been called marine-derived fungi because they
have not been able to be classified as obligate or facultative microorganisms, hence the
debate on this continues [81]. Currently, they are the object of attention due to the potential
of compounds that can be obtained from them with medical, agricultural, and
biotechnological applications that are still poorly explored [8, 78, 81–83].
Marine-derived fungi produce extracellular enzymes with remarkable properties of
thermostability, tolerance to saline media and low temperatures, chemoselectivity,
barophilicity, regioselectivity, and stereoselectivity [8]. Oxidoreductases, hydrolases,
transferases, isomerases, among others, have been identified, and all are of great interest due
to their potential applications [8, 47]. Information on the type of marine-derived fungi
enzymes can be found in [78], the marine environments from which they have been isolated
and the corresponding species in [80], and a classification of marine fungi in [84]. Among
the enzymes of interest are amylase, xylanase, protease, glucosidase, chitinase, alginate lyase,
and lipase, as shown in Table 2.2. In several cases, bioprocesses are already being developed
to produce and purify them, as is the case with chitinase from Penicillium janthinelum [47].
Although they can be isolated from very diverse marine sources [75, 79, 81, 85], one
of the environments with a great diversity of marine-derived fungi is the mangrove
swamps [82]. In the work of De Paula et al. [86], fungi were isolated from the aerial roots
of trees from a mangrove swamp in Brazil, and those researchers found that most of the
species produced hydrolytic and ligninolytic enzymes, the former predominating; 85%
produced cellulases and 78% produced pectinases. They found laccases and peroxidases
among the species that produced ligninolytic enzymes. Some fungi had a wide enzymatic
production, predominantly laccases (Microsphaeropsis arundinis as the best producer,
reaching 1037.11 U/L of enzyme using seawater) and peroxidases; the most abundant
genus was Trichoderma sp. Other genera identified were Gliocladium sp., Microsphaeropsis
sp., Geotrichum sp., Cryphonectria sp., Epicoccum sp., and species of M. arundinis,
Trichoderma atroviride, and Trichoderma harzianum, and in all cases the production of
laccases was higher in the presence of seawater. The enzymatic extracts of M. arundinis
and Trichoderma villosa were useful to decolorize real textile effluents containing
LANASET® Yellow PA-4G, LANASET® Orange PA-2R, and ERIONYL® Red by 17%. Due
c02.indd 24 05/26/2023 19:15:21

2.4 Eukaryote 25
to the importance of these enzymes in bioremediation and effluent treatment, among other
applications, this part of the chapter focuses on laccases, due to their potential and the
special characteristics of this group of enzymes, that are derived from marine fungi.
Regarding the treatment of dyes, there are works in which the discoloration of different
dyes was tested (methyl orange, acid green 3, methylene blue, Remazol, brilliant blue,
crystal violet, and congo red), from textiles, papers, and paints, using Alternaria sp. IA202,
Alternaria sp. G55, Cadophora sp. AS21-1, Cadophora luteo-olivacea, and Phoma sp. 2
BRO-2013, isolated from the sediment of a coastal area and from Lake Cacalburnu in
Turkey. The highest activities of laccases corresponded to Alternaria sp. and C. luteo-olivacea.
With Alternaria sp., discolorations of 53–98% were achieved depending on the type of dye,
after an exposure time of 144 hours [87]. Another research group tested the degradation
potential of a textile dye using marine-derived fungi enzymes. A marine-derived
basidiomycete, isolated from a sponge and identified as Peniophora sp., produced laccases,
and their activity was compared with those of Peniophora cinerea of terrestrial origin.
A semi-purified enzyme concentrate was obtained, with two isoforms for those of marine
origin and five for those of terrestrial origin, with different sizes and molecular weights. In
the activity tests, the laccases from P. cinerea saturated faster than those from Peniophora
sp., which presented higher relative activity when the pH was between 6 and 7. The
terrestrial laccases had higher activity than those of marine origin at temperatures between
30 and 40 °C. However, the thermal stability of both types of enzymes, after one hour,
showed that the residual activity of the enzymes of the marine fungus was 20 and 10% for
laccases of terrestrial origin. The percentage of textile blue discoloration was 67.38% for
P. cinerea and 61.17% for Peniophora sp., and an increase in toxicity was reported when
laccases of marine origin were used that, according to those authors, may be due to the
generation of intermediate products during the degradation of the dye molecules, which
may be more toxic. In this study, chemical mediators were not used to enhance the oxidation
reactions. It is noteworthy that P. cinerea did not grow in a saline environment, which gives
an advantage to the enzymatic production from the marine-derived fungi, which is able to
use seawater for its massive production instead of freshwater [88].
Considering the advantages of enzymes from the marine-derived fungus Peniophora sp.
with tolerance to saline stress, extreme pH values, a greater range of temperature, and that
the purpose of investigating new sources of enzymes is for their industrial use, this study
undertook the production of laccases from Peniophora sp. CBMAI 1063 in an air-lift
bioreactor (ALBR; working volume 3.5 L), with artificial seawater and the addition of
copper sulfate, and in a stirred tank reactor (3.5 L and 150 rpm) [89].
Wikee et al. [90], characterized the decolorization of dyes from two recombinant laccases
of the marine-derived fungus Pestalotiopsis sp. KF079 isolated from marshes of the Baltic
Sea, having Aspergillus niger as host of expression. The activity of both purified enzymes
(PsLac1 and PsLac2) was evaluated. With PsLac1, a 70–100% decolorization was achieved
in the presence of 1-hydroxybenzotriazole (HBT) and 24 hours of incubation for the
commercial dyes azure blue, reactive black, acid yellow, and nitrosulfonazo III. Poly-R478
degradation reached 50% after 48 hours of incubation with PsLac1; regardless of the
presence of HBT and bromocresol purple (BCP), degradation was 80% at 2 hours of
incubation with both laccases. The activity mediated by salt concentration was higher for
PsLac2, reaching 350% activity relative to 5% salt concentration.
c02.indd 25 05/26/2023 19:15:21

These findings are relevant in the treatment of effluents from the textile or paper industry
whose characteristics are extreme values of contaminants, pH, and salts. Even though
there are few studies on the activity of laccases obtained from marine-derived fungi, where
the largest group found in mangroves belongs to the Ascomycete class [82], it has been
shown that they can degrade dyes in saline and alkaline media, opening new study
perspectives for the use of marine-derived fungi [91]. Currently, fungal laccases of terrestrial
origin are the most used in the degradation of phenolic and non-phenolic aromatic
compounds, being the main producer Basidiomycete [82]. However, those of marine origin
have significant potential due to their particular characteristics, hence there is a growing
interest due to their adaptation to saline environments, and their use in applications to
make processes more environmentally friendly.
The action of laccases in non-steroidal drugs whose presence has been detected in
municipal waters is being studied, as a result of their action on aromatic compounds. The
importance of degrading these and other drugs is related to their toxicity and stability,
which means they can remain, not only in municipal water but also in the soil, for a long
period of time. These types of compounds are considered emerging contaminants due to
their possible consequences on human health and the environment [92] and, given their
characteristics, their treatment with conventional methods (flocculation, activated sludge,
ionization, etc.) has been inefficient. In their study to remove olsalazyne (5-aminosalicylic
acid; 5-ASA), a drug used to treat ulcerative colitis, Bankole et al. [93] used a crude
enzymatic extract of Aspergillus aculeatus strain bpo2 of marine origin obtained from a
beach on the coast of Lagos, Nigeria. They evaluated the activity of laccases and tested the
optimal concentration of oxidation–reduction mediators 2,2′-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiaz
oline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS), HBT, and p-coumaric acid to improve degradation, reaching
up to 99.5% contaminant degradation when ABTS (1 mM) was used as a laccase-catalyzed
mediator.
Other persistent organic pollutants are highly stable polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs), which are neurotoxic to humans as they bioaccumulate in tissues [94], act as
estrogens [95], and induce cancer [96]. Various methods have been used for their
degradation, such as incineration and bioremediation using marine-derived fungi. The
degradation of PCB29 (2,4,5-trichlorobiphenyl) has been demonstrated with two
laccases isolated from Cladosporium sp. TM138-S3, selected from 104 species for their
high production of laccase and ability to degrade PCBs. The expression of laccase
activity could be increased 2.6-fold by the addition of CuSO4. Both enzymes showed
thermal stability by retaining more than 65% of their activity in a temperature range of
30–65 °C. The maximum activity was at 50 °C and pH of 3. A removal by degradation of
more than 71% of PCB29 was achieved with one of the laccases in the presence of ABTS
as oxidation mediator [97].
Due to contamination in air, rivers, lakes, and oceans, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs) are of great concern. They come mainly from the incomplete combustion of
petroleum and its derivatives, tobacco, forest fires, grilled foods, among other sources.
Undoubtedly, petroleum-related activities contribute the greatest proportion to the
production of these pollutants compared to other activities. In particular, when there are
petroleum-related accidents in marine environments, contamination with PAHs can
represent close to 50% of the contaminants of this type that, due to their characteristics,
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2.4 Eukaryote 27
reach various ecosystems where they settle and remain, constituting a threat of significant
concern for the ecosystem from their toxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic properties and
resistance to biodegradation [98–100]. The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has
identified 16 priority PAHs [99] classifying as low molecular weight PAHs having three or
fewer fused benzene rings with partial water solubilization properties, such as fluorene and
naphthalene, and those with four or more, featuring high molecular weight, for example,
pyrene and benzopyrene. The higher the molecular weight and the greater the number of
benzene rings, the greater is the increase in hydrophobicity. For the degradation of this
group of compounds, various types of bacteria and fungi with potential activity have been
studied [101]. Although the first investigations on the degradation of hydrocarbons
occurred 50 years ago [102], systematic research on the matter, with marine-derived fungi
or their enzymes, is more recent. It is noteworthy that PAHs, especially those having four
or more aromatic rings, can cause significant health risks and due to their chronic toxicity
potential, they are a priority for the EPA, hence the importance of having biotechnological
alternatives to degrade them [102, 103]. Bankole et al. [104] investigated the capacity of the
filamentous fungus Mucor irregularis bp1 derived from the marine environment, for the
degradation of fluorene, achieving a degradation of 81.5% at a pH of 7 and a temperature
of 32.5 °C, when its concentration was 100 mg/L, using 2 g of dry weight of the fungal
mycelium and five days of incubation. Proposing an optimization experiment using
response surface methods, a degradation of 82.5% was reached. The presence of glucose
and manganese ions enhanced the degradation. The main role for the degradation of
fluorene to phenol was played by laccases, although the activities of lignin peroxidases
(LiPs) and manganese peroxidases (MnPs) were also detected, presenting different
induction times during degradation, which increased the enzymatic activities favoring the
removal of fluorene.
To degrade PAHs, especially pyrene and benzopyrene, 3 strains of marine-derived fungi
Tinctoporellus sp. CBMAI1061, Marasmiellus sp. CBMAI 1062, and Peniophora sp.
CBMAI1063 were used. The 97.2% degradation of benzopyrene was achieved in seven days
of incubation using Marasmiellus sp. CBM AI 1062, and for pyrene, 92.8% degradation was
obtained. The proposed mechanism was by the cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzyme system
and the activity of epoxy-hydrolases. The other fungi were not efficient for the degradation
of the two substrates studied [105]. Vasconcelos et al. [106] also studied the degradation of
pyrene and benzopyrene using marine-derived fungi, obtaining good results with the
ascomycetes Tolypocladium sp. strain CBMAI 1346 and Xylaria sp. CBMAI 1464 isolated
from marine sponges. With the first, a higher production of laccases, MnPs, and LiPs was
observed than with the second, achieving pyrene degradation without the generation of
intermediate toxic compounds after 21 days of incubation. Those authors also reported that
when the fungi were exposed to pyrene, there was no absorption by the mycelium, but this
was not the case when the contaminant was benzopyrene, where micellar absorption was
68.9% with Tolypocladium sp. strain CBMAI 13 and 83.06% with Xylaria sp. CBMAI 1464.
Due to the higher production of ligninolytic enzymes and without showing pyrene
absorption by the mycelium, the authors chose to experiment with Tolypocladium sp. strain
CBMAI 13 to optimize pyrene degradation, achieving a removal of up to 94.17% in a
medium with 35 ppm salinity, 0.350 g/50 mL malt extract, 0.150 g/50 mL peptone,
0.3 g/50 mL YE, 4 mM MnSO4, and at pH 7. From transcriptomic analyses, it was determined
c02.indd 27 05/26/2023 19:15:21

that the degradation capacity of this ascomycete is mainly due to the action of enzymes of
the cytochrome P450 (CYP) system; however, the action of laccases and MnPs cannot be
dissociated.
Research in mycoremediation continues to have alternatives to the degradation of
contaminating organic compounds, derived from human and industrial activity, which due
to their chemical nature make their degradation difficult, and they are one of the biggest
problems of contamination and alteration of the ecosystem in the world [107], as discussed
above. Of interest for being areas of high contamination by PAHs, the environmental
impact of seaports is studied to identify species of fungi with ligninolytic activity that have
potential use for bioremediation. For example, Greco et al. [108] studied the port of Genoa,
where they isolated 437 strains belonging to 12 genera and 23 species. The most recurrent
genera were Aspergillus and Penicillium and the species Penicillium solitum and
Galactomyces geotrichum. Their presence depended on the depth at which the samples
were taken, highlighting that the presence of fungi was not detected on the surface of the
water. Both can grow at temperatures in the range 25–30 °C. Their ability to degrade
polymeric substances and, in the case of G. geotrichum, hydrocarbons have been reported.
Given the presence of PAHs as contaminants, it can be assumed that they are adapted to
the environment. Species of genus Trichoderma are also recurrently found. However, the
authors conclude that the degradation capacity of the fungi found still needs to be studied
for their use in the mycoremediation of port waters.
Plastics constitute another problem of environmental contamination that is a cause for
concern, where polyethylene, being the majority contributor due to its high use as a
packaging material, constitutes an important ecological problem, and it has been suggested
that, through fungal-based biodegradation, a future solution could be found due to its
extracellular production of oxidative enzymes, which has already been the object of study
for several years. For the degradation of polyethylene, a marine-derived fungus, Alternaria
alternata FB1, was used, demonstrating that it can reduce the weight of a polyethylene
film by 95% in 120 days of treatment, opening an alternative to the biodegradation of these
types of film materials by species isolated from marine environments. To verify the action
of A. alternata FB1, the changes in the polyethylene film were detected using scanning
electron microscopy (SEM), thus being able to verify the growth of the fungus on the
surface of the film and the microdestruction of the structure, the decrease in crystallinity
between 52 and 62.7%, and the depolymerization of polyethylene, using various analytical
techniques. The predominant end product was diglycolamine, a four-carbon compound,
although the route by which it could be produced as a result of polyethylene degradation
has not yet been established. Based on gene transcription analysis, the involvement of
153 potential enzymes during polyethylene degradation by A. alternata was established,
including laccases, peroxidases, oxidoreductases, hydrolases, dehydrogenases, oxidases,
reductases, esterases, lipases, and cutinases, with the first three being the most relevant
in the degradation process. The authors proposed that degradation followed a 3-step
model: (i) colonization/corrosion, (ii) depolymerization, and (iii) assimilation/
mineralization [109].
In addition to polyethylene, there are other widely used plastics such as polypropylene
(PP), polystyrene (PS), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET).
Due to its great use in containers for non-alcoholic beverages and bottled water, the latter
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2.4 Eukaryote 29
has become an ecological problem, especially because it has a single use as a container [110].
Of the more than 300 million tons of plastic produced per year in the world, it is estimated
that approximately 10% of the total ends up in the sea. During the process of manufacturing
and using these materials, and also due to the degradation they suffer as environmental
contaminants, microplastics are produced that, as they are modified by marine
microorganisms (for example), can settle on the ocean floor and remain there for hundreds
of years [111]. Other sources of microplastics derive from textiles in general and therefore
from the manufacture of clothing, cosmetics, and paint [112]. In addition to the oceans and
seas, these microplastics can reach freshwater bodies [113] and one of the mechanisms is
from soil erosion, where contamination by these materials is also of great importance [114].
Microplastics are solid particles smaller than 5 mm, and nanoplastics are smaller than
1 mm [115]. Due to their size, they are likely to be ingested by the marine biota and reach
humans through the food chain. Marine biota, by ingesting microplastics, suffer physical
damage to the intestines, their filtering activity is altered, their digestive tract is affected,
and even death can occur. Microplastics have been detected in more than 200 species, many
of them edible, and in food products such as canned sardines, sugar, sea salt, honey, and
bottled water [112]. However, the effects on humans are currently being studied, as the
routes of access to these plastic microparticles may be, in addition to the food chain,
inhalation and contact with the skin [116]. For both animals and humans, there is the
aggravating fact that microplastics can form aggregates and, due to their chemical nature,
absorb other contaminants such as pesticides and antibiotics and even pathogens, thus
increasing their toxicity [117], hence their biodegradation is an alternative method to
alleviate this serious pollution problem. The fungus Zalerion maritimum, obtained from
the Portuguese coast, was used for the degradation of microplastics. High biomass growth
rates were observed in the first seven days of treatment in a minimal culture medium
(glucose/peptone/malt extract/sea salts). The removal of the plastic (polyethylene) occurred
between 7 and 14 days, and the fungus was able to use polyethylene as a substrate, which
opens the possibility of using this abundant microorganism as a bioremediation strategy
(mycoremediation) [118]. The great potential of fungi in general for the degradation of
petroleum-derived polymers due to their great ability to adapt and use them as a carbon
source by producing surfactants (hydrophobins), and due to their intra- and extracellular
enzymatic machinery, has been described in Sánchez [119].
Finally, a field that is yet to be explored for the use of marine-derived fungus enzymes is
the food industry, where, due to their low specificity and high catalytic efficiency, laccases
can degrade many different types of substrates, thus allowing their application in the food
industry, its use is in the treatment of agroindustrial effluents to degrade lignin, and a wide
variety of substrates such as polyphenols and other aromatic compounds, as aforemen-
tioned. It is interesting that in the food industry laccases have various applications. For
example, they can be used as cross-linking agents for proteins and polysaccharides [120],
to improve the properties of nanostructured collagen films for biodegradable
packaging [121], to improve the viscoelastic properties of gluten in baking or to improve
the behavior of gluten-free bread-product doughs [122], and in the fruit/vegetable juice
industry to stabilize color [123]. The applications of these enzymes in the food industry and
in other areas are wide ranged, and those derived from marine fungi expand their potential
use due to their aforementioned special characteristics.
c02.indd 29 05/26/2023 19:15:21

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39
Lactic Acid Production Using Microbial Bioreactors

Juliana Botelho Moreira1, Ana Luiza Machado Terra1, Whyara Karoline Almeida da Costa2,
Marciane Magnani2, Michele Greque de Morais1, and Jorge Alberto Vieira Costa3
1
Laboratory of Microbiology and Biochemistry, College of Chemistry and Food Engineering, Federal University of Rio Grande,
Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
2
Laboratory of Microbial Processes in Foods, Department of Food Engineering, Center of Technology, Federal University of
Paraíba, João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brazil
3
Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, College of Chemistry and Food Engineering, Federal University of Rio Grande, Rio
Grande, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
3.1 Introduction
Lactic acid has been widely used in the food industry as a flavoring, acidulant, and
preservative. This product has also been applied in the pharmaceutical and textile
industries. Substrates with a high lactose content can be used in fermentation to produce
lactic acid. Cheese whey, soy milk, corn, and potato stand out as potential substrates [1–4].
Lactic acid is applied as a monomer to obtain polylactic acid (PLA). The search for
biodegradable polymers such as PLA is another reason for the rise in the lactic acid
market [5, 6]. Lactic acid can be produced via fermentation using several alternative and
low-cost substrates. In addition, the fermentation process helps to reduce the environmental
impact and energy consumption using low temperatures [7, 8].
The production of lactic acid via fermentation can exhibit different levels of product
yield according to the strain of microorganisms used. Bacterial strains, yeasts, fungi, and
microalgae are microorganisms capable of producing lactic acid [2, 9]. For conducting the
fermentation process, various operating parameters, inoculum size, nutritional
requirement, and reactor configurations can favor lactic acid production [7]. Lactic acid
fermentation can be performed by batch, fed-batch, repeated batch, and continuous modes.
The reactors used in this process can have different configurations, such as stirred tank
bioreactor, continuous fixed-bed bioreactor, cascade bioreactor, continuous chemostat
cultivation, and membrane bioreactor [10]. However, the recovery of lactic acid is the main
limiting factor of all reactor configurations tested for industrial production of lactic acid
via fermentation [11, 12]. Improving the fermentation digester and the lactic acid recovery
process and using low-cost biomass will contribute to the viability of the fermentation

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40 3 Lactic Acid Production Using Microbial Bioreactors
process for producing lactic acid. Future research should focus on developing a reactor that
can improve product yield and optimize fermentation process conditions according to the
bioreactor configuration [10].
In this context, this chapter provides approaches to lactic acid production using
microbial reactors, emphasizing process parameters, lactic acid-producing microorgan-
isms, and several alternative substrates. The ways of conducting the fermentation pro-
cess and their main advantages and disadvantages, as well as the contribution of different
configurations of bioreactors to improve the yield and productivity of lactic acid, are also
mentioned, along with the main challenges facing the entire process of obtaining this
product.
3.2 Microbial Lactic Acid Producers
Chemical synthesis and microbial fermentation are processes applied for industrially
producing lactic acid. Fermentation is a clean process with the production of optically pure
lactic acid (l-(+)-lactic acid) [13, 14]. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB), yeast, and filamentous
fungi naturally produce lactic acid. Moreover, metabolic engineering allows microbial
strains to use unconventional carbon for lactic acid production [2].
LAB species such as Lactobacillus, Streptococcus, Leuconostoc, and Enterococcus are used
for lactic acid production [15]. Genetically modified Saccharomyces cerevisiae synthetized
lactic acid in continuous mode [16]. Rhizopus is the principal fungi used for lactic acid
production. Rhizopus oryzae and Rhizopus microsporus are producers of high amounts of
lactic acid [17]. Bacillus sp. and Escherichia coli are also capable of producing both lactate
isomers [18].
The lactic acid-producing microorganisms influence the characteristics of the produced
lactic acid. They can be homofermentative and heterofermentative strains. A homofer-
mentative strain synthesizes a single product (lactic acid). On the other hand, a heterofer-
mentative strain can produce other products [19]. Furthermore, mixed culture of
microorganisms has been proposed, where each performs a specific conversion. For this,
at least two microorganisms must be compatible and have similarities in the aspects of
nutritional and environmental requirements [2].
3.2.1 Bacteria
Homofermentative organisms are used in commercial lactic acid production processes.
Lactobacillus and associated genera, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, and Pediococcus, stand
out. The maximum productivity of these microorganisms is found at pH 5.5–6.5 [19]. Many
have amylase activity originating from various plants and animals. However, there are limi-
tations related to complex nutritional requirements and slightly lower temperatures in the
fermentation process. These statements can lead to contamination, raise costs, and lower
productivity due to early stage amylase production. Otherwise, they require partially hydro-
lyzed substrates [19, 20].
Lactobacillus spp. has demonstrated high fermentation capacity. The use of Bacillus spp.
showed the potential to reduce the costs of fermentation processes [19]. Thermophilic
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3.2 Microbial Lactic Acid Producer 41
Bacillus coagulans strains are able to utilize sugars from lignocellulosic biomass to
homofermentatively produce l-lactic acid under non-sterile conditions. However, it is
necessary to expand research related to metabolic engineering to expand its industrial
applications [2]. Corynebacterium glutamicum and E. coli showed high lactic acid
productivity after genetic modification [19]. Enterococcus faecalis has been described as
lactic acid producer from agricultural feedstock [21].
3.2.2 Fungi and Yeast

Different renewable carbon resources can be metabolized by Rhizopus spp. to produce
high lactic acid content [19]. They also specify advantages over bacterial processes,
such as (i) consuming a chemically defined medium, facilitating product recovery;
(ii) consuming complex carbohydrates; (iii) producing high concentrations of l-lactic
acid to metabolize glucose to manufacture polylactides. R. oryzae 2062 and R. arrhizus
36017 were able to produce lactic acid in a simultaneous saccharification and fermenta-
tion process [19, 22].
Pleissner et al. [23] evaluated a mutant of R. oryzae to obtain lactic acid. The strain
provided lactic acid production about ten times greater than the original strain. In addition,
yeasts can tolerate acidic conditions. Genetic manipulation can improve low lactic
acid-producing yeasts [19]. However, there is a need for additional studies on approaches
including fungi to produce lactic acid by fungi.
3.2.3 Microalgae
Microalgae are photosynthetic microorganisms widely recognized for their high carbon
fixation capacity, which has contributed to minimizing the effects generated by greenhouse
gases. These microorganisms use sunlight, carbon dioxide, water, and macronutrients and
micronutrients to produce biomass rich in macromolecules interesting for obtaining
bioproducts. In addition, microalgae can utilize alternative sources of nutrients, including
different types of industrial waste and effluents [24]. Thus, microalgae are promising raw
materials to produce lactic acid and reduce substrate costs for fermentation. Several
microalgae genera can produce lactic acid, including Nannochlorum, Nannochloropsis,
Scenedesmus, Synechococcus, and Synechocystis [19].
Research has focused on using microalgae mainly in biofuels production [24, 25], and the
remaining residues from the lipid and carbohydrate extraction processes for obtaining
biodiesel and bioethanol, respectively, have been neglected. Value-added chemicals can be
obtained by microalgal biomass from carbohydrate components present. The catalytic
transformation of algae into value-added products deserves further investigation, especially
lactic acid. In this sense, Xia et al. [26] found a yield of 33.9% in the production of lactic
acid from Scenedesmus biomass on Fe-Sn-Beta catalyst. The authors also investigated the
conversion of macromolecules in the microalgae cell to lactic acid. The protein had a
positive effect, promoting the production of lactic acid. On the other hand, the lipid
component showed a strong inhibitory effect. Therefore, microalgae residue demonstrates
high potential for the production of value-added chemical products, contributing to cost
reduction and sustainable development of the environment.
c03.indd 41 05/26/2023 19:15:26

3.3 Alternative Substrates for Lactic Acid Production
The biorefinery concept and the circular bioeconomy have motivated the search for
promising and sustainable raw materials. The alternative and low-cost substrates can
improve disposal and handling systems, reducing processing costs. Generally, new
substrates investigated are byproducts or waste streams from other processes [27]. Different
sources of carbohydrates are used as a substrate to produce lactic acid, including vegetable,
agricultural, forestry, dairy residues [19, 28], and household waste [29].
Producing lactic acid from unconventional carbon sources requires the insertion of
metabolic engineering of microbial strains. The production of d-lactic acid is a highlighted
approach due to the demand for thermostable PLA production. However, its large-scale
production to commercialization is still a challenge [2]. Algal biomass is a promising
alternative to the production of lactic acid due to the absence of lignin and because it has a
high content of carbohydrates and proteins [19].
Obtaining fermentable sugars from agricultural biomass is possible from pretreatment in
the biomass. Thus, biomass presents potential to use in the production of lactic acid. The
great challenge is to increase the quality of high-concentration sugars economically. Genetic
engineering contributes to the resistance of strains to acidic environments and producing
lactic acid at low pH. In addition, the use of neutralizing agents during fermentation is mini-
mized. Thus, these aspects help to reduce the costs of lactic acid production [2].
3.4 Fermentation Process Parameters
Lactic acid yield and productivity depend on several factors, where pH is one of the critical
parameters in the fermentation of microorganisms. The optimal pH for lactic acid
production will depend on the microbial strain used [7]. Hassan et al. [30] produced lactic
acid from organic waste using different isolates of Enterococcus durans BP130. The authors
observed high stability and production at pH 8 and 9, obtaining 14.3 and 16.9 g/L of lactic
acid, respectively, at 50 °C after 48 hours of fermentation. Trakarnpaiboon et al. [31]
analyzed the effects of pH (5–7), using starch as a substrate, in the R. microsporus cultiva-
tion. The highest lactic acid production (83–84 g/L) was obtained in the pH range 5–6. The
lowest production (54.8 g/L) was reported at pH 7.
Temperature is another crucial factor that can affect the growth kinetics of microorganisms,
with a significant influence on the use of the substrate for obtaining lactic acid [7]. The
optimal temperature for fermentation depends on the substrate and inoculum used [32,
33]. Zhang et al. [34] studied the quality of lactic acid fermentation at different incubation
temperatures of alfalfa silage with Lactobacillus plantarum and Lactobacillus casei. The
authors observed that 20 and 30 °C provided lower lactic acid production and a decrease in
the count of coliform bacteria. However, when used at 40 °C, the silage treated with L. casei
presented a lower coliform count and higher lactic acid content than the untreated and
treated with L. plantarum.
Another factor that can influence the fermentation process is sterilization. Industrially
used moist heat sterilization prevents contamination with microorganisms and the
production of undesirable byproducts. However, this heat pretreatment raises production
c03.indd 42 05/26/2023 19:15:26

3.5 Mode Improvement of Lactic Acid and Reactor Configuratio 43
costs and can change the substrate composition. Operating costs for the fermentation
process are estimated at up to 15% of the sterilization value [35]. High temperatures for
thermophilic microorganisms, extreme thermophiles, and hyperthermophiles can be used
in the fermentation process to increase productivity and reduce contamination [36]. The
contamination probability during lactic acid production can be reduced in acidic or alkaline
media. However, increasing the temperature and using acidic and alkaline conditions can
compromise the economic viability of the fermentation process [33].
The inoculum size is also a crucial parameter in lactic acid production, as it determines
the increase in microbial proliferation, yield, and productivity. Inoculums of 5–10% (v/v)
prevent heterolactic fermentation and reduce the lag phase. However, the use of inocu-
lum with a concentration greater than 5% (v/v) tends to increase the cost of the
process [33]. Panesar et al. [37] obtained maximum lactic acid production (33.72 g/L) at
a concentration of 2–4% (v/v) of L. casei. On the other hand, the lowest lactic acid
production was observed using 1% (v/v) of the starter culture. The researchers concluded
that the density of the starter culture interfered with the increase in lactic acid concentra-
tion [38]. However, a larger inoculum can cause nutrient depletion and interfere with
cell growth [7, 33].
Regarding the carbon/nitrogen (C/N) ratio, carbon may be available in the form of sugars
with high energy content. Nitrogen can be supplied through inorganic compounds, amino
acids, and peptides [39]. The availability of nitrogen can interfere with the direction of
energy obtained in catabolism. Under conditions with excess nitrogen, energy can be used
for assimilation and cell growth. However, nitrogen limitation can prevent energy
utilization for cell growth [40].
The hydraulic retention time (HRT) is an operational parameter that influences lactic
acid production, where the organic loading rate (OLR) must be high and sufficient to
provide a daily amount of carbon to the fermentative microorganisms. However, high OLR
can produce a higher lactic acid concentration, although the bioreactor operation in this
condition is unstable. Thus, the HRT must be long enough to allow the hydrolysis of
complex organic matter. On the other hand, long HRT reduces the amount of manageable
substrate per day [41]. In this context, Palomo-Briones et al. [42] showed that keeping HRT
short can prevent the development of lactate-producing microorganisms in the bioreactor.
3.5 Mode Improvement of Lactic Acid and Reactor Configuration
The fermentation to obtain lactic acid is commonly operated by batch, fed-batch, continuous
(Table 3.1), and repeated batch mode, with their respective advantages and disadvantages
(Figure 3.1). In this sense, Pejin et al. [52] evaluated the effect of adding malt rootlets
extract or soybean meal extract on brewer’s spent grain hydrolysate in lactic acid
fermentation in batch and fed-batch modes. In the batch fermentation, the use of 50% of
malt root extract provided the highest concentration of lactic acid, yield, and volumetric
productivity, with values of 25.73 g/L, 86.31%, and 0.95 g/L/h, respectively. With the
addition of the same byproduct and the same concentration, there was a rise in lactic
acid concentration (~58 g/L), a yield of approximately 90%, and volumetric productivity
(~1.2 g/L/h) using fed-batch fermentation.
c03.indd 43 05/26/2023 19:15:26

Table 3.1 Lactic acid production via fermentations of diverse producer microorganisms and substrates.
LA production
Producer microorganism Substrate Fermentation process (g/L) LA yield LA productivity Reference
Lactobacillus rhamnosus Waste from sweet potato Batch fermentation 10 NF NF [43]

Enterococcus mundtii Food waste and spent mushroom Batch fermentation 59.04 0.72 g/g 1.27 g/L/h [44]
Enterococcus mundtii Xylose Continuous fermentation 32.3 0.79 g/g 5.33 g/L/h [45]
Enterococcus mundtii Corn steep liquor Continuous fermentation 41.0 1.01 g/g 6.15 g/L/h [45]
Lactobacillus casei Sophora flavescens residues and Batch fermentation 48.4 0.904 g/g NF [46]
food waste
None Food waste and waste-activated Batch fermentation 13.18 0.52 g/g NF [47]
sludge TCOD
None Food waste and waste-activated Batch fermentation 29.55 NF 7.39 g/L/d [48]
sludge
Microbial consortium Sugarcane Batch fermentation 112.34 0.81 g/g 4.49 g/L/h [49]
(Clostridium sensustricto, Molasses and corn steep liquor
Escherichia, and Enterococcus) powder
Enterococcus durans Banana peels Batch fermentation 28.8 0.85 g/g 0.60 g/L/h [30]
Lactobacillus acidophilus and Cassava bagasse and corn steep Batch fermentation 31.6 NF 0.11 g/L/h [50]
Lactobacillus amylovorus liquor
Lactobacillus acidophilus and Cassava bagasse and corn steep Fed-batch fermentation 66.9 NF 0.46 [50]
Lactobacillus amylovorus liquor
Lactobacillus plantarum Glucose Fed-batch fermentation 178.17 0.84 g/g 1.24 g/L/h [51]
Lactobacillus plantarum Microalgal hydrolysate Batch fermentation 42.34 0.93 g/g 7.56 g/L/h [51]
Lactobacillus plantarum Microalgal hydrolysate Continuous fermentation 39.72 0.99 g/g 9.93 g/L/h [51]
LA, lactic acid; NF, not found; TCOD, total chemical oxygen demand.
c03.indd 44 05/26/2023 19:15:26

3.5 Mode Improvement of Lactic Acid and Reactor Configuratio 45
Simple operation
Reduced fermentation
Batch efficiency due to
bioproduct
accumulation
Improve the loss of

batch fermentation Fed-batch
efficiency
Cost reduction
Repeated Increased lactic acid
batch yield
Time-saving
More complete use of

the substrate
Continuous
Effectively preventing
product inhibition
Figure 3.1 Schematic illustration of main characteristics of operation modes commonly used for
the fermentation to obtain lactic acid.
Another study investigated the fermentation process with liquefied cassava starch in
batch and fed-batch modes at pH 5.5. Lactic acid production was evaluated in the simulta-
neous saccharification and fermentation of liquefied cassava starch by R. microsporus
DMKU 33. The bioreactor used was 5 L with agitation at 200 rpm and aeration at 0.75 vvm.
The authors observed 91.8 g/L of lactic acid in 72 hours and productivity of 1.28 g/L/h in
batch fermentation. The initial starch concentration, in this case, was 153.4 g/L. Furthermore,
under these conditions, a yield of 0.76 g/g was achieved, which was lower than the yield
found in fermentation with ~100 g/L of liquefied cassava starch (0.84 g/g). With the initial
concentration of liquefied cassava starch of 102.7 g/L and the addition of 41.4 g/L and
36 hours, the fed-batch fermentation provided 105.3 g/L of lactic acid in 84 hours, with a
total productivity of 1.25 g/L/h and yield of 0.93 g/g. Using the same substrate concentra-
tion, the fed-batch fermentation had significantly higher lactic acid yields than the batch
fermentation [31].
Xu et al. [53] investigated the repeated-batch mode for lactic acid production while
demonstrating the valorization of organic waste. The study also evaluated the stabilization
of lactic acid production from a mixture of food waste and waste-activated sludge during
long-term fermentation. The relative abundance of the main genera of LAB (Alkaliphilus,
Dysgonomonas, Enterococcus, and Bifidobacterium) in the repeat batch reactor was
stabilized (44.5%) and increased compared to the batch reactor (26.2%). This work
c03.indd 45 05/26/2023 19:15:27

demonstrated a high yield of lactic acid (0.72 g/g total chemical oxygen demand) through
repeated batch fermentation. Furthermore, the lactic acid productivity rate improved by
0.11 g/L/h compared to the batch reactor. Another study used food waste for producing
lactic acid using uncontrolled pH fermentation in batch, semicontinuous, and percolation
systems. The selectivity values found were 93% for batch mode, 84% for semicontinuous
process, and 75% for percolation system on a chemical oxygen demand (COD) basis.
Moreover, the work reached lactic acid concentrations of 32, 16, and 15 gCODlactic acid/L,
respectively [11].
Continuous fermentation works continuously with substrate addition and product
removal [10]. Peinemann et al. [54] evaluated the addition of glucoamylase in batch
operation. After 24 hours, the titer found was 50 g/L, 63% yield, and 2.93 g/L/h of productiv-
ity. With continuous fermentation, there was an increase in titer and yield (69 g/L, 86%,
respectively). Although the productivity was lower (1.27 g/L/h) with the addition of
glucoamylase, continuous fermentation utilizes the substrate more completely and
comprehensively. Furthermore, the authors concluded that both modes of fermentation
are economically profitable.
Reactors used for the production of lactic acid by biotechnological processes can involve
different configurations, such as stirred tank bioreactor, continuous fixed-bed bioreactor,
cascade bioreactor, continuous chemostat cultivation, and membrane bioreactor [10]. The
stirred tank bioreactor system is widely used to obtain lactic acid [55, 56]. This reactor
allows controlling fermentation conditions in a short production period and has a low risk
of contamination. Furthermore, it can be switched between different production tasks with
low retrofit costs. However, these bioreactors have high labor costs and have downtime
related to sterilization, reinoculation, and cleaning [57].
The high concentration of lactic acid can compromise microbial action in the fermentation
process. Thus, bioreactors for the in situ separation of lactic acid have been investigated.
Matsumoto and Furuta [58] performed in situ separation of lactic acid by organic solvent
extraction fermentation in an air-lift bioreactor. The authors found that lactic acid was
obtained and extracted to an organic phase for 600 hours.
Membrane technology has been related as one of the most efficient and energy-saving
processes for obtaining lactic acid. Furthermore, the combination of membrane and
bioreactor reduces downstream processing [12]. Fan et al. [59] established an anaerobic
membrane system for continuous lactic acid fermentation. A membrane module with a
rotary vane pump pumped the fermentation broth. A cross-flow filtration system used full
recycling mode when no fresh medium was fed. When starting the continuous fermenta-
tion, a multichannel peristaltic pump was used to feed the reactor with fresh medium.
During continuous operation, the collected permeate was partially removed as a product
with the peristaltic pump. The outlet flow was equal to the inlet flow (fresh medium), and
the remaining permeate was then recycled back to the reactor (Figure 3.2). The study found
that the lactic acid productivity of the membrane system was five times higher than in
conventional batch processes [59].
In this context, Taleghani et al. [12] produced lactic acid from whey lactose in a membrane
bioreactor and compared it with the performance of the conventional bioreactor. The study
found maximum lactic acid yield (89%) at the dilution rate of 0.04 h−1 with the membrane
bioreactor, while the conventional bioreactor was 47%. These results proved an
c03.indd 46 05/26/2023 19:15:27

3.6 Challenge 47
15
14 13 P 12 11
4 5 6
7
1 2 10
8
9
3
Figure 3.2 Membrane bioreactor system with online biomass monitoring using the optical sensor
for continuous fermentation: (1) base, (2) culture medium, (3) stirred tank reactor, (4) rotary vane
pump, (5,12) manometers, (6) membrane module, (7) intermediate reservoir, (8) electric balance,
(9) control system, (10) product, (11) peristaltic pump, (13) valve, (14) optical sensor, and (15) motor.
Source: Fan et al. [59] / MDPI / CC BY 4.0.
improvement in the performance of the bioreactor using a membrane. Furthermore, the

maximum productivity of lactic acid obtained in the membrane reactor was 6.3 g/L/h,
while the conventional reactor provided 3.4 g/L/h. The results showed that integrating
membranes with fermentation contributed positively to lactic acid concentration and
productivity.
Continuous fermentation through immobilized cells has improved fermentation
efficiency, protecting it from toxic compounds [60]. Phenolic substances and associated
aldehydes in the lignocellulosic substrate negatively affect microbial growth for lactic acid
fermentation [61]. In this sense, a study used cross-linkable F127 bis-polyurethane
methacrylate (F127-BUM/T15) to immobilize Lactobacillus bulgaricus cells for producing
lactic acid. A continuous cell recycling fermentation system (Figure 3.3) was investigated,
using glucose and corn stover hydrolysate as carbon sources. Total lactic acid production
via immobilized cells was approximately 2000 g after 100 days of fermentation. The lactic
acid yield obtained was higher (2.68 g/L/h) than that of free cells (0.625 g/L/h) [60]. On
the other hand, this process still has limitations for industrial application due to the low
efficiency of materials incorporation and low mechanical performance. Therefore, more
research should focus on improving these characteristics so that the immobilization of
cells in polymer hydrogels can be applied on a large scale to produce lactic acid with
high efficiency.
3.6 Challenges
One of the main challenges in the fermentation process for lactic acid production is to
provide the producing microorganism with the ideal condition, mainly of temperature and
pH, while obtaining high concentrations, yields, and productivity of lactic acid [38]. The
great challenge of this step occurs because as the fermentation progresses, the pH of the
c03.indd 47 05/26/2023 19:15:27

Motor
Transmission components
Exhaust port Mechanical seal
Bubbler Mirror
Feed port Circulating pump

Discharge port
Material tank Feed pump

Cooling water outlet NaOH feed control pump
Product collection tank
Mixing
mechanism Instrument port
Cooling water outlet
Filter
port
4M NaOH
Outlet
Figure 3.3 Schematic diagram of continuous fermentation by immobilized L. bulgaricus T15 cells. Source: Guo et al. [60] / MDPI / CC BY 4.0.
c03.indd 48 05/26/2023 19:15:28

3.7 Conclusion 49
medium decreases, which can lead to inhibition and cellular inactivation of the producing
microorganism [62, 63]. However, there are strains capable of obtaining lactic acid even in
acidic medium [31]. Inhibition of the final product and substrate is another challenge in
the context of the lactic acid production process, along with the formation of byproducts
that can negatively interfere with product yield [64].
It is recognized that the initial concentration of the inoculum can help reduce process
costs [33]. However, assessing the impact of the inoculum is challenging. The inoculum
contains lactic acid and other interfering products on the initial pH. Lactic acid produced
in a percolation system without pH control needs process optimization to reduce costs.
Furthermore, lactic acid recovery can face problems related to ethanol contamination since
its boiling point (78 °C) is different from that of lactic acid (122 °C) [11].
The cost of recovery and lactate concentration of the cultured broth is reported in the
literature as up to 80% of the total cost of lactic acid production [12, 65, 66]. Thus, alterna-
tive systems for the separation process have been investigated. Another challenge in the
production of lactic acid by the metabolic route is the costs of substrate and fermenta-
tion processes, which constitute about 40–70% of the total cost of the process [7, 33].
Lignocellulosic biomass, food waste, and microalgae have been indicated as alternative
substrates to contribute to the economical production of lactic acid. Pretreatment of
lignocellulosic materials to release fermentable sugars can release inhibitory com-
pounds to microorganisms. Moreover, the complex composition of lignocellulosic bio-
mass may limit its use for commercial production of lactic acid [7]. The food waste
substrate needs pH control and a wide spectrum of fermentation products leading to
increased lactic acid separation costs [11]. Therefore, using algae and microalgae for
lactic acid production is a promising alternative to reduce production costs since these
organisms can use carbon dioxide as a carbon source and other industrial off-gases and
wastewater as nutrients [7].
3.7 Conclusions
Producing lactic acid from microbial reactors is a sustainable process with promising
results. Fungi and yeasts are producer microorganisms for lactic acid fermentation, but
LAB are the most commonly used microorganisms. Lignocellulosic biomass is a frequently
mentioned substrate for fermentation. However, it needs pretreatment, which involves
costs for the process. Microalgae are promissory substrates in this scenario since their use
in fermentation minimizes costs, contributing to the treatment of industrial effluents and
reducing the emission of greenhouse gases. The lactic acid production via fermentation can
be conducted by different operational modes, with continuous and fed-batch being high-
lighted. Stirred tank reactors are commonly used to obtain lactic acid. On the other hand,
membrane bioreactors have shown promising results concerning productivity and lactic
acid yield compared to conventional production processes.
The main bottlenecks are end product inhibition, substrate inhibition, and byproduct
formation. Furthermore, the cost associated with processing to recover lactic acid limits its
commercial production via microbial fermentation. Using alternative low-cost substrates
and economical bioreactors that provide better lactic acid yields and productivity
c03.indd 49 05/26/2023 19:15:28

contributes to lactic acid fermentation’s economic viability. Besides, optimizing the fer-
mentation process corresponding to the type of reactor in addition to developing new
recovery processes are other crucial aspects for obtaining sustainable and economic high-
purity lactic acid through a fermentation process.
Acknowledgments
This research was developed within the scope of the Capes-PrInt Program (Process
# 88887.310848/2018-00). The authors also are grateful to the Coordenação de
Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior – Brasil (CAPES) – Finance Code 001.
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55
Advancement in the Research and Development

of Synbiotic Products
Anna María Polanía1, Alexis García1, and Liliana Londoño2
1
School of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universidad del Valle, Tuluá, Valle del Cauca, Colombia
2
BIOTICS Group, School of Basic Sciences, Technology and Engineering, Universidad Nacional Abierta y a Distancia – UNAD,
Bogota, Colombia
4.1 Introduction
One of the ways to protect the host from invading microorganisms is to maintain a stable
gut community. However, sometimes alterations occur when there are changes in the
diet, infections, age, consumption of antibiotics, so that the intestinal microbiota is
affected, presenting metabolic, pathogenic, or inflammatory conditions that can trigger
intestinal diseases, inflammatory diseases, metabolic syndrome, atopy, or even colorectal
cancer [1].
The concept of synbiotics was initially reported 25 years ago, it was simply the idea of
combining nondigestible fermentable foods (prebiotics) with probiotics, and for this reason
they were defined as “mixtures of probiotics and prebiotics that beneficially affect the
host.” The word is composed of the prefix Greek ‘syn’ meaning ‘together’ and the suffix
‘biotic’ meaning ‘pertaining to life’. To establish a more adequate use of the word ‘synbiotic’
the International Scientific Association for Probiotics and Prebiotics (ISAPP) in 2019
established synbiotic as “a mixture comprising live microorganisms and substrate(s)
selectively utilized by host microorganisms that confer a health benefit to the host” [2]. To
date, two categories of synbiotics have been defined: complementary and synergistic. The
first is constituted by a prebiotic and a probiotic that together provide health benefits but
do not necessarily have to be co-dependent in their function; the amount to be used for
each component should be a dose that has been shown to be effective individually. In the
second group, the co-administered live microorganisms selectively utilize the substrate
contained in the synergists [3].
It has been evidenced in various research that some microorganisms found in the
gastrointestinal tract manage to play important roles in the maintenance of health.
Synbiotics fall into this category and could be used as therapeutic strategies to improve

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56 4 Advancement in the Research and Development of Synbiotic Products
human health in various clinical conditions. Their importance lies in the fact that they
could help to address two targets in Goal 3 of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs):
prevention of premature mortality from noncommunicable diseases and promotion of
mental health and well-being [4].
The purpose of this chapter is to provide a clear definition of synbiotics, its mechanisms
of action, and possible effects on different health conditions, detailing the different types of
bioreactors for its production, the encapsulation methods to improve its properties and
stability, and its applications in different fields due to that can be used as therapeutic agents
in the treatment of some skin diseases such as acne, melasma, and atopic dermatitis; in the
same way they can be used in animal feed where can increase productivity, reduce infec-
tions by pathogens and improve the quality of the products where they are applied; how-
ever, its main application is in the development of functional foods due to the health
benefits it brings to the consumer.
4.2 Probiotics, Prebiotics, and Synbiotics
4.2.1 Probiotics
Probiotic is derived from a Greek word meaning “for life” and its definition has undergone
many modifications, it was introduced by Vergin, who proposed that these microorganisms
were favorable for the gut microflora. The latest definition was jointly proposed by the Food
and Drug Administration (FDA) and the World Health Organization (WHO), who state
that probiotics are “live microorganisms that, when administered in adequate amounts,
confer a health benefit on the host” [5, 6]. The widely used probiotic microorganisms are of
the genus Lactobacillus species reuteri and rhamnosus, Bacillus coagulans, Escherichia coli
strain Nissle 1917, bifidobacteria, some strains of Lactobacillus casei, and acidophilus-
group, also included the yeast Saccharomyces boulardii and some strains of enterococcus
such as Enterococcus faecium SF68 [7]. Some of the advantages of probiotics in the human
organism is the effect it develops on the microbiota since it generates an adequate balance
between pathogenic microorganisms and the bacteria needed for the proper functioning of
the organism [8]. Some research shows that these microorganisms have health benefits
such as improving intestinal transit, reducing the risk of obesity, stimulating mineral
absorption, and lowering postprandial glucose levels [9–11]. These live microorganisms
can be used to produce functional foods and the preservation of some types of products.
Due to the positive effect that it generates, the probiotics can be useful to reestablish the
natural microbiota, and for this reason, they are often used in the diet of people who have
undergone therapies with antibiotics [12].
Probiotics are also regulated as they must be safe for human and animal health. In the
United States, the regulatory organization is the FDA (Food and Drug Administration),
which guarantees that the microorganisms used have Generally Regarded as Safe (GRAS)
status. In Europe, the EFSA (European Food Safety Authority) oversees regulation and
issues the concept of Qualified Presumption of Safety (QPS), which implies additional
criteria for the safety evaluation of bacterial supplements, i.e. it includes the history of safe
use and absence of risk of acquired resistance to antibiotics [13, 14].
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4.3 Prebiotic 57
4.2.2 Requirements and Selection Criteria for Probiotic Strains

To optimize the use of probiotic strains, it is vital to perform safety evaluations, but this is
not an easy activity to carry out [15]. The action of probiotics when used as microbial
additives in animal feeds is not completely known, but when microorganisms adhere to
the gastrointestinal tract, they can survive adverse conditions and generate beneficial
effects on the protection and stability of the intestinal flora. They are also involved in
digestive and metabolic processes and immune system response. Therefore, the character-
istics of probiotics improve animal health, increase productivity, and improve host
immunity [16]. When selecting these microorganisms, strains and even genera that have
demonstrated beneficial or specific effects are included. The evaluation of probiotics is
based on the safety and risk–benefit ratio established with the use of a specific probiotic
strain. The probiotics used to produce probiotic formulas in animals are isolated from
individuals belonging to the species for which they are destined, since the health benefits
generated are specific to each species. Because of this, the biological material obtained can
be adapted to various conditions found in the alimentary tract of the treated animal
species [17].
Regarding the selection of layers for human use, a systematic approach should be
followed to ensure that consumers have a safe probiotic. Some characteristics to consider
are origin, genus identification, strain, stability in the gastrointestinal tract, and viability.
For the evaluation of probiotics in foods, the guidelines provided by “ICMR-DBT” should
be considered, which mention the steps to identify the functionality of probiotics. In the
case of probiotics for human use, it is recommended that they be isolated from the human
intestine or breast milk, since this way they adhere better to the intestinal wall and are
safer. They can also be isolated from fermented products such as gundruk, sinki, khalpi,
soidon, goyang, among others. To determine the probiotic potential of the microorganism,
it is necessary to identify the strain down to the genus level. In addition to primary
identification techniques, molecular and genetic techniques such as 16SrRNA DNA
sequencing, fatty acid methyl ester (FAME), DNA-DNA hybridization technique, polymer-
ase chain reaction (PCR) amplification and DNA and RNA hybridization should be
performed [18]. The conditions that a microorganism must meet to be used as a probiotic
are presented in Figure 4.1.
4.3 Prebiotics
A prebiotic can be defined as a “substrate that is selectively utilized by host microorganisms

conferring a health benefit.” Prebiotics are mainly nondigestible fibers that support the
growth of some genus of microorganisms in the colon benefiting the health of the host,
including some strains of bifidobacteria and lactobacillus [23–25]. Prebiotics can be used as
an alternative option to probiotics or consumed in a complementary manner. It is important
to highlight that some prebiotic strains can promote the growth of multiple indigenous
intestinal bacteria. In addition, they have a great capacity to modify strains and species
within the intestinal microbiota that are not easy to identify a priori [26]. Also, the prebiotics
can exert benefits in the urogenital tract, oral cavity, and skin [27, 28].
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Host-associated stress tolerance ability

When ingested the probiotic should be able to be stable in the different parts of the digestive tract and
withstand the stress conditions of the human body, such as the action of some digestive enzymes like
pepsin chemotrypsin, amylase, and lysozyme. Likewise, the strains must tolerate acid and bile, and
thermal shocks resulting from changes in internal body temperature [18].
Adhesive properties
To define the probiotic potential of the strain, it is important to define its adhesion to the intestinal wall, as
this ensures that the bacteria are not washed away, but self-aggregate to increase their cell density and
biomass in the digestive tract. This also ensures that the strain has a better interaction with epithelial cells to
generate host-associated functional effects [18].
Antimicrobial activity
The strains should have the ability to survive against potential pathogenic microorganisms present in the
intestine. Probiotic strains should prevent the adhesion of pathogens to epithelial cells in the organism by
secretion of antibodies, lactic acid, bacteriocin sakacin A, acticins, and alyteserin-1a [19].
Immune modulating response

The probiotic should produce metabolites that stimulate the maturation and function of immune cells. Bacteria
stimulate immunoglobulin secretion and cytokine production. On the other hand, the strain should be selected
according to the target host to enhance the systemic immune response [20].
Host-associated functional criteria

One of the main characteristics of probiotics is the health benefits it provides to the organism. Some of the
properties that have been evidenced when consuming them are antidepressant, antidiabetic, antioxidant,
antiobesity, anticolestrol, anticancer activity, in addition to reducing gastrointestinal diseases, diarrhea,
gastroenteritis, and children's allergie. [21, 22].
Good technological properties

A probiotic can effectively offer benefits to the host if the strain can survive the storage period and remain
efficient and viable. Ideally, probiotic bacteria should be able to grow in nutritional supplements (ideally
inexpensive fermentation media), food matrices, and microaerophilic conditions. Another important aspect
is that the strain can withstand different physical handling techniques during product processing without
losing its efficiency and viability [18].
Figure 4.1 Characteristics of probiotics.
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4.3 Prebiotic 59
Much research has reported the effect of prebiotics in the prevention or delay of
cardiovascular diseases with hypercholesterolemia, osteoporosis, obesity, diabetes,
intestinal inflammation, and even gastrointestinal infections [24, 29]. Prebiotics are not
easily degraded through the intestinal tract due to the absence of degrading microorgan-
isms or digestive enzymes. However, when these microorganisms pass through the intestine
and settle in the colon, the microbiota break them down and the food necessary for their
maintenance is obtained, generating small molecules of carbohydrates and short-chain
fatty acids, whose function is to provide energy to nearby bacteria [30].
Some foods that constitute a potential source of probiotics are fruits, cereals, vegetables,
and other edible plants. These foods are artichokes, tomatoes, asparagus, bananas, garlic,
green vegetables, onions, flax seeds, oats, wheat, and barley [26, 31]. The intake of these
products prevents constipation and diarrhea problems, helps in the production of
B vitamins and improves the immune system, reduces the probability of developing osteo-
porosis due to the increase in calcium absorption, reduces the symptoms of inflammatory
bowel disease and therefore reduces the factors that lead to colon cancer, reduces the risk
of diabetes, and improve the metabolism of carbohydrates [24, 29]. In addition to these
benefits, the intake of products containing probiotics leads to a decrease in the population
of pathogenic bacteria present in the intestinal tract, particularly Campylobacter jejuni,
Salmonella spp., and E. coli [30]. The most recognized prebiotics are glucooligosaccha-
rides (GuOS), fructooligosaccharides (FOS), inulin, xylooligosaccharides (XOS), galactoo-
ligosaccharides (GaOS), lactulose, maltooligosaccharides (MO), isomaltooligosaccharides
(IMO), lactosaccharose, lactulosucrose, raffinose, fructans, maltodextrin, polydextrose,
sorbitol, and gum arabic [25, 27, 32–36]. Lactulose accounts for about 40% of the oligosac-
charides produced. Fructans such as oligofructose and inulin are widely used in connec-
tion with other probiotic species [26, 37]. In fact, FOS, inulin, and GaOS are commonly
employed in many food products, include baby foods [27, 30].
4.3.1 Requirements and Selection Criteria for Prebiotic Strains

According to Wang [38], with the goal of classifying the foods as prebiotics is possible on
establishing five criteria (Figure 4.2). The first one states that prebiotics are not digested,
i.e. they are only partially digested in the upper tract. For this reason, prebiotics settle in the
colon and are selectively fermented by bacteria that are beneficial (requirement of the
second criterion) [39]. When the fermentative process is developed, there is an increase in
the amount and/or production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), the fecal mass increases,
and the pH in the colon is reduced, leading to a reduction of fecal enzymes and nitroso
products, thus strengthening the immune system [40] and benefiting the host (require-
ment of the third criterion). Another criterion that is often considered is the activity of
bacteria in the gut and/or selective growth stimulation that are directly related to health
protection. The last criterion states that prebiotics must have the ability to withstand food
processing conditions without being altered, degraded, or chemically modified, as well as
being accessible to bacterial metabolism in the gut [26].
One of the factors determining fermentative activity in prebiotics is the stimulation of the
gut microbiota, which in turn influences the level of SCFA and confers health benefits to the
host [41]. Likewise, prebiotics reduce intestinal pH, preserving the osmotic retention of water
in the intestine. However, it is important not to over-consume probiotics because an excess of
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Prebiotic selection criteria
Resistance to
digestion in the Fermentation Beneficial effect
upper sections by intestinal on host’s health
of the microbiota
alimentary tract
Stability in
various Selective
food/feed stimulation of
processing growth of
conditions probiotics
Figure 4.2 Requirements for potential prebiotics. Source: Markowiak and Śliżewska [26] / MDPI /
CC BY 4.0.
probiotics can cause diarrhea and flatulence, an effect that is not generated when probiotics
are consumed in excess [40]. Prebiotics can be ingested on a long-term basis and for the pur-
pose of improving health. They have the advantage of not generating allergies and protect the
intestinal flora when antibiotics are ingested. It is important to mention that the elimination
of pathogens is better when antibiotic treatment is applied; however, these also manage to
destroy part of the intestinal flora, for this reason although the use of prebiotics has less effect
with pathogenic bacteria, it presents the advantages mentioned above [26, 42].
4.4 Synbiotics
Synbiotics can be defined as “a mixture composed of live microorganisms and substrate(s)

used selectively by host microorganisms conferring a health benefit to the host” [3].
Synbiotics can be used to promote the survival of microorganisms that benefit the intestinal
flora, when added to feed or food, and increase the production of specific bacterial strains
of the intestinal tract [43]. Synbiotics are identified as healthy due to the beneficial effect
they generate and are usually associated with the individual combination of prebiotics with
probiotics [23]. As a consequence of the numerous combinations that can be obtained, a
wide interest has been generated in recent years for the application of synbiotics due to the
excellent modulation of the microbiota [26, 44].
Synbiotics can act in two ways: by improving the health of the host after ingesting a
mixture of probiotic and prebiotic strains or by promoting autochthonous beneficial
microflora, such as bifidobacteria, after ingesting prebiotics alone. The efficacy of synbiot-
ics has been demonstrated in both animals and humans by demonstrating synergistic
effects on host health, i.e. synbiotics can exert the following benefits [45]:
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4.4 Synbiotic 61
●● Improve survival and implantation of probiotics in the colon.

●● Stimulate the growth or activate the metabolism of beneficial bacteria for the colon
(probiotics).
●● Improve the microbial composition in the gastrointestinal tract.
Probiotic strains such as Bifidobacteria spp., B. coagulans, Lactobacilli, and S. boulardii
are usually used in synbiotic formulations; and prebiotic strains include oligosaccharides
such as GOS, FOS, inulin, prebiotics from natural sources such as yacón and chicory roots.
Other benefits that the consumption of synbiotics can generate in humans are the increase
of lactobacilli and bifidobacteria levels, leading to a balance of the intestinal microbiota,
improving the immunomodulatory capacity, improving liver function in cirrhotic patients,
reducing incidences of nosocomial infections in surgical patients, and preventing bacterial
translocation [46, 47].
4.4.1 Synbiotic Selection Criteria

One of the first considerations when a synbiotic formula is to be developed is to select the
right prebiotics and probiotics, i.e. that each when used individually should exert a
beneficial effect on the health of the host [26]. “If a product contains a prebiotic and probi-
otic that has evidence that each microorganism has benefits individually, but not as a
whole, it cannot be called synbiotic” [3]. When selecting synbiotic microorganisms, it must
be clear which properties will be beneficial to probiotic metabolism. Formulations can be
called synbiotic as long as a selective stimulation of the growth of other microorganisms
can be assured [14].
Synbiotics must ensure consistent safety and performance. Microorganisms that are part
of the synbiotic should have a publicly available annotation and genomic sequence, as well
as be tested to determine that no genes present safety concerns (e.g. transferable antibiotic
resistance or toxin production), and current taxonomic nomenclature should be used to
name and designate a traceable strain. These strains should belong to internationally
recognized culture collections and be available to the scientific community for research
purposes [3].
4.4.2 Mechanism of Action of Synbiotics

Mixing probiotics with prebiotics generates a modulation of metabolic activity in the
intestine and also preserves the intestinal biostructure, inhibiting the potential for patho-
gens in the gastrointestinal tract and the development of beneficial microbiota [23].
Synbiotics provide minors concentrations of undesirable metabolites, as well as inactivation
of carcinogenic substances and nitrosamines. Therefore, using these microorganisms leads
to an increase in carbon disulfides, SCFAs, methyl acetates, and ketones, thus generating a
positive effect on the health of the host [48]. Regarding the therapeutic efficacy, synbiotics
present anticancer, antiallergic, and antibacterial effects. Likewise, they counteract intesti-
nal diseases and prevent constipation and diarrhea. They can also be effective in preventing
osteoporosis, reducing blood fat and sugar levels, treating brain disorders associated with
abnormal liver function and regulating the immune system [46]. In Figure 4.3, it is possible
to appreciate the forms of action of synbiotics, according to their modification of the intes-
tinal microbiota with appropriately selected probiotics and prebiotics.
c04.indd 61 05/26/2023 19:15:33

Synbiotics
Prebiotics Probiotics
Nutrion Changes in Changes in

Pathogen Inhibition of Immunomodulation Metabolic effects intestinal
absortion Immunomodulation instestinal
inhibition carcinogenesis microbiota
effect microbiota
Positive effect on
Reduced risk Reduced risk
Protection Support of the development of Prevent respiratory Decrease in Colonization
of obesity and of colorectal
against immune system benefitial intestinal diseases level of toxins resistance
of metabolic cancer and
infections bacteria and thus on in gut
syndrome other tumours
the host’s health
Supression
A possitive of
Harmonisation of
effect on pathogens
immune response
intestinal
microflora
and -Support and
combating improve digestive
diarrhocas process
-Improve
performance
Deconjugation Improve lactose

Supply nutrients and secretion of digestion
bile salt
Lowers serum
cholesterol
Figure 4.3 Mechanisms of action of synbiotics and their effects. Source: Markowiak and Śliżewska [26] / MDPI / CC BY 4.0.
c04.indd 62 05/26/2023 19:15:34

4.5 Health Benefits from Synbiotic 63
4.5 Health Benefits from Synbiotics
The role of synbiotics on human health is a field of great interest and ongoing research.
Multiple claims about the potential of synbiotics for improving different medical conditions
have been made over the years, these include benefits on intestinal health, treatment, and
prevention of different diseases (cardiac, biliary, liver, among others), and enhancement in
the relationship between the gastrointestinal tract and the central nervous system, which
can reduce the probability of presenting disorders such as depression, Alzheimer’s disease,
and Parkinson’s disease [49].
One of the main challenges is the confirmation of the health benefits in the target host
of complementary and synergistic synbiotics. Also, evidence of selective use by the
co-administered live microorganism (synergistic synbiotic) or by the endogenous microbiota
(complementary synbiotic) must also be generated.
Table 4.1 presents some recent studies of the effect of synbiotics over different health
conditions. Concentration and composition of synbiotic (strains of probiotics and type pf
prebiotic), characteristic of the subjects of the study, and statistical significance are
considered.
Table 4.1 Health benefit claims and synbiotics.
Health benefit
claim Synbiotic used Group study Results Reference
Reduction of Probiotics: Adults 21.4% (9 out of 42 [50]

infection in Lactobacillus Intervention patients) in the
colorectal acidophilus group control group
cancer NCFM (109) (synbiotics) presented surgical
post-surgery Lactobacillus N = 49 wound infection
rhamnosus Control group compared with only
HN001 (109) (placebo), 2.0% (1 out of 49
N = 42 patients) due to the
Lactobacillus paracasei administration of
LPC-37 (109) the synbiotic
Bifidobacterium lactis (p = 0.002)
HN019 (109)
Prebiotics:
Fructooligosaccharides
(6 g)
Improvement of Probiotic: Middle-aged After a 30-days [51]
gastrointestinal Bifidobacterium adults with intervention the
discomfort and animalis lactis Vesalius transit disorders number of days with
inflammatory 002 (LMG P-28149) (85% women) gastrointestinal
status 5 × 109. Intervention discomfort were
Prebiotic: group reduced in the
(synbiotics) intervention group
Fructo- compared with the
oligosaccharides (FOS, N = 13
Control group control group
ACTILIGHT, 4.95 g)
(placebo) (p < 0.05)
N = 14
(Continued)
c04.indd 63 05/26/2023 19:15:34

Health benefit
claim Synbiotic used Group study Results Reference
Obesity Probiotics: Overweight A significant [52]

treatment L. acidophilus, L. casei adults (body reduction in body
Bifidobacterium mass index weight was found
bifidum (2 × 109 CFU/g between 25 and between the
each) 35 kg/m2) intervention group
Prebiotics: Intervention and control
group (p = 0.03)
Inulin (0.8 g)
(synbiotics) Changes in blood
N = 30 lipid profile between
Control group intervention and
(placebo), control group were
N = 29 observed. A
statically significant
difference in total
cholesterol was
found (p = 0.01)
Probiotic: Pregnant It was found that
Avoid post- L. acidophilus strain Women with newborn [53]
partum T16 (IBRC-M10785) L. Gestational hospitalization and
complications casei strain T2 Diabetes hyperbilirubinemia
(IBRC-M10783) decreased by
Bifidobacterium Intervention synbiotic
bifidum strain T1 group supplementation
(IBRC-M10771) (2 × (synbiotics) (p = 0.006) (1 case
109 CFU/g each) N = 30 in the intervention
group compared
Prebiotic: with 9 in the
0.8 g inulin (HPX) Control group placebo)
(placebo),
N = 30
Probiotic: It was found after a
Reduction of 5.0 × 109 CFU of L. Non stressed 12-week [54]
Stress related paracasei HII01 and subjects intervention, a
biomarkers 5.0 × 109 CFU of (n = 12) significant reduction
Bifidobacterium of cortisol, a
animalis subsp. Lactis hormone associated
Stressed with stress states, in
(1 × 1010 CFU/day) subjects
Prebiotic: both the non-
(n = 19) stressed (p = 0.015)
5 g Galacto- and stressed group
oligosaccharides Both groups (p = 0.033)
(GOS-700-P) received This was confirmed
5g Oligofructose synbiotic with an evaluation
(Orafti®P95) preparation of the stressed state
of the participants
At the initial state of
the study, 94% of the
stressed group was
classified in a mild
stress sate after the
intervention it
reduced to 52%
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4.6 Bioreactor Design for Synbiotic Productio 65
Synbiotics effect over the postoperative recovery and reduction of possible infections is a
subject of great interest as is shown in the study of [50]. During surgery the gut microbiota
could be seriously affected, which could lead to proliferation of harmful bacteria, infections,
and in some cases bacteremia (presence of bacteria in the bloodstream). Supplementation
with synbiotic becomes a reliable strategy to contribute with a better recovery that promotes
the growth of beneficial microorganism and its metabolites.
Modification of gut microbiota can also be helpful to treat non transmissible diseases as
obesity or alleviating stress symptoms that worsen preexistent conditions or lead to stress-
related disorders. For obesity, the manipulation of the gut microbiota could benefit weight
loss due to its effect over metabolic variables such as cholesterol, blood lipid profile, insulin
among others [55]. Stress leads to many forms of physical and mental problems; using
synbiotic to reduce the biological response of biomarkers associated with stress is a valid
form to improve the well-being of the patient [54]. It is possible to see the wide scope
of possible application of synbiotic in health and the necessity for continuous research
and verification of its actual benefits to develop efficient treatment alternatives for
disease control.
4.6 Bioreactor Design for Synbiotic Production
According to the International Scientific Association for Probiotics and Prebiotics (ISAPP),
there are three definitions for synbiotics: (i) synbiotic defined as “a mixture comprising live
microorganisms and substrate(s) used selectively by host microorganisms that confers a
health benefit to the host” with host microorganisms that are considered resident or
autochthonous as probiotics; (ii) complementary symbiotic that is comprised of a prebiotic
that assists the indigenous host microorganisms with a combined probiotic; finally (iii) syn-
ergistic synbiotic, in which the co-administered microorganisms selectively employ the
substrate [3]. Regardless of the three definitions, for a synbiotic to provide a health benefit
to the host, it must overcome all the barriers of the gastrointestinal tract, reaching the
minimum number of viable cells capable of colonizing the intestine, so one of the key
factors during the production of synbiotics is to achieve, among others, a high viability.
Most synbiotics are produced through fermentation, so the selection of the type of fer-
menter, the definition of the operating conditions and the establishment of the culture
medium are key variables to increase the efficiency of their production.
Most synbiotics are produced through fermentation processes. Fermentation is defined
as a natural decomposition process in which complex organic substances are converted
into simple compounds through chemical transformations by the action of biological
catalysts [56] or industrially as a technology that using microorganisms or their parts can
generate value-added products [57]. At a general level, fermentation is divided into two
types of submerged fermentation (SmF) and solid-state fermentation (SSF). Solid fermen-
tation is a process carried out on solid substrates in the absence of free water but with the
necessary amount of water to allow the growth of microorganisms [58], while submerged
fermentation involves the immersion of microorganisms in an aqueous solution containing
all the nutrients necessary for growth [59]. Fermentation is carried out in fermenters or
bioreactors, in which the appropriate conditions for the growth of microorganisms are
c04.indd 65 05/26/2023 19:15:34

guaranteed. During the fermentation process, different factors influence the growth of the
microorganisms, which must be controlled to achieve an efficiency that allows industrial
scale-up in the production of synbiotics. Among the limiting factors are mass transfer,
temperature, pH, oxygen flow, among others, which can be modified by adding control
systems to the bioreactors or by improving some physical systems such as agitation in the
case of submerged fermentation [60, 61].
To obtain both probiotics and prebiotics through submerged fermentation, traditional
bioreactors can be used, such as flask [62, 63], stirred tank fermenters [64, 65], tower
fermenters, airlift fermenter, bubble column reactor, fluidized bed reactor, packed bed
reactors, bioreactor [60, 66], or novel bioreactors such as the membrane-based [67, 68].
These bioreactors can operate in different modes of operation batch, continuous, repeated
batch, and fed batch [68]. The selection of the fermentation mode depends on the ratio of
substrate consumption to biomass and products [60]. For the selection of the type of
bioreactor, the mode of operation, and the control variables, it is essential to know the
reactions that take place during fermentation, mainly the behavior of the microbial cells,
which can respond to different factors such as cell growth, substrate concentration,
nutrient depletion, absorption rates, among others [61]. For example, during the produc-
tion of fructo-oligosaccharide (FOS)-type prebiotics, sucrose is the main substrate in the
medium for FOS synthesis, so its initial concentration is a process parameter. As a result
of sucrose consumption and β-fructofuranosidase activity, glucose appears whose con-
centration can inhibit the fructosyl-transferring reaction and thus affect FOS synthesis.
In this case, controlling the concentration of glucose in the medium can favor the yields
of the process. In this sense, different strategies have been studied to improve the fermen-
tation process, among which it has been found that the operation of the bioreactor in
fed-batch mode can increase the yields in the production of FOS. The fed-batch operation
is used in the industry to overcome the disadvantages derived from the inhibition of the
reactions by substrate, thus increasing the concentrations of viable cells. During this one
of the main control variables is the substrate feeding rate, which is directly related to the
productivity [69].
In recent years, another bioreactor used in the production of synbiotics is the membrane
bioreactor, which integrates a membrane module (microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofil-
tration, electrodialysis) to the traditional fermenter allowing simultaneous production and
purification of a given product while maintaining cell growth. The membrane bioreactor
can also operate in different modes such as batch, semi-continuous, continuous, immobi-
lized, and membrane recycle [68]. Considering the advantages of this type of bioreactors,
Burghardt [67] evaluated the enzymatic catalysis process to produce FOS, finding that the
membrane reactor allows the constant removal of glucose that causes inhibition of the
enzymatic reactions and maintains an adequate concentration of sucrose as the main
substrate of the process. However, during the process the membrane pores were clogged
possibly due to the combination of proteins with polysaccharides, so it is necessary to use
additional systems that allow membrane cleaning.
In solid-state fermentation, one of the great challenges has been the design of bioreactors
at industrial level to obtain better process yields. In this case, bioreactors can be divided into
four groups: (i) bioreactors without forced aeration or occasional agitation, such as tray bio-
reactors; (ii) bioreactors with forced agitation, such as column bioreactors; (iii) bioreactors
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4.7 Microencapsulation and Nanotechnology to Ensure Their Viabilit 67
without forced agitation or with continuous slow agitation, such as packed bed, stirred
drum, and rotary drum bioreactors; and (iv) bioreactors with slow continuous stirring and
forced stirring bioreactors, among which are stirred-aerated bioreactors, gas-solid fluidized
bed, and rocking drum [70, 71].
In the production of synbiotics through SSF, most of the bioreactors used in laboratory
studies are flask and tray bioreactors due to the ease of control of the process conditions.
Considering this Wu [72] used flask to ferment whole oats with Rhizopus oryzae and
Lactobillus plantarum to obtain a synbiotic product through solid-state fermentation,
finding that the process increased the antioxidant capacity and amino acid content, improv-
ing the nutritional quality of the oats.
4.7 Microencapsulation and Nanotechnology to

Ensure Their Viability
Microencapsulation and nanotechnology allow the modification of the structure and size
of materials, which leads to changes in the way that matter behaves in biological systems.
One of the most interesting applications of these technologies is the controlled or sustained
release of cells or bioactive substances at specific sites, resulting in better absorption and
bioavailability, which can enhance the health benefits attributed to synbiotics.
Some challenges are presented to assure the stability and viability of synbiotics, being
one of the main acidic and bile-rich environment of the stomach, thus requiring some sort
of protection for the living cells that conform synbiotics. Microencapsulation could be a
way to achieve this goal; in this technology a continuous coating is formed around the
substance of interest (encapsulated material), stabilizing and protecting the synbiotics
from the changing and harsh conditions of the gastrointestinal tract allowing them to reach
the target site.
Proper selection of the encapsulation technique and wall material are crucial to the
viability and proper release of the encapsulated symbiotics; different methodologies for
microencapsulation are available among them are spray drying, extrusion, emulsification,
and freeze drying. Some recent research on the use of microencapsulation in symbiotics are
presented below.
Wu and Zhang [73] researched the role of the prebiotic part of microencapsulated
synbiotics in the stability and survival rate of the living cells present in the product under
simulated gastrointestinal conditions. Microcapsules formed from sodium alginate (SA),
prebiotic arabinoxylan fiber (AX), and arabinoxylan oligosaccharides (AXOS) of different
molecular weights were used to protect L. plantarum (LP). When low-molecular-weight
AXOS (2.1 × 104) were employed for the formation of the microspheres, highest
microencapsulation efficiency and survival rate were found (85.45 ± 2.36% and
79.03 ± 0.85% respectively) this behavior was attributed to the formation of more porous
structures in the microspheres increasing the space available for LP cells and a better fer-
mentability of the low molecular weight AXOS promoting the viability of the probiotics.
These results show the high importance for a proper selection of prebiotics to develop an
ideal carrier for target delivery of probiotics and promote a synergistic relationship between
the parts that form the synbiotic product.
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Similarly, Silva et al. [74] researched the effect of FOS as prebiotic source and encapsulating
material over the viability of Lactobacillus acidophilus in an alginate–gelatine matrix. It was
found that under gastrointestinal tract simulated conditions, the survival of cells was higher
for the microcapsules compared with free cells. Microcapsules with FOS presented a better
protection maintaining its structure and allowing a sustained release of the probiotic during
the intestinal phase. Once again it is possible to see that the prebiotic part of a synbiotic
product play an important role over the stability and viability of these.
4.8 Nanoparticles
The use of prebiotic nanoparticles can improve the beneficial properties of synbiotics.
Hong et al. [75] developed nanoparticles of pullulan, a polysaccharide of maltriose units
with high gastric acid resistance and potential to enhance the growth of probiotics. The
antimicrobial activity of L. plantarum with internalized pthalyl pullulan nanoparticles
(PPN/LP) was compared with LP alone and LP with internalized pullulan. It was found
that growth inhibition of pathogenic microorganism E. coli K99 and Listeria monocytogenes
was better for PPN/LP. It was theorized that PPN apply some intracellular stress in the LP
cells, which stimulate the expression of bioactive peptides (bacteriocins). These results
show the high potential of nanoparticles in the development of better symbiotic products,
more research is needed about the mechanism of action of nanoparticles in the production
of bioactive substances, which can lead to industrialized cell factories for specific products.
Another application of prebiotic nanoparticles for the development of a synbiotic product
was researched by Fayed et al. [76] who produced prebiotic nanoparticles of PLGA, a
synthetic biodegradable polymer, loaded with inulin (a polysaccharide of fructose units).
Nanoparticles were encapsulated with a mixture of probiotics from the Bifidobacterium
genus (Bifidobacterium bifidum, Bifidobacterium animalis, and Bifidobacterium lactis) in
double-layer microcapsules composed by alginate-arabic gum. It was found that the
inclusion of prebiotic nanoparticles promoted the viability of probiotic even if the prebiotic
was separately encapsulated in a PLGA matrix. This could be explained by the mechanism
of inulin release that occurred in two phases: the first one in a rapid way (53% of inulin
content released in 30 minutes, under simulated intestinal conditions) followed by a slow
stage (87% of inulin content released in a period of 3 days); this behavior creates a sustained
source of prebiotic that increase the survival of microorganism compared with cells without
microencapsulation.
4.9 Applications in Various Fields such as Dermatological

Diseases, Animal Feed, and Functional Foods
4.9.1 Dermatological Diseases

Some research with synbiotics has been reported, where the usefulness of these
microorganisms in the treatment of these diseases is evidenced. For example, melasma is a
disease whose exact incidence is unknown in many parts of the world and mainly affects
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4.9 Applications in Various Fields such as Dermatological Diseases, Animal Feed, and Functional Food 69
Hispanics, Latin Americans, and Asians living in areas that receive high-intensity
ultraviolet radiation. It is a disorder of melanogenesis that causes localized, chronic, and
acquired hypermelanosis of the skin [77]. It is characterized by the production of irregular
light to dark macules on areas of the skin that are exposed to the sun, usually on the cheeks,
chin, forehead, nose, and upper lip [78]. However, the use of natural products reduces the
risk of side effects, reduces costs, and increases efficacy in chronic conditions, which is why
it is of interest to study natural alternatives for this treatment. In this sense, it has been
reported that some synbiotics present some advantages such as anti-inflammatory activities,
inhibition of tyrosinase activity, antioxidant activity, ultraviolet protection, which makes
them suitable to be included in the treatment of this disease. For these reasons, the
researchers Piyavatin et al. [79] investigated whether the use of oral commercial synbiotic
(TS6, conformed by probiotics of the genus Lactococcus, Lactobacillus, and Bifidobacterium
with prebiotics such as fructooligosaccharides) could be useful in the treatment of this
disease. Women aged 30–50 years with facial melasma were randomly put in two groups:
Placebo or oral supplementation and treated for 12 weeks. A significant statistic difference
was found in the patients treated with synbiotics for different melasma indicators as
severity level of melasma (mMASI), melanin index crown among others. A reduction in
the UV damage is possible promoted by the reduction of neutrophils who liberates enzyme
related to skin aging. Therefore, it is possible to conclude that using synbiotics would be a
viable alternative in the treatment of melasma.
Another skin disease that affects a large part of the population is acne. This chronic
inflammatory skin disease is caused by Cutibacterium acnes. Kim et al. [80] evaluated the
synergistic antibacterial activities of probiotic lactic acid bacteria (LAB) “Lactobacillus aci-
dophilus A001F8” with Curcuma longa rhizome extract (CLE) as a synbiotic against C. acnes.
The results evidenced that the synbiotic combination was effective to significantly increase
the inhibition zone diameters against C. acnes compared to the use of L. acidophilus A001F8
or CLE alone. According to the above results, L. acidophilus together with the prebiotic
Curcuma longa rhizome extract presented a synergistic effect of antibacterial activity
against C. acnes, and therefore, it could be used in the development of cosmetics or drugs
to treat acne. Al-Ghazzewi and Tester [81] studied the potential of synbiotics on
Propionibacterium acnes. These authors evaluated in vitro the ability of probiotic bacteria
and konjac glucomannan hydrolysates (GMH) to inhibit acne-inducing bacterium. The
probiotic bacterial strains evaluated inhibited the growth of this bacterium. However, the
inhibition increased significantly when the prebiotic (GMH) was added. According to these
results, the use of synbiotics could be a biotherapeutic alternative for the treatment of this
disease, eliminating the use of topical or systemic drugs that generate side effects in
the organism.
Finally, another relevant dermatological disease is atopic dermatitis (AD). This disease is
one of the most common dermatologic disorders affecting up to 20% of children as well as
1–3% of adults worldwide [82]. The research conducted by Noll et al. [83] compared the
effectivity of control, prebiotic, and synbiotic baths to treat atopic dermatitis. The results
showed a considerable decrease in the scoring of atopic dermatitis (SCORAD) in the evalu-
ated times in those patients who underwent daily baths of synbiotics or prebiotics. After
14 days a significant statistic difference was found through the SCORAD in the patients
treated with synbiotic bath (a mixture of different strains of acid lactic bacteria and
c04.indd 69 05/26/2023 19:15:34

prebiotics such as inulin and apple pectin) scoring the lowest value between the treatments.
An improvement in itching and dryness of the skin and its bacterial microbiome was also
observed in patients who took daily synbiotic baths; analysis of the composition of skin
microbiome of the patients revealed that a modification of microorganism present could
explain some of the beneficial effects observed. The time and the combination of type of
bath and exposure was reported not significant. Therefore, these baths with synbiotics
could be a promising alternative for cutaneous application in the treatment of AD. The
effect of dietary and topical administration of synbiotics over skin injuries caused by AD
was researched in an animal model by Kim et al. [84]. Mices were treated with a synbiotic
product conformed by L. plantarum, Bifidobacterium longum, and Pediococcus pentosaceus,
and β-glucans extracted from oats. It was found that combination of dietary and topical
synbiotic treatment had a better effect than its individual administration. Mice treated
topically + orally showed almost normal structure in its histological analysis and the
extend of skin lesions were significantly minor compared with the negative control group
and other treatments. β-Glucans and lactic acid bacteria promote a positive influence in the
health of the test subject. However more research is needed to appropriately correlate the
metabolic and immunologic paths who contributed to this behavior.
The use of synbiotic microorganisms is established as a viable alternative for the
treatment of these dermatological diseases, which would make possible the elimination of
antibiotics and topicals that are generally formulated for the treatment of these diseases
that also trigger side effects.
4.9.2 Functional Foods

In recent years, the demand for healthy foods that improve the health of the consumer has
been increasing. The main function of a food is to provide the nutrients (macro and
micronutrients) necessary for the proper functioning of the body. However, it is recognized
that there are foods that have functions beyond nutrition, which gives rise to a new category
of foods, “functional foods.” For many years, the main institutions that regulate food
production and scientists worldwide have been debating the definition of functional foods,
and although there is still no single definition, it can be generally said that they are foods
or food ingredients that contain bioactive compounds that have a proven biological function
beyond nutrition, improving the consumer’s health and preventing the onset of diseases.
[85]. As the definition states, the functionality must be demonstrated, and the compounds
must be in adequate concentrations to be bioavailable and bio-accessible after consump-
tion [86]. Due to the functionalities demonstrated, synbiotics are considered functional
ingredients, which can be found naturally in fermented foods or can be incorporated into
food matrices, and in both cases their application gives rise to functional foods.
Among the most recognized fermented foods with synbiotics are dairy products such as
kefir, but there are also several examples with cereals, oilseeds, fruits, and vegetables [56,
87–89]. Zhang et al. [90] developed a functional food with oat flour by solid-state fermenta-
tion of L. plantarum TK9 and B. animalis subsp. lactis V9, with synbiotic potential due to
lactic acid bacteria and the presence of β-glucans. One of the main characteristics of this
food is the content of free nitrogen and the concentration of peptides with molecular
weight lower than 6000 Da after fermentation, which suggests that these compounds could
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4.9 Applications in Various Fields such as Dermatological Diseases, Animal Feed, and Functional Food 71
be better assimilated during their metabolism in the human body resulting in a positive
effect on the consumer’s health. Functional foods have also been obtained from soybeans,
one of the most recognized worldwide for its functional properties is tempeh. Tempeh is a
product obtained by solid-state fermentation of soybeans mainly with Rhizopus oligosporus
or R. oryzae in which by the action of these, the proteins of the legume are more
bio-assimilable, in addition to releasing a varied amount of bioactive compounds that are
recognized for their antioxidant activity [91]. Beverages with synbiotics are also considered
functional foods; Alvarado-Cóndor et al. [92] evaluated the process variables to obtain a
fermented kefir-type beverage from whey, finding that at a fermentation temperature range
of 28.5–29.7 °C and a concentration of 43.3% whey powder, it is possible to obtain a bever-
age with physicochemical characteristics similar to those defined for kefir. Fermented soy
milk (or its by-products) is also considered functional because during the process the lactic
acid bacteria such as L. plantarum make the components of the beverage more bio-
digestible, in addition to having a higher content of antioxidants, isoflavones, and other
bioactive compounds [93]. Other traditional products such as yogurt can also be considered
functional foods due to the functional potential of the lactic acid bacteria and prebiotic
compounds they contain [42].
To develop functional foods, synbiotics can be incorporated into food matrices. In this
case, Sáez-Orviz et al. [94] developed a synbiotic coating film with lactobionic acid and
L. plantarum to coat a cottage cheese. During the study, the changes during storage and the
survival of bacteria in simulated digestion were evaluated to affirm the prebiotic and
probiotic characteristics of the film, finding that the synbiotic films have potential for the
development of functional foods, among others, because they were able to maintain a high
viable cell count to be considered probiotic.
4.9.3 Animal Feed

The use of synbiotics in animal production as an aid to increase productivity, reduction of
pathogen infection and improvement on the quality of derivate products as meat, eggs, and
milk are discussed in the following section.
Dai et al. [95] researched the physiological and intestinal microbiota changes of turbot
fed with an extruded aquafeed supplemented with a synbiotic composed of stachyose +
L. Casei (25.0 g/kg stachyose + 1 × 108 CFU/g, respectively). The results showed that the
addition of synbiotic supplementation promote the growth of intestinal epithelial cells
compared with the individual addition of the prebiotic or probiotic part in the feed. More
intestinal cells produce a greater absorptive surface and led to a better digestive capacity
and absorption of nutrients, demonstrating the synergistic properties of this feed additive.
Synbiotic supplementation also promote the growth of lactobacilli reducing the viability of
mycoplasma pathogens demonstrating the microbiota altering properties of the additive.
Hashem et al. [96] studied the use of Alginate-CaCl2 nanoparticles as wall material for
the encapsulation of a symbiotic product conformed by Moringa oleifera leaf extract
(prebiotic) and saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast cells (probiotic) over the growth performance
and gut health of rabbits during the growing phase. Statistically significant differences
(p < 0.05) were found for weight gain between the control and the animals fed with
encapsulated product (synbiotic concentration: 11 × 1012 CFU Yeast + 0.15 g moringa
c04.indd 71 05/26/2023 19:15:34

extract/kg diet), which can be explained by physiological changes in the length of the
intestine (an increase of 16.2% with respect to the control), which facilitates the absorption
and utilization of nutrients. In terms of intestinal health, the consumption of
microencapsulated products affected the count of salmonella in the intestine, significantly
reducing its population (approximately in a 42%) and favoring the growth of beneficial
lactic acid bacteria.
According to the results reported, the use of symbiotics has a significant effect reducing
the presence of pathogens in the intestinal tract of the animals studied, which is why they
represent an interesting alternative to the conventional use of antibiotics, due to the food
safety risks associated with their use and the danger posed by the development of resistant
pathogens.
This potential was researched by [97] comparing the effect of additive type in diet
(control-no additive, antibiotic, and synbiotic) over the cecal presence of pathogenic and
beneficial microorganisms in broilers. The synbiotic used was a microencapsulated
L. plantarum (MLP) (1.0 × 1010 CFU/g product) in combination with FOS, which were
supplemented to the diet at a level of 0.1 g of MLP/kg of feed + 3 g of FOS/kg of feed.
The antibiotic used for comparison was aureomycin in a concentration of 0.15 g/kg of
feed. Aureomycin is commonly used for prevention of infections caused by gram-positive
and gram-negative bacteria and to promote growth. No statistically significant differences
were found in the E. coli population of broilers fed with the antibiotic with respect to those
fed with the symbiotic, indicating that the latter could be an alternative for infection
control, additionally the lactobacillus population increased significantly, which is associated
with maintaining the health of the intestinal tract and growth promotion, which was
observed in this study as a 10% increase in the average daily gain of weight for chickens fed
with symbiotic.
4.10 Conclusions
The definition, sources, and applications of synbiotics are subjects of continuous change
and research as it showed in this chapter. Is clear that more research in the development of
efficient bioreactors to produce synbiotics are needed, some good steps are taken with the
implementation of membrane systems in submerged fermentation that increase yield and
purification of the products in a continuous rate, deep knowledge of the metabolism and
reactions involved are necessary. On the other hand, solid-state fermentation could become
a cost-effective alternative due to its simplicity and reduction of waste treatments; however,
the scale-up constitutes an interesting topic for improvement to become an industrial way
for production.
Once produced and administrated to the host, synbiotics need to reach the desired place
of action. Microencapsulation is a useful tool to achieve this goal, different wall materials
and configurations are researched to assure that the microorganism and the prebiotic part
could work as intended and released in a controlled manner. Additionally, nanotechnology
offers a new perspective of how synbiotics could work, not only through a complementary
or synergistic approach but influencing the production of certain types of metabolites by
the inclusion of prebiotic nanoparticles inside of the microorganism, which can promote
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Reference 73
the production of specific substances with health benefits. According to the above, more
research in this aspect and clinical studies to validate its effects, synbiotics could become an
important option for personal nutrition and precision medicine.
On the other hand, some challenges as viability and interactions with host microbiome
had to be addressed for synbiotic development; therefore, in vitro, ex vivo, or even in silico
methodologies are necessary to test the synbiotic properties before its validation through
in vivo. This approach can reduce considerably the cost and time necessary for the evalua-
tion of promising strains of microorganism and types of prebiotics; this implies that in vivo
testing could be overlooked at evaluating the effectiveness of synbiotic in health, food, and
animal feed.
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81
Microbial Asparaginase and Its Bioprocessing Significance

Susana Calderón-Toledo1, Amparo Iris Zavaleta1, and Adalberto Pessoa-Junior 2
1
Laboratorio de Biología Molecular, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima, Peru
2
Department of Biochemical and Pharmaceutical Technology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo,
São Paulo, Brazil
5.1 Introduction
l-Asparaginase (E.C.3.5.1.1, l-asparaginase aminohydrolase) hydrolyzes l-asparagine to

l-aspartic acid and releases ammonium in a two-step process, which is used in the treatment
of leukemia. In this regard, leukemic cells, unlike normal cells, possess low levels of
l-asparaginase synthetase. Consequently, serum l-asparagine deficiency leads to leukemic
cells, decreased protein synthesis, and thus cell death [1]. On the other hand, in the food
industry, the combination of l-asparagine and reducing sugars at high temperatures pro-
duces decarboxylated Schiff bases, which decompose to acrylamide or its precursors, which
by pretreatment of foods with l-asparaginase decreases acrylamide concentrations [2].
l-Asparaginase is produced in various mammalian organs such as the liver, pancreas, brain,
ovary or testis, kidneys, spleen, and lungs, as well as in fish and birds. In addition, it has been
obtained from vegetables such as Capsicum, Lupin, Pinus, and Phyllanthus [3, 4] at high levels
as long as l-asparagine is maintained as a nitrogen source, which is usually within the first
11 days of nitrogen source acquisition [5]. However, microorganisms are the most cost-effective
source of production due to their fast growth and adaptability [6, 7]. Thus, species of the
genera Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Staphylococcus, Rouxiella, Lysinibacillus, and Pseudonocardia
have been isolated from soils; Lactobacillus from fermented food, and Acinetobacter from clini-
cal samples [8–14]. In this regard, recombinant l-asparaginases with improved physicochemi-
cal characteristics that favor scale-up have been described in recent years.
Currently, on the one hand, l-asparaginase is a therapeutic agent for the treatment of
acute lymphoblastic leukemia, and on the other, it decreases acrylamide concentrations in
thermoprocessed food products, thus commercial l-asparaginases of high efficiency have
been increased [15]. In this context, there has been an important development of innova-
tive technologies that focus on the optimized and cost-effective production of l-asparaginase
with the quality and adaptability criteria for its industrial scale-up.

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82 5 Microbial Asparaginase and Its Bioprocessing Significance
5.2 Classification of l-Asparaginase
Based on the amino acid sequences, structural homology, functionality, and sources
from which they were isolated, they are divided into three families: bacterial type
l-asparaginase (types I and II), plant type l-asparaginase (type III), and rhizobial type
l-asparaginase. The bacterial type was obtained from Escherichia coli and extended for
proteins of similar morphology. Type I l-asparaginase (EcAI) is cytosolic with a relatively
low affinity for l-asparagine and encoded by ansA gene, whereas type II l-asparaginase
(EcAII) is expressed in the periplasmic space [16].
EcAII is a high-molecular-mass homotetramer with a fully structured active site after
dimer assembly [17]. Its enzymatic stability is related to the interactions at the interface
since the hydrophobic interactions of the dimers are mainly hydrophobic, exposing polar
residues on the external part of the enzyme, so it increases by hiding hydrophobic amino
acids from the solvent [18]. In E. coli, the active sites are between the subunits in the dimers,
where each one has two active sites formed between the residues of the N-domain in
contact with C-terminus, which have Thr-91 as nucleophile, besides Thr-12, which is not
required in the binding to the substrate, but it is necessary for catalysis [19, 20].
EcAI is a homodimer, with conserved amino acid motifs similar to EcAII, but with a
different quaternary structure [21]. EcAIII is expressed as an inactive precursor composed
of two heterodimers, which is autocatalytically activated by hydrolyzing a peptide bond,
and two folded subunits are formed as a structural domain [22]. The distance between the
catalytic threonine and arginine determines the substrate size, while the salt-bridge-like
interaction of the chloride anion with Arg221 modulates the enzymatic specificity for
substrates with α-carboxylate group [23].
In Bacillus, ansA and ansB genes are in the ans operon, which is expressed during vegeta-
tive growth in complex media, induced by aspartate and suppressed by nitrogen sources
such as NH4+, while ansR interacts directly with aspartate and modulates the ability to
affect the ans operon with possible repression [24]. In E. coli, ansB encodes EcAII and is
regulated by the cAMP receptor protein, which is responsible for controlling the initiation
of gene transcription in several catabolic pathways, and FNR, which activates genes during
anaerobiosis [25]. While in Bacillus subtilis, ansZ encodes a functional l-asparaginase simi-
lar to E. coli asparaginase II, which is activated by TnrA during nitrogen-limited growth [26].
Saccharomyces cerevisiae synthesizes asparaginases I and II, where the latter is secreted
according to the control of nitrogen catabolite repression and is capable of hydrolyzing
exogenous asparagine [27].
5.3 Bioprocessing
5.3.1 Sources of microbial l-Asparaginase

Fungal l-asparaginases possess great relevance due to their cellular excretion and a wide
diversity of members, such as ascomycetes, basidiomycetes, glomeromycetes, chytrids,
microsporidia, and blastocladiomycetes [28]. Endophytes belonging to Lasiodiplodia,
Colletotrichum, Fusarium, Phoma, and Penicillium have been described for their high levels
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5.3 Bioprocessin 83
of l-asparaginase production [29, 30]. Likewise, due to their eukaryotic nature, they are
more required as they would lead to less adverse effects in their neoplastic application [31].
l-Asparaginase secreted from Saccharomyces is produced at the periplasmic level and
expressed by nitrogen limitation [32]. Yarrowia lipolytica DSM3286 produces type II
asparaginase with high affinity for asparagine and low specific activity to glutamine, and
potential application for hematopoietic cancers [33].
Also, bacterial l-asparaginase has been one of the most studied due to its high
production levels, such as those from E. coli, Erwinia chrysanthemi, Erwinia carotovora,
Streptomyces acrimycini, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and B. subtilis. Their high demand
is related to their rapid production and efficiency, which lessens their manufacturing
costs [34]. l-Asparaginases from gram-negative bacterial species have been further
studied and categorized into types I and II, the former possessing both l-glutaminase and
l-asparaginase activities, while the latter has highly specified by l-asparagine [35].
Structural and functional properties differ according to the species and the native
ecosystems. From terrestrial environments, E. coli, Aeromonas, Proteus, Serratia,
Pseudomonas, and Bacillus have been described [36]. Also, bacteria with high asparaginase
and low glutaminase activity have been described from tropical plants, such as Pseudomonas
stutzeri SMKLI and Rhizobium radiobacter SMKW2 [37], and likewise from coastal and
mangrove ecosystems [38].
Microorganisms isolated from saline environments possess wide metabolic adaptability, syn-
thesizing proteins with unique characteristics due to structural flexibility that could enhance
enzymatic activity [39]. l-Asparaginase-producing microorganisms have been obtained from
mangroves. However, those from forest environments have recorded higher production at the
extracellular level, such as Salinicococcus sp. M KJ997975 [40]. Likewise, saline lakes, wetlands,
salt springs, and deserts in Iran are sources of intracellular l-asparaginase-producing microor-
ganisms with salt tolerance up to NaCl 3.5 M [41]. Also, Bacillus, Enterobacter, Halomonas,
Marinobacter, and Staphylococcus isolated from Peruvian salterns were resistant to extreme
conditions of pH, temperature, and salt concentration. However, Bacillus strains stood out for
their higher production of l-asparaginase in liquid media [42].
Thermophilic bacteria present enzymes with high stability due to increased hydrogen
bonding and decreased surface charge around the active center [43]. Thus, l-asparaginase
producing Caulobacter flavus HS1XWS3 and HS1YWS2 with low glutaminase activity were
isolated from thermal waters [44]. Thermococcus gammatolerans EJ3, an archae isolated
from California submarine hydrothermal vents, produced stable l-asparaginase at high
temperatures [45]. Consequently, the source of the l-asparaginase-producing microorgan-
ism offers different applications according to its metabolic characteristics and adaptability.
In particular, extremophilic microorganisms present unique functional, physicochemical,
and kinetic characteristics of better adaptability than mesophiles.
5.3.2 Upstream Bioprocessing

The increased production of l-asparaginase has been studied in microorganisms due to
their growth rate and metabolic adaptability. Likewise, culture conditions modulate gene
expression and can enhance its production. Table 5.1 summarizes the optimal culture con-
ditions for the production of l-asparaginase in different microorganisms. In relation to the
c05.indd 83 05/26/2023 19:15:41

Table 5.1 Optimized conditions for l-asparaginase production by different microorganisms.
Strain Culture media (g/L) Conditions Activity Reference
Acinetobacter 1.32 Glucose, 11.50 24 h, pH 7, 37 °C, 45.59 U/mL [46]

baumannii ZAS1 l-asparagine, 5.30 peptone, 150 RPM
7.54 Na2HPO4
Aspergillus 2 Glucose, 10 l-asparagine, 5 days, pH 5, 146 U/mL [47]
sydowii 1 KH2PO4, 0.25 KCl, 40 °C, 100 RPM
0.52 MgSO4·7 H2O
Aspergillus 5 Glucose, 4.5 5 days, pH 6, 8.26 U/mg [48]
terreus l-asparagine,1.5 KH2PO4, 35 °C
0.5 K2HPO4, 0.75 MgSO4·7
H2O, 37.5 NaCl
Bacillus 1.5 Lactose, 20 l-asparagine, 18 h, pH 7, 37 °C, 7.14 U/mL [49]
altitudinis 1.2 NaCl, 5 yeast extract 120 RPM
BITHSP010
Bacillus 200 Glucose, l-asparagine 24.4, 72 h, pH 6.77, 37.93 U/mL [50]
australimaris Na2HPO4·2H2O 6, KH2PO4 3, 33.5 °C
NJB19 NaCl 0.5, 1 M MgSO4·7 H2O,
0.1 M CaCl2·2H2O
Bacillus 2 l-asparagine, 0.2 MgSO4, 48 h, pH 7.5, 17.09 U/mL [51]
licheniformis 0.8 NaCl 37 °C, 120 RPM
PPD37
Bacillus sp. 3 Glucose/maltose, 6 24 h, pH 7, 37 °C, 12.73 U/mg [52]
Asp11 l-asparagine, 1 MgSO4·7 H2O, 200 RPM
2 KH2PO4, 1 CaCl2·2 H2O
Bacillus subtilis 5 Glucose, 80 beef extract 6 days, pH 8.3, 2.88 U/mL [53]
VUVD001 49.9 °C, 200 RPM
Cladosporium 2 Glucose, 10 l-asparagine, 72 h, pH 6.2, 2.65 U/mL [54]
tenuissimum 1.52 KH2PO4, 0.52 MgSO4· 37 °C, 150 RPM
7 H2O, 0.52 KCl, 0.03 FeSO4,
0.03 CuNO3·3 H2O, 0.05
ZnSO4·7 H2O
Fusarium equiseti 10 glucose, 2 l-asparagine, 1 7 days, pH 7, 40.78 U/mL [55]
AHMF4 alanine, 1 KH2PO4 30 °C
Lysinibacillus 20 l-asparagine, 0.075 yeast 24 h, pH 6, 35 °C, 8.51 U/mL [56]
fusiformis B27 extract, 0.375 Na3C6H5O7, 0.1 120 RPM
(NH4)2HPO4, 0.00625 K2HPO4,
0.01 MgSO4·7 H2O, 0.001
FeSO4·7 H2O
Pectobacterium 10 Lactose, 10 NH₄NO₃, 48 h, pH 7, 35 °C, 4.84 U/mL [57]
carotovorum FS-4 1.52 KH2PO4, 0.52 KCl, 120 RPM
0.52 MgSO4·7 H2O
Pseudomonas 1.5 Glucose,1 l-asparagine, 24 h, pH 7, 37 °C, 39.9 U/mg [58]
fluorescens 1.2 K2HPO4, 7 yeast extract, 180 RPM
MTCC103 5 tryptone
Pseudomonas 0.2% [v/v] glycerol, 45 24 h, pH 7, 37 °C, 37.63 U/mL [59]
resinovorans l-asparagine, 9 Na2HPO4, 250 RPM
IGS-131 1.5 KH2PO4, 0.25 NaCl
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5.3 Bioprocessin 85
Strain Culture media (g/L) Conditions Activity Reference
Sarocladium 10 Starch, 10 glucose, 5.05 5 days, pH 8.4, 1.73 U/mL [60]

strictum glycerol, 2.5 yeast extract, 10 28 °C, 150 RPM
l-asparagine
Serratia 10 Sucrose, 10 l-asparagine, 48 h, pH 7.5, 5.22 U/mL [57]
marcescens GS-7 1.52 KH2PO4, 0.52 KCL, 30 °C, 120 RPM
0.52 MgSO4·7 H2O
Streptomyces 15 Soybean meal + wheat bran 7 days, pH 7, 129.92 U/g [61]
brollosae (1 : 1), 2 glucose, 2 fructose,10 30 °C 150 RPM substrate
NEAE-115 l-asparagine, 2 yeast extract,
1 KNO3, 2 K2HPO4,
0.1 MgSO4·7 H2O, 0.1 NaCl,
0.02 FeSO4·7 H2O, 0.01 CaCl2
Streptomyces 4 Glucose, 15 l-asparagine, 7 days, pH 8.5, 53.57 U/mL [62]
fradiae NEAE-82 2 KNO3, 0.5 MgSO4·7 H2O, 37 °C, 100 RPM
1 K2HPO4, 0.02 FeSO4·7 H2O,
0.2 NaCl, 0.01 ZnSO4
Streptomyces 14.8 Starch, 15.3 l-asparagine, 6 days, pH 8, 56.78 U/mL [63]
griseus 20.4 yeast extract 35 °C
NIOT-VKMA29
Streptomyces 15 Starch, 10 yeast extract, 10 6 days, pH 8, 10.17 U/mL [64]
labedae VSM-6 l-asparaginase 30 °C
Streptomyces 2.5 Lactose, 0.15 l-asparagine, 7 days, pH 7.36, 88.54 U/mL [65]
lacticiproducens 0.15 malt extract 32 °C,130 RPM
112
Streptomyces 4 Glucose, 10 starch, 0.1 NaCl, 5 days, pH 5, 70.08 U/mL [66]
olivaceus 10 l-asparagine, 1 KNO3, 35 °C, 150 RPM
NEAE-119 1 yeast extract, 1 K2HPO4,
0.1 MgSO4·7 H20
Streptomyces 2.6 Glucose, 7 l-asparagine, 7 days, pH 6.7, 145.40 U/g [67]
rochei NEAE-K 3 yeast extract, 15 wheat 37 °C, 150 RPM substrate
bran-soybean meal (1 : 1),
4 fructose, 0.01 CaCl2, 0.02
FeSO4·7 H2O, 1 KNO3,
2 K2HPO4, 0.5 MgSO4·7 H2O,
0.1 NaCl
carbon source, Moguel et al. [68] compared the effect of glycerol and sucrose on enzyme
production in Leucosporidium scottii and obtained better performance with the former,
which would be related to growth stress. However, glucose is metabolized first, and in yeast
it represses the transcription of genes necessary for the consumption of other carbon
sources [69].
In endophytic fungi, glucose concentration regulates l-asparaginase production; thus,
Fusarium species obtain high activity with 5% and higher values would exert a repressor
effect [70, 71]. In contrast, in Streptomyces rochei subsp. chromatogenes NEAE-K
l-asparaginase production was optimized using 25% glucose, and in Streptomyces olivaceus
c05.indd 85 05/26/2023 19:15:41

NEAE-119, 30% glucose was shown to exert a positive effect [66, 67]. In Streptomyces tendae
TK-VL_333, lactose exerted minimal effect on l-asparaginase production, followed by
starch, whereas the best levels (5.27 U/mL) were obtained with sucrose [72]. The comparison
of substrates and levels is variable, since Gurunathan and Sahadevan [73] obtained higher
l-asparaginase activity with glucose compared with sucrose, fructose, lactose, and maltose
in Aspergillus terreus, where it was also evidenced that values higher than 0.4% inhibit
production due to growth inhibition and catabolic repression.
Hamed et al. [54] evaluated in Cladosporium tenuissimum that the 2 : 10 carbon to
nitrogen ratio improved activity using glucose and urea as the best substrates. However,
Zymomonas mobilis ATCC 35001 evidenced that its best production is obtained with the
1 : 0.025 ratio for sucrose and yeast extract, in addition to being supplemented with
l-asparagine 0.9 g/L [74]. Likewise, Fusarium proliferatum required two and a half times
more carbon than nitrogen to reach maximum l-asparaginase production [75].
Bacillus velezensis KB-9 and Bacillus licheniformis KKU-KH14 also demonstrate that
glucose is the source that significantly enhances l-asparaginase production, in addition to
increasing their cell growth [76, 77]. Citrobacter sp. AS-2 obtained better activity using
glucose than sucrose. Furthermore, it was evidenced that the best production is obtained in
the stationary phase of growth [78]. However, high carbon concentrations generate a
repressor effect due to the intracellular decrease of cAMP and of the components involved
in lactate transport associated with l-asparaginase synthesis [79].
Alternative carbon sources have been used to decrease the production cost, such as
tapioca starch in Bacillus sp. GH5, with which better activity was obtained compared to
glucose and sucrose [80]. Also, coconut oil paste 6 g/L by solid fermentation induced high
production in Serratia marcescens NCIM 2919 [81]. Furthermore, El-Naggar et al. [61] used
in equal proportions soybean meal and wheat bran as higher impact sources than glucose
and fructose in the production of l-asparaginase 47.67 U/g in Streptomyces brollosae
NEAE-115.
The use of nitrogen promotes enzyme production since nitrogen availability regulates
the transcription of structural genes [31]. However, organic nitrogen exerts a suppressive
effect on l-asparaginase production, and the inorganic one stimulates production, such as
magnesium nitrate, which was used to obtain l-asparaginase 1.09 U/mL in Rhizopus oryzae
AM16 [82]. Likewise, Aspergillus carneus and Penicillium camemberti produced maximum
levels of l-asparaginase using ammonium chloride, whereas C. tenuissimum required
urea [54]. Similarly, l-asparagine acts as an inducer in l-asparaginase production, with
better production than yeast extract, peptone, glutamine, and arginine in P. aeruginosa
WCHPA075019 [83]. High concentrations of l-asparagine are usually applied, so
Pseudomonas resinovorans IGS-131 needed 45 g/L to get its maximum activity; higher
concentrations produce excess ammonium that can affect the enzyme [59]. Moreover,
B. licheniformis RAM-8 required 40 g/L to produce 31.31 U/mL of l-asparaginase, while
Bacillus altitudinis BITHSP010 decreased its activity with amounts over 20 g/L [49, 84].
Furthermore, the production medium of l-asparaginase requires ionic source, where
0.025 g/L MgSO4, 0.025 g/L NaCl, and 7.54 g/L Na2HPO4 have been shown to increase
activity in Acinetobacter baumannii ZAS1 as previously reported for optimized production
in E. coli using 0.75 g/L KH2PO4 and 0.5 g/L NaCl [46, 85]. Also, K2HPO4 showed an
indirectly proportional relationship with glucose and NaCl on the l-asparaginase activity
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5.3 Bioprocessin 87
of P. aeruginosa SN004 [86]. However, El-Naggar et al. [61] indicated that MgSO4 and NaCl
negatively affect production in S. brollosae NEAE-115, and FeSO4·7 H2O and CaCl2 would
exert a positive effect on l-asparaginase activity. While MgSO4·7 H2O, K2HPO4, FeSO4.
7 H2O, and CaCl2 could have a positive effect on S. rochei subsp. chromatogenes NEAE-K [67].
The fermentation time has been optimized according to the metabolic characteristics of
each microorganism; hence, Streptomyces ginsengisoli starts producing l-asparaginase after
24–32 hours and reaches its maximum level at 120 hours [87]. Likewise, l-asparaginase
production has been observed at the end of the exponential phase; for example, S. brollosae
NEAE-115 reached maximum production levels at 104 hours, before the stationary
phase [88]. Production at the end of the exponential and early stationary phase in coliform
fungi and bacteria is regulated by carbon and nitrogen sources [78, 89]. In contrast, recom-
binant l-asparaginase II production in E. coli BL21 (De3) takes place in the middle of the
exponential phase, where the induction phase after 16–24 hours with either IPTG or lactose
plays an important role [90]. Pichia pastoris induced recombinant l-asparaginase produc-
tion using 1.0% (v/v) methanol, where no direct correlation was observed between biomass
produced and specific activity when the carbon source was depleted at 8 hours [91]. IPTG
concentration between 0.45 and 1 mM showed no significant difference in activity; in
opposition, 10 g/L lactose increased both biomass and enzyme activity [90].
Stirring significantly influences l-asparaginase production since its application
improves it by 24.6% compared to static fermentation in B. subtilis MK072695 [92].
Likewise, in relation to the fermentation time, recombinant B. licheniformis required
190 RPM in 18 hours to maximize its production, while the E. coli type I needed
220 RPM [39, 93]. In S. brollosae NEAE-115, its best production was obtained at 150 RPM
despite not being a significant factor [88].
The culture media depends on the physiological requirements of each species, as well as
the capacity to induce or repress the production of l-asparaginase. Culture conditions are
variable and require a previous study to maximize biomass and consequently activity. In
this aspect, the search for profitability is permanent, so the use of alternative media could
increase production. However, genetic engineering techniques can reduce nutritional
requirements and improve the specific production of l-asparaginase, which has increased
the development of recombinant strains.
5.3.3 Downstream Bioprocessing

The steps of this process are the most expensive, which has led to the development of
numerous techniques that improve purification and do not require high costs. Clarification
by centrifugation is the most widely used recovery process due to high perfusion capacity,
separation efficiency, and cell removal, then successive methods that contribute to purifi-
cation are applied [94].
5.3.3.1 Protein Concentration

One of the most widely applied methods is precipitation by increasing salt concentration
(salting out). Ammonium sulfate is the most widely used salt due to its effectiveness, which
also depends on protein’s nature [95]. The application of 70% NH4SO4 in P. aeruginosa
PAO1 increased 13% specific activity, and when it increased to 90% in Pseudomonas otitidis
c05.indd 87 05/26/2023 19:15:41

KF607097, it increased 515% [96, 97]. Likewise, its use between 40 and 95% increased 532%
specific activity in Talaromyces pinophilus KJ372306 [98]. However, the application of high
salt concentrations requires their subsequent removal by dialysis and passage through a
desalting column. Other technologies, such as precipitation using cationic poly-l-lysine in
low ionic strength media, have been developed and demonstrated heat tolerance, agitation,
and stability of the secondary structure of l-asparaginase [99].
Organic solvents have also been used for protein concentration, such as 20–80% acetone,
which improved the specific activity of l-asparaginase from B. licheniformis RAM-8 by
39%, and 50% ethanol increased the specific activity by 373% in Trichoderma viride F2 [100,
101]. Precipitated proteins are dried and reconstituted or subjected to dialysis in order to
remove high percentages of organic solvents that limit subsequent purification by
chromatography [101]. l-Asparaginase precipitation improves the specific activity;
however, the effects it generates at the structural and functional level must be considered,
in addition to the costs in subsequent treatments that contribute to its purification, so the
search for innovative techniques that improve its performance and reduce the stressful
effects on biomolecules is still ongoing.
5.3.3.2 l-Asparaginase Release

Intracellular l-asparaginase can be extracted using high-pressure homogenization, which
is applied to intermediate and large volumes, and sonication, where the total power applied
to the samples must be considered [103, 104]. Both lead to cell debris, which is critical in
the optimization of the scale-up process [105]. Likewise, agitation in Triton X100 solution
with potassium or sodium salts promotes release in E. coli ATCC 11303, where divalent
and trivalent anions reported higher release compared to univalents [106]. Similarly, the
use of polymers in potassium phosphate buffer accompanied by high-pressure homog-
enization showed better specific activity in E. coli compared to the two-step extraction
process [103].
Also, ultrasonication in a lysis buffer with lysozyme has been combined for the release of
thermostable l-asparaginase expressed in B. subtilis 168 [107]. Likewise, 10 mM lysozyme
and 10% sodium dodecyl sulfate, and sonication have been combined in Salmonella
typhimurium [108]. Proteins that are expressed as inclusion bodies are solubilized by high
concentrations of chaotropic solvents and detergents together with reducing agents such as
β mercaptoethanol, dithiothreitol, or cysteine [109].
The purification buffer minimizes the loss of activity, so the pH in accordance with the
isoelectric point, stability of the buffer system, and protease inhibiting agents, among oth-
ers, must be considered. The release method is related to the site of expression of
l-asparaginase; however, the use of ultrasound is still the most used method in combina-
tion with detergents and enzymes.
5.3.3.3 Chromatography
There are different chromatographic techniques, such as ion exchange, hydrophobic
interaction, affinity, gel filtration, among others, that have demonstrated selectivity and
capacity of the chromatographic medium. Thus, the nature, ionic strength, and specificity
of the interactions between the covalent bonds in the solid phase and the charged molecule
of interest are considered in the separation [110]. The key factors in purification are
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5.4 Scaled Up to Bioreacto 89
isoelectric point, stability at different pH values, hydrophobic composition, signal peptide,

affinity-Tags, and salt concentration [111].
Anion exchange chromatography is one of the most widely applied due to its high resolving
power; thus, the sample is eluted in a linear salt gradient, collected and subsequently dia-
lyzed, the purification of intracellular l-asparaginase from Chaetomium sp. MT484261 shows
47% specific activity [104]. Likewise, l-asparaginase from P. otitidis improved 76-fold specific
activity, after elution with a KCl gradient and Tris-HCl buffer pH 8.6 [97].
However, due to low yields and aggregate formation, a periodic countercurrent
chromatographic system has been designed for continuous folding of proteins produced in
inclusion bodies in E. coli, thereby improving resin usage, recovery, and efficiency compared
to the batch system [112].
Gel filtration removes contaminants and separates molecules according to size, which is
required after ion exchange chromatography. Thus, in the purification of l-asparaginase from
P. otitidis KF607097, Sephadex G-100 was used, which improved the specific activity by 100%,
while in B. licheniformis RAM-8, it was over 66% [97, 100]. Sephadex G-200 contributed in
improving the purification by 4.55-fold of l-asparaginase from B. altitudinis BITHSP010 [113].
Likewise, other methods have been used, such as separation by native gel electrophoresis,
after precipitation with ammonium sulfate and dialysis, where the specific activity of
l-asparaginase from E. coli was improved by 75% [114]. Otherwise, unique processes have
been used to facilitate purification, such as adsorptive electrophoresis on Sepharose CL-6B,
where extracellular recombinant l-asparaginase from E. chrysanthemi expressed in E. coli
was immobilized, evidencing high specificity and affinity [115]. However, the design of
recombinant proteins with Histidine tails facilitates their purification by using Nickel affinity
columns, which can be complemented with anion exchange chromatography [116].
Chromatographic processes have been designed to help save reagents and time; however,
the recovery percentage, sample purity, and specific activity keep anion exchange chroma-
tography as one of the most applied techniques. It can be integrated with gel filtration or
affinity techniques, depending on the protein structure and the design techniques of the
recombinant proteins.
5.4 Scaled Up to Bioreactor
The scaling up of microbial processes is oriented toward profitable production for industrial
applications, which requires implementation and control of the metabolic processes. Thus,
among the most commonly used methods is batch fermentation, as applied in B. licheniformis
RAM-8, which by culture at 0.75 vvm and 200 RPM produced 29.94 U/mL of l-asparaginase
at 15 hours [84]. However, its limitation in scale-up has led to exponential fed culture, where
glucose is added when the highest point of dissolved oxygen is reached, besides injection of
compressed air and pure oxygen at 2 vvm whereby high cell density is obtained with a maxi-
mum growth rate of 0.3 h−1. The feeding volume is performed considering the specific
growth rate (maximum 0.1–0.3 h−1), so that acetate formation, which inhibits growth and
recombinant protein production, is kept low [90]. Thus, their continued feeding after reach-
ing the end of the exponential phase is related to maintaining a constant growth rate
(0.1 h−1), which allows a substrate supply between maintenance and threshold [117].
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Likewise, the initial agitation at 600 RPM for the first 12 hours induces biomass
production in less time, since higher values generate stress due to shear forces. Subsequently,
due to the decrease in saturation and limitation in cell growth, it is necessary to increase it
to 900 RPM, which improves growth and therefore l-asparaginase activity [118]. However,
in P. resinovorans IGS-131, the maximum enzyme activity of 38.88 U/mL was obtained at
0.75 vvm under batch culture and 400 RPM, and in Enterobacter aerogenes, the maximum
level of 1.2 U/mL was at 700 RPM and 1 vvm, so the amount of dissolved oxygen would be
responsible for the differences in enzyme activity [59, 119].
In the production of recombinant l-asparaginase from L. scottii, soluble oxygen was con-
trolled by agitation at 200–720 RPM and a flow rate of 0.22 L/min to prevent decay of air
saturation by more than 30%; also l-asparaginase production (800 U/g) was stimulated by
increasing the cell density [68]. Moreover, flask to bioreactor scale-up of recombinant
l-asparaginase from S. cerevisiae in P. pastoris MUT showed a decrease in the maximum
specific growth rate, while its production at constant pH was determinant to increase the
expression of periplasmic l-asparaginase at 500 RPM and 1 vvm [91].
Scale-up requires the control of supplemented oxygen, which limits growth and thus the
synthesis of l-asparagine, which occurs between the period of oxygen deprivation.
Likewise, the feeding rate of a culture is related to the control of the specific growth rate,
and in the case of recombinants, it is necessary to maintain low acetate production. Scale-up
has been performed at the laboratory level with native and recombinant strains; however,
larger scale production remains a challenge both economically and in bioprocesses.
5.5 Characterization of l-Asparaginase
Physicochemical conditions determine l-asparaginase activity, where some microorganisms

produce enzymes with acidic, neutral, or alkaline tendencies. Thus, l-asparaginases I and
II of P. aeruginosa PAO1 are alkalophilic and present better activity at pH 9.5 [96].
However, some species possess good activity under acidic conditions, as in P. aeruginosa
SN004, which was active between 4.5 and 7.0, with optimal activity at pH 5, and retained
more than 80% activity at pH 7–8 after 24 hours [86]. Its medical applicability requires
enzymes with high activity at conditions close to physiological pH. Accordingly,
Staphylococcus sp. MGM1 produced l-asparaginase of maximal activity at pH 8, which
also retained more than 50% activity from pH 6.5 to 8.5 [14]. Also, T. pinophilus KJ372306
showed high activity at pH 8, with stability between pH 7 and 9 for 8 hours. Meanwhile,
Bacillus megaterium MG1 retained more than 40% activity between pH 6 and 9, with
maximum activity at pH 8.5, and Bacillus strains had optimal activity between pH 6 and 7
[98, 120, 121].
Most microorganisms produce l-asparaginase with optimal levels between 37 and 40 °C,
such as B. megaterium MG1, which obtained it at 37 °C, and higher values led to rapid loss of
activity [121]. l-Asparaginase from P. otitidis KF607097 exhibited maximum activity at 40 °C
and significant loss after 30 minutes at 45 °C [97]. Also, T. pinophilus KJ372306 evidenced
maximum activity at 28 °C, with high stability between 25 and 37 °C for 8 hours [98]. However,
some microorganisms exhibit high tolerance to elevated temperatures, such as T. gammatol-
erans EJ3 whose l-asparaginase showed maximum activity at 85 °C and retention of over 75%
c05.indd 90 05/26/2023 19:15:41

5.5 Characterization of l-Asparaginase 91
between 70 and 95 °C, while Stenotrophomonas maltophilia EMCC2297 retained 55% of its
activity after 30 minutes at 70 °C and no significant changes at 50 °C [45, 122].
The high affinity for l-asparagine determines the effectiveness in clinical treatment and the
decrease of acrylamide concentrations in food products, which is usually measured as Km,
where lower values indicate higher affinity. In this regard, Bacillus have demonstrated high
affinity for l-asparagine; thus, B. megaterium MG1 presented Km and apparent Vmax for l-
asparagine of 0.2 mM and 1.198 mM/s; and Bacillus PG04 exhibited 3.3 mM and 0.024 μmol/
min [120, 121]. Moreover, the maximum rate indicates the conversion of substrate to the prod-
uct in a unit time under substrate saturating conditions. Thus, Streptomyces fradiae NEAE-82
obtained 95.08 U·mL/min, where high conversion per unit time was evidenced [123]. However,
these parameters are affected according to the degree of purity and source of the enzyme, type
of substrate, physicochemical conditions, and laboratory procedures. Kinetic parameters of
l-asparaginase produced by different microorganisms are shown in Table 5.2.
The presence of ions or detergents in some cases has no effect on the enzymatic activity.
In others, they increase or inhibit it. Among the ions that enhance l-asparaginase activity
are K+, Fe3+, and Na+, which increased it by 254, 236, and 136%, respectively [14], while
Mg2+, Mn2+, and Na+ increased the activity by 116, 112, and 113% in P. aeruginosa
SN004 [86]. However, Ca2+, Cu2+, Co2+, Hg2+, and Zn2+ are potent inhibitors of
l-asparaginase from Staphylococcus sp. MGM1, and Hg2+ is an inhibitor in P. aeruginosa
SN004 [14, 86]. Likewise, l-asparaginase activity produced by Streptomyces bollosae
NEAE-115 was reduced 37.55% in the presence of EDTA, while in P. aeruginosa SN004,
Triton X-100 enhanced it by 14% [86, 126].
Table 5.2 Kinetic conditions of l-asparaginase production by microorganisms.
Strain Size (kDa) Vmax Km (mM) Reference
Aspergillus oryzae CCT 3940 115 313 U/mL 0.66 [124]

Aspergillus terreus 85 500 U/mL 31.50 [125]
Bacillus altitudinis BITHSP010 35 0.09 M/S 0.91 [49]
Bacillus licheniformis KKU-KH14 37 45.45 μmol/mL/min 49.99 [77]
Bacillus megaterium MG1 47 1.19 mM/s 0.20 [121]
Bacillus PG04 30 0.02 μmol/min 3.30 [120]
Bacillus velezensis KB-9 39.7 41.49 μmol/mL/min 0.04 [77]
Chaetomium sp. MT484261 66 38.74 μmol/min 257.10 [104]
Lasiodiplodia theobromae 70 127.00 μM/mL/min 9.37*10−3 [30]
SCUF-TP2016
Pseudomonas aeruginosa SN004 34 5.83 μmol/min 1.17 [86]
Pseudomonas fluorescens MTCC103 160 28.57 μM/mL/min 4.51*10−3 [58]
Sarocladium strictum - 8.19 μmol/min 9.74 [60]
Streptomyces brollosae NEAE-115 67 152.60 U/mL/min 2.14 [126]
Streptomyces lacticiproducens 112 37 57.23 U/mL 19.70 [65]
Trichoderma viride F2 57 71.3 U/mL 1.20 [101]
c05.indd 91 05/26/2023 19:15:41

Immobilization techniques have shown to improve affinity for l-asparagine by decreasing

Km and increasing thermal and storage stability [127, 128]. Likewise, the change in amino
acid residues in E. carotovora and Rhodospirillum rubrum modulates the structural and
functional properties, which alter their kinetic parameters, thermal and exposure stability
to successive cycles of thawing [129, 130].
5.6 Applications of l-Asparaginase
5.6.1 Pharmaceutical Industry

l-Asparaginase has great importance in the pharmaceutical industry due to its application
in the treatment of acute lymphoblastic leukemia, Hodgkin’s lymphomas, and other
cancers, so the World Health Organization [131] has considered it a safe medicine. Its
chemotherapeutic capacity lies in decreasing serum levels of l-asparagine, an amino acid
required by cancer cells to facilitate their rapid growth. These cells are dependent on serum
l-asparagine concentration and exhibit minimal levels of l-asparagine synthetase, unlike
normal cells [132]. Among commercial sources, E. coli stands out due to its ease of
processing and efficacy as the first line of treatment. However, the incidence of adverse
effects leads to the search for new sources and to the generation of recombinant proteins of
better acceptability. Another source is E. carotovora, which unlike E. coli develops fewer
cytotoxic effects with greater efficiency [133, 134].
Moreover, the main limitations are stability and the generation of hypersensitivity
reactions that cause enzymatic inactivation, which has prompted the development of
technologies that facilitate acceptability and effectiveness [134]. Thus, PEG-l-asparaginase
has been shown to decrease allergic reactions in more than 50% of patients with acute
lymphoblastic leukemia and increase serum half-life without alteration in its biological
activity [135, 136]. Also, mutagenesis involves reducing l-glutaminase activity by altering
amino acids around the active site that noninteract with the substrate [137]. Deficiency in
resistance to proteases such as asparagine endopeptidase led to the change of residues
susceptible to cleavage, which in turn compromises the stabilization of the active site and
thus decreased its activity [138].
Likewise, the use of bioinformatics techniques has allowed the identification of residues
involved in antigenicity, toxicity, and stability in association with mutagenesis can modu-
late the therapeutic response. Also, formulation techniques such as immobilization or
nanoencapsulation improve their stability, permeation, and accumulation in the therapeu-
tic area [137]. Therefore, the application of these techniques and the progress of new ones
contribute to the production and formulation of l-asparaginase with desirable pharmaceu-
tical characteristics that improve its pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics.
5.6.2 Food Industry

The processing of foods rich in reducing sugars and asparagine at high temperatures
(>120 °C) generates the Maillard reaction and, therefore, the formation of acrylamide,
which has been classified as a probable human carcinogen by the International Agency
for Research on Cancer (IARC) [139]. Foods with the highest levels of acrylamide are
thermo-processed products such as breads, cereals, potato chips, among others. Its
c05.indd 92 05/26/2023 19:15:41

Reference 93
exposure causes neurotoxicity, genotoxicity, decreased immunity, and tumor development,

being able to cross the placental barrier [140].
Acrylamide levels have been reduced in French fries after immersion of the potatoes in
the enzyme and subsequent bleaching in water, thus decreasing more than 80% of acryla-
mide with minimal loss in its amino acid composition [141]. Likewise, its application in
bakery products has reduced up to 90% acrylamide without significant changes in appear-
ance and 37% increase of glutamine in the dough [142]. Incubation of cereal dough for
48 hours prior to baking reduced up to 97% acrylamide, with no change in sensory qual-
ity [143]. However, prolonged pretreatment requires enzymes with thermal tolerance, such
as Thermococcus zilligii AN1 TziAN1_1 and Thermococcus kodakarensis KOD1 (TkAsn)
with activity at 90 °C and high stability [144].
Commercial enzymes such as Acrylaway from Novozymes A/S and PreventASe from
DSM produced from Aspergillus by recombinant DNA technology are available on the mar-
ket and have demonstrated high specificity without amino acid alteration [2]. Pretreatment
with l-asparaginase significantly decreases l-asparagine and thus acrylamide formation
subjected to the same traditional heating conditions. Likewise, in its industrial scale-up, it
was observed 43–53% removal of acrylamide in 8 tons of potatoes/hour proportional to the
contact surface area [145]. Therefore, the difficulty in enzyme accessibility is a challenge
for its complete removal of acrylamide in various food products. Also, thermostable
enzymes are required for prolonged incubation periods or enzymes that demonstrate
higher catalytic efficiency in a shorter time [146].
5.7 Conclusions
l-Asparaginase is very important both at clinical and food level; however, its production
requires a meticulous control of all production and purification processes. Likewise, the
selection of the strain directly influences its biochemical properties and, therefore, the
search for strains with tolerance to harsh conditions and high specificity is permanent. In
addition, greater knowledge of their metabolic fluxes and genetic control has facilitated the
generation of recombinants with better biochemical characteristics. Scale-up has demon-
strated the importance of controlling parameters that determine the production of
l-asparaginase and its adaptability to laboratory scale. However, few investigations have
studied its production at the industrial level and obtained high levels of catalytic activity
under cost-effective conditions. Finally, the formulation of the final product can be
improved through the use of technologies such as immobilization to improve its stability
and recyclability, or the design of micro-or nano-encapsulations that increase the reaction
rate. l-Asparaginase is in high demand, so the study of its bioprocessing is crucial to
improve its profitability and quality.
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103
Bioreactor-Scale Strategy for Pectinase Production

Javier Ulises Hernández-Beltrán, Carlos Alberto Acosta-Saldívar,
Genesis Escobedo-Morales, Nagamani Balagurusamy,
and Miriam Paulina Luévanos-Escareño
Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autonoma de Coahuila, Torreón, Coahuila, Mexico
6.1 Introduction
Currently, pectinases are enzymes of great importance since they have received much
attention worldwide as a biological biocatalyst since they have many applications in indus-
try, mainly in food, juice, and paper processing, among others [1–3]. It should be noted that
most are produced by microorganisms, particularly fungal sources. In the industry, pecti-
nase preparations represent 25% of global sales of enzymes for the food industry, establish-
ing its importance in this [4, 5]. Pectinases have been extensively studied in plants, mainly
in fruits. Although they are generally produced by plants, the extraction and purification of
the enzyme from them may require special conditions since the enzymes obtained from
plants are usually thermolabile. Therefore, pectinases of microbial origin are an alternative
in the production of enzymes, because during their production they are more stable and
their extraction is less complex [6, 7]. In addition, pectinases can be produced using differ-
ent fermentative systems like submerged fermentation (SmF) and solid-state fermentation
(SSF) [8]. Although the original source and composition of the substrate have a significant
impact on pectinase production, the optimization of the fermentative process conditions
and bioreactor configuration are critical factors to scaling up the process, an industry point
of view, which helps to understand the phenomenology of the reaction, increase the pro-
duction yield, and therefore to minimize production costs [9]. This book chapter focuses on
the production of pectinase enzymes considering the optimization of process conditions in
both fermentations, SmF and SSF, and as well the different bioreactor configurations and
their scales to perform the fermentation process taking into account the original sources
and substrates.

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104 6 Bioreactor-Scale Strategy for Pectinase Production
6.2 Pectinase Classification and Origin Sources
Pectins are high-molecular-weight structural polysaccharides present in considerable

amounts in the cell wall of vegetables and fungi together with cellulose and hemicellulose.
The pectinase enzymes are responsible for hydrolyzing this polysaccharide through differ-
ent mechanisms, depending on the type of enzyme involved and the specific substrate for
it. Pectin consists of a complex mixture composed of a linear chain of galacturonic acid
residues linked by an α-1,4-glycosidic bond. This main structure is methyl-esterified, to
some extent, with rhamnose, arabinose, and galactan residues [10–12].
The pectinolytic enzyme is the common name of a family of enzymes that participate in
the pectin degradation process [13–15]. Pectinases are a group composed of various related
enzymes that hydrolyze the pectic substances present in plants [6] and are also very impor-
tant for them since they facilitate cell elongation and growth, softening of some plant tis-
sues, maturation, and storage [1].
Due to their role in the degradation of the cell wall, pectinases are currently considered
enzymes of great industrial importance since they have improved and facilitated various
processes of interest. The pectinases have various applications in industrial processes: the
food industry is the one that has made the most use of these enzymes for the optimization
and improvement of functional foods for man, as well as for farm animals, among many
other processes such as the processing of fruits and vegetables to produce juices, obtaining
antioxidant compounds and production of oligomeric or polymeric carbohydrates. In the
paper industry, it is used for bleaching and reducing the number of chlorides present in the
pulp, as well as reducing pollution by treating waste, specifically wastewater. In the textile
industry, cleaning cotton fabrics thus improve the wettability of fabrics. Other industries
where preparations of these enzymes are used are wastewater treatment, oil extraction,
fermentation, and wine processing, among others [16–19]. In the same way, the important
role they play in the phytopathogenicity of some fungi has been verified, since by degrading
the pectins of the cell wall of the plants, the entry of this into the tissues and by infection is
facilitated.
6.2.1 Pectinases
Pectinase enzymes are a very varied and widespread group in their distribution, which is
why they have been classified according to their reaction mechanism and according to
their reaction to different pectic substances.
Pectinases can be classified into two categories: pectinesterase or methylesterases, which
remove methyl groups (EC 3.1.1.11), and depolymerases (EC 3.2.1.15), which shorten the
main structure of pectic substances. Depolymerases, in turn, separate into lyases (pectin
lyases EC 2.2.2.10) and hydrolases. The most studied enzymes are homogalacturonan
degrading enzymes [4, 20–23]. Table 6.1 shows the classification of pectinases.
Pectinase enzymes are a very varied and widespread group in their distribution, which is
why they have been classified according to their reaction mechanism and according to
their reaction to different pectic substances. Pectinases can be classified into two catego-
ries: pectinesterase or methylesterases, which remove methyl groups (EC 3.1.1.11), and
depolymerases (EC 3.2.1.15), which shorten the main structure of pectic substances [21];
c06.indd 104 05/26/2023 19:15:46

6.2 Pectinase Classification and Origin Source 105
Table 6.1 Pectinolytic enzymes classification.
EC
Enzyme number Substrate Mechanism of action References
Esterases
Pectin methyl esterase 3.1.1.11 Pectin Random (cleaves [2, 24]
(PE) methanol from
esterified carboxyl
groups to yield low
methoxyl pectin and
polygalacturonic acid)
Pectin acetylesterase 3.1.1.6 Pectin Random (hydrolyzes [2, 20]
acetyl esters in HG
region of pectin)
Depolymerases
Polymethylgalacturonase Pectin Hydrolyze [4]
(PMG)
Endo-PMG
Exo-PMG
Pectin lyase (PMGL) 4.2.2.10 Pectin Trans-elimination [4]
(Endo-PL)
Polygalacturonase (PG) 3.2.1.15 Polygalacturonic acid Hydrolyze [6, 10]
Endopolygalacturonase 3.2.1.67
(Endo-PG) 3.2.1.82
Exopolygalacturonase 1
(Exo-PG1)
Exopolygalacturonase
(Exo-PG 2)
Pectate lyase PGL 4.2.2.2 Pectin Trans-elimination [20]
Endo-PGL
Exo-PGL 4.2.29
Rhamnogalacturonase 3.2.1.171 Rhamnogalacturonan Hydrolyze [21, 25]
(RG)
Rhamnogalacturonan 4.2.2.23 Rhamnogalacturonan Trans-elimination [5]
endolyase (RGL)
(i) pectin esterase (EC 3.1.1.11); (ii) hydrolases including polygalacturonases (EC3.2.1.15);
(iii) lyases or transeliminases comprising pectate lyases (EC 4.2.2.2) and pectin lyases (EC
4.2.2.10) [4]. Table 6.1 shows the classification of pectinases.
Pectinesterases (PE, EC 3.1.1.11): Commonly referred to as pectase, pectolipase, pectin
methoxylase, pectin demethoxylase, and pectin methyl esterase, these enzymes catalyze
the de-esterification of the methyl ester bonds in the galactan chain of pectins to release
pectins acid and methanol. These enzymes are produced mainly in some plants such as
bananas, tomatoes, bananas, and citrus fruits, as well as some fungi and bacteria. The opti-
mal temperature and pH conditions are 20–60 °C and 4.0–7.0, respectively. The molecular
c06.indd 105 05/26/2023 19:15:46

weight of these enzymes ranges between 30 and 50 kDa. The isoelectric point is located
between 4.0 and 8.0 [10, 20, 26].
Depolymerizing enzymes: they break the α-1,4-glycosidic bonds of the main chain of
pectins, they can be subdivided into:
Polygalacturonases (EC 3.2.1.15): These are the enzymes that catalyze the cleavage of
the polygalacturonic acid chain with the introduction of water through the oxygen
bridge. The activity of these enzymes can be determined by measuring either the forma-
tion of reducing sugars or the decrease in viscosity. Polygalacturonases are of two types:
Endo-polygalacturonases (Endo-PG), which randomly catalyze the hydrolysis of α-1,4-
glycosidic bonds in pectic acid, and exo-polygalacturonases (Exo-PG), which catalyze
the sequential hydrolysis of glycosidic bonds in pectic acid, forming oligosaccharides.
Endo-polygalacturonase is extensively distributed among bacteria, fungi, and yeasts.
These can be found with different molecular weights and isoelectric points ranging from
3.8 to 7.6, with optimum pH and temperatures of 2.5–6.0 and 30–50 °C. Exo-PG is pro-
duced by bacteria, fungi such as Aspergillus, and some plants, vegetables, and fruits such
as carrots, peaches, citrus, and apples. The molecular weight of these enzymes ranges
from 30 to 50 kDa and their isoelectric point is between 4.0 and 6.0 [6, 20, 27].
Polymethylgalacturonases (PGML, EC 3.2.1.67): these enzymes catalyze the breaking
of the α-1,4-glycosidic bond of the main structure of pectins, preferably the region that
is highly esterified, forming as a product 6-methyl-d-galactorunate [20, 28].
Lyases: These enzymes are responsible for the non-hydrolytic cleavage of pectates or pec-
tinates by a transeliminative split mechanism of the pectic polymer. They are classified
as endo-pectate transeliminase (pectate lyase, PGL, EC 4.2.2.10) and as endo-pectin
transeliminase (pectin lyase, PL, EC 4.2.2.2). Pectate lyase preferentially cleaves the gly-
cosidic bonds of polygalacturonic acid forming unsaturated products. Molecular weights
vary from 30 to 50 kDa, with an optimum pH of 8.0–10.0 and a temperature of
30–40 °C. A few alkaline tolerant pectate lyases have been characterized [29]. Pectin
lyase catalyzes the random breakdown of highly esterified pectin, producing methyl
oligogalacturanates. The molecular mass of pectin lyases is between 30 and 40 kDa. In
general, this enzyme is active in an acid pH range (4.0–7.0) although there are reports
that it is also active in alkaline conditions. Its isoelectric point is at 3.5, with optimum
temperature and pH of 35 °C and 4.8 [20, 28].
6.2.2 Origin Source of Production of Microbial Pectinase

Pectinolytic enzymes are produced by different organisms such as bacteria, fungi, yeasts,
insects, nematodes, protozoa, and plants [6, 30–32]. Although pectinases are produced by
some plants and microorganisms, however, the main source of commercial pectinases is
the fungus Aspergillus sp., producing a complex of pectinolytic enzymes [24].
Microorganisms are currently the main source of industrial enzymes, being mostly pro-
duced by fungi and yeasts, followed by bacteria, and the rest corresponds to sources of
vegetable origin [2, 33]. For commercial purposes, microbial strains are the main sources
for large-scale pectinolytic enzyme production for industrial use and application due to
ease of maintenance and production. Today recombinant enzymes derived from
microorganisms are widely used in the recombinant industry [3, 34].
c06.indd 106 05/26/2023 19:15:46

6.4 Fermentation Strategie 107
6.3 Substrates Used for Pectinase Production
The costs of microbial enzyme production depend mainly on the substrates used to induce
enzyme production during fermentation [35].
In the last years, there has been a tendency to use the residues of some crops for micro-
bial degradation and their transformation into the desired product at the industrial level. In
this way, new substrates are sought as cheaper carbon sources as a requirement to effi-
ciently produce enzymes of industrial importance [36]. Agro-industrial residues are pri-
marily composed of complex polysaccharides to produce industrially important
enzymes [37]. Microbial enzymes are produced by solid-state fermentation (SSF) and sub-
merged (SmF) systems.
Next, some of the most used substrates for the production of pectinase enzyme are men-
tioned: Fruits peel wastes (pomegranate peel, orange peel, papaya peel, lemon peel, mango
peel, pineapple peel, mosambi peel, banana peel), tomato pomace, coconut fiber, and date
palm fruit waste (air-dried); artichokes peel; agro-residues (sugarcane bagasse, corncob,
wheat bran, paddy straw, mustard oil cake, ground peel, sawdust, cottonseed oil cake,
cotton straw, wheat straw, and mustard); and synthetic citrus pectin [13, 35, 38, 39].
Table 6.2 shows different microorganisms, substrates, and fermentation conditions to
produce pectinases.
6.4 Fermentation Strategies
Two fundamental fermentation systems can produce enzymes like pectinases: SSF and
SmF [55]. Therefore, to optimize the obtaining of pectinases in these microbial growth
processes under either anaerobic or aerobic conditions, physicochemical parameters
such as pH, temperature, reaction volume, and inoculum strength must be considered.
In addition, particle size and moisture content are taken into account under solid-state
conditions [55, 56].
6.4.1 Solid-State Fermentation

In this fermentation, substrates are placed in a solid state with low moisture content; in this
way, less water is added, only in order to moisten the substrates to contribute to the growth
of crops, thus harnessing of agricultural and industrial wastes like feedstocks [57, 58].
There are different types of bioreactors and modes of operation; however, for SSF, the
most popular and preferred configurations are the packed bed, tray, and rotating drum
bioreactors [59]. For example, [60] compared the performance in obtaining pectinases by
fermentation using tray and rotary drum bioreactors. Orange pomace was used as a sub-
strate fermented by Aspergillus niger. Moisture control was found to be better in the rotary
drum bioreactors; however, the yields of exo- and endo-pectinase generation were 45 and
37% higher in the tray bioreactor. On the other hand, an optimization was achieved in the
tray bioreactor by adding sugarcane bagasse to control the humidity to 70%, which helped
to improve the production of exo-and endo-pectinases by 17 and 23%, respectively. Another
study described by [61] indicates that Aspergillus sojae strain used at flask scale has the
c06.indd 107 05/26/2023 19:15:46

Table 6.2 Microorganisms and substrates used to produce pectinolytic enzymes under different fermentation conditions.
Fermentation Reaction Maximum enzyme

Microorganisms Enzyme Substrate Fermentation conditions system production References
Bacteria
Bacillus Polygalacturonase Date fruit waste and Solid state pH 7.0 100 mL 23,383 U/mL/min [35]
licheniformis yeast extract 37 °C Erlenmeyer (enzymatic activity)
KIBGE-IB-3 Reaction time flask
72 h
Bacillus Polygalacturonase Apple pectin, wheat Submerged pH 7.0 100 mL 1015 U/mg [14]
licheniformis KIBGE bran yeast extract as 37 °C Batch
IB-21 a nitrogen source Reaction time fermentation
48 h
Bacillus subtilis Pectinase Combination of Solid state pH 4.0 250 mL 3315 U/gds [38]
SAV-21 orange peel and 37 °C Erlenmeyer (pectinase)
Pectin Lyase coconut fiber (4 : 1) Reaction time flask
18 h Moistened 10.5 U/gds (pectin
60% moisture 70% lyase)
Bacillus subtilis Pectinase Agro-waste Submerged pH 7.0 100 mL 1508 U/mL [40]
BKDS1 (pineapple steam) 150 rpm Erlenmeyer
Reaction time flask
48 h
500 rpm 700 mL
40 °C Fermenter
0.49 lmp
aeration
c06.indd 108 05/26/2023 19:15:46

Fungi
Aspergillus niger Pectinase Soy hull Submerged pH 6.0 100 mL - [41]
NRRL 322 25 °C Shake flask
250 rpm
1–1.5 L
Stir-tank
400 rpm fermenter
Aspergillus niger Pectinase Orange waste peel Submerged pH 5.5 250 mL 117.1 ± 3.4 mM/mL/ [37]
30 °C Reaction Erlenmeyer min
time 5 days flask (enzyme yield)
180 rpm
Aspergillus niger Polygalacturonase Yellow mombin pulp Solid state 30 °C 250 mL 8.22 ± 0.63 U/g [42]
IOC 4003 residue pH 4.5 Erlenmeyer
Pectin lyase Reaction time flasks
240 h Moisture
40%
Aspergillus Pectinase Satkara (citrus Solid state 30 °C 250 mL 0.6045 μmol/mL [8]
niger-ATCC 1640 macroptera) peel Moisture 80% Erlenmeyer
Reaction time flask
72 h Moistened
80%
Aspergillus niger Pectinase Defined liquid Submerged pH 6.0 and — of 8.33 U/mg (specific [43]
strain MCAS2 thermostable media containing 30 °C. activity
alkaline pure pectin Reaction time
48 h
(Continued)
c06.indd 109 05/26/2023 19:15:46


Aspergillus niger Pectinase Wheat bran Submerged pH 2.7 4L 14 U/mL [44]

LB-02-SF (aqueous extract) 28 °C Benchtop
citrus pectin, Reaction bioreactor
glucose, yeast time135 h
extract, and culture
standard medium 300–750 rpm
(medium M) O2
concentration
30% saturation
Aspergillus niger Polygalacturonase Carica papaya peel Solid-state Reaction time 250 mL 264.20, 237.31, 155.90 [45]
AN07 144 h Erlenmeyer and 132.63 (U/gds),
Aspergillus flasks respectively
tubingensis MP30 Moisture
Aspergillus 90%
fumigatus M1 10 g
Aspergillus sydowii
Aspergillus niger Endo- Agro-industrial Submerged pH 5, 6, and 7, 100 mL 4.74, 4.45, and 4.98 [46]
AUMC 4156, polygalacturonase wastes (dried orange respectively Erlenmeyer (mg/mL),
Penicillium oxalicum peel and sugar beet 30 °C flasks respectively
AUMC 4153, and pulp 150 rpm
Paecilomyces variotii
AUMC 4149 Reaction time
5 days
Aspergillus sojae Polygalacturonase Wheat bran and Solid state 28 °C 300 mL - [47]
sugar beet pulp Culture
flasks
10 g
Moisture
80–120%
c06.indd 110 05/26/2023 19:15:47

Aspergillus Polygalacturonase Passion fruit peel Solid state — — 227.75 ± 13.1 U [48]
japonicus (PAGj)
Aspergillus aculeatus Polygalacturonase Passion fruit peel Submerged pH 4.56 — Highest activities [49]
URM4953 130 rpm 2.92 ± 0.12 U/mL
Endo- 30 °C (polygalacturonase)
polygalacturonase Reaction time
96 h 6.51 ± 0.04 U/mL
48 h (endo-
polygalacturonase)
Geotrichum Pectinase MSM medium with Submerged 28 °C Immobilized — [50]
candidum AA15 2% of simple sugars Reaction time in Corncoba
(xylose, glucose, and 72 h
galactose)
Geotrichum Pectinase MSM with pectin or Submerged 25 °C Immobilized Immobilized cells [51]
candidum AA15 with pectin and pH 7.2 on Corncoba yielded 0.554 IU/mL
yeast extract Reaction time
48 h Free cells (0.215 IU/
mL).
Crypthecodinium Polygalacturonase Organosolv Submerged pH 6.5 100 mL 42.15 ± 0.41 U/mL [52]
cohnii pretreatment of 27 °C Erlenmeyer
exhausted olive 160 rpm flask
pomace (EOP)
Reaction time
7 days
Penicillium Exo- Wheat bran Solid state 70% moisture — — [53]
janczewskii polygalacturonase Reaction time
3–4 days
Penicillium Exo- Wheat bran Solid state pH 4.0 40% — [54]
fellutanum polygaracturonase temperature Moisture
40°C
Reaction time
96 h
a
These studies were carried out to produce the enzyme pectinase by immobilization of the microorganism.
c06.indd 111 05/26/2023 19:15:47

reliability to be used in tray-type reactors since the experiment generated production of

298 U/g substrates without using any nutrient or inducing supplement in the substrate, so
performing a process optimization could improve the enzyme activity up to 30%.
Likewise, [62] evaluated the production of pectinases in onion residues in natural and
onion residues dehydrated to be rehydrated by water immersion, which showed that using
Pleurotus sajor-caju as a microorganism had a yield of 45.73% using rehydrated onion resi-
due. However, pectinase production is stable at a temperature of 80 °C, which may not be
optimal for a scalable process. The pH conditions will be given by the microorganism to be
used to find the best yield of pectinase production. For example [63] used Bacillus subtilis
as a microorganism and wheat bran as substrate searched for the best conditions for maxi-
mum enzyme activity and found that at pH 6.5 and 75% moisture content conditions
obtained a maximum yield of 1272.4 U/g. It was visualized that by increasing the pH to 7.0,
the yield decreased drastically, and by increasing the moisture content above 70% or
decreasing it below 70%, the enzyme activity is considerably reduced. Zehra et al. [64] stud-
ied the fermentation generated by Aspergillus fumigates MS16 to generate pectinase and
xylanase from the banana peel as substrate. It was observed that the optimum pH is 5.0;
however, it was noted that increasing the pectinase production to 6.0 significantly decreased
the enzyme activity from 1.5 to 0.3 U/mL. Similarly, [65] analyzed the production of pecti-
nases by comparing two different microorganisms, A. niger NRRL3 and Aspergillus oryzae
NRRL695, so that the process conditions were the same except for the incubation moisture
content. It was observed that A. niger NRRL3 at 81–84% moisture and A. oryzae NRRL695
at 68–76% moisture obtained their maximum yields of 15 U/g and 13 U/g, respectively. For
this reason, maintaining the pH and moisture content in their optimum range is funda-
mental to obtaining a better yield.
Other points to be taken into consideration to achieve an optimization in using SSF are
process conditions such as temperature, inoculum concentration, and content of moisture,
i.e. [66] who performed a process optimization to generate pectinases from banana peels
with a moisture content of 40 and 60% (w/w) and also by varying incubation temperature
conditions of 25 and 35 °C, and finally the concentration of inoculum of 1.6 × 106 spores/
mL and 1.4 × 107 spores/mL. It was discovered that the incubation temperature of 35 °C
was a determining parameter to achieve the maximum generation of enzymatic activity;
this may be because it has been reported that the optimal temperatures for the production
of some enzymes from fungi are from 25 to 37 °C [67]. On the other hand, this study indi-
cated that the higher the moisture content, the lower the inoculum concentration required
for maximum pectinase production activity, obtaining a pectinase yield of 27 U/mL, a mod-
erately high yield. In another study, the optimization was evaluated through three process
parameters: temperature, humidity, and incubation time, to determine the best conditions
for maximum yield in the production of pectinase. The strain of Rhizopus sp. C4 was used
to ferment orange peels. It was found that all three parameters studied showed quadratic
effects on enzyme activity, indicating a significant interaction between those three varia-
bles for pectinase production. Thus, an optimization was achieved with a maximum yield
of 11.63 IU/mL [68]. It has also been studied if pretreatment of the substrate has implica-
tions for pectinase production. Such is the case where [42] evaluated polygalacturonase
production using yellow mombin pulp as substrate. They compared substrate previously
c06.indd 112 05/26/2023 19:15:47

6.4 Fermentation Strategie 113
washed with water with the same substrate without washing, and a maximum polygalactu-
ronase yield of 38.22 U/g in 72 hours and 4.72 U/g in 96 hours was obtained, thus not only
increasing enzyme production but also maximizing enzyme generation in less time. The
substrate pretreatment suggests that the pectinase generation process can be significantly
optimized.
A study done by [69] analyzed the pectin lyase production from Schizophyllum commune
in a series of experiments with varied conditions of temperature (15–58 °C), pH (4–10),
substrate concentration (3–35 g), time (1–7 days), and inoculum size (1–7 mL). They used
response surface methodology to optimize the SSF, obtaining favorable results where the
maximum production of pectin lyase was 480.45 U/mL with concentration of substrate of
15 g, pH value of 6.0, inoculum size of 3 mL, temperature, and incubation time of 35 °C and
24 hours, respectively. It has a 4 : 1 ratio coconut-fiber-generated higher enzyme activity
than using the substrates separately. In addition, a 5.4-and 5.15-fold improvement in pec-
tinase and pectin lyase generation was obtained by optimizing the parameters shown in
Table 6.3.
This research has found that among the process conditions that have great relevance for
optimizing pectinase production are substrate conditions such as moisture content and
pretreatment, pH and inoculum size, and temperature. Furthermore, the most frequently
used microorganism is A. niger due to its easy accessibility and good yields.
6.4.2 Submerged Fermentation

Liquid fermentation, also known as submerged fermentation (SmF), cultivates microor-
ganisms in liquid substrates, such as nutrient broths or molasses to produce enzymes or
other products of industrial interest. The microorganisms used in this process are bacteria
or fungi, as they require a high moisture content within the medium. SmF is used to gener-
ate primary and secondary metabolites in a liquid state. The substrates used regularly are
consumed quickly and need to be constantly replenished or replaced; therefore, the three
main reactor types used in SmF are batch mode, fed-batch mode, and continuous
mode [70, 71].
Likewise, [72] mentions that among the process parameters that most influence the
optimization of pectinase production through SmF are the incubation period, tempera-
ture and volume of reaction, inoculum size, carbon and nitrogen sources, and pH, which
can be related to the microorganism to be used and finally the type of substrate. They
found that A. niger showed the best enzymatic activity among different types of fungi.
Moreover, within different substrate types (banana husk, wheat bran, and rice bran),
wheat bran generated a higher production of proteins, achieving optimization of this
process of 15.5 U/mL in enzyme activity. In another case, [73] found that the stability of
the microorganism B. subtilis used to generate polygalacturonase was through optimiza-
tion of pH and temperature where the optimum values were pH 7.0 at 50 °C, at which
there was a retention of 93% enzyme activity after seven hours. The optimum values
were pH 7.0 at 50 °C, at which there was a retention of 93% enzyme activity after 7 hours,
with a half-life of 21 hours. The results show that the pectinase produced can be used in
the industry.
c06.indd 113 05/26/2023 19:15:47

Table 6.3 Effects of different configurations of SSF bioreactions on the yield of pectinases.
Moisture Inoculum Temp Particle Reaction Fermentation Agitation Enzyme

Substrate content Microorganism size pH (°C) size system time per day activity References
7
Orange 30% Aspergillus 10 4.5 30 NR Rotating 96 h Rotating 44 U/g [60]
pomace niger Spores/g drum type.
of dry Bed volume
solid 4.5 L
matter
Orange 70% Aspergillus 107 4.5 30 NR Tray type. 96 h Static 75 U/g
pomace + niger spores/g Depth of the
sugarcane of dry bed 1.5 cm
bagasse solid
matter
Onion 70 g (dry Pleurotus 10% 3.53 80 Between Polypropylene 19 days Static 4.82 U/ [62]
waste weight) and sajor-caju Spawn 2.36– bags mL
200 g (wet CCB019 (dry 4.75 mm
weight) weight)
Banana 65% Aspergillus 108 5.0 30 100 mesh Erlenmeyer 7 days Static 2 U/mL [64]
peels fumigatus Spores/ flask 100 mL
MS16 mL
Banana 60% Aspergillus 1.59 × 106 NR 35 mesh of Erlenmeyer 120 h Static 27 U/mL [66]
peels niger Spores/ 75 μm flask 100 mL
mL
Orange 1 : 3.5 moisture Rhizopus sp. NR NR 30 0.8–2 mm Wide-neck 7 days Static 11.63 IU/ [68]
peels ratios C4 Erlenmeyer mL
flask
250 mL
Wheat 75% Bacillus 2.0 mL 6.5 37 NR Conical flask 48 h Static 1272.4 [63]
bran subtilis 10% v/v 250 mL U/g
c06.indd 114 05/26/2023 19:15:47

Yellow 40% Aspergillus 107 4.5 30 20 mesh Erlenmeyer 72 h Static 38.22 [42]
mombin niger IOC Spores/g screen flask 250 mL U/g
pulp 4003 substrate
Grape 84% Aspergillus 1 × 107 NR 30 0.25– Glass flasks 72 h Static 15 U/g [65]
pomaces niger NRRL3 Spores/g 2.38 mm
Grape 68% Aspergillus 1 × 107 NR 30 0.25– Glass flasks 72 h Static 13 U/g
pomaces oryzae Spores/g 2.38 mm
NRRL695
Wheat 62% Aspergillus 107 NR 37 150–250 Tray type 4 days Static 298 U/g [61]
bran sojae ATCC Spore/g μm borosilicate
20235 glass
casseroles
Mosambi NR Schizophyllum 3 mL 6.0 35 Milled NR 24 h Static 480.45 [69]
peels commune into fine U/mL
powder
Orange 60 Bacillus 1 × 109/ 4.0 35 2–3 mm Erlenmeyer 4 days Static 3315 U/ [38]
peel + subtilis SAV-21 mL flasks 250 mL gds
coconut 8 days pectinase
fiber 10.5 U/
gds
pectin
lyase
NR-No reported
c06.indd 115 05/26/2023 19:15:47

Most studies have reported that Aspergillus spp. fungi have been shown to generate
higher pectinolytic activity in the pH range of 3.0–6.0. For example, [74] have shown that
Aspergillus spp., generating a yield of 72.3 U/mL, was obtained at pH 5.8. For example, [75]
carried out the isolation of Bacillus sp. fungus, performing an SmF in which they found the
maximum yield of 484.70 U/mg enzyme activity at pH 6 at 40 °C. In another case, [76] con-
ducted a study using the fungus A. niger to ferment algal residues and generate polygalac-
turonase and found that the enzyme activity was stable in a temperature range from 40 to
60 °C with optimum pH of 6 where there was a maximum yield. Likewise, this microorgan-
ism can be a viable option with the best performance in both SmF and SSF because of its
ease of being isolated and found in the environment, it is the best option to be used to
produce pectinases.
On the other hand, if it is required to be specific with the enzyme studied, it must be
analyzed separately. In a study done by [77], it was observed that using Saccharomyces
cerevisiae to produce polygalacturonase and pectin lyase, the parameters used were the
same; however, it was shown that to produce the highest yield of polygalacturonase, a pH
of 4.5 is needed, contrary to pectin lyase that needs a pH 6.0 to generate the highest enzyme
activity.
In another case, [78] found that adding nitrogen sources such as 0.2% sodium nitrate
and carbon such as 1% fructose and the powdered wheat bran substrate in fermentation
with the fermentation of A. niger increases the enzymatic activity of endo-
polygalacturonase and endo-pectin lyase with difficulty. Therefore, adding enrichments
to the substrates is feasible to optimize the production of pectinases. For example, [79]
determined that the substrate concentration is also a parameter to take into account and
that it affects the enzyme activity; using mango peel with concentrations of 0.2–2% in
weight/volume, it was observed that between 1 and 1.5% there was the highest enzyme
activity, in addition to this at a temperature of 20–50 °C, the highest pectinase activity
was generated at 35 °C. Another critical parameter in optimizing pectinase production is
the temperature which varies concerning the micro-organism used; for example, for fun-
gal, the temperature that generates the maximum yield of pectinases can vary between 30
and 45 °C [64, 80, 81]. Other microorganisms can increase enzyme activity above
50 °C [73, 82, 83]. Table 6.4 shows the optimal process conditions of several studies using
SmF and other related factors.
In this SmF review, it has been found that Aspergillus fungi are the most used because of
their ease of isolation, for example, from soil or residues of fruits and vegetables, in addi-
tion to the advantages they have in the fermentation process since it has been observed that
the optimal conditions are acidic pH and temperatures around 30–50 °C. These parameters
are a good point since if one wants to optimize and take it to scalable processes becomes
feasible.
6.5 Bioreactor-Scale Strategies
In the previous section we discussed the parameters that are involved in the SmF and SSF
processes and how they affect the production of pectinases. Now we will address another
fundamental aspect to carry out the scaling up of the process: the study of the different
c06.indd 116 05/26/2023 19:15:47

Table 6.4 Effects of different configurations of SmF bioreactions on the yield of pectinases.
Moisture Inoculum Temp. Particle Reaction Fermentation Agitation

Substrate content Micro-organism size pH (°C) size system time per day Enzyme activity References
5
Seaweed NR Aspergillus niger 5 × 10 6.0 40 NR Erlenmeyer 30 min Shaking 4.27 mg/mL [76]
waste spores/g flask 100 mL
Wheat bran NR Aspergillus niger 1 mL 6.0 30 NR 50 mL 72 h Shaking 15.5 U/mL [72]
Hazelnut NR Bacillus subtilis 106 CFU/mL 7.0 50 NR Erlenmeyer 7 h Shaking Residual activity [73]
shell NRRL B-4219 flask 500 mL 93%
Hankin’s NR Aspergillus spp. 1 mL 5.8 30 NR Conical flask 48 h Shaking 72.3 U/mL [74]
broth pre- 50 mL
fermenter
inoculum
Banana peels NR Aspergillus 1 × 106 5.5 45 100 mesh Erlenmeyer 7 days Shaking 0.4 IU/mL [64]
fumigatus MS16 spores/g particle- flask 100 mL
size
Fruit and NR Aspergillus niger NR NR 32 NR Erlenmeyer 72 h Shaking 60 U/mL [80]
vegetable peel flask 100 mL
extracts
Pectin NR Actinomycetes NR 6.0 35 NR NR 5 days Shaking 202.7955 U/mL [81]
enriched
medium
Modified NR Piriformospora NR 5.0 50 NR Erlenmeyer 12 days Shaking 10.47 U/mL [82]
Kafer indica flask 50 mL
medium
Mineral NR Calonectria NR 4.0 60 20 mesh Erlenmeyer 168 h Shaking 0.52 mg/mL [83]
medium with pteridis flask 125 mL
a carbon
source
(Continued)
c06.indd 117 05/26/2023 19:15:47

Moisture Inoculum Temp. Particle Reaction Fermentation Agitation

Substrate content Micro-organism size pH (°C) size system time per day Enzyme activity References
Pectin NR Bacillus sp. NR 6.0 40 NR Erlenmeyer 48 h Shaking 484.70 U/mg [75]

medium flask 100 mL
YEPD broth NR Saccharomyces 1 × 104 cells/ 4.5 30 NR Erlenmeyer 48 h Shaking 15.12 U/mL [77]
cerevisiae mL flasks polygalacturonase
6.0 30 100 mL 4.15 U/mL pectin
lyase
Mango peels NR Pectinolytic NR 6.0 35 Powder Erlenmeyer 96 h Shaking 0.0298 U/mL [79]
fungi flask 100 mL
Wheat bran NR Aspergillus niger 10 mL of NR 28 Powder Erlenmeyer 16 days Shaking 105.0 RVU [78]
with sucrose incubated flask 100 mL Endo-
broth polygalacturonase
58.0 RVU
Endo-pectin lyase
Wheat bran 163 RVU
with sodium Endo-
nitrate polygalacturonase
43.66 RVU
Endo-pectin lyase
NR, no reported.
c06.indd 118 05/26/2023 19:15:47

6.5 Bioreactor-Scale Strategie 119
types and configurations of bioreactors. One main problem with packed bed reactors in
SSF is the generation of biomass agglomerates, making nonhomogeneous flows affecting
the enzyme activity yield. For example, [84] focused in a packed bed bioreactor to study
the pectinases production with SSF in a pilot scale-up using A. niger and the substrate
coppicing consisted of 3 kg of sugarcane bagasse and 27 kg of wheat bran. It was shown
that agglomeration in the fermentation process of 20 hours of reaction time was mini-
mized by stirring several times at the beginning by using a triple stirring at times of 8, 10,
and 12 hours of reaction, which guarantees a uniform pectinase activity. The proposal in
this research is to perform intermittent stirring during different fermentation times at
different stirring regimes. On the other hand, studies conducted by [85] used A. niger
LB-02-SF fermented on a wheat bran substrate with a minimum percentage of pectin,
glucose, and saline solution inside a bench-scale rotating drum bioreactor. Fermentation
presented problems inside the reactor when 30% of the total reactor volume was used; an
increase in fungal growth was observed, but a considerable decrease in enzyme activity.
However, maximum pectinase activity was generated when using a reaction volume of
50% with stirring intervals of 90 or 120 minutes. It has been demonstrated that at large
significant volumes in SSF, agglomerations are generated so that the fermentation is not
homogeneous, and the enzyme activity is drastically reduced. It is crucial to perform
controlled stirring at certain intervals during SSF to produce pectinases. Likewise, [61]
found that in SSF tray reactors, the interaction between substrate thickness and actual
moisture is of utmost relevance, as polygalacturonase activity decreased as increased
substrate thickness. A 31% improvement was observed when reducing the thickness from
14 to 11 mm at 70% humidity.
In another study, the combination of substrates with different particle sizes helps avoid
compaction inside the reactor, such as [86] which used sugarcane bagasse and citrus pulp.
This same research gives us a strategy to know if our process can be scalable, which first
performing preliminary experiments at the flask level to obtain the best process conditions.
The critical point is to perform a previous study in a column bioreactor to collect data about
the pectinase activity concerning the respirometry of the substrate mixture to observe the
behavior of the strain used and to determine the optimal concentration of oxygen and car-
bon dioxide inside the bioreactor, which the airflow inside the reactor can control. Likewise,
[72] conducting preliminary studies at the flask level, using A. sojae fermenting powdered
orange peel and apricot pomace determined that the main strategy was an airflow with dis-
solved oxygen tension reaching 1.7 vvm (volume of air/volume of medium per minute) and
agitation at 600 rpm, since it is essential to have a greater amount of dissolved oxygen and
thus the microorganism can generate greater enzyme activity. The combination of sub-
strates mentioned above is also applied in SSF as described by [73] performing different
mixtures of substrate concentrations of wheat bran, lemon peel, and orange peel using
Aspergillus giganteus, it was observed that the ratio 66 : 17 : 17, respectively, shows the high-
est enzyme activity. However, a major problem with SSFs is agglomeration, which is why
different aeration flow rates of 10, 15, and 20 L/min*kg of the dry substrate (kgds) were
analyzed for screening, where the best pectinase production was obtained with an aeration
of 20 L/min*kgds.
c06.indd 119 05/26/2023 19:15:47

Another essential point to carrying out bioprocess industrialization is knowing how

to identify which mode of operation the bioreactor should have since its feeding impli-
cations can improve or worsen pectinase yields, such as [87] where work was carried out
to optimize pectinase production in stirred tank bioreactors by comparing a batch and
semi-batch mode. The batch bioreactor was run with both pH controlled and pH uncon-
trolled; yields were similar at 109.63 U/mL and 99.55 U/mL at 84 hours fermentation,
respectively, however; the results obtained from the experiment in a fed-batch mode of
operation using a constant carbon (sucrose) feed source, a maximum yield of 450 U/mL
will be maintained at 108 hours of reaction, resulting in four times more pectinase
production in fed-batch than batch production. Similarly, [44] compared two SmF in
batch and fed-batch operation modes, having a culture medium made up of wheat bran,
glucose, ammonium sulfate, and pectin for batch mode. Furthermore, for the fed-batch
mode, add wheat bran, glucose, ammonium sulfate, and later add citrus pectin after
22 hours of fermentation. In this way, the maximum production of pectinases was
favored by adding citrus pectin separately since it generated 14 U/mL, 40% more produc-
tion than in batch mode. This indicates that to scale an SmF process, the composition of
the substrate and the mode of addition must be taken into account to have the best
performance.
Within SmF, a crucial point is the agitation of bioreactors, as described by [88]. This
study seeks a scale-up of a reactor from 1 to 5 L, using a lemon peel-based substrate. The
strategy used was the use of logistic and Gompertz equations. This analysis showed that the
number of Reynolds required for agitation in the 5 L reactor almost doubled the value of
the 1 L reactor. The production of endo-pectinases and exopectinases in the 5 L reactor
increased 7 and 40 times more than the enzyme activity in the 1 L reaction. This shows that
having a higher degree of turbulent stirring helps to better transfer oxygen mass and nutri-
ents that promote higher enzyme activity.
In addition, [40] has shown that the use of analytical methods such as the response sur-
face methodology (RSM) through use of software helps the optimization of fermentation
since it was possible to increase the yield production of pectinases up to 1,510,391 U/mL, as
well as reducing the time of maximum production from 48 to 24 hours. In this way, the use
of software also helps us validate scalable bioreactor processes to produce pectinases.
In another case, [89] conducted a study analyzing the feasibility of obtaining
pectinases from tobacco wastewater scaled up to a 2 L reaction volume reactor generat-
ing a maximum enzymatic activity of endo-polygalacturonases at 347.5 U/mL, exo-
polygalacturonases at 270.6 U/mL, with a semi-continuous production of 19.3 and
15.0 U/mL*h, respectively. A comparison was made between using free microorganism
cells in one experiment and immobilized cells by fixing them on 45 cotton cloth matri-
ces in three chains forming a honeycomb structure. This also helped to reduce the
production time from 72 to 24 hours; this yield improvement is because the immobili-
zation of cells improves the morphology of the fungus, and there is a greater transfer of
oxygen to the internal cells of the fungus. On the other hand, the fungal mycelia adhere
to the surface of the cotton fabric of the immobilization matrix and thus may help to
facilitate the purification of pectinases.
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6.6 Conclusion 121
Other strategies that can be taken into account to carry out a pectinase generation pro-
cess at scale within the SmF is to know how to homogenize the liquid medium, as we have
already seen, it can be done by mechanical agitation, but it can also be done by introducing
oxygen using an airlift. For example, [90] used two bioreactors: stirred tank and airlift and
compared endo-PG and exo-PG productions, obtaining an enzyme activity of 91.3 U/mL
for endo-PG and 65.2 U/mL for exo-PG for the stirred tank, and 86.2 U/mL and 60.6 U/mL,
respectively, for the airlift bioreactor. The airlift bioreactor has a smaller but no significant
difference in production, suggesting potential viability to produce pectinases, as it would
have lower set-up and operating costs compared to mechanical agitation. On the other
hand, [91] compare cell immobilization in two types of stirred tank and packed bed biore-
actors in continuous recirculating outflow mode. This showed a better enzyme activity in
the packed bed reactor of 0.98 U/mL*h, suggesting that the cell immobilization together
with the aeration of the bioreactor generates better microbial growth and higher biosynthe-
sis disposition.
Likewise, [92] compared within an SSF the addition of pectin as a fermentation activa-
tion medium, and on the other hand with aeration within the column, the results indicate
that aeration generated a production five times greater than the addition of pectin. In
another study, [93] performed a comparison of pectinase production in an SmF in an aer-
ated tank reactor with a batch and fed-batch mode of operation, and the parameters of pH,
agitation, and aeration were analyzed. It was found that the reactor with fed-batch aeration
and using galactose as a carbon source after 12 hours of fermentation was better than batch
fermentation, generating a pectinase production of 23,300 U/L, an increase of 1.6 times
better. This suggests that oxygenation in both SmF and SSF is essential to scale up to large
volumes of biomass. Table 6.5 shows the scale-strategy that several studies followed in both
SmF and SSF.
6.6 Conclusions
The production of pectinases has a huge market due to their multiple applications, being
increased with high growth rates as well. Furthermore, it represents a sustainable and
respectful tool for the environment. For this reason, a way has been sought to make its
production at an industrial level more efficient. Therefore, the optimization plays a key role
being the previous step for scaling up the process, and it should be carried out for every
pectinase production reaction, SmF or SSF, because each of them has its optimal process
conditions such as type of microorganism, substrate type and its concentration, pH, size
inoculum, among others and this to achieve the maximum yield. The type of bioreactor
and its operation mode can be affected by those factors, with more attention to the type of
microorganism, the type of substrate, and its concentration, and consequently different
bioreactor configurations are used in the scaling up in the process. For this reason, several
bioreactors bring into play being the stirred tank bioreactor and packed bed bioreactors the
most used in SMF and SSF being operated mainly in batch mode.
c06.indd 121 05/26/2023 19:15:47

Table 6.5 Bioreactor configurations at different scales of the production process of pectinases.
Reaction
Fermentation Operation volume/ Fermentation
Substrate type Microorganism Bioreactor system mode weight Enzyme activity time References
Wheat bran + SSF Aspergillus niger Packed bed Batch 30 kg 22 U/g 20 h [84]
sugar cane bioreactor
bagasse
Wheat bran, citric SSF Aspergillus niger Rotating drum Batch 70% (2.5 kg) 178.2 U/g 96 h [85]
pectin, glucose, LB-02-SF bioreactor
salt solution
Wheat bran SSF Aspergillus sojae Tray bioreactor Batch 75 g (dry 298 U/g 96 h [61]
ATCC 20235 weight)
Sugarcane bagasse SSF Aspergillus oryzae Packed bed Batch 26 kg SB and 40 U/g 25 h [86]
(SB) and citrus CPQBA 394–12 bioreactor 7.74 kg CP,
pulp (CP) DRM 01 49.45 L water
Mandarin peel SmF Aspergillus niger Stirred tank Fed-batch 6L 450 U/mL 108 h [87]
NRC1ami bioreactor
Apricot pomace + SmF Aspergillus sojae Stirred tank Batch 700 mL 380 U/mL 216 h [94]
powdered orange ATCC 20235 bioreactor
peel
Pineapple stem SmF Bacillus subtilis Stirred tank Batch 700 mL 1510.391 U/mL 24 h [40]
BKDS1 bioreactor
Wheat bran, SmF Aspergillus niger Stirred tank Fed batch 4L 14.0 U/mL 40 h [44]
glucose, LB-02-SF bioreactor
ammonium
sulfate + pectin
Wheat bran, SSF Aspergillus static tray-type Batch 0.1 kg 72 kU/g*Kgds 48 h [95]
orange, and lemon giganteus NRRL10 bioreactor
peels mixture
c06.indd 122 05/26/2023 19:15:47

Lemon peels SmF Aspergillus flavipes Mechanically Batch 5L 2200 U/mL 160 h [88]
FP-500 stirred Biostat B Exopectinase
bioreactor activity
Tobacco waste SmF Rhizopus oryzae As Biostat B Semi- 2L 307.5 U/mL 24 h [89]
3.3462 bioreactor continuous Endo-PG y 242.6
U/mL exo-PG
Wheat bran, citric SmF Aspergillus oryzae Airlift bioreactor Batch 3.2 L 86.2 U/mL 96 h [90]
pectin and yeast IPT301 endo-PG y
extract 60.6 U/mL
exo-PG
Spent grains SmF Kluyveromyces Packed bed Continuous 310 mL 0.98 U/mL*h 150 h [91]
marxianus CCT reactor
3172
Wheat bran and SSF Aspergillus niger Column reactor Batch 150 g 1800 U/g 48 h [92]
defatted rice bran with aeration
Galactose and SmF Debaryomyces Aeration tank Fed batch 2.4 L 23,300 U/L 12 h [93]
lemon peel nepalensis D3893 reactor
c06.indd 123 05/26/2023 19:15:47

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131
Microbes as a Bio-Factory for Polyhydroxyalkanoate

Biopolymer Production
Daniel Tobías-Soria1, Julio Montañez1, Iván Salmerón2, Alejandro Mendez-Zavala1,
James Winterburn3, and Lourdes Morales-Oyervides1
1
Facultad de Ciencias Quimicas, Universidad Autonoma de Coahuila, Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico
2
School of Chemical Science, Autonomous University of Chihuahua, Chihuahua, Chihuahua, Mexico
3
Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
7.1 Introduction
Nowadays, plastics represent one of the most important materials due to their versatile
applications, which substitute conventional materials like glass, wood, and metals [1].
Unsurprisingly, we use them in many applications like medicines, cars, electro-domestics,
or even food packaging. Consequently, conventional plastics (petroleum-derived) have
found their way into our routine livelihood [2]. About 4% of the world’s oil production is
converted into plastics, not considering the part used to generate the required energy for
manufacturing [3]. Therefore, concerns over the quick depletion of fossil fuels have rein-
forced research interest in developing alternative processes to synthesize the needed plas-
tics for daily life under innovative approaches [4].
In addition, consumers’ trends and awareness about the plastic-related environmental
problems due to their overgeneration, prolonged degradation, and exceeded disposal
capacity have driven industry and academia to research similar but environmentally safe
alternative materials. This alternative was presented as bioplastics, which can be synthe-
sized, degraded, or consumed by microbes under specific conditions [3].
Plastic material is considered bioplastic if it is biobased, biodegradable, or features both
properties [5]. Also, the term biopolymer is generally used for materials that start from
renewable sources like microorganisms, plants, or trees [6, 7–9].
Bioplastics are as useful as their synthetic counterparts because their structure can be
manipulated to obtain specific characteristics, e.g. higher molecular weight and low reac-
tivity [3]. Such features result in novel functional properties that can increase the range of
potential applications, such as biomedical. But more importantly, biopolymers offer envi-
ronmental advantages over synthetic ones, which contribute to the efforts for pollution

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132 7 Microbes as a Bio-Factory for Polyhydroxyalkanoate Biopolymer Production
abatement, such as lower carbon footprint, lower energy requirement, and relatively low
greenhouse emissions during manufacturing, litter reduction, and compostability [3, 10].
Furthermore, even when the current situation of the biopolymer industry is under devel-
opment, it presents a promising future. Worldwide manufacturing of biopolymers is pro-
jected to increase to 9.6 × 106 tons by 2023, an annual growth rate of 4% [11]. Also, the
global demand for bioplastics is expected to increase due to factors such as the availability
of raw materials, their renewability, their technical properties and functionality, and their
wide processing window, where polyhydroxyalkanoates stand out as innovative biopoly-
mers [12, 13].
Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are well studied within the known biopolymers and are
bio-based and biodegradable. The bio-based and biodegradable concepts are not always
presented together. Bio-based plastic refers to the importance of the carbon building block’s
origin. On the other hand, plastic is considered biodegradable when microbes use it as a
food source once it breaks down [14, 15].
Some entrepreneurs’ chemical companies are conscious of PHAs’ potential and have
begun producing and using PHA in several applications, giving way to the so-called PHA
industry [16]. A list of companies has been included in a recent review of the challenges
met by PHA for industrialization [17].
Now, the current volume of industrial-produced PHA has not yet exceeded 10K tons
annually [18]. Even if it does not compete with the continuing production of petroleum-
based plastics, it is expected to grow in the not-too-distant future considerably.
The challenges and innovations regarding the production of biopolymers such as PHA
polyesters have been extensively reviewed, addressing the issue from different perspectives
such as biopolymers’ properties and applications [19, 20], engineering design [18], process
optimization [21], scale-up and commercialization [22], sustainability [23–26], and down-
stream processing [27].
Therefore, this chapter presents a general overview of the microbial production of PHAs
and addresses recent trends for developing a sustainable bioprocess. Special emphasis is
placed on discussing the economics of the process and areas of opportunity for large-scale
implementation.
7.2 Microbial Polyhydroxyalkanoates as a Novel

Alternative to Substitute Petroleum-Derived Plastics
PHAs are a varied class of polymers with approximately a hundred monomers and are
among the most studied bioplastic as a substitute for conventional plastics. Poly(3-
hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) stands out as the most studied class of PHAs [28]. A wide range of
microorganisms such as bacteria, algae, and fungi are utilized for PHAs biosynthesis.
Although fungi are not directly involved in the production, they form an essential part of
some production processes [7, 14].
PHAs have similar material properties to conventional petroleum-derived plastics such
as polypropylene or polystyrene [4], but they can be synthesized from renewable sources.
The increased interest is placed on PHAs due to their characteristics like biodegradability,
biocompatibility, bioresorbable, and piezoelectricity. Also, they have been widely used in
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7.3 Microbial PHAs Classification, Synthesis, and Producing Microorganism 133
various applications such as the biomedical field due to their biocompatibility and other
suitable mechanical and versatile properties. Also, in the pharmaceutical field, they are
used to load drugs into the form of gels, microspheres, and nanoparticles [29, 30].
Considering the interesting characteristics of PHA bioplastics, several established com-
panies and many start-ups have begun to synthesize and utilize PHA in a wide range of
applications depending on the consumer requirements around the world, such as Biomer
(Germany), Bluepha (China), PHB Industrial S.A. (Brazil), and Danimer Scientific
(USA) [18]. The current increase in the understanding of PHAs biosynthesis has given rise
to new approaches for producing this kind of polymer from renewable resources [31].
The life cycle of such bioplastics commonly begins with the fermentation of renewable
carbon materials to synthesize PHAs, which are then manufactured for their specific appli-
cation. PHAs could be degraded to CO2 and H2O to diminish their environmental
impact [32]. Thus, the discarded PHA products can be recycled or composted as carbon
feedstocks, practicing the cradle-to-cradle concept [33].
The microbial biosynthesis of PHAs has been studied for almost a hundred years.
Nowadays, the study of such biopolymers has increased along with the justification for
substituting petroleum-based plastics. The biosynthesis pathways have largely been studied
and various attempts have been made to improve the PHA biosynthesis efficiency [34].
However, there are still aspects to improve the large-scale PHA production process,
either in the downstream or upstream processing, which we will discuss in the next section.
7.3 Microbial PHAs Classification, Synthesis,

and Producing Microorganisms
7.3.1 PHAs Classification

Establishing a baseline about PHAs classification, synthesis, and producer microorganisms
is crucial. PHAs are polyesters that contain a characteristic ester bond, which are accumu-
lated as a reserve of carbon and energy. PHA structure comprises 3-hydroxy fatty acid mon-
omers [35]. Their synthesis and accumulation occur intracellularly in cells in high
concentrations under limited nutrient conditions [36]. It has been studied that some
adverse conditions directly influence PHA synthesis, like oxygen limitation [37].
The biosynthesized polyester compounds are stored in the cytoplasm as insoluble inclu-
sion bodies with a typical diameter ranging from 0.2 to 0.5 μm [38]. The PHA’s molecular
mass is frequently reported as around 2 × 105 to 3 × 106 Da [39]. The characteristics depend
on various factors such as the microbial producing species, type, and concentration of sup-
plied carbon source, fermentation conditions (temperature, pH, DO), and also the type of
fermentation (batch, fed-batch, continuous) [39]. The diversity of PHAs is due to their
functional groups, molecular weight, length of chain, and monomeric units involved in the
polymer [19].
Thus, the most accepted classification is based on the structure, the carbon atom’s num-
ber, and the chain length of the monomers [13, 35, 40]. Table 7.1 includes PHAs classifica-
tion and relevant characteristics [41, 42]. The R group displayed in the first column refers
to the aliphatic alkyl side chain [41, 42]. PHAs are usually medium-chain length PHAs
c07.indd 133 05/26/2023 19:15:53

Table 7.1 General structure of most commonly synthesized PHAs, their classification,
and properties.
Carbon number
“R” group location PHA polymer PHA class Properties
Methyl C4 P3HB/PHB SCL-PHAs Tm (°C) = ~180

─CH3 Tg (°C) = ~0
Ethyl C5 P3HV/PHV TS (MPa) = Lower
─CH2─CH3 Avg. MW = Higher
Crystallinity (%) = 70
Elasticity = Lower (brittle)
Propyl C6 PHHx MCL-PHAs Tm (°C) = ~60
(─CH2)2─CH3 Tg (°C) = ~ −40
Pentyl C8 P(3HO)/PHO TS (MPa) = Higher
(─CH2)4-─CH3 Avg. MW = Lower
Heptyl C10 PHD Crystallinity (%) = 40
(─CH2)6─CH3 Elasticity = Higher
Melting temperature (Tm); glass transition temperature (Tg); average molecular weight (Avg. MW).
(MCL-PHAs), which comprise 6–14 carbon atoms such as poly(3-hydroxyhexanoate) and

poly(3-hydroxyoctanoate).
Regarding the short-chain length PHAs (SCL-PHAs), their monomers are formed by 4–5
carbon atoms, such as the poly (3-hydroxybutyrate), and the poly (4-hydroxybutyrate). The
long-chain length (LCL-PHAs) consists of at least 15 carbon atoms in their monomer
structure [26].
Furthermore, PHAs displayed characteristics and properties will also depend on the
chain length variation. For instance, MCL-PHAs are flexible in nature, less crystalline, and
have a low melting temperature (42–65 °C) [43]. On the other hand, SCL-PHAs are stiff,
friable, and greatly crystalline [43].
Of the total monomers reported, most are of the type of 3-alkanoic acid, which are linear
and saturated molecules composed of 3–16 carbon atoms [44]. Likewise, PHAs are divided
into homopolymer PHAs or heteropolymer PHAs depending on the PHA’s type of
monomer [45]. Heteropolymer PHAs are when different 3-hydroxy fatty acids compose the
monomer unit [45].
The homogeneous or heterogeneous characteristics of monomeric blocks also depend on
the microorganism and substrate, as observed in Pseudomonas putida KT2440 [46]. Also,
the structure and conformation of the PHAs provide them with distinct physical proper-
ties, which vary depending on their classification, as shown in Table 7.1.
7.3.2 Biosynthetic Pathways for PHAs Production

It is important to understand how the microorganism stores the PHAs, given that the PHAs
granules, also called carbonosomes, are microbial carbon and energy reserves for starva-
tion, accumulated in the presence of excess carbon source and under unfavorable growth
c07.indd 134 05/26/2023 19:15:53

conditions due to different limiting factors [43]. These inclusion bodies are an amorphous
intracellular mixture of polymer and associated proteins [46]. They are composed of the
polymer itself (on the inner side of the structure) and covered by granule-associated pro-
teins (GAP) presenting functions of structural, biosynthesis, catabolic, and regulatory, like
PHA synthases (PhaC), PHA depolymerase (PhaZ), and phasin protein (PhaF), PHA tran-
scriptional regulators (PhaR), hydrolases, and reductases [47].
The microbial synthesis of PHAs varies depending on the used microorganism and the
conditions provided for the fermentation process. These factors will define the implied
metabolic pathway for the synthesis as well as the growth stage where the microorganism
produces the polymer [19], for example production during the exponential phase when the
conditions are favorable for growth. On the other hand, when conditions are unfavorable,
like when a nutritional component is limited, production is in the stationary phase, and the
excess nutrients will be stored as PHA granules until the conditions become ideal for
survival [19]. However, some Bacillus strains can biosynthesize PHAs in both stationary
and exponential phases. In this genus, eight metabolic pathways for synthesizing these
polymers have been reported [32].
Generally, bacteria are known for the PHAs synthesis because they are well studied in
the field, considering that some central metabolic pathways like glycolysis, TCA (tricarbo-
xylic acid cycle), β-oxidation pathway, de novo fatty acid synthesis pathway, Calvin cycle,
and serine pathway are present in the PHA synthesis [26]. They present advantages over
other species like the time employed in fermentation processes.
The accumulation of PHAs in the cell is a complex and global metabolic process [46]. For
didactic purposes, it can be divided into two groups of metabolic pathways: (i) the central
carbon metabolism pathways, from which precursors of PHAs monomers are obtained,
and (ii) the PHA synthesis pathway from these precursors [48].
It is important to consider that the cell’s central carbon metabolism pathways are con-
served and used to obtain cellular components independently of PHAs production.
However, energy and carbon need to drive the metabolic fluxes for obtaining PHAs [48],
which are produced as a reaction to certain nutrient conditions like high carbon concentra-
tion and limitations of other nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, and oxygen) [46]. The syn-
thesis of PHAs in microorganisms commonly occurs via three highly reported pathways [39];
however, fourteen pathways for the biosynthesis of PHAs have been reported [47].
Pathway I is commonly reported in poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) PHB or SCL-PHAs produc-
ing organisms from sugars and is commonly found in Azotobacter vinelandii and
Cupriavidus necator [49], while Pathways II and III are more for MCL-PHAs producing
microbes and have been commonly reported in Pseudomonas spp. [20, 47]. The rest of the
pathways are not common in nature or have been engineered, giving the generation of
unconventional PHAs. Pathway I involves three key enzymes, the β-ketothiolase, NADPH-
dependent acetoacetyl-CoA reductase, and PHA synthase (phaA, phaB and phaC, respec-
tively). The substrates of this pathway are not structurally related to PHAs and are
metabolized depending on their nature; thus, carbohydrates are catabolized by various gly-
colytic pathways (Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas, pentose phosphate pathway, Entner-
Doudoroff pathway, xylose isomerase pathway, etc.). In comparison, the catabolism of
aromatic compounds involves the oxidation of their rings and opening. Their conversion
results in the generation of acetyl-CoA, generating reducing power through the synthesis
c07.indd 135 05/26/2023 19:15:53

of NAD(P)H [46, 48]. In this pathway, two acetyl-CoA molecules are condensed to form
acetoacetyl-CoA by the enzyme β-ketothiolase; subsequently, a reduction of the obtained
compound to (R)-3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA is catalyzed by an NADH-dependent acetoacetyl-
CoA reductase, and finally, the precursor monomer is polymerized by a PHB synthase to
obtain PHB [49].
Pathway II uses fatty acids by microorganisms to produce acetyl-CoA synthesized from
β-oxidation of fatty acids. In this case, the substrates are structurally related to PHAs (modi-
fied fatty acids, saturated, and unsaturated) and are transported into the cell through two
fatty acid transporters with different specificity depending on the length of the fatty acid
chain. The presence of two different substrates structurally related to PHA metabolized by
this pathway will be reflected in the monomer composition and it will depend on the ratio
of the two substrates. In β-oxidation, acyl-CoA is obtained, which is oxidized to trans-2-
enoyl-CoA with a reduction of FAD to FADH2 and mediated by acyl-CoA dehydrogenases;
this is the limiting step in this pathway due to the low activity of the enzymes. Subsequently,
FadBA and FadB complexes are involved, allowing intermediates for PHA synthesis through
the oxidation cycle by the action of the enzymatic activities, enoyl-CoA hydratase, cis-Δ3-
trans-Δ2-enoyl-CoA isomerase, 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase, and 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA
epimerase. Then, 2-trans-enoyl-CoA is converted to (S)-3-hydroxyacyl-CoA, which is oxi-
dized to form 3-ketoacyl-CoA with the reduction of NAD+, and which can be converted
back to acyl-CoA with the release of one molecule of acetyl-CoA per catalytic cycle. On the
other hand, precursors of PHAs can be obtained through the activity of PhaJ, a stereospe-
cific trans-enoyl-CoA hydratase that converts trans-2-enoyl-CoA into such precur-
sors [46, 48].
Lastly, pathway III needs two key enzymes, 3-hydroxyacyl-ACP-CoA transferase (phaG)
and malonyl-CoA-ACP transacylase (FabD) [19]. In the presence of substrates such as car-
bohydrates or alcohols, the carbon fluxes are directed toward acetyl-CoA for the biosynthe-
sis of PHAs by de novo-FAS. They start with the carboxylation of acetyl-CoA to form
malonyl-CoA, which is activated by trans-acylation mediated by an acyl-carrier protein
(ACP) so that the intermediates in the cycle are of the ACP thioesters type. The relationship
between this pathway and the production of PHAs is given in the conversion of (R)-3-
hydroxyacyl-ACP into (R)-3-hydroxyacyl-CoA by PhaG activity; then, these monomers are
polymerized into PHAs [46].
In summary, using carbon sources such as alcohols, carbohydrates, and CO2 results in
obtaining acetyl-CoA and subsequently at precursor (R)-3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA in P-I. From
acetyl-CoA, it can be derived to TCA, where it can result in (S)-methylmalonyl-CoA, which
is transformed into propionyl-CoA, where amino acid and propionate metabolism can con-
verge. Subsequently, the precursor (R)-3-hydroxyacyl-CoA is obtained, which is a monomer
of mcl-PHA synthesis as in fatty acid metabolism by β-oxidation (P-II) (this can occur from
trans-2-enoyl-CoA, (S)-3-hydroxyacyl-CoA or (R)-3-ketoacyl-CoA), or carbohydrate or lipid
metabolism by conversion of acetyl-CoA to malonyl-CoA, to the formation of (R)-3-ketoacyl-
ACP to give (R)-3-hydroxyacyl-ACP by de novo-FAS (P-III) and generate (R)-3-ketoacyl-CoA
which also converts from valerate metabolism; this is converted to (R)-3-hydroxyacyl-CoA
which is also the result of butyrate metabolism and from this monomer generate PHAs [44].
Once the different pathways have metabolized the substrate, PHAs monomer intermedi-
ates are synthesized. The PHA synthases convert (R)-3-hydroxyacyl-CoA into a polyester
c07.indd 136 05/26/2023 19:15:53

chain, releasing one CoA molecule per catalytic cycle [46]. The type of PHA formed in
bacteria depends on the substrate and the specificity of the PHA synthase (PhaC). The type
of enzyme found in microorganisms generates PHA of different chain lengths [47].
PHAs biosynthesis reactions are regulated by the highly conserved pha gene cluster in
P. putida. This cluster is composed of two operons. The first operon codes for two mcl-PHA
synthases (PhaC1 and PhaC2): a depolymerase (PhaZ) and a transcriptional activator
(PhaD). The second operon next to the first, but in a converse direction, codes for the pha-
sins (PhaF and PhaI). The products of this system direct carbon fluxes toward polymer accu-
mulation or hydrolysis. The difference between the genes coding for PHA biosynthesis in
different microorganisms lies in the substrate specificity of the enzymes. The expression of
the genes of the pha cluster is dependent on the carbon source and at the transcriptional
level, it is activated by the specific regulator of the PhaD gene. The existence of a complex
regulatory system that considers the PHA granules, the PhaD–PhaF complex, and the target
DNA is suggested. In the same way, control of PHA metabolism by a system of regulation by
catabolic repression is proposed, which may be associated at the transcriptional level in the
pha operon and may affect the activation or repression of the components of the fatty acid
oxidation pathways. On the other hand, the polymer formed can be hydrolyzed into free
monomers by the PHA depolymerase enzyme, depending on metabolic conditions [46].
In conventional production systems, the nutrient limitation is used to increase PHA pro-
duction. One of the strategies used is the variation in C/N ratios, which affect the produc-
tion of PHA from carbohydrates. The adverse effects of these ratios appear to be on the
activity of the enzyme 3-hydroxyacyl-ACP-CoA transacylase in FAS which is downregu-
lated under conditions of excess nitrogen, tending to the production of cellular compo-
nents instead of PHAs. This control is given in the catabolic repression control proteins in
P. putida of the pha cluster. Depending on the cell’s metabolic requirements, the synthesis
of PHA precursors can be controlled; thus, under different concentrations of NAD(P)H/
NAD(P)+ and acetyl-CoA/CoA, β-oxidation can be regulated, tending to the biosynthesis of
polymers with high proportions of such energetic components [46].
7.3.3 PHAs Producing Strains

Regarding microbial producer microorganisms, it has been reported that both prokaryotic
and eukaryotic can convert biomass into biopolymers [26]. A set of specific enzymes is
used depending on the microorganism and the PHA production can yield 90% of the bio-
mass dry weight [26]. Research on PHA production focuses on various microbes like bacte-
ria and others such as actinomycetes and algae [19]. It is worth mentioning that the
microorganisms capable of producing PHA derive from any habitat, such as marine, estua-
rine, rhizosphere, and anthropogenic ecosystems [25].
Even though not all microorganisms can synthesize PHAs, many play an essential part in
PHAs production, as shown in Table 7.2. Even when over a hundred species can biosynthe-
size PHAs, various factors should be considered before selecting a microorganism. For
instance, the ability of the cell to grow on cheaper substrates, the growth and production
rates, and the maximum possible polymer accumulation by the cell [68].
To date, a minimum of 90 different bacterial genera and extending to 300 species have been
recognized as PHA producers [42], thus representing the largest group of microorganisms
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Table 7.2 Microbial strains evaluation for PHA production in recent research works.
Type of Microorganism role in the PHA

microorganism Species biosynthesis References
Bacteria Paraburkholderia sp. strain PHA production by SmF [50]

PFN29
Ancylobacter aquaticus PHA production with paper industry [51]
ART_41 effluents
Schlegelella PHA production with substrates rich [52]
thermodepolymerons DSM in xylose
15344
Cupriavidus necátor H16 PHA production from peanut oil [53]
Saccharophagus degradans PHA production through biodegradation [54]
of alginate and microalgae
Paracoccus sp. LL1 PHA production in membrane [55]
bioreactor
Halomonas hydrothermalis PHA production based on marine salt [56]
(MTCC 5445)
Bacillus tequilensis ARY86 PHA production from lactose [57]
Pseudomonas putida NX-1 PHA production from lignin [58]
Bacillus megaterium strain PHA production with hydrolyzed [59]
CAM12 sugars
Haloferax mediterranei PHA production in high salinity [60]
Kyrpidia spormannii PHA production by thermophilic [61]
electrosynthesis
Halogeometricum PHA production by repeated batch [62]
borinquense process
Microalgae Synechococcus subsalsus PHA production with nitrogen [63]
reduction
Scenedesmus obliquus Biomass production to use it as [54]
Chlorella vulgaris carbon source for PHA production
Chlorella sorokiniana
Chlorella sorokiniana PHA production through the nutrient [64]
SVMIICT limitation
Fungi Trichoderma reesei Pretreatment of corn stubble for PHA [65]
Aspergillus niger production
Pycnoporus coccineus Pretreatment of sugar cane bagasse [66]
MScMS1 for PHA production
Yeast Pichia kudriavzevii PHA production using banana peels [67]
VIT-NN02 and hydrolyzed chicken feathers as
substrate
with PHA production ability. Various bacterial species have been widely studied due to their
high PHA accumulation capacity, such as Azotobacter sp., Bacillus sp., Burkholderia sp.,
Halomonas sp., Haloferax sp. and Pseudomonas sp. [39]. Autotrophs are another option for
the synthesis of PHAs since they use CO2 and sunlight energy as raw materials [69].
c07.indd 138 05/26/2023 19:15:53

In this regard, cyanobacteria can synthesize and accumulate PHB granules [19]. Although
some microalgae can produce PHAs, they are generally used as raw materials to produce
PHA [54]. PHAs biosynthesis could be carried out also by various fungi and yeast species,
such as in the case of Wickerhamomyces anomalus [70]. However, the fungal production of
PHAs has not been studied thoroughly [19].
Furthermore, some studies have reported using mixed microbial culture (MMC) as a
promising alternative for PHA production [42].
MMC strategy relies on nature’s rules of selection and competition; thus, the feast/fam-
ine regimes could be efficiently applied as a selective pressure on a microbial group of PHA
producers’ [25].
Other research focuses on the halophilic microorganisms as promising PHB producers
because not all the microorganisms can tolerate high salt concentrations, which could
meet the requirement of the sterile condition, and also that kind of microbes present the
ability to use alternative waste feedstocks. BluePHA (China) used halophilic microorgan-
isms to produce PHB; even when they reported difficulties due to the equipment damage
caused by the media’s salinity, the company appears to be operating at an industrial scale
producing PHAs [71]. The use of extremophilic microorganisms is proposed for PHA pro-
duction due to their metabolic capabilities related to their tolerance to environmental fac-
tors unconventional for most currently used microorganisms.
7.3.4 Bacteria as the Main Species for the PHA Production

Bacteria are of great importance due to their ability to synthesize various classes of poly-
ester PHAs [72]. Both gram-positive and gram-negative bacterial strains can produce
PHAs using various carbon sources like alkanes, alkenes, renewable carbon sources,
wastes, volatile fatty acids (VFAs), and wastewater [12]. Gram-negative bacteria have
PHA producers, for example C. necator, Alcaligenes eutrophus, Alcaligenes latus, P. putida,
Pseudomona oleovorans, and A. vinelandii. In the same manner, gram-positive bacteria
have some good PHA producers, including several species of Bacillus (B. megaterium and
B. cereus) [73].
It is reported that bacterial PHA production is more cost-effective than the production
from other living organisms, like plants, mostly attributed to bacterial high accumulation
capacity. In this regard, some recent promising bacterial strains studied for PHA produc-
tion stand out from the rest in terms of yields, such as Aeromonas hydrophila, Bacillus sp.,
Burkholderia sacchari, Halomonas bolivinensis, Pseudomonas sp., and Rhodopseudomonas
palustris [39].
Nearly 150 distinct PHA analogs produced by bacterial strains with variations in their
structure and properties have been reported [74]. Moreover, bacteria can produce PHA
copolymers in mixed substrates [4]. Therefore, microorganisms are still being evaluated for
their potential capacity to produce PHAs and novel PHAs constituents with potential
applications [4]. As previously mentioned, recent research is inclining towards using extre-
mophilic microorganisms. Examples of these are Halomonas bluephagensis and Halomonas
campaniensis. Particularly H. bluephagensis has been engineered to redirect its metabolic
fluxes toward PHA biosynthesis, reducing the specificity of PHA synthase, controlling the
NADH/NAD+ ratio to improve PHA accumulation, morphology engineering, etc. With this
platform, a cost of USD 1.68/kg of material is possible [17].
c07.indd 139 05/26/2023 19:15:53

Haloferax mediterranei is another extremophilic microorganism from marine environ-

ments that tolerates high salt concentration (halophilic); it can also degrade pollutants and
produce PHA. The production of these polymers increases linearly with an increasing salt
concentration in the culture, which is a protective mechanism against adverse conditions.
Proteomic analysis of H. meditarranei culture under high salinity conditions revealed the
expression of key enzymes in PHA synthesis (β-ketoacyl-ACP reductase and
3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase), as well as the enzymes serine-pyruvate transaminase
and serine-glyoxylate transaminase, which increased the conversion of glucose to PHA [60].
7.3.5 Algae as a Feasible Alternative for PHA Production

The current bioplastic production situation related to microalgae can be addressed under
two main approaches (Figure 7.1), the microalgae biomass as raw material, and microalgae
as cell factories for PHA synthesis [75].
Biomass from micro and macroalgae has high carbohydrate content and does not require
land cultivation in response to the problem of land overutilization. In the same way, its
utilization as a PHA carbon substrate does not interfere with human nutrition and animal
feeding [76]; thus, they do not compete with conventional food sources.
Algae can store energy in the form of starch; this characteristic gives them a revalorization
opportunity as a low-cost and promising raw material for PHA production. Also, it has been
reported that certain bacteria can utilize polysaccharides as carbon sources, thus eliminat-
ing the need for unit operations to hydrolyze the starch to glucose [77]. On the other hand,
despite the promising results of using microalgal biomass as a substrate for PHA production,
the pretreatments required to break it down into simpler carbohydrates (fermentable sug-
ars) for microorganisms’ utilization are still complicated [78]. For this reason, selecting a
suitable microbial strain that can work with complex carbohydrates would be ideal.
It has been mentioned that macroalgae represent a sustainable alternative as a noncon-
ventional carbon source for PHAs production by bacteria H. mediterranei [79]. Other
studies on PHA production using macroalgae as substrate mention the brown seaweed [80]
and the red algae Gelidium amansii [81]. Saccharophagus degradans was applied to
Microalgal bioplastic
production
(c) Blending microalgae

(a) Microalgae biomass as biomass with synthetic
a feedstock for PHA polymers
(b) In vivo synthesis of (d) Blending biomass

PHB by microalgae with bioplastics
PHAs inclusions
Figure 7.1 Approaches for microalgal bioplastic production.
c07.indd 140 05/26/2023 19:15:54

7.4 Trends and Challenges in the PHAs Synthesis Proces 141
biodegrade microalgae and alginate for the production of PHB [54]. Defatted algal biomass
has also been used as the main carbon source for bacteria in PHA production [82].
Respecting microalgae as PHAs producers, the significant and increasing interest in
bioplastic production from microalgae is attributed to their low nutrient requirements
and mostly to their ability to utilize low-cost or inexpensive feedstock from light and
CO2 [64, 83]. Strains that can degrade polysaccharides to convert them into interesting
molecules and the ones that can process non-common carbon sources such as CO2 and
methane become interesting for researchers due to their potential in the bioplastics
industry. For instance, microalgae like Chlorella minutissima, Spirulina sp., and
Synechococcus subsalsus fix CO2 to synthesize PHAs [84].
Green algae have potential as a PHB-producing microbe, even when bacteria are the
most studied group [85]. Chlorella sorokiniana SVMIICT8 was evaluated for PHB accumu-
lation driven by nutrient constrain [64]. Different microalgae species can store PHAs, such
as Arthrospira platensis, Chlorella vulgaris, Dunaliella tertiolecta, Scenedesmus sp., and
Synechococcus sp., especially if growth under nutrient limitations [86].
It is essential to consider not just the type of microbial strain when attempting to produce
PHA; the reactor type also influences PHA production to a large extent. For example,
Calothrix scytonemicola, Nostoc muscorum, and Spirulina sp. LEB 18 performed poorly due
to biofilm formation in photobioreactors [87]. The media nutrients directly influence the
PHA accumulation in microalgae. Specifically, it has been observed that the culture’s nitro-
gen and phosphorous content limitation led microalgae to divert the presence of protein in
its metabolic pathway synthesizing PHAs [63].
Although PHAs are naturally present in different microalgae strains, their percentage
content is relatively low compared to that reached by bacteria [88]. Despite the low content
of PHAs in microalgae, converting atmospheric CO2 into PHAs without additional carbon
sources is advantageous [89].
7.4 Trends and Challenges in the PHAs Synthesis Process
Indeed, the PHA production process has been long studied and advances have been made
toward understanding ways and means to improve and control their synthesis by many
microorganisms. Concerning the challenges in producing PHA polyesters, it would be con-
venient to establish the stages into which this process is divided, as in Figure 7.2, where the
challenges correspond to each stage. This section will discuss the trends and challenges
associated with upstream and downstream processing.
One of the main bottlenecks is that PHAs are still more expensive to produce than their
conventional counterpart, petroleum-based plastics [90]. Thus, the most recent studies
address various strategies to reduce processing costs.
Moreover, the most recent trends urge processes to adhere to the goals of sustainable
development of the United Nations [91]; a process must be indeed environmentally viable
but also economically feasible and socially beneficial.
Thus, microbial PHAs production process must consider economic, environmental and
social aspects. Regarding the economic aspects, a great effort is placed on attaining a cost-
effective process by looking at both the upstream and downstream processing sections.
c07.indd 141 05/26/2023 19:15:54

Strain selection
⚬ Modified or wild
strain
Substrate
selection
⚬ Available and
economically
feasible
Cultivation
strategy
⚬ Type of
bioreator and its
configuration
Downstream
processing
⚬ Low-cost and
less contaminant
PHAs
extraction process
Figure 7.2 Stages and their main challenges in the production of PHAs polyesters.
Likewise, the environmental aspects cover the impact that all the raw materials and unit
operations involved in the process pose the least possible risk. As the social aspect, one should
be cautious about the raw materials not interfering with human nutrition and animal feed
supply chains.
7.4.1 Upstream Processing Trends and Challenges

The upstream processing studies focus on the engineering aspects of the process, from
making substrates available for microbial conversion and growth, cultivation strategies,
process optimization, scale-up and up to metabolic engineering modification.
PHAs synthesis can be performed in solid-state fermentation (SSF) and submerged fer-
mentation (SmF).
SSF offers the advantage of using inexpensive raw materials such as agro-food waste as
support and substrate with fewer pretreatments than SmF. However, the large variety of
wastes makes it challenging to establish the process conditions that will serve each type of
matrix and thus the scale-up of the process [92].
c07.indd 142 05/26/2023 19:15:55

7.4 Trends and Challenges in the PHAs Synthesis Proces 143
Most of the available information for microbial production of PHAs is under SmF in
batch, fed-batch and continuous modes [92]. The production has been studied and opti-
mized regarding factors related to nutrient and process conditions such as carbon–naitrogen
ratio, fermentation time, temperature, and pH [93]. In this regard, the feeding strategy and
its operation mode should be adequate and optimized [92]. Batch cultivation is the sim-
plest; the biomass with intracellular PHA is collected at the end of fermentation. It has
some advantages, such as the low probability of contamination and short fermentation
times; however, it involves some risks, such as the probability that the microorganism
consumes the PHA as a carbon source [76, 94].
On the other hand, fed-batch fermentation for producing PHAs allows the ability to con-
trol the nutrient input to the system, avoiding the carbon source limitation throughout the
fermentation process [95]. This fermentation type allows for higher production yields than
a simple batch, and it is also feasible to scale up [96]. Similarly, a cell-recycling approach
has been proposed to develop a continuous process to increase process yields and
productivity [97].
Indeed, selecting a fermentation type, mode, and process conditions will depend upon
the strain. Moreover, strain selection influences the properties and characteristics of the
PHAs. PHA-producing microorganisms are present in almost all habitats; all adapted to
diverse environmental and nutrient conditions. In this context, it is suggested to find new
potential PHA-producing microorganisms in terms of extreme environmental adaptation
and capable of consuming unusual substrates [25].
Further, genetic engineering represents a major contribution to the advances in opti-
mizing the production of PHAs through the genetic modification of microbial
strains [98]. For instance, the genes capable of synthesizing PHAs can be transferred to
strains better characterized in terms of cultivation and ability to use low-cost sub-
strates [99]. Alternatively, they can use unconventional substrates by sharing genes
encoding to produce hydrolytic enzymes into microbial strains that already produce
PHAs [100]. On the other hand, some species of bacteria do not require modification,
such as Bacillus, due to various characteristics such as genetic stability, rapid growth,
and the ability to process different carbon sources [32]. Moreover, they are recognized
as safe by the US Food and Drug Administration (USFDA), giving them the capacity for
biomedical applications [32].
One of the most promoted approaches is the production of PHAs via waste valorization
to comply with both environmental and economic aspects of the process. Thus, several
low-cost carbon sources have been studied for PHA production with promising
results [23–26]. Such actions contribute to simultaneously tackling two concerns: reducing
the high cost associated with fermentation substrates and the waste-associated pollution.
Generally, low-cost alternative substrates for microbial synthesis of PHAs must meet
certain requirements. An obvious feature is that the material provides the required carbon
or nitrogen concentration with low or noncontent of inhibitory compounds. PHAs are pro-
duced with an exceeded carbon source concentration with limitation of other nutrients,
e.g. nitrogen source [29]. In addition, the selected waste should be available in sufficient
quantities over time and be easy to collect and transport [24, 101]. Likewise, the waste is
recommended to be stable and resistant to the sudden growth of unwanted microorganisms,
or at least to mind the storage conditions.
c07.indd 143 05/26/2023 19:15:55

Among the utilized waste, the use of lignocellulosic biomass, such as that provided by
agro-industrial waste, has been highly used as a substrate [1]. Waste lipids have also been
proposed as a feasible substrate for PHA production [101]. Some examples of waste lipids
included the wastes from the biodiesel production process like glycerol [102].
Municipal wastewater has also been implemented as a cheap feedstock for PHA produc-
tion, especially MMC, due to their ease of adaptation [103, 104]. Nevertheless, the use of
this type of culture has the disadvantage that the production of PHAs is not uniform, i.e.
it produces polymers of different types, which is not a viable option in the case of seeking
uniformity in the product [25]. The potential MMC has been evaluated in various waste
streams, namely municipal solid waste, sewage sludge, and cellulosic primary sludge [105].
Another alternative to produce new PHAs is residues from pyrolysis or oxidation of plas-
tics such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET) [46]. An example is Pseudomonas umsongen-
sis GO16, which can use terephthalic acid (TA) to produce PHA. It also presents genes for
the metabolism of ethylene glycol (also a PET monomer), and interestingly in this strain, a
high abundance of genes related to lipid β-oxidation was found [106].
The design of PHA super-producing microorganisms requires a series of conditions,
such as not pathogenic, not present phage, not producing toxins, rapid growth, and use of
a wide variety of substrates, as well as easy genetic manipulation. Ideally, these strains are
expected to have a high cell density greater than 200 g/L with a PHA content between 90
and 95% cell dry weight [17].
Additionally, as previously mentioned, autotrophic microorganisms have also been eval-
uated for PHAs production. Under this theme, a breakthrough has been made in optimiz-
ing photobioreactors in conjunction with the genetic modification of cyanobacterial
strains [87]. In some cases, it has been reported that the cultivation of cyanobacteria under
a mixotrophic scheme increases both biomass and PHA production [107].
It is also relevant to consider that the carbon source directly affects the composition and
properties of the final biopolymer [108]. In the next section, we will discuss in detail the
economic aspects related to the utilization of wastes as raw materials.
7.4.2 Downstream Processing, Trends and Challenges

Downstream processing is also a crucial step in estimating the overall process economics;
however, it has been lesser studied than upstream processing [27].
PHA recovery is definitively one of the main challenges concerning the environmental impact
as it requires solvents and chemicals which cannot be reutilized and are hazardous, such as
chloroform. For a long time, the conventional extraction methods using toxic solvents were the
most extensively adopted due to the PHA recovery efficiency and purity reached. However, like
the upstream, recent trends look for green, sustainable, and feasible recovery strategies by main-
taining high recovery yields, using green solvents and low energy consumption [109, 110].
The downstream processing for PHA recovery comprises a series of unit operations for
cell lysis, extraction, and purification [109]. Likewise, it has been proposed to pretreat the
biomass prior to the cell lysis and extraction to increase recovery yields, such as pressure
homogenization [111].
Overall, two routes have been proposed for PHAs recovery, dissolving the biomass to
separate the PHA granules and extracting PHAs from the biomass with solvents [112].
c07.indd 144 05/26/2023 19:15:55

7.5 Process Economics and Perspectives Toward Industrial Implementatio 145
For biomass digestion, different techniques based on the solubilization of the cell wall
have been used and can be categorized into three types: chemical, enzymatic, and biologi-
cal digestion [90, 93]. This approach is useful when a high PHA per biomass yield is
obtained; that is it is easier to remove the minor component. It has been highly discussed
about the environmental benefits of using an enzymatic process to lyse and digest the bio-
mass, but it could significantly increase process costs due to enzymes’ price [27, 109, 110].
A novel combination of hypotonic conditions and detergent (SDS) for lysis and PHA extrac-
tion was successfully proved on extremophilic microbial cells (halophilic and thermo-
philic) [113]. Certainly, selecting the proper digestion method will depend on the cell wall
characteristics, which could be even more challenging when PHAs are produced by mixed
microbial biomass. Nonionic surfactants combined with dimethyl carbonate were proposed
to recover PHA from mixed microbial consortia obtaining similar yields to the obtained
with chloroform [114].
Now, when it is desired to recover the biomass for further extraction, researchers have
reported issues such as filter blockage and biomass losses and recent developments are the
biomass harvest assisted by ultrasound [115, 116].
For PHAs recovery from the harvested cells, halogenated solvents have been the most
applied, like chloroform, sodium hypochlorite multi-solvent, chloroform-methanol and
sodium hypochlorite aqueous two-phase system [117]. The most significant disadvantage
of halogenated solvent utilization at a large scale is the required volume, affecting the pro-
cess cost and the environment. Thus, various nonhalogenated solvents, including alcohols,
acids, and esters, among others, have been studied and reviewed [27, 109, 110].
Indeed, selecting a solvent requires considering the PHAs’ properties and target applica-
tions. Moreover, it has been demonstrated that the extraction process also influences the
properties of the extracted PHA [112]. For instance, for P(HB-coHHx) recovery, various
combinations of solvents (acetone and ethyl acetate) and precipitants (1-propanol,
2-propanol, ethanol, n-heptane) were screened, which resulted in molecular weight varia-
tions [118]. Green solvents (ethanol, cyclohexanone, and dimethyl carbonate) were evalu-
ated for PHBV recovery at a lab-large scale, obtaining suitable yields (80%) with dimethyl
carbonate; however, a higher melt viscosity was obtained with the control (CHCl3) [119].
Dimethyl carbonate has also shown promising results for PHA extraction from mixed
microbial cultures [120]. The green solvent methyl levulinate showed promising results for
PHB extraction with a high recovery yield (97%) and higher purity than the chloroform
extracted [121].
Furthermore, another challenge to overcome is the successful solvent recycling to reduce
process cost and environmental impacts since their reutilization can also affect the biopoly-
mer recovery and purity yields and PHA properties [118, 119].
7.5 Process Economics and Perspectives Toward

Industrial Implementation
The successful process development of microbial PHA production toward industrial imple-
mentation requires establishing the economic and technical feasibility early in the research
stage. In addition, evaluating the process sustainability through methodologies such as life
c07.indd 145 05/26/2023 19:15:55

cycle assessment (LCA) and techno-economic analysis (TEA) has become imperative. LCA
and TEA assess a process’s environmental impact and techno-economic feasibility,
respectively.
LCA studies are crucial to scale up to an industrial process. Regarding PHA production,
the carbon source has been the principal factor related to environmental impact, even
when the most commonly downstream methodology implies utilizing solvents [11]. Thus,
most research focuses on alternative feedstocks when addressing process sustainability.
On the other hand, TEA is an approach that analyzes process economics, involving vari-
ous steps from process design (unit operations), establishing mass and energy balances,
estimation of capital investment and processing cost, among others. This section reviews
only the techno-economic analyses that assessed the microbial PHAs production process
profitability. Since TEA studies can be implemented at early development stages, they can
bridge the research and development phase to the commercial stage. In other words, it
allows identifying areas of opportunity to increase profitability by evaluating the impact of
various scenarios or parameters such as process design, raw materials costs, unit operations
time, and product yield on the economic indexes.
Some financial metrics commonly used to evaluate process profitability are the return of
investment (ROI, %), payback time (years), internal rate of return (IRR, %), and net present
value (NPV, $). Other important aspects are the unit production cost ($/kg) and the mini-
mum selling price ($/kg). Different tools can be utilized for TEA evaluation, from excel to
commercial software such as SuperPro Designer (Intelligen) and Aspen plus (Aspentech).
This chapter section included TEA studies from 2015 to 2022 (Table 7.3).
For comparison, we included the process simulator, microorganism, primary carbon
source, selling price, production scale and/or plant capacity, economic indexes, and if the
authors performed a sensitivity analysis. Included data in Table 7.3 depends on the article.
Studies that do not specify utilizing a process simulator used other considerations such as
using the Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index, rules of thumb, and standard chemical
engineering techniques [11, 131]. It can be observed that most of the evaluated microor-
ganisms are bacteria but also mixed culture and photoautotrophic microorganisms.
It is interesting to note that all TEA studies regarding the production of PHAs used a
low-cost substrate or waste as raw materials, including wastewater, waste stillage,
slaughtering waste, glycerol, food waste, and other agro-industrial residues (see Table 7.3
for references).
The TEA studies’ plant capacity varied greatly from 164 tons/year to 25,000 tons/year.
Likewise, most studies included various bioreactors (number between parenthesis) work-
ing simultaneously or in staggered mode with a capacity ranging from 0.45 to 5000 m3.
Indeed, production capacity will impact the process profitability. Regarding the selling
price, software such as SuperPro designer allows the user assigning a selling price; thus, the
economic indexes will vary depending on the obtained production per unit cost. Studies
assigned a selling price between 4 and 12$/kg. Regarding the economic indexes, the first
included number ($/kg) represents the production cost per PHB kg. It can be observed that
it ranged from 1 up to nearly 50$/kg; thus, the minimum selling price must be higher than
that range. Compared with petrochemical plastics, it is still difficult to compete with their
commercial price (1–1.5$/kg) [23]. The lowest production cost range was achieved by
c07.indd 146 05/26/2023 19:15:55

Table 7.3 Techno-economic analysis to assess the microbial PHA production process profitability.
Selling
Process Production scale/ price Economic Sensitivity
Biopolymer simulator Microorganism Carbon source plant capacity ($/kg) index analysis Reference
PHBV — Haloferax Waste stillage 240 m3 (4) — 2.05 $/kg — [122]

mediterranei (rice-based ethanol 1890 tons/year Annual cost
industry) $ 3,880,868
PHB AP Bacteria Wastewater 1500 tons/year — 2–4 €/kg Unit operations [123]
(cell disruption,
crystallization,
distillation,
evaporation)
PHA — Bacteria Slaughtering waste 291 m3 (2) 4 1.41–1.64 By-products [124]
10,000 tons/year euros/kg price (biodiesel,
Payback time meat and bone
3.25–4.5 years meal, nitrogen
source)
PHA SPD Cupriavidus necator Glycerol 321.3 m3 (1) 10 5.77 $/kg Raw materials [125]
H16 9000 tons/year ROI 25.18% (glycerol,
IRR 21.48% surfactant)
Electricity price
Labor cost
PHB/PHV — PHA-accumulating Municipal 9000 tons/year — 0.8 $/kg — [126]
organisms wastewater
3
PHB AP Cupriavidus necator Citric molasses 408 m (4) 5.50 2.71 $/kg Production [127]
10,000 tons/year IRR 22.3% capacity
Payback time
4.3 years
(Continued)
c07.indd 147 05/26/2023 19:15:55

Selling
3
PHB AP Bacillus subtilis Cheese whey 0.425 m — 10.2–16.9 $/ Unit operations [128]
EPAH18 kg (evaporator,
spray-dryer)
PHB — Photoautotrophic Photoautotrophy 45 m3 (4500 m2 — 24 €/kg PHB yield [129]
microorganism cultivation area) Co-products
PHB AP Recombinant E. coli Sugarcane bagasse 0.5–2.7 ton/h 11.42 2.76–9.96 $/ — [130]
kg
IRR 24.1%
PHA — Acidogenic bacteria Sludge (municipal 16.3 ton/day — 1.26–2.26 $/ Energy price [131]
wastewater) 8 anaerobic kg Methane price
digesters Sludge cost
(nonspecified PHA/COD
volume) yield
PHB SPD Cupriavidus necator Glycerol 40 m3 (2) 11.42 4.88 $/kg Plant capacity [132]
DSM 545 2000 ton/year
[P(3HB)] SPD Burkholderia Municipal solid 15 m3 (3) 4 48 $/kg — [133]
sacchari DSM 17165 waste 45 tons/year Neg ROI
+ Plum waste juice
[P(3HB)] SPD Burkholderia Plum waste juice 15 m3 (3) 4 28 $/kg — [133]
sacchari DSM 17165 55 tons/year Neg ROI
PHB AP Ralstonia eutropha Carob Pod extract 5000 m3 — Payback time — [134]
4.8 years
PHA SPD Mixed culture Sewage sludge food 164 tons/year 2.2a Neg ROI [135]
microorganisms waste
c07.indd 148 05/26/2023 19:15:55

Selling
PHB — Bacteria Sunflower meal 256.7 m3 (5–16) — 8.2–15.2 $/kg Co-products [11]
Crude glycerol 2500–25,000 price
tons/year (protein isolate,
crude phenolic
extracts)
PHB — Alcaligenes Cellulose 70 m3 — 1.00–8.72 €/ Production [136]
eutrophus hydrolysate 1–4 tons/day kg capacity
Payback time Glucose
3–6 years concentration
PHB Synechocystis sp. Wastewater 10,000 tons/year — 7.7 $/kg PHB yield [137]
CCALA192 Breakeven Raw materials
(zero 20-year Electricity
NPV)
PHA SPD Enterobacter Food waste 2.01 tons/day — 2.41–4.83 $/ Raw materials [138]
aerogenes kg Solid loading
ROI 13.68% By-products
IRR 11.95 % price
(chloroform,
bioethanol)
a
Indicates €/kg
c07.indd 149 05/26/2023 19:15:55

processes using slaughtering waste [124] and municipal wastewater sludge [131]. Although,
both TEA studies considered by-products that generated revenues.
In any case, generally, a payback time lower than five years represents an attractive pro-
cess to invest in, which translates into an ROI higher than 20%. If we look at Table 7.3, the
TEAs that achieved an ROI higher than 20% or a payback time lower than five years have a
plant capacity of nearly 10,000 tons/year and bioreactors’ approximate volume of
300–400 m3 [124, 127, 134]. Although the high profitability indexes could be attributed to
the high set selling price (10$/kg).
Regarding the sensitivity analysis, the most commonly evaluated parameters among all
TEA studies were the impact of raw material cost, PHB yield or productivity, production
capacity, electricity price, unit operations performance, and other by-products price.
For various biorefineries, the by-products price effect showed that it is required to include
co-products that generate revenues to reduce the minimum selling price of PHB [11, 124,
138]. Moreover, to produce PHB by photoautotrophic microorganisms, it was shown that
low-cost by-products such as biogas and other nutrients had little impact on the minimum
selling price; thus, the authors recommended the production of high-value co-products
such as pigments to increase profitability [129]. Similarly, the methane price co-produced
with PHA by acidogenic bacteria had a minor effect on the minimum PHA cost [131].
Regarding the effect of raw materials cost, one would expect that since all TEAs use low-
cost substrates, their price variation will not affect the minimum selling price. For instance,
to produce PHA using glycerol, the authors showed that the major effect was attributed to
the surfactant price even though glycerol price affected the profitability index [125]. Thus,
the authors concluded on the importance of the recovery step to reduce processing costs.
Similarly, the production of PHA using food waste showed that reducing solvent volume in
the downstream processing aids in reducing the PHA minimum selling price [138].
Likewise, the TEA study analyzing the production of cyanobacterial PHB using wastewater
showed that the cost of the nutrients had little effect on the minimum selling price [137].
As for the plant capacity, it has been shown that increasing the plant capacity positively
affects the process profitability despite increasing the cost of investment. For PHB produc-
tion by C. necator using citric molasses [127], it was shown that increasing the production
capacity (2000–1000 tons/year) rose 2.5–5 times the expenditure attributed to equipment
and other inputs; however, the production costs were reduced from almost 6$/kg up to 2.7$/kg.
Nevertheless, in the same study, it was observed that increasing the production capacity
from 8000 to 10,000 kg/year did not imply a noticeable reduction in the production costs.
Similarly, producing PHB by A. eutrophus showed that increasing the production capacity
from 1000 to 2000 kg/day significantly reduced the production cost [136]. Then, higher pro-
duction capacity levels than 2000 kg/day did not considerably imply a reduction in produc-
tion costs. Instead, the authors attributed a higher sensitivity to the glucose concentration
utilized in the hydrolysate, which could be related to the obtained PHB/substrate yield.
Other authors did a sensitivity analysis of polymers’ yield on the process profitability, either
PHB/substrate or PHB/Biomass. For instance, it was shown that PHA/COD yield coefficient
was the parameter with the highest effect on the production costs at small- and large-scale
production using anaerobic sludge digestion [131]. Likewise, it was demonstrated that PHB/
biomass yield lower than 30% significantly increases the process cost and the minimum PHB
selling price for photoautotrophic microorganisms [129, 137].
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Reference 151
Based on the above, it can be concluded that an integrated design using low-cost raw
materials such as wastes aid in the process’s economic feasibility.
7.6 Concluding Remarks
The acceptance, commercialization, and industrial processing for the microbial synthesis of
PHAs still face significant barriers due to their noncompetitive prices compared with petro-
chemical plastics. This motivation and complying with sustainable development goals have
driven the most recent research on PHA microbial production toward replacing the prevail-
ing available plastics. Various strategies can be applied to improve the process performance
of microbial PHA production, which will be strongly related to the selected microorganism
and target application. Studies of process optimization, cultivation method, and fermenta-
tion mode are necessary to increase process yield and productivity. Certainly, novel meta-
bolic engineering techniques are also being promoted to that end. The utilization of
extremophilic microorganisms also poses a viable alternative for the process scale-up.
Undoubtedly, research has progressed toward understanding the microorganism
requirements in terms of process and nutrients conditions to produce PHAs. Such
comprehension has enabled one of the most widespread approaches, microbial PHA
production within a biorefinery concept. Surely, waste valorization must meet specific
criteria such as feedstock availability, low ecological footprint, and not interfering with
human and animal feed supply chains. Likewise, the waste variability and heterogeneity
may affect the PHAs’ yields and properties. Regarding the recovery and purification
techniques, the trend matches the same objective of the production strategies, looking to
design a cost-effective, environmentally friendly, and feasible process at an industrial
scale. In this regard, researchers are looking for extraction protocols and green and low-
cost extractants to achieve high recovery yields, high purity, and unaltered biopolymers
properties. TEAs allowed to determine that it is possible to reduce the minimum selling
price of the biopolymers to start competing with petrochemical-based polymers. Aspects
such as maintaining high production yields, waste valorization, by-products revenues,
and plant capacity significantly reduce the processing cost and improve economic perfor-
mance. Additionally, selecting the downstream processing is equally important to reduce
process costs and environmental impact.
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161
Microbial Production of Critical Enzymes

of Lignolytic Functions
M. Indira1, S. Krupanidhi1, K. Vidya Prabhakar 2, T. C. Venkateswarulu1,
and K. Abraham Peele1
1
Department of Biotechnology, Vignan’s Foundation for Science, Technology & Research, Vadlamudi, Andhra Pradesh, India
2
Department of Biotechnology, Vikrama Simhapuri University, Nellore, Andhra Pradesh, India
8.1 Introduction
Lignin is the natural aromatic compound present in all vascular plants [1]. It accounts for
20–35% of dry weight of plants located in cell walls, between cells, and within the cells [2].
Lignolytic enzymes show a significant role in reclamation and degradation of lignocellu-
losic waste in the environment [3]. The lignocellulosic biomass is abundant in nature,
which is the renewable source on the earth [4]. The lignocellulosic biomass consists of cel-
lulose (40–50%), hemicellulose (25–30%), and lignin (15–20%) [5]. The cellulose is a poly-
saccharide material composed of β-1,4 linked d-glucose units in unbranched linear
chains [4]. Hemicellulose is composed of branched polysaccharides, namely mannans,
glucomannans, xyloglucans, and xylans [4]. The lignin is the complex biopolymer with low
biodegradability [6]. Lignin is made up of poly phenolic organic polymers with average
molecular weight of ~20,000 Da [6]. The poly phenolic compounds are 4-hydroxy,
3-methoxy cinnamyl alcohol (coniferyl alcohol), p-hydroxy cinnamyl alcohol (coumaryl
alcohol), and 3,5-dimethoxy-4-hydroxycinnamyl alcohol (sinapyl alcohol) [7]. It is a recal-
citrant compound due to the complex chemical bonding between the monomers of ligno-
cellulosic materials [3]. Due to its complexity, lignin degradation is quite challenging
compared with cellulose and hemicellulose [8]. The lignolytic enzymes are used for break-
down of lignocellulosic waste materials present in the environment [3]. Lignolytic enzymes
are classified into lignin degrading auxiliary enzymes and lignin modifying enzymes
(Figure 8.1) [9]. The auxiliary enzymes degrade lignin by performing a series of chemical
reactions using catalytic proteins [3]. The auxiliary enzymes are glyoxal oxidase, pyranose-2-
oxidase, aryl alcohol oxidases, cellobiose dehydrogenase, and glucose oxidase [9]. Lignin
modifying enzymes are lignin peroxidase, versatile peroxidase, manganese peroxidase,
heme-containing peroxidase, and laccases [9]. In natural environment, lignolytic enzymes
play crucial role in regulating the carbon cycle by degrading the lignocellulosic waste [3].

c08.indd 161 05/26/2023 19:16:03

162 8 Microbial Production of Critical Enzymes of Lignolytic Functions
Lignolytic enzymes
Auxiliary activity Family 1 Auxiliary activity Auxiliary activity Family 3 Auxiliary activity Family 4
enzymes (AA1) – Family 2 enzymes enzymes (AA3) – Glucose-
enzymes (AA4) – Vanillyl
(AA2)–Lignin methanol-choline
Multicopper oxidases modifying peroxidases oxidoreductases alcohol oxidases
1. Laccases 1. Cellobiose
1. Lignin peroxidases Vanillyl alcohol
dehydrogenases
2. Ferroxidases oxidase
2. Manganese peroxidases 2. Aryl alcohol oxidase
3. Laccase like multi and glucose-1-oxidase
3. Versatile peroxidase
copper oxidases 3. Alcohol oxidase
4. Pyranose 2-oxidase
Figure 8.1 Classification of lignolytic enzymes.
In recent years, the enzymes have gained more attention in biotechnology and its allied
fields (Figure 8.2) [10, 11]. The lignolytic enzymes particularly laccases are used in the
preparation and stabilization of alcoholic beverages such as wine, beer, and fruit juices [12].
The laccases enhance the aroma and flavor to the aromatic beverage tea and also improves
the quality of food products [13].
The lignolytic enzymes find more applications in the bioremediation of organic pollut-
ants, degradation of dyes, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, herbicides, pesticides, xenobi-
otics, lignocellulosic materials, and waste water treatment [3, 14, 15]. In addition to these,
the enzymes are used in paper industries, coal conversion, and also polymerization in poly-
mer industries [16]. Further the enzymes have been used in the second-generation biofuel
production [17]. Bioethanol (lignocellulosic ethanol) is one of the most advanced biofuels
produced from lignocellulosic material [18]. In biofuel production process, pretreatment is
the primary step where the removal of lignin takes place from lignocellulosic structures by
lignolytic enzymes [19]. The current pretreatment processes utilize high pressure and tem-
perature results in undesirable compound formation [20]. To overcome this, lignolytic
enzymes are used for treating the lignocellulosic biomass in pretreatment step [21]. The
microorganisms are used to delignify the lignocellulosic substrates that results in the pro-
duction of biofuels [22]. Among all the microorganisms, fungal organisms possess enzy-
matic system for effective degradation of lignin compounds [9]. The biofuel production
involves delignification and detoxification [17]. In delignification, the lignolytic enzymes
degrade the lignin content in several feedstocks. Later in detoxification, the lignolytic
enzymes convert the toxic compounds into simpler molecules [3, 17].
8.2 Sources of Lignolytic Enzymes
Lignolytic enzymes are found in different types of organisms such as plants, insects, bacteria,
actinomycetes, extremophiles, and fungi [3, 23–26]. In plants, the lignolytic enzymes are
extracellular glycoproteins called as laccases [17]. They are identified in plants such as
Japanese lacquer tree, tobacco, mango, mung bean, zea mays, and peach [27]. The plant lac-
cases perform wide functions such as lignin synthesis, oxidation of Fe (II) to Fe (III), and
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HO OCH3 OCH3 Lignocellulose biomass degradation – lignolytic enzymes
H3CO OH
O OH
HO OH OCH3
OCH3
H3CO O
OH HO
O
OCH3 Laccase from Trametes versicolor
OCH3 OH
Biofuel
O H3CO
O
OR
OH Lignin peroxidase from
O HO O
H3CO
H3CO
OH
H3CO
OH Phanerodontia chrysosporium
O
HO O OCH3 O RO
OH OCH3
HO HO
O
HO
OCH3
H3CO
O OH Manganese peroxidase from Pharmaceuticals
H3CO O OH
Lignolytic enzymes
HO
CH3O
O OH HO
O
HO
OCH3
Phanerodontia chrysosporium
OH HO
Industrial Applications
H3CO O O
OH
OCH3
Versatile peroxidase from Food
H3CO
O OCH3 Pleurotus eryngii
Lignin waste
OH Dye decolorizing peroxidase from
HO
OH
Bjerkandera adusta Waste management
O
OH OH
HO O
Feruloyl esterase from
Lignocellulose Aspergillus niger
OH
biomass HO O
Organic acides
Cellulose Aryl alcohol oxidase from
OH Pleurotus eryngii
O O HO O
HO O OH
HO
O
O Pyranose 2-oxidase from Textiles
O OH
OH HO
Trametes ochracea
HO
MeO O
O
HOOC
OH Vanillyl alcohol oxidase from
HO
Penicillium simplicissimum Food Flavors
Hemicellulose
Quinone oxidoreductase from
Thermus thermophilus Paper industry
Figure 8.2 Industrial applications of lignocellulosic biomass degradation by lignolytic enzymes.
c08.indd 163 05/26/2023 19:16:04

regeneration of injured tissues [28]. Further, the lignolytic activity of bacterial laccase enzyme
gene Lac51 is expressed in plant Nicotiana benthamiana [29]. The plant expressed the Lac51
gene to oxidize the lignin monomers [29]. The bacterial gene coded Lac51 is the recombinant
laccase produced in plants [29]. Apart from bacterial laccase genes, plant and fungal laccase
genes also expressed in plants as hosts [30]. The plant-made recombinant enzymes are used
as a potential source for lignin modification [31]. The plant cells express valuable recombi-
nant proteins such as enzymes, vaccines and biopharmaceuticals through molecular farming
which is economically a viable system for production of biological products [32]. Many
industrial enzymes are produced by microorganisms because they can be easily produced in
culture media, inexpensive, short time, high biomass yield, strain improvement, and opti-
mized conditions for growth [33]. Microorganisms producing lignolytic enzymes belong to
three classes such as α-proteobacteria, γ-proteobacteria, and actinomycetes [17]. Strains
showing lignin degrading ability are Sphingomonas, Ensifer adhaerens NWODO-2 ,
(α-proteobacteria), Pseudomonas, Raoultella ornithinolytica OKOH-1 (γ-proteobacteria)
Rhodococcus, Nocardia, and Streptomyces sp. (actinomycetes) [34, 35]. The bacterial species
belongs to these classes are the major decomposers of the lignocellulosic biomass [9]. Laccase
genes were identified in firmicutes, actinobacteria, and proteobacteria. The laccase genes are
less expressed in bacterial strains and belong to the group bacteroides and cyanobacteria [9].
In bacteroides, phylum Sphingobacterium sp. HY-H is producing manganese peroxidase for
degradation of lignin monomers such as p-coumaric acid, vanillic acid, and syringic acid [36].
Another strain Sphingobacterium sp. T2 produces manganese superoxide dismutase, which
catalyzes the oxidative demethylation of lignin by the generation of hydroxyl radicals [37].
8.2.1 Plants
Laccases are the predominant lignolytic enzymes found in different types of plants [38].
They are widely distributed in higher plants. In plants, laccases are first identified in exu-
dates of Japanese lacquer tree Rhus vernicifera [39]. Though laccase enzymes have been
first identified in plants, the studies have been performed predominantly in fungal organ-
isms [40]. For the past several years research on plant laccases have been started and identi-
fied in several plant species [28]. The plant species are Nicotiana tabacum, Pinus taeda,
Mangifera indica, Vigna radiata, Prunus persica, Pinus roxburghii, Populus trichocarpa,
Acer pseudoplatanus, Lolium perenne, and Liriodendron tulipifera [41]. More research has
been reported in plants such as Arabidopsis thaliana [42], Oryza sativa [43], Zea mays [44],
Brassica napus [45], Saccharum officinarum [46], and Brachypodium distachyon [47].
Arabidopsis thaliana genome encodes 17 genes for laccase enzymes, whereas the fungus
Trametes villosa has 5 genes and insect Nephotettix cincticeps has 3 genes [38]. In A. thaliana,
the laccases are found to be involved in stem lignification [48].
8.2.2 Insects
The lignolytic enzymes are produced by insects and its microflora present in different parts
of the body [49]. The production of enzymes was observed in wood feeding insects such as
Anoplophora glabripennis (Asian long-horned beetle) and Zootermopsis angusticollis (Pacific
Damp wood termite) [49]. The insect gut consists of microbiome produce enzymes that aid
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8.2 Sources of Lignolytic Enzyme 165
in possible degradation of lignin [50]. The enzymes are also identified in salivary glands
(N. cincticeps), midgut, fat body, epidermis, and malpighian tubes (Manduca sexta) [51]. The
phenol oxidizing laccases are also found in cuticles (Tribolium castaneum) and gut
(Reticulitermes flavipes) of the insects [52]. The insects feed on carbohydrate-rich wood con-
sists of lignocellulosic materials for their survival [53]. A wood-feeding termite Coptotermes
formosanus secretes both lignolytic enzymes and cellulolytic enzymes for degradation of
woody biomass. In salivary glands and foregut of C. formosanus, Lac1 gene was expressed
and found to be a role in phenol oxidation [54]. Insects that feed on lignocellulosic biomass
from agricultural crops to forest woody substrate belongs to termites, beetles, wood feeding
roaches, leaf cutting ants, silver fish, leaf shredding aquatic insects, and wood wasps [53].
Gieb et al. [54] analyzed the lignin degradation by wood-feeding insects and found that deg-
radation of lignin is due to two insects’ species A. glabripennis (beetle) and Z. angusticollis
(termite). They found that the depolymerization (propyl side chain oxidation) and demeth-
ylation of ring methoxyl groups were detected in both cases of beetle and termite. The wood-
feeding insect Rhynchophorus ferrugineus is identified as potential lignin degrading organism
due to its gut microbiome [55]. The lignin degradation activity is by the action of lignolytic
enzymes that are produced by species of the genera Serratia, Pseudomonas, and
Enterobacter [56, 57]. Such type of bacteria is useful for lignin compound degradation and
finds wide variety of applications in biofuel, bioremediation, and bio-pulping [57].
8.2.3 Bacteria
Many bacterial organisms have lignin degradation ability and converts the lignocellulosic
waste into value-added products [58]. In recent years, several of the bacterial organisms
have been discovered for its ability to degrade lignocellulosic waste in the environment [59].
Several of aerobic bacteria degrade lignin content which include proteobacteria, firmi-
cutes, and actinobacteria [60]. The bacterial species identified for lignin degradation are
Sphingobium sp., Novosphingobium sp., Rhizobium sp., Comamonas sp., Pandoraea norim-
bergensis, Pseudomonas deceptionensis, Pseudomonas putida, Burkholderia sp., Serratia sp.,
and Enterobacter sp. (Proteobacteria), Bacillus ligniphilus, Bacillus atrophaeus, Paenibacillus
glucanolyticus, Aneurinibacillus aneurinilyticus (Firmicutes), Streptomyces sp., Rhodococcus
opacus, Rhodococcus jostii, Rhodococcus pyridinivorans (Actinobacteria) [58, 61, 62]. A
recent study by Xiong et al. [60] isolated the alkali-lignin degrading potential isolates using
alkali-lignin-enriched medium. The strains Bacillus aryabhattai BY5, Micrococcus yunnan-
ensis CL32, Acinetobacter lwoffi LN4, and Acinetobacter johnsonii LN2 were evaluated for
utilization of dibutyl phthalate and decomposition of this aromatic esters through dibutyl
phthalate aerobic metabolic pathway. Nowadays, bacteria-based systems of lignin degrada-
tion have gained wide attention due to functional diversity of lignin degrading enzymes,
diverse metabolism, and conversion of lignin waste into valuable products such as lipids,
polyhydroxy alkanoates, pyruvate, and vanillin [59, 61].
8.2.4 Fungi
Generally, fungi are saprotrophic in nature and prevent the accumulation of dead and
decaying matter in the environment [9]. Many basidiomycetes’ fungi produce lignolytic
c08.indd 165 05/26/2023 19:16:04

enzymes to degrade lignin content in the plant biomass and mineralize the lignin [63]. In
nature, the lignocellulosic biomass is mainly degraded by filamentous fungal organisms
due to effective oxidative enzymatic system [64]. The enzymatic system in fungi is complex
and capable of degrading lignin content in the biomass [65]. The enzymes produced by
fungi are lignin peroxidases, manganese peroxidases, and laccases. Phanerochaete chrys-
osporium, Myceliophthora thermophila, Pleurotus ostreatus, Trametes trogii Berk, Trametes
versicolor, Pycnoporus cinnabarinus, Ceriporiopsis subvermispora, Cyathus stercoreus,
Asperigillus niger, Melanocarpus albomyces, and Trichoderma reesei are the lignin degrad-
ing fungal organisms [9, 63, 66]. The lignin degrading organisms are white rot fungi that
convert the lignin into carbon dioxide and water [67]. Ganoderma species belongs to white
rot fungi and are isolated from decay wood and evaluated for the production of laccases and
peroxidases using PCR and cloning approach. They found the diversity of laccase encoding
genes and one gene encodes the versatile peroxidase and manganese peroxidase in each
strain [68]. Recombinant lignolytic enzymes are produced by using hosts for over expres-
sion of lignolytic enzyme encoding genes and the hosts are Saccharomyces cerevisiae and
Asperigillus flavus var. oryzae [69]. CRISPR-Cas 9 technology has been used for editing of
fungal genes in fungal genomes to enhance the production of lignolytic enzymes in large
scale [69]. Metagenomics approaches are essential for revealing the novel lignolytic
enzymes encoding genes among the fungal organisms [70].
8.2.5 Actinomycetes
Actinomycetes are one of the taxonomic groups under domain bacteria exist in the soil
environment and adapted to the wide range of ecological environment [71]. They break-
down the organic materials present in the soil and lignocellulosic biomass and further recy-
cle the materials into the environment [72]. Actinomycetes produces various enzymes that
are having the ability to degrade the lignin and cellulosic content in the biomass [73].
Cellulases are enzymes that produced by these organisms have the ability to breakdown the
tough compounds like lignocelluloses and converts them into simple sugar molecules [74].
In actinomycetes genera, few species are explored for the production of lignolytic enzymes,
whereas several species need to be explored for its industrial and biotechnological applica-
tions [73, 75]. Streptomyces is the one genus that produces lignin degrading enzymes and
decomposes the lignin [9]. The species Streptomyces viridosporus T7A is producing lignin
degrading enzymes and resembles the fungi in filamentous form [76]. A thermophilic
actinomycetes strain Thermobifida fusca BCRC19214 produces 4.96 U/mL of laccases after
36 hours of growth in 5 L fermenter. The laccase was found to be diphenol oxidases class
and exhibited the oxidization of dye intermediates such as 2,6-dimethylphenylalanine and
p-aminophenol [77].
8.2.6 Extremophiles
Screening of ideal organisms from extremophiles is a focused research at present due to
production of lignin degrading enzymes in extreme environmental conditions [78]. Several
strains from extremophiles category shown their potential for utilization of lignin due to
adaptive features and structural properties of lignolytic enzymes [79]. The adaptive
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8.3 Lignolytic Enzyme 167
features are thermostability, osmotic allowance, cold adaptivity, extreme pressure, salt
tolerant, and high acidic environment [80]. The extremophilic enzymes are superior com-
pared to normal enzymes because they enable the industrial processes to be carried out in
extreme conditions due to denaturation of normal enzymes [81]. Several extremophilic
organisms like halotolerant bacteria B. ligniphilus L1 shown their potential for degradation
of lignin at optimal pH 9 and produced aromatic compounds such as vanillin and vanillic
acid [82]. Thermotolerant microorganisms produces thermostable enzymes that are having
special interest in industrial processes compared to thermolabile enzymes [83]. The ther-
mostable microbes find applications in composting process. The temperature determines
the structure and dynamics of microbial populations and also converts the lignocellulosic
structures in the composting process [84]. Lai et al. [85] isolated and screened the lignin
peroxidase producing bacteria from oil palm empty fruit bunch compost and found that the
strain CLMT 29 is producing 8.7673 U/mL of lignin peroxidase within 24 hours of growth
in minimal salt medium supplemented with lignin. A thermotolerant strain T. trogii
LK13 was evaluated for laccase production and found that the lignolytic enzymes are ther-
mostable in nature [86]. A highly stable extracellular laccase producing halophilic bacteria
Aquisalibacillus elongatus was isolated and evaluated for delignification of sugar beet pulp.
The laccase production under optimal conditions was to be 4.8 U/mL [87]. In another
study, Levy-Booth et al. [88] integrated the stable isotope probing technique to resolve the
ligninases encoding genes using metagenomics approach and found the fourteen genomes
are significantly enriched with putative ligninases. The genomes of actinomycetes, firmi-
cutes, and γ-proteobacteria were identified. Lignin valorization using extremozymes from
extremophiles have a breakthrough application in near future [89].
8.3 Lignolytic Enzymes
Lignolytic enzymes are categorized into two main groups: lignin degrading auxiliary
enzymes and lignin modifying enzymes [3]. The lignin degrading auxiliary enzymes act in
concert with the main degrading enzymes which belong to oxidative enzymes category [9].
The oxidative enzymes are glyoxal oxidase, pyranose-2-oxidase, and aryl alcohol oxi-
dase [90]. The lignin modifying enzymes are laccase, manganese peroxidase, versatile per-
oxidase, and lignin peroxidase [3, 9]. These enzymes are produced in the secondary
metabolism and do not require energy to the organisms [91].
8.3.1 Lignin Peroxidase (EC 1.11.1.14)

Lignin peroxidase is firstly identified in the fungal organism P. chrysosporium [9]. It cata-
lyzes the lignin in the presence of hydrogen peroxide by oxidative degradation [92]. The
enzyme is produced by bacteria and fungi and many fungal organisms were studied for the
lignin degradation in the plant biomass by lignin peroxidase [93]. However, several bacte-
rial species are characterized for lignin peroxidase enzyme production by using lignin as a
substrate [94]. Further, exploration of novel strains for the degradation of lignocellulosic
biomass is essential due to abundance of lignocellulosic waste in the environment [95]. It
is a heme protein belongs to the class oxidoreductases [3]. The enzyme is well studied in
c08.indd 167 05/26/2023 19:16:04

fungi than the other organisms and it uses the heme protein as an electron donor for
degradation process [9]. The enzyme is nonspecifically catalyzes the lignin containing
compounds and non-phenolic lignin derivatives [96]. The lignin substrate is an aromatic
polymer mainly present in woody plant tissues [97]. It provides strength, rigidity to the
plant cells, and resistance to microbial degradation [98]. It is degraded by two-step process:
(i) depolymerization of lignin into low-molecular-weight aryl and bi aryl compounds;
(ii) mineralization of the compounds by specific catabolic pathways [99]. Hirai et al. [100]
characterized the lignin peroxidase from white rot fungus Phanerochaete sordida YK-624.
The enzyme YK-LiP2 is more effective in degradation of lignin compounds. The strain
P. sordida YK-624 oxidized veratryl alcohol at high concentrations of hydrogen peroxide
(>2.5 mm). Nowadays, skin lightening agents are available to inhibit the melanin synthesis.
In vitro studies are carried out to evaluate the melanin degradation by using lignin peroxi-
dase enzyme that was isolated from P. chrysosporium NK-1 from forest soil. The enzyme
showed 92% of melanin decolorization and found low cytotoxic effects [101].
8.3.2 Manganese Peroxidase (EC 1.11.1.13)

Manganese peroxidases are extracellularly produced enzymes identified in fungal and bac-
terial species [102]. These are glycoproteins consists of iron photo porphyrin IX prosthetic
group at the center [9]. In nature, these enzymes hydrolyze the lignin and converts into
smaller compounds. Due to its hydrolyzing activity, the enzymes are used in industrial
applications like biofuel production, bioremediation, bio-bleaching, bio-pulping, cosmet-
ics, dye decolorization, degradation of natural rubber, diagnostic kits, and oxidization of
phenolic and non-phenolic compounds [103, 104]. They oxidize the manganese ion Mn2+
to Mn3+ and further the Mn3+ ion chelates takes place by organic acids (oxalic acid) [105].
The chelated Mn3+ acts as diffusible oxidant and degrades the phenolic moieties of the
lignin compounds [106]. The peroxidases are not able to degrade lignin directly and use
metal ions to attack the phenolic moiety. In in vitro conditions, the enzymes are capable of
oxidizing and depolymerizing lignin and lignocellulose biomass [92]. Manganese peroxi-
dase is the effective lignin degrading enzyme produced and secreted by several organisms.
The fungal organisms producing these enzymes are Agaricus bisporus, Penicillium
chrysogenum, Trametes polyzona, Ganoderma lucidum, and P. chrysosporium [102]. The
bacterial species are Bacillus cereus, Bacillus subtilis, B. aryabhattai, Bacillus amyloliquefa-
ciens, Bacillus velezensis, Lactobacillus kefiri, Enterobacter aerogenes, Salmonella enterica,
Bacillus pumilus, Paenibacillus sp., and Klebsiella pneumoniae [102].
8.3.3 Versatile Peroxidase (EC 1.11.1.16)

Versatile peroxidases are heme-containing glycoproteins with catalytic properties of both
lignin peroxidase and manganese peroxidase [107]. The enzyme was first isolated from
Bjerkandera sp. possesses polyvalent binding sites for catalytic action [108]. The manga-
nese ion (Mn2+) binds to the binding site of versatile peroxidase and oxidizes lignin com-
pounds similar to manganese peroxidase [107]. The enzymes catalyze various substrates
including phenolic, nonphenolic compounds, aromatic alcohols, and lignin dimers. The
enzyme acts with redox potential through independent redox mediators, whereas other
c08.indd 168 05/26/2023 19:16:04

8.3 Lignolytic Enzyme 169
lignolytic enzymes requires the presence of mediators [109]. The major role of versatile
peroxidase is degradation of lignin present in the wood. They contain tryptophanyl envi-
ronment that acts as strong oxidizing center for catalyzing large-molecular-weight sub-
strates effectively [110]. Due to these properties the enzymes are used as novel biocatalysts
for oxidizing broad spectrum of aromatic compounds, which is a significant feature for
biotechnological applications [109]. The recalcitrant corn stover was efficiently degraded
by versatile peroxidase isolated from Physisporinus vitreus. The enzyme from P. vitreus oxi-
dized both phenolic and non-phenolic compounds through 5-5′ linkage and converts into
monomeric compounds [111].
8.3.4 Dye Decolorizing Peroxidases (DyPs) (EC 1.11.1.19)

Dye decolorizing peroxidases are another type of peroxidases recently identified and found
relatively rich in bacteria [112]. The newly discovered DyPs are heme-containing peroxi-
dases received great attention due to its ability to degrade lignin compounds [113]. The
DyPs are first isolated from fungal strain Bjerkandera adusta and characterized for its deg-
radation ability of dyes [114]. The DyP enzymes contain heme b factor and belong to the
family peroxidase – chlorite dismutase [115]. DyPs show dimeric ferredoxin-like fold con-
sisting of four-stranded antiparallel β sheets surrounded by α-helices [116]. The enzymes
contain a highly conserved proximal histidine and GXXDG motif [117]. The DyPs are clas-
sified into four types: class A, class B, class C, and class D [118]. Class A DyP has a Tat-
dependent signal sequence mainly found in bacteria [94]. Due to this signal sequence, they
perform their function outside of the cytoplasm or extracellular [94]. Class B and C type
DyPs are intracellular enzymes present in bacteria [119]. Class D type DyPs are extracellu-
lar fungal representatives involved in dye decolorization [119]. DyPs act as bifunctional
enzymes that catalyze both oxidative and hydrolytic reactions [120]. The DyP enzymes
actively work in acidic pH and show a broad substrate profile including different classes of
synthetic dyes [94]. So far, the DyP enzymes have been identified in fungi, bacteria, and
archaeal genomes. DyPs encoding genes are abundant in bacterial genomes and the bacte-
rial dye decolorizing peroxidases are emerged as a promising biocatalyst over fungal dye
decolorizing peroxidases [114, 121].
8.3.5 Laccases (EC 1.10.3.2)

Laccases are first identified in Toxicodendron vernicifluum also called as Japanese lacquer
tree [122]. Later it was identified in fungi, bacteria, and insects. Laccases are multi copper
oxidase enzymes that catalyze a variety of phenolic substrates such as monophenols, poly-
phenols, methoxyphenols, amino phenols, and aromatic amines [40]. The enzymes consist
of four copper ions and utilizes atmospheric oxygen as electron donor for oxidizing the
lignin compounds and degrades the lignocellulosic waste in the environment [123].
Laccases use oxygen for lignin degradation, whereas other lignolytic enzymes use hydro-
gen peroxide for its catalytic activity [124]. Generally, laccases oxidize the phenolic com-
pounds due to lower redox potential, whereas non-phenolic compounds are degraded in
the presence of redox mediators [125]. The laccases attack and degrade lignin with laccase
mediator system (LMS) and finds applications in decolorization of dyes, biofuels
c08.indd 169 05/26/2023 19:16:04

production, pulp beaching, detoxification of organic pollutants, delignification of pulp,

stabilizer in wine production, transformation of antibiotics, and detoxification of waste
water [3, 124]. Laccase production is highest in basidiomycetes fungi (white rot fungi)
compared to deuteromycetes and ascomycetes. Lignin and lignocellulose stimulate high
production of laccase [126]. Microbial laccases are potential biocatalysts for detoxification
and delignification, which is a green initiative for next generation of biofuels [127].
8.3.6 Feruloyl Esterase (EC.3.1.1.73)

Feruloyl esterases (FAE) are the enzymes that degrades the lignocellulosic biomass by
decoupling the lignin and plant cell wall polysaccharides [128]. The enzymes belong to a
subclass of carboxylic acid esterases and found in fungi, plants, and bacteria [129]. They
convert the lignocellulosic biomass into ferulic acid and hydroxy cinnamic acids [130].
Further conversion leads to formation of high-value aromatic compounds. The enzymes
have biotechnological applications such as delignification of lignocellulose biomass for
biofuel production, improves the digestion of forage plants by ruminants, enzymatic con-
version of lignocellulose into bioethanol production, agriculture waste into ferulic acid,
and subsequent conversion to high-value aromatic compounds and ferulic acid as a precur-
sor for synthesis of flavor compounds [130]. Feruloyl esterases are classified into classes A,
B, C, D, and E based on amino acid sequence similarities [131]. The enzymes are produced
by Pleurotus eryngii (PeFaeA), A. niger (AnFaeA), and Orpinomyces sp. (OspFaeA) [130].
The FAE genes are identified in Asperigillus species such as A. flavus, A. niger, Asperigillus
oryzae, Asperigillus fumigatus, Asperigillus nidulans, and Asperigillus terreus [132]. The
genes are cloned and expressed in Pichia pastoris for high yield and substrate specific-
ity [133]. The FAEs are identified in other fungal organisms such as A. bisporus var. bisporus,
Moniliophthora roreri, Auricularia subglabra, Fusarium graminearum, and Chaetomium
globosum [134]. The enzymes classification, family, and subfamilies are listed in the CAZy
(carbohydrate-active enzymes) database [135]. Metagenomic approaches are needed to
identify the novel bacterial feruloyl esterases to understand the enzyme family and applica-
tions in biofuels, pharmaceutical, food, and beverage industries [136].
8.3.7 Aryl Alcohol Oxidase (EC 1.1.3.7)

Aryl alcohol oxidases are the FAD-containing enzymes belonging to the glucose-methanol-
choline (GMC) super family of proteins [137]. The enzyme activities are mainly identified
in fungal species such as P. ostreatus, P. eryngii, and P. chrysosporium [90]. The enzymes
produce hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) that activates the lignolytic peroxidases such as LiP,
MnP, and VP [92]. These enzymes coordinate with the intracellular dehydrogenases and
makes the aromatic alcohol undergo oxidation–reduction reactions and continuously sup-
plies the H2O2 for the lignolytic peroxidases [138]. The enzymes catalyze broad range of
substrates such as aromatic alcohols, aliphatic alcohols, and polyunsaturated alco-
hols [139]. The enzymes have different industrial applications in textile industry, biorefin-
eries, fragrances, flavor synthesis, dye decolorization, and high-value compounds [137].
The enzymes catalyze secondary alcohol oxidation reactions and furan dicarboxylic acid
synthesis [139]. The genes encoding aryl alcohol oxidases are expressed in P. pastoris and
c08.indd 170 05/26/2023 19:16:04

8.4 Microbial Production of Lignolytic Enzyme 171
S. cerevisiae for the development of new aryl alcohol oxidase variants with different activities
toward substrates of interest [138]. The heterologous expression of these enzymes is quite
challenging. Recently, progress was made in protein engineering of these enzymes for
enhanced expression, activity, and selectivity [137].
8.3.8 Pyranose-2-Oxidase (EC 1.1.3.10)

Pyranose-2-oxidase belongs to a member of glucose-methanol-choline (GMC) super family
of proteins [140]. The enzyme is extracellularly producing into the periplasmic space of
hyphae of wood-degrading fungal organisms [141]. The enzyme is a flavin-dependent oxi-
doreductase that produces hydrogen peroxide which is used for other lignolytic enzymes.
In coordination with lignolytic enzymes, it degrades the lignocellulosic biomass into mon-
omeric substances [142]. The enzyme was first isolated from Spongipellis unicolor myce-
lium. The other fungal organisms producing this enzyme are Trametes ochracea,
P. chrysosporium, and Peniophora sp. [143]. The enzyme consists of two domains such as
flavin-binding domain and substrate-binding domain. The enzyme is also found in bacte-
rial groups such as actinobacteria and proteobacteria [143]. The enzyme-encoding genes
were identified in actinobacteria and firmicutes. The enzyme was classified under auxiliary
activity family 3 (AA3) of the CAZy database [144].
8.3.9 Vanillyl Alcohol Oxidase (EC 1.1.3.38)

Vanillyl alcohol oxidase is a flavoenzyme first isolated from Penicillium simplicissi-
mum [145]. The enzyme produces vanillin and coniferyl alcohols by converting the wide
range of para-substituted phenolic compounds [146]. The value-added compounds pro-
duced due to vanillyl alcohol oxidase enzyme find applications in food, fragrance, and fla-
vor industries [147]. The enzyme genes are identified in P. simplicissimum; however, little
is known about its mechanism of action and its physiological role. The enzyme mainly
degrades the lignin derived aromatic compounds [146]. The enzyme belongs to the auxil-
iary activity family 4 (AA4) of the CAZy database [148].
8.3.10 Quinone Reductase (EC 1.6.5.5)

The enzyme quinone reductase was found in brown rot fungi belonging to lignolytic
enzymes category [9]. Along with other enzymes it degrades the lignocellulose biomass,
particularly reduction of quinones [3]. The enzymes are produced by both bacteria and
fungi. The enzyme regulates the lignin repolymerization that occurs due to lignin peroxi-
dase, which is a promising approach for lignin valorization [149].
8.4 Microbial Production of Lignolytic Enzymes
In industrial scale, lignolytic enzymes production using microorganisms is a costly pro-

cess [150]. The agricultural residues are alternative to this and to be used as inexpensive
raw materials [151]. The agricultural waste materials are used due to their availability and
c08.indd 171 05/26/2023 19:16:04

low cost [152]. The lignocellulosic biomass content is available in large quantities across
the world [4]. In fermentation process, the lignocellulosic biomass is used as a substrate for
the production of lignolytic enzymes [153]. The fermentation processes are submerged fer-
mentation (SMF) and solid-state fermentation (SSF) [154]. The former one is relatively
simple due to its design, operation, and process control [154]. However, the later one is
more advantageous due to its low costs, inexpensive raw materials, better oxygen circula-
tion, less efforts in downstream processing, maintains the natural culture conditions for
growth of the microorganisms, and higher yields in shorter time period [155]. The solid
support materials are hard wood, soft wood, wheat straw, wheat bran, saw dust, rice straw,
oat straw, grape stalks, corn leaves, corn cobs, barley bran, cane bagasse, residues from ali-
mentary industries, agriculture, and forestry [156]. The enzyme titer is high in SSF com-
pared with the SMF due to the fed batch mode of operation with fast oxygen penetration
effect [157]. The lignolytic enzymes production is favored by the organic substrates and
contains lignin that induces the lignin peroxidase production [58]. The organic substrates
that contain cellulose favors the production of laccase enzymes in the fermentation pro-
cess [126]. Different types of fermenters used for production of lignolytic enzymes are
packed bed bioreactor, rotating drum bioreactor, tray bioreactor, immersion bioreactor,
capillary membrane, stirred tank bioreactor, expanded bed, fluidized, and air lift reactors.
The substrates used by various microorganisms in fermentation processes and the ligno-
lytic enzymes production were listed in Table 8.1.
The microbial communities present in the natural environment produce biocatalysts
derived from large number of microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, and extremo-
philes [33]. The microorganisms are culturable and unculturable screened by metagen-
omic approaches [175]. The unculturable microorganisms account for 99%, which are
screened for novel genes using metagenomics [176]. The metagenomics strategy reveals
the microbial diversity involved in lignocellulose biomass degradation and also evalu-
ates the potential genes encoding for novel enzymes [177]. The lignolytic consortium
consists of novel genes and metabolic pathways involved in both lignin degradation and
biomass valorization [70]. In recent study, the metagenomic analysis revealed the preva-
lence of actinobacteria, firmicutes, and proteobacteria in lignin degrading consortium,
which was collected from sugarcane plantation soil [70]. In addition to gene sequencing
methods, the homology-based annotation is another strategy for finding the homolo-
gous sequences based on the similarity among the microbial genes and genomes [178].
BLAST tool is extensively used for searching the homologous genes in genome annota-
tions of lignin degrading microbial diversity [179]. Homology-based annotations cannot
reveal the functional annotations, whereas the conserved domain annotations identify
the conserved regions of sequences within a particular protein family [180]. This anno-
tation strategy directly reveals the functional properties of the proteins and belongs to
the members of that family [179]. The enzymes that degrade the lignin, cellulose, and
hemicellulose are listed in CAZy database [181]. The lignolytic enzymes are classified
into six classes based on the similarity in sequences and protein structures [9]. The
CAZy web server is an expert resource for searching and analyzing the lignolytic
enzymes and carbohydrate active enzymes information for the breakdown of lignocel-
lulosic biomass [181].
c08.indd 172 05/26/2023 19:16:04

Table 8.1 Fermentation processes for production of lignolytic enzymes.
Fermentation
Name of the microorganism Substrate used process/bioreactor Lignolytic enzymes Enzyme activity References
Irpex lacteus Wheat straw SMF MnP 339 U/L [158]

Pleurotus ostreatus Potato peel waste SSF Lac and MnP 6708.3 ± 75 and [159]
2503.6 ± 50 U/L, respectively
Trametes versicolor Oak saw dust, coffee husk, Fixed bed solid Lac, MnP, 3.22 ± 0.498, 1.01 ± 0.785, [160]
and corn bran state endoxylanase, 9.05 ± 2.2310,
β-glucosidase, and 268.6 ± 14.4714, and
cellulases 9.0 ± 4.534 U/g ds,
respectively
Pleurotus eryngii (DC.) Apricot and pomegranate SSF Lac, LiP, MnP, and 1618.5 ± 25, 16.13 ± 0.8L, [161]
Gillet (MCC58) agro-industrial wastes AAO 570.82, and 105.99 ± 6.3 U/L,
respectively
Schyzophyllum commune Corn stover and banana SSF LiP, MnP, and Lac 1270.40, 715.08, and [162]
stalk 130.80 IU/mL, respectively
Penicillium sp. Liquid PDA and solid PDA SMF and SSF Laccase 12.6 U/mL [163]
medium with textile
dyes-reactive black-5,
indigo, acid-blue -1 and vat
brown-5
Marasmiellus palmivorus Glucose and casein Stirred tank Lac, peroxidase, and 3420, 1285, and 59 U/mL, [164]
VE111 bioreactor MnP respectively
Trametes versicolor Wheat bran SMF Laccase 200 U/mL [165]
Trametes hirsuta Glucose and yeast extract Air lift Bioreactor Laccase 14704 U/L [166]
Ganoderma lucidum Pine apple leaves SSF Lip, MnP, and laccase 2885.59 ± 65.2, 889.71 ± 46.6, [167]
and 472.31 ± 41.2 IU/mL
respectively.
(Continued)
c08.indd 173 05/26/2023 19:16:04

Fermentation
Name of the microorganism Substrate used process/bioreactor Lignolytic enzymes Enzyme activity References
Endomelanconiopsis sp. Dextrose, ammonium SMF LiP 345.26 ± 0.52 IU/mL [168]
tartarate and veratryl alcohol
Ganoderma lucidum Corn cobs SSF LiP 2807 U/mL [169]
Burkholderia sp. SMB1 Rice bran SMF Cellulase, xylanase, 10.8, 76, 14.23, 62.18, and [170]
mannanase, 24.25 U/mL, respectively
pectinase, and
laccase
Fusarium equiseti VKF2 Saw dust SSF Laccase 305 U/g [171]
Bacillus tequilensis LXM55 Mixed wood pulp SMF Laccase, xylanase, 396.35, 212.95, and [172]
and mannanase 153.33 IU/mL, respectively
Pseudolagarobasidium Parthenium biomass SSF Laccase 34,444 U/g [173]
acaciicola LA1
Ganoderma lucidum Wheat straw sSF Laccase 90,164.4 U/L [174]
ds: dry solid; sSF: semi-solid-state fermentation; SSF: Solid state fermentation; SMF: Submerged fermentation.
c08.indd 174 05/26/2023 19:16:04

8.5 Mechanism of Action of Lignolytic Enzyme 175
8.5 Mechanism of Action of Lignolytic Enzymes
The degradation of lignocellulosic biomass is highly affected by its composition such as

lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose [5]. It is an abundant source from plants and acts as a
renewable source for production of bioenergy [182]. The underutilized lignocellulosic
waste is used as a source of feed stocks for biofuel production [183]. The characteristic
features of lignocellulose biomass are listed in Table 8.2.
The commercial applications of lignolytic enzymes are restricted due to lack of com-
plete information pertaining to its mechanism of action, properties, and their purifica-
tion processes [3]. The fungal and bacterial species have complex mechanism of enzymes
and intermediates to degrade the lignin [8]. Lignolytic enzymes have complex mecha-
nisms in detoxification and degradation process of lignocellulosic biomass influenced
by their structure, origin, type of substrate, and external conditions [3]. The plant lac-
cases have tendency to polymerize lignin, whereas the laccase from fungi and bacteria
catalyzes the lignin by oxidation process [187]. The laccase reaction occurs around four
different copper ions categorized under three types of copper molecules [188]. The type
I (T1 Cu) copper domain is known as substrate-reducing site [190]. The active site of the
enzyme contains two histidine and one cysteine molecules [3]. The type 2 (T2 Cu) has
two histidine amino acids and a water molecule [3]. The type 3 (T3 Cu) consists of two
copper molecules with six histidine amino acids [190]. The laccase oxidizes a variety of
substrates using oxygen and liberates hydrogen peroxide as the by-product [3]. The lac-
case degrades the lignin by direct oxidation and indirect oxidation. In the direct
Table 8.2 Characteristic features of lignocellulosic biomass.
Component Characteristic features References
1) Lignin It is an aromatic heteropolymer. [184, 185]

In nature, it is abundant as renewable source.
It consists of cross-linked coumaryl alcohol, coniferyl alcohol,
and sinapyl alcohol.
The chemical composition varies from species to species.
Lignin shows resistance to digestion than other naturally
occurring compounds.
It plays a role in carbon recycling.
2) Cellulose It is a polysaccharide consists of interlinked glucose units. [4, 186]
The glucose molecules are linked via β (1→4) glycosidic
bonds.
It is degraded by the enzymes called cellulases.
The degradation occurs by the hydrolysis of β-1,4 linkages.
3) Hemicellulose It is a natural polymer consists of arabinose, glucose, [4, 186]
galactose, xylose, and mannose.
It is an amorphous structure.
It is located within cellulose and between the cellulose and
lignin.
c08.indd 175 05/26/2023 19:16:05

oxidation, oxygen-mediated oxidation process occurs, whereas in the indirect oxidation

process, laccase uses oxygen to oxidize mediators [3, 190]. The oxidized mediators then
act as chemical oxidant for lignin degradation. The natural mediators include vanillin,
acetovanillin, acetosyringine, syringaldehyde, sinapic acid, ferulic acid, and p-coumaric
acid. The artificial mediators are 1-nitroso-napthol-3,6-disulfonic acid (NNDS),
2,2′-azinobis (3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulphonate (ABTS), violuric acid, 1-hydroxy ben-
zotriazole (1-HBT), 2,2,6,6-tetramethyl piperidine 1-oxyl (TEMPO), and promazine [190]
(Figure 8.3).
Lignin peroxidase oxidizes phenol and non-phenolic compounds of lignin. The enzyme
contains ferric ion inside the ferric protoporphyrin [190]. The enzyme-catalyzed reaction
involves the native enzyme of ferric resting state, oxoferryl unstable intermediate com-
pound I, and impartial oxoferryl intermediate compound II [3]. The LiP degrades various
phenolic compounds in the presence of hydrogen peroxide as co-substrate and veratryl
alcohol as mediator [3] (Figure 8.4).
Manganese peroxidase also uses hydrogen peroxide similar to lignin peroxidase. It requires
manganese ions Mn2+ and in acidic medium it is oxidized by hydrogen peroxide producing
Mn3+. The Mn3+ ions oxidize the phenolic moieties in the lignin compounds [190].
2 Mn II 2H H 2O2  2 Mn III 2H 2O
Oxidized
substrate
Laccase
Substrate
n
O2 H2O2 atio
oxid
rect
Di
Laccase Oxidized
Ind
laccase irec
t ox
idat
ion
Mediator Laccase
Oxidized
mediator
Substrate
Oxidized
substrate
Figure 8.3 Catalytic reaction by laccase enzyme. Source: Kumar et al. [3] / Elsevier / CC BY-NC-ND
4.0; Agrawal et.al. [191] / Springer Nature / CC BY 4.0.
c08.indd 176 05/26/2023 19:16:07

Acknowledgment 177
Lignin Lignin++
H2O2 O2 VA VA++ VA VA++

[LiP]-Fe(III) [LiP]°+-Fe(IV) [LiP]-Fe(IV) [LiP]-Fe(III)
Lignin peroxidase LiP I (Compound I) LiP II (Compound II) Lignin peroxidase
(native) (native)
Figure 8.4 Catalytic reaction of lignin peroxidase enzyme in the presence of hydrogen peroxide
and mediator veratryl alcohol. Source: Adapted from [92].
Versatile peroxidases do not require manganese and mediators for catalytic oxidation of
phenolic and non-phenolic lignin compounds [190]. It uses hydrogen peroxide as electron
acceptor. It contains heme porphyrin ring structure in central pocket and binds with the
hydrogen peroxide forming the iron peroxide complex [109]. Further, the enzyme in ferric
state reacts with hydrogen peroxide and forms Fe4+ oxo-porphyrin radical complex with
heme molecule. In this state, it is called as compound I, which is electron-deficient com-
pound and further oxidized to intermediate compound II, which is finally reduced back to
ferric peroxidase the native enzyme [109, 190]. Nowadays, the lignocellulose biomass deg-
radation is mainly focused on the key enzymes involved in lignin degradation and detoxifi-
cation. The metagenomic studies are essential for identifying the novel genes involved in
lignocellulose biomass degradation [70].
8.6 Conclusions
Lignocellulose biomass occupied major portion of the total biomass in the world. The lig-
nocellulosic conversion is a challenge for waste management and several biotechnological
applications have been applied for the conversion of lignocellulose waste into value-added
compounds. A variety of microorganisms including fungi, bacteria, actinomycetes, extre-
mophiles, plants, and insects have the ability to degrade the lignocellulose biomass to mon-
omeric compounds. Currently, lignocellulose feed stocks conversion is a promising
approach for the development of biofuels. However, due to various metabolic pathways for
lignocellulose degradation by microorganisms limits its commercial applications.
Metagenomic studies and bioprocessing strategies identify the potential microorganisms
and development of engineered microbial metabolic pathways could result in the lignin
degradation and biotransformation into value-added products.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the management of Vignan’s Foundation for Science Technology
and Research (Deemed to be University) for providing a platform to carry out the research
work. Also, thanks to DST-FIST project LSI-576/2013 for assistance during the tenure of
this work.
c08.indd 177 05/26/2023 19:16:08

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189
Microbial Bioreactors for Biofuels

Paulo Renato Souza de Oliveira1, Allana Katiussya Silva Pereira1,
Iara Nobre Carmona1, and Ananias Francisco Dias Júnior 2
1
Department of Forest Sciences, University of São Paulo – Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture, USP – ESALQ, Piracicaba,
Sao Paulo, Brazil
2
Department of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Federal University of Espírito Santo, UFES, Jerônimo Monteiro, Espírito
Santo, Brazil
9.1 Introduction
The search for alternatives to the continued use of fossil sources for fuel production is
mandatory in order to mitigate adverse environmental and socio-economic consequences
generated in recent decades. As part of the solution, investments to produce alternative
fuels for the transportation sector from renewable raw materials occur [1], e.g. ethanol,
bioethanol, and biodiesel. The intention is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs),
given the compatibility of these fuels with the current vehicle infrastructure. In addition,
they can be minor components in fuel blends. Another alternative is gaseous fuels, such as
methane or hydrogen. These fuels highlighted above aggregate microbial processes within
their production chain. It uses a biochemical process that transforms a set of substrates into
a product of interest through a population of living microorganisms within a closed
system [2].
Bioreactors are examples of systems used in laboratory and industrial-scale processes.
They are essential equipment for the production of energy inputs and bioproducts, as
exemplified in Figure 9.1. It uses multidisciplinary knowledge to design a bioreactor and
conduct the conversion processes involved to minimize costs and ensure that the product
of interest is high quality [3].
Therefore, the successful development and operation of bioreactors at different scales is
necessary to verify the feasibility of biofuel production. Thus, if it becomes possible to com-
mercialize and structure an economy of these products, scaling up any technology must
cross the boundaries of the laboratory to the proportions of the industrial sector [4]. The
bioreactors used at each step vary in volume capacity and can be summarized below [4–6].
The process can start in a laboratory manner (with equipment with less than 2 L) and pro-
ceed to bench-scale or semi-pilot (capacities between 2 and 50 L). Subsequently, the pilot or

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190 9 Microbial Bioreactors for Biofuels
(a) (b)
ler
pel rre
r
Im sti
ler em
pel nd
Im Ta
ffler
Ba
Figure 9.1 Schematic diagram from the horizontal (a) and vertical (b) mixed continuous reactors.
Source: Brindhadevi et al. [7] / Elsevier.
demonstration scale is studied (50 L to 10,000 L), and finally industrial scale is reached
(>10,000 L).
9.2 General Classification of Bioreactor
A bioprocess that employs microorganisms for biofuels involves the expansion of several
cells, using the biomass and nutrients to form the desired products. Bioreactors are con-
tainers which require high control of environmental circumstances such as pH, dissolved
oxygen, and temperature [8]. They achieve these conditions and can be classified according
to the physical state of the substrate, type, and disposition of microorganism cells in the
bioreactor and the feeding strategy.
9.3 Liquid-Phase Bioreactor
Cell growth and substrate metabolism occur submerged in a liquid environment.
9.3.1 Cell-Free
The cells used in the metabolism of substrates are accessible in the culture medium and are
not removed from the final product until the recovery process.
9.3.1.1 Mechanically Stirred

Most industrial systems use cell-free suspension in submerged culture. In this case, the
most used bioreactor, both in the laboratory and on a large scale, is the stirred tank reactor
(STR), also known as a mixing tank. One of the biggest reasons to use STR is its effective
mixing and lower resistance when transferring mass [9]. It is a cylindrical tank, normally
made of stainless steel, carbon steel, or glass, in which the culture is stirred by the action of
impellers fixed on a central axis, whose rotation is provided by a motor coupled to the axis
and positioned above or below the tank. A recent study by Brindhadevi et al. [7]
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9.3 Liquid-Phase Bioreacto 191
(a) (b)
Gas Probes
temperature
pH
Dissolved O2
Liquid
Bubble
disintegration
zone
Medium movement
Down
comer
Liquid Drafttube
Riser
Gas
Sparger Sparger
Figure 9.2 Schematic drawing of a bubble column (a) bioreactor and an airlift bioreactor (b) with
riser and downcomer regions. Source: Sharma et al. [11] / Longdom Publishing. / CC BY 4.0.
demonstrated a method to predict the production of biogas and biohydrogen from horizon-
tal (Figure 9.1a) and vertical (Figure 9.1b) continuous mixing reactors using the numerical
method. The use of computational fluid dynamics to evaluate the efficiency of the bioreac-
tor is important due to the uncertainty of the numerical results. Perpendicular reactors
provide high productivity due to better velocity distribution in the tank. The vertical reactor
also records more ethanol and acetate than the horizontal model. This proves a vertical
continuous mixed tank reactor which is more promising and compelling.
9.3.1.2 Pneumatically Stirred

Pneumatically stirred bioreactors work without internal moving parts, promoting homog-
enization through the injection of gas and the consequent movement of the liquid. They
have different applications based on displacement of oxygen from the gaseous condition to
the liquid condition in enzymatic reactions, in aerobic and anaerobic cultures, where the
inert gas phase is used for homogenization of the reaction medium [10]. Among the pneu-
matic reactors, there are bubble column types and airlift bioreactors, shown in Figure 9.2a
and b, respectively. Airlift are characterized by a region sprayed with a gas called the riser
region and a downcomer region, which are interconnected by the bottom region and the
degassing zone located at the top of the reactor, where a total or partial detachment of the
gas phase is retained in the liquid phase occurs [12].
9.3.2 Immobilized Cell

The cellular immobilization process consists of the physical confinement of cells in a par-
ticular region to preserve their catalytic activity [13]. In this way, cells that act as biocatalysts
can simulate their natural growth on surfaces or within structures called supports. The abil-
ity of many microorganisms to adhere to different types of surfaces makes this process pos-
sible [14]. Immobilized cells can bring significant advantages over suspension cultures [15].
These include (i) high cell concentration, (ii) cell reuse and consequent cost reduction in cell
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Auto-immobilization Immobilization on a
support surface
Mechanical containment Entrapment in a

behind a barrier porous matrix
Figure 9.3 Basic methods of cell immobilization. Source: Moreno-García et al. [17] / Frontiers
Media S.A / CC BY 4.0.
recovery and recycling processes, (iii) mitigation of problems derived from high dilution
rates, (iv) increased volumetric productivity due to high cell concentration and flow rates,
and (v) improved microenvironmental conditions of the cells. Furthermore, immobilization
favors genetic stability in specific cases, improving biocatalysis performance [16] and pro-
tects against shear damage, an essential factor for some microorganisms (Figure 9.3).
In addition, there are essential assumptions for the support; among them are price, sta-
bility, reusability, and non-toxicity. For fermentative processes, there are still other factors
that we should aim for, such as a simple immobilization process, with a high immobiliza-
tion capacity and diffusion rate of the substance, and mechanical resistance of the support
compatible with the continuous operation of an industrial installation [18]. Organic and
soft supports are commonly used in fermentation to produce ethanol on a reduced scale. At
the same time, inorganic and rigid materials can be more efficient in improving the pro-
ductivity of this same process in larger volume bioreactors [19]. Recent research has also
evaluated the use of 3D-printed matrices as support [20, 21].
The arrangement of the immobilized cells occurs in fixed bed support or a fluidized bed
through circulation in the culture medium. Furthermore, the confinement of cells can
occur between membranes, which would allow the passage of the components of the cul-
ture medium and the products and by-products of metabolism, but prevent the passage of
cells. Slower systems, such as waste treatment systems, often benefit from this strategy. The
advantages of membranes are more significant for sensitive organisms, as they minimize
shear stresses [22].
9.4 Reactors for Solid-State Cultures
Another category of bioreactors is those for non-aqueous phase cultures, also known as
solid-state fermentation (SSF). In this case, the substrate has no free water, and the cells are
mixed with the substrate itself, which remains at a moisture content between 30 and
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9.5 Bioreactor Operation Mod 193
80% [22]. Recently, the major uses of SSF have been in the manufacture of enzymes, such
as lipases, amylases, among others, in addition to the production of some secondary metab-
olites, pesticides, and biomass [23–25]. The choice of SSF as a form of cultivation is not
only considered for qualitative and quantitative reasons but also favorable in economic and
environmental terms. Therefore, SSF contributes to the aggregation of value of agricultural
by-products as a solid medium for developing fungi [26].
The use of solid-state bioreactors gains importance for treating lignocellulosic biomass
for bioethanol production, as it assists in the pretreatment through the degradation of
lignin with the aid of lignin-degrading microorganisms, preliminary white rot fungi [27].
The anaerobic digestion processes, which generate gaseous biofuels, also use these bioreac-
tors. In addition to being possible to combine it with hydrothermal carbonization, it can
produce even more energy inputs [28]. Food fermentation is another example that has
excellent potential for solid-state fermentation [29]. A plug-flow reactor was put into opera-
tion with positive results without the presence of an external inoculum. This research dem-
onstrates the concept for further research on the effect of residence time, inoculum ratio,
and correlations using mathematical modeling of a solid-phase fermentation system.
9.5 Bioreactor Operation Mode
Microbial bioreactors for biofuel production can operate in different ways. The inputs nec-
essary for the development of cells may be available at the initial moment of the bioprocess,
and it is called a batch or batch process (Figure 9.4a). In it, the inoculated cells also remain
in the bioreactor from the beginning and, thus, can start their function as a biocatalyst. In
this way, the substrate concentration gradually decreases as the cells grow and their meta-
bolic development occurs, responsible for the effective biofuel production [22].
Alternatively, nutrient feeding can be performed during the cultivation/metabolization,
called the fed-batch process (Figure 9.4b). Under these conditions, the product (broth)
remains in the bioreactor for the entire course of microorganism/cell metabolism.
(a) (b) (c)

Feeding Feeding Broth
Batch Fed batch Continuous

Figure 9.4 (a–c) Schematic drawing of the modes of operation of bioreactors. Source: Adapted
from Canio et al. [30] / John Wiley & Sons.
c09.indd 193 05/26/2023 19:16:15

Thus, sterilization conditions are maintained in the system until the end of the batch. In
addition, the constant addition of nutrients allows the growth rate and prevents metabolic
stagnation. However, batch feeding processes are labor-intensive because of the steriliza-
tion of the equipment after each batch and the accuracy of feeding nutrients to maintain
particular growth characteristics [8], including biofuels. The most significant advantage is
creating specific conditions for growth and generating an exponential growth curve,
increasing productivity.
The last operation mode is continuous. The bioreactor receives feed continuously while
residual nutrients are simultaneously removed (Figure 9.4c). The aim is to keep the volume
of the bioreactor constant and help the cells to stay in a predefined growth phase that favors
the production of a particular component [8]. Under these equilibrium conditions, the
system reaches a steady state. However, continuous cultivation may provide contamination
or mutation, resulting in a process failure. Overall, the continuous operation creates an
ideal bioreactor environment for uniform biofuel production under optimal cell growth
conditions [15].
9.6 Biofuels
The transport sector aggravates the widespread use of fossil fuels since it depends on raw
materials and generates large amounts of polluting gases [31]. In the European Union,
transport is responsible for around 21% of all greenhouse gas emissions that contribute to
global warming [32]. Besides, the increase in population and globalization has been accom-
panied by an increase in energy and fuel consumption in critical industrial sectors, result-
ing in irreversible degradation of the environment and climate change [32, 33]. This
scenario has emphasized the need to explore alternative fuels to replace fuels from nonre-
newable sources [34, 35].
Renewables are proven technologies that are rapidly developing and have the potential
for a zero carbon footprint [31], characteristics that make them suitable for tackling climate
change, which is probably the most urgent challenge facing global society [36]. In this
sense, biomass sources are the basis for research and development of efficient biofuels.
Studies have been developed from the production of biodiesel from edible or inedible seed
oils to the metabolic engineering of algae [37–40]. Below we will explore the main types of
biofuel produced with the aid of bioreactors.
9.6.1 Bioethanol
First-generation bioethanol production is widely carried out on an industrial scale, per-
forming simultaneous or separately saccharification and fermentation of sucrose, glucose,
or fructose found in vegetables such as corn, wheat, beet roots, and sugarcane [41–43].
Second-generation (2G) bioethanol production uses lignocellulosic feedstock and requires
high productivity and fuel yields to be economically viable for the industrial sector [44].
Lignocellulosic biomass is a promising raw material for 2G bioethanol production due to its
abundance and low cost [41, 45]. Agricultural wastes come ahead of other biomasses as
they do not compete with the food sector [46, 47] and become more coveted alternative
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9.6 Biofuel 195
sources. Third-generation (3G) bioethanol comes from algae biomass [48] and goes beyond
the debate of competition between cultivated areas or food for fuel production [49, 50, 51].
In addition, 3G bioethanol can combine the use of marine biomass as a feedstock source,
marine microorganisms for hydrolysis and fermentation, and the use of seawater in a much
more environmentally friendly process [52]. All these different generation fuels are com-
patible with the world’s transportation infrastructure and are a minor component of the
final mix of other fuels. Recently their demand has increased [53] due to their use as a
biofuel and as an active agent in asepsis and control of the new coronavirus [54].
The biochemical conversion pathway for bioethanol production can occur in steps that
add up to biomass pretreatment, hydrolysis, and fermentation, with a subsequent distilla-
tion of the final product [55]. We can summarize that 1G bioethanol requires only the fer-
mentation process of simple sugars. On the other hand, lignocellulosic and algae biomasses
require prior treatment and hydrolysis of polymeric carbohydrates to have their fermenta-
tive sugars converted into 2G and 3G bioethanol, respectively [56].
The most common microorganisms used for lignocellulose hydrolysis are filamentous
fungi (zygomycetes) [57]. They provide enzymes to degrade polymeric carbohydrates into
less complex sugars. Different raw materials treated with filamentous fungi can result in
biomass rich in protein, fat, and chitin/chitosan [43] with the potential for forming other
bioproducts and bioenergy [58]. The yeasts and bacteria that stand out among the microor-
ganisms studied for fermentation of monomeric sugars into bioethanol are Saccharomyces
cerevisiae and Zymomonas mobilis, respectively [59]. We also find research with Pichia stip-
ites, Kluyveromyces fagilis, and Candida shehatae, all yeasts [60]; and bacteria of the genera
Aerobacter, Aeromonas, Bacillus, Bacteroides, Clostridium, Erwinia, Klebsiella, and
Thermoanaerobacter [61, 62–64].
The microbial bioreactors act as essential equipment in the fermentation process of the
simple sugars into these three different ethanol generations. In general, industries have
experience in performing alcoholic fermentation in batches. Among the advantages pro-
vided is the knowledge acquired about this operation, besides the efficiency in ethanol
production and lower risk of contamination [65]. However, the configuration the bioreac-
tor acquires after each batch in sterilization and cleaning is usually an economic constraint.
The fermentation also explores the fed-batch mode. It starts with a low substrate concen-
tration, followed by a gradual increase of that substrate at a suitable interval to maintain
the metabolic process of the cells. Then, the removal of the final product occurs at the end
of each batch [66]. Finally, fermentation bioreactors can receive substrate continuously
while the end product is concurrently removed [33]. This process has a higher risk of con-
tamination than fed-batch, and the cultures change over the long term. The advantage is
the economic gains since the continuous increase of substrate does not change the working
volumes of the bioreactor.
For 3G bioethanol generation, there are more significant challenges when associated
with algae cultivation. We can observe cultivation in open or closed systems, such as pho-
tobioreactors. In both cases, there are demands for light, CO2, water, and organic nutrients
to obtain the algae [67]. Photobioreactors are usually more expensive, but they obtain
higher biomass yields and lower water costs [68]. Illuminated bubble columns, fat plate,
tubular, and stirred tank bioreactors are already being explored at the lab scale. All with
their own challenges and perspectives for scale-up to industrial scale [69, 70].
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9.6.2 Biodiesel
Biodiesel is any biofuel equivalent to diesel derived from biological material. Biodiesel can
be an excellent alternative to petroleum diesel for several reasons, as it is biodegradable,
low toxicity [71, 72], lower combustion emissions resulting in lower in the release of car-
bon dioxide, aromatics, or other environmentally harmful chemicals [37, 73]. In addition,
such characteristics make biodiesel provide improved combustion compared to petroleum-
based diesel due to its high oxygen content, presenting a closed carbon cycle, which does
not contribute to global warming [37].
Biodiesel is renewable feedstock fuel constituted of the monoalkyl esters of long-chain
fatty acids [74]. Its production requires the transesterification and esterification of animal
or vegetable fats and oils from alcohols such as methanol or ethanol. Briefly, fats containing
three fatty acids and glycerol alcohol are submitted to the transesterification process under
heat in acid and base catalyst [75]. The most used raw material is vegetables, divided into
two categories of oils [72]. The first is edible, such as coconut oil, soybean, peanut, palm,
and rapeseed. Second, nonedibles. They come from algae, Karanja, sea-mangoes, jatropha,
and halophytes [72]. First-generation biodiesel is produced mainly from edible oils, about
95%. In this way, there are impacts on global food markets and food security for populations
that use crops such as palm and soy for food [76]. Biodiesel production from inedible oil-
seeds has been extensively investigated in recent years. Residues from cooking oils, restau-
rant fat, and animal fats [77], like beef tallow and lard [78], have also been considered raw
materials to produce second-generation (2G) biodiesel.
An alternative to the problem involving the main raw materials of biodiesel production and
the limit of arable land is the use of oleaginous microorganisms [79]. Using these microor-
ganisms is attractive because it reduces the need for arable soils and the cultivation period,
promoting an increase in lipid production and presenting similarity when compared to the
fatty acids of vegetable oils [80, 81]. Examples of these oleaginous microorganisms are micro-
algae, yeasts, and bacteria, living beings capable of accumulating high concentrations of
lipids, greater than 20%, and metabolizing organic carbon sources [35, 79, 82]. Among them,
microalgae attract attention for their greater photosynthetic efficiency, for producing more
biomass, and for growing very quickly when compared to other energy crops [78]. Chlorella,
Neochloris, Nannochloropsis, and Scenedesmus are the most common microalgae strains,
which produce lipid content of 40–60% of their total cell dry weight [84–87].
Producing biodiesel is a significant obstacle to large-scale commercial use, mainly due to
the high cost of feeding vegetable oils [88] and in relation to the aspects that are linked to
the efficiency and sustainability of these first and 2G biodiesel raw materials [89]. On the
other hand, third-generation (3G) biodiesel raw materials have microalgae as their main
input and have emerged as one of the most promising alternative sources of lipids for bio-
diesel production. This is due to the fact that microalgae have high efficiency in photosyn-
thesis, in the manufacture of biomass, and due to their higher growth rates [90, 91].
These algae are a large group of organisms that carry out photosynthesis produced
through photobioreactors. As we saw earlier, a photobioreactor is a closed, lighted culture
system designed to control biomass production. Different types of photobioreactors have
been developed for algae production and have been described below. Regardless of the type
of reactor, its development requires detailed knowledge of light distribution, mass transfer,
shear stress, scalability, and algal cell biology [92].
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9.6 Biofuel 197
1) The vertical tubular outdoor bioreactor has a large surface area of illumination, composed
of transparent vertical tubes to allow light penetration and are subdivided into bubble
column and airlift [92]. As a drawback of this bioreactor, we can cite the poor mass
transfer [93, 94].
2) The flat panel bioreactor has a cuboidal shape with a minimal light path. Usually, manu-
facturing materials range from glass, plexiglass, and polycarbonate. This bioreactor has
a high surface-to-volume ratio and open gas release systems [93]. We observe the stir-
ring of the tanks pneumatically (bubble column) or mechanically.
3) The horizontal tube bioreactor comes in shapes ranging from a parallel set of tubes, loop,
alpha, inclined tube, or horizontal. Its design provides high light conversion
efficiency [92].
4) The helical bioreactor is a unique horizontal bioreactor because it presents a small-
diameter flexible coiled transparent tube with a separate or attached degassing unit.
A centrifugal pump drives the culture through a long line to the degassing team [84, 92]
5) The stirred tank is a conventional bioreactor, with mechanical agitation, transformed
into a photobioreactor through external lighting provided by fluorescent lamps or opti-
cal fibers. We can see that the adaptation does not allow a high surface area for light
contact and, consequently, affects the biomass productivity [92].
9.6.3 Butanol
It is a second-generation biofuel with attractive characteristics, including its high energy
density, low volatility, and the possibility of being applied as a drop-in fuel without any
changes in combustion engines and the supply infrastructure [95, 96]. In addition, butanol
has been gaining interest among researchers in the automotive and internal combustion
engine industries due to strict gaseous emission standards. The potential of butanol as a
motor fuel was very attractive for its production [97], but it is an industrially important
chemical product also in the application as essential element in the paint industry, paints,
polymers, plastics, and solvents [98, 99].
The bioproduction of butanol has historically been carried out by the fermentation of
acetone–butanol–ethanol, known as acetone, butanol, and ethanol (ABE) fermentation,
using the Clostridium spp. [95, 100, 101]. In the last decades, many attempts have been made
to improve the performance of ABE fermentation through solventogenic clostridia, that is
through metabolic engineering [100, 102]. Research investigated the association of altera-
tions in fermentation activities and the development of strains from the manipulation of
microorganisms to obtain the levels, yield, and productivity of butanol required to meet the
industry’s competitiveness [101]. Research involving the co-cultivation of microorganisms
has also been carried out as an alternative to overcome some challenges in the technical and
economic aspects of the manufacture of biofuels. The cultivation of Clostridium acetobutyli-
cum associated with Trichoderma viride was studied in order to produce butanol through
ABE in wheat straw [103]. Another example is the co-cultivation of the fungus S. cerevisiae
associated with C. acetobutylicum [104] and Clostridium beijerinckii [105].
In this context, clostridia are gram-positive, anaerobic bacteria, natural producers of a
wide range of solvents, butanol, ethanol, acetone, isopropanol, 1,3-propanediol,
2,3-butanediol, and hexanol, of which the most important ones are acetone, butanol, and
ethanol. Solventogenic clostridia such as C. acetobutylicum and C. beijerinckii can produce
c09.indd 197 05/26/2023 19:16:15

ABE simultaneously at an approximately 3 : 6 : 1 ratio [100]. The primary substrates for the
industrial fermentation of ABE come from crops, which are the basis of human food, such
as corn and sugarcane, which may imply competition for the supply of these foods and,
consequently, cause an increase in food prices [101], a problem previously reported in the
section on biodiesel.
The fluidized or fixed bed bioreactors can operate in different ways in ABE production.
However, the productivity of batch processes is low because bacterial growth is rapidly
inhibited, and continuous fermentation has a low growth rate [106], leading to cell elimi-
nation at high dilution rates. Thus, continuous fermentation with immobilized cells can
improve metabolic activity and ABE production while decreasing cell loss from the
bioreactor [107].
In addition, techno-economic analysis of n-butanol production from lignocellulosic bio-
mass hydrolysates shows the potential for industrial purposes [108]. Engineered Clostridium
tyrobutyricum was immobilized in a fibrous-bed bioreactor, characterized by a glass col-
umn surrounded by a spiral fibrous matrix connected to a stirred tank reactor, and proved
stable for long-term operation [108]. This result indicates that the fermentation of different
lignocellulosic inputs can directly contribute to the manufacture of biofuels from low-cost
renewable raw materials [108].
9.6.4 Biogas and Methane

The use of bioreactors in biogas production occurs through anaerobic digestion of biomass.
Microorganisms metabolize different substrates, whether animal, vegetable, residual, or
not. The product generated is composed mainly of methane and carbon dioxide [109].
Chemical reactions occur at different stages in biogas production. It starts with hydrolysis,
acidification, acetate production, and continues to the generation of methane itself [110].
Organisms capable of producing significant amounts of methane are called methanogens.
They are unique in terms of metabolism and have a high diversity [111]. We know that the
microbial community acting in methanogenesis strongly depends on the substrate type.
Karakashev et al. [112] indicated that Methanosaetaceae are usually the majority in digest-
ers treating sludge, while digesters are operating with solid waste host more representatives
of Methanosaetaceae.
Biogas brings environmental advantages due to its renewable character and lower emis-
sion of GHGs. The methane present in biogas contains four hydrogen atoms and only one
carbon atom, so the gases emitted during combustion are mostly water vapor [113]. The
general applications of biogas vary according to the system used and are summarized
below [114]. Its use can generate electrical energy through internal combustion engines or
gas turbine; generate heat via direct combustion in boilers; or even generate both through
Otto gas engines, pilot injection gas engines, and Sterling engines. Biogas enhancement is
also an application route and can produce biomethane or hydrogen. Both serve as biofuel
for vehicles. In addition, biogas can supply fuel cells, which is a device that converts chem-
ical energy directly into electricity and heat [115]. There is the feasibility of practical appli-
cation with a single-chamber air-cathode microbial fuel cell integrated into an anaerobic
membrane bioreactor system to improve methane production [116]. However, the
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9.6 Biofuel 199
number of plants based on fuel cells (most pilots) that generate electricity from biogas is
incipient [114].
Recently evaluated on the pilot scale, a bioreactor design for methane production/
optimization shows efficiency for recovering biomethane from organic wastes. The best
performance in biomethane production was when the substrates were co-digested, pretreated,
or with the presence of inoculum [117]. We can also find anaerobic bioreactors used for
research on treating domestic and industrial waste in landfills, favoring the large-scale
implementation of efficient systems for methane production [118].
Systems with more than one phase are standard for producing methane. In the studies by
Jung et al. [119], food waste treatment occurs in a two-stage dynamic membrane bioreactor,
where there was the presence of a continuously stirred tank bioreactor with a submerged
immobilized cells. It was possible to observe the recovery of chemical energy from food
wastes close to 80%. Another example of an integrated system is a two-stage up-flow
anaerobic bioreactor with an immobilized fixed cell [120]. The researchers evaluated the
efficiency and indicated a methane production rate of 15.63 L CH4 d−1 in a short hydraulic
retention time (one day).
9.6.5 Hydrogen
Hydrogen is not a resource per se. It is understood as an energy carrier that must be manufac-
tured or derived from a primary energy resource [121] and can be used in land and sea trans-
port [122]. Together with fuel cell technology, it is possible to take advantage of hydrogen in
applications that include the rail sector in medium and heavy trucks. This alternative fuel prom-
ises to deal with crucial energy challenges and decarbonize potential energy systems [122].
Currently, molecular hydrogen is produced mainly by nonrenewable materials (fossil fuels), but
the production of hydrogen from biomass by biological means is an emerging technology
because it is sustainable and ecologically correct [123, 124]. Biohydrogen is considered a fuel
with good prospects due to its powerful energy explosion and attractive ecological characteristics
since the generation of biohydrogen does not use fossil fuels as raw material [3].
Recent studies have shown that among the different existing methodologies for hydrogen
production, dark fermentation has gained prominence and features Clostridium species as
protagonists [125]. It is a method by which anaerobic microorganisms use carbohydrate-
rich substrates as raw material for hydrogen production [125]. In general, Clostridium spp.,
Enterobacter spp., Bacillus spp., Escherichia coli, and Klebsiella spp. are among the main
producing microorganisms [126].
Biohydrogen production from microbial processes has received much attention due to its
potential for clean, renewable, inexhaustible, and low-cost energy [124]. There is a diversity
of research in the literature involving the production of hydrogen through residual waters
and food or agricultural waste [3, 127]. Some studies are exploring the potential for biohy-
drogen production in horizontal and vertical continuous stirred tank reactors [3], in con-
stant bioreactors such as continuously stirred tank reactors [128], and an up-flow anaerobic
sludge blanket reactor [129].
In recent years, reactors with microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) have been investigated
as a new technique to produce hydrogen from a wide variety of substrates. Electrically
c09.indd 199 05/26/2023 19:16:15

powered MECs enable the production of hydrogen through the conversion of a variety of
organic substrates [123, 130]. MECs are capable of over 90% efficient hydrogen produc-
tion [131]. However, its performance is directly linked to aspects such as the type of micro-
organism, type of membrane used, applied potential range, substrate composition and
concentration, and MEC design [123]. Also, there are recent papers on the improvement of
biohydrogen production with the aid of a packaged filter bioreactor on a laboratory
scale [132]. The equipment used was made of transparent glass with a working volume of
300 mL and equipped with a magnetic stirrer. The research used sulfite-rich organic efflu-
ent from a beverage manufacturer’s washing process. The results indicated that the process
is stable and that the bioreactor associated with seed sludge in dark fermentation is capable
of degrading the organic matter of these effluents with a short hydraulic retention time and
a high rate of organic load [132].
9.6.6 Biohythane
The blend of hydrogen and methane can supply biohythane, a gaseous mixture. This prod-
uct is interesting due to its environmental advantages, with lower emission of greenhouse
gases (CO, CO2, and NOx), in addition to having high thermal efficiency [127, 133]. The
hythane production chain is linked to the generation of fuels for vehicles. For its produc-
tion, the independent obtainment of hydrogen and methane can come from fossil sources,
which makes the process environmentally and economically unsustainable. In addition,
the biological production of biohythane from renewable biomass can occur via fermenta-
tion, using bacteria such as the Labrys portucalensis group, bringing environmental and
sustainability advantages [134].
A recent study by Chu et al. [135] used two continuously stirred anaerobic bioreactors to
manufacture two-stage biohythane gaseous fuel under mesophilic conditions (Figure 9.5).
This system of anaerobic bioreactors could be a very promising discovery to achieve environ-
mental sustainability goals, in an economically and socially acceptable way, in developing
H2/CO2 CH4/CO2
Biohythane
(H2/CH4/CO2)
Exctracted
to juice
Methanogenis
bacteria
Pineapple peel
H2 production
bacteria
A novel of biohythane
gaseous fuel
Figure 9.5 Production of biohythane from pineapple peels in continuous two-stage anaerobic
reactors. Source: Chu et al. [135] / Elsevier.
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Reference 201
countries. We cite other research focusing on the production of biohythane through two stages
involving anaerobic digestion, using different forms of pretreatment of residual biomass for
hydrolysis, such as acid-thermal pretreatment [136] and thermophilic fermentation [137].
This type of two-stage system could be a cost-effective way to generate a new gaseous
automotive fuel from agro-industrial waste. However, it is still necessary to adapt the dis-
tribution system to make possible the automotive transition from nonrenewable to renew-
able fuel. In that way, more considerable investments in optimizing the biohythane
distribution are required for vehicles [133].
9.7 Considerations and Future Perspectives
The diversity of bioreactors for biofuels is associated with the desired end product so that the
microorganisms used, forms of operation, and kinetics of the bioprocess are taken into con-
sideration. Thus, advances in bioreactor development are associated with biotechnology and
process engineering. At the same time, implementing these bioreactors on a pilot and indus-
trial scales must consider technical and economic aspects. There are successful examples of
energy feedstocks, especially first-generation biofuels, produced on these scales. In addition,
there is the growth potential for 2 and 3G biofuels given the need to mitigate the environ-
mental impact of fossil fuels and to promote competition with food production.
Generally, we know that the production of biofuels helps in global energy security and is
among the strategies of various governments to reduce their emissions of GHGs, without
harming their production and consumption activities. Therefore, economic feasibility stud-
ies must be aligned with technical issues when establishing the best biomass conversion
processes into biofuels within the regional and global reality. Integrating bioreactors with
other biomass conversion processes and expanding the benefits generated is also possible.
In addition, government incentives can favor the implementation of biofuel production
plants and improve the infrastructure necessary for distribution and use by final consumers.
In conclusion, biofuel technology is moving ever closer to the frontier of knowledge.
Technical problems are overcome, creating a cleaner, more renewable, and efficient energy
base. Thus, government policies and preferences play an essential role in building the long-
term future of this energy, and it is up to them to favor changes in the generation system
and ensure the fundamental elements of biofuel supply.
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211
10
Potential Microbial Bioresources for Functional Sugar Molecules

Satya Narayan Patel, Sweety Sharma, Ashish Kumar Singh, and Sudhir P. Singh
Center of Innovative and Applied Bioprocessing (DBT-CIAB), Mohali, Punjab, India
10.1 Introduction
Functional sugars refer to sugar molecules that have distinctive structural and
physiological attributes but are available in significantly fewer quantities in nature;
therefore, they are called as rare sugar [1]. The International Society of Rare Sugars
(ISRS) defined rare sugars as “monosaccharides and their derivatives that hardly exist in
nature.” Functional sugars are emerging as a preferred food ingredient with a sweet
taste, significantly low caloric value, and various health benefits [2]. The United States
Food and Drug Administration (US-FDA) has accepted many functional sugars as
generally recognized as safe (GRAS) status. The functional properties and health
benefits of rare sugars offer their wide applications in the food, cosmetic, nutraceuticals,
and pharmaceutical industries [3].
Further, functional sugars and their derivatives are potential candidates as antiviral and
anticancer drugs [4]. The global functional sugar market was evaluated to be USD
2609.8 million in 2022, and by the end of 2029, it is projected to grow to USD 3469 million
(https://www.marketwatch.com/). Functional sugars are present in a minimal amount in
nature [5]. The low content of these functional sugars in the plant materials makes the
extraction process very difficult. The chemical synthesis of functional sugar is possible, but
the process suffers from harsh reaction conditions, by-product formation, limited yield,
environmentally unfriendly, expensive starting raw materials, and safety risks [6]. Many
microbial resources have been explored for genes encoding the enzymes having the poten-
tial to catalyze rare sugar biosynthesis [7, 8]. The enzymatic production of rare sugars has
many advantages over chemical processes, e.g. simplicity of the process, environmentally
friendliness, lower cost, and straightforward catalysis. Efficient enzyme variants have
been developed by following gene mining and mutagenesis approaches for rare sugar
biosynthesis.

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212 10 Potential Microbial Bioresources for Functional Sugar Molecules
d-Allulose
d-Tagatose
d-Allose
Functional
sugars Trehalose
d-Talose
Turanose Trehalulose
Figure 10.1 An array of high-value natural functional sugar molecules.
Moreover, immobilized enzymes or enzyme systems usually improve catalytic perfor-

mance by contributing to thermal and storage stability. Whole-cell catalysis is a fermentation-
based approach to manufacturing functional sugars [3]. Using whole-cell reactions for
synthesizing d-allulose is advantageous over enzyme-based reactions in many ways;
enzyme purification steps are reduced, the cellular microenvironment provides suitable
conditions for cofactor regeneration, enzymes remain protected from harsh reaction condi-
tions, etc. [9]. This chapter discusses the biosynthesis and health attributes of functional
sugars, e.g. d-allulose, d-tagatose, Trehalose, Turanose, Trehalulose, d-allose, and d-talose
(Figure 10.1 and Table 10.1).
10.2
d-Allulose
d-Allulose (also known as d-psicose) is a functional sugar, which rarely occurs in nature.
d-Allulose is a C-3 epimer of d-fructose. It has ultralow calories (0.4 kcal/g) with a sweetness
of about 70% compared to table sugar (i.e. sucrose) [10]. Its presence has been reported in
traces in a few plant species, such as wheat [11], Itea plants [12], and cane molasses [13]. In
addition, a few high sugar-containing foods like candy and sauces may undergo an isomeri-
zation reaction during heating, resulting in the synthesis of a trace amount of d-allulose [14].
Recently, several researchers have reported d-allulose to have numerous physiological ben-
efits such as improvement in serum lipid metabolism, suppression of blood glucose eleva-
tion, antiobesity, antioxidant properties, decrease in body fat accumulation, rheological
properties, and neuroprotective activity [15–19]. Therefore, there is an increasing prefer-
ence for d-allulose in the food industry mainly due to being a sweet sugar with low-calorie,
health benefactions, pleasant taste via Maillard reaction, and good gelling proper-
ties [20–22]. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA, US) has accorded it a safe food
ingredient (FDA, GRAS Notice 400, 498, 624, 647, and 693) and exempted it from the total
added sugars count in the “Supplement Facts” nutrition information [23]. In 2020, the
c10.indd 212 05/26/2023 19:16:23

10.2 D-Allulose 213
Table 10.1 Summary of the common properties and physiological application of the
functional sugars.
Functional
sugar Properties and physiological application
d-Allulose Nearly zero calorie sweetener, low glycemic, decreases the body fat accumulation,
improves serum lipid metabolism, suppression of blood glucose elevation,
anti-obesity, antioxidant, rheological properties, and neuro-protective activity
d-Tagatose Low-calorie sweetener, low glycemic, non-cariogenicity, antidiabetic and obesity
effect, reducing cholesterol, preventing colon cancer, and prebiotic action
Trehalose Stabilizer for the proteins and cell membrane, protection of the organism against
drought, anti-stress agent in hyperthermia, osmotic stress, reduced cariogenic
activity, enhancing the shelf life of food item, reduces the progression of insulin
resistant, antioxidant property, cryopreservation of blood stem cells and sperm
cells without hampering cell viability
Turanose Nearly zero calorie sweetener, being a sugar of non-cariogenic nature, turanose
consumption can help avoid the dental plaque to erode the enamel, low glycemic
effect, and suppressive effect of lipid accumulation in adipose tissues
Trehalulose Considered as s bioactive compound and non-carcinogenic sweetener, low
glycemic index with nearly 70% of the sweetness of sucrose. It also shows several
beneficial properties like antioxidant, antidiabetic, and high solubility in water,
attributed to its potential food and pharmacological applications
d-Allose Nearly low-calorie sugar, antioxidant, antitumor, antihypertension, protection
from ischemic perfusion injury, suppression of blood glucose elevation, etc.
d-Talose d-Talose and its derivatives, specifically its glycoconjugate derivatives, are well known
for antimicrobial (such as Caminoside A, Telbivudine, and Emtricitabine) and
anticancer activities. The adenine derivative of l-talose, i.e. l-talofuranosyladenine,
has shown promising activity against inhibiting leukemia. Moreover, the O2 and
O3 methylated forms of d-talose have been demonstrated to be submillimolar
inhibitors of galactose-binding galectin-8 and galectin-4 proteins that are
responsible for cancer and inflammation.
global market size of d-allulose was US$34 million, which could reach US$59 million by
2027 [13]. Thus, d-allulose has influenced substantial notice from researchers worldwide
and has an intense future in the food, nutraceutical, and pharmaceutical companies [24].
The isolation and extraction of d-allulose from natural sources are challenging and
economically unviable because of its very low concentration. Although chemical synthesis
of d-allulose from d-fructose is possible, the process is accompanied by the release of
unwanted byproducts. The complex reaction steps and chemical pollution make this pro-
cess non-environmentally friendly [24, 25]. Therefore, the enzymatic biosynthesis of d-
allulose from d-fructose is a promising strategy in view of industrial viability. Ketose
3-epimerase (KE) is the enzyme that reversibly catalyzes the epimerization of d-fructose at
the C-3 position into d-allulose. Four types of KEs have been demonstrated from various
microbial sources: d-tagatose 3-epimerase, l-ribulose 3-epimerase, d-fructose 3-epimerase,
and d-allulose 3-epimerase. The four KE types are named as per their maximum substrate
specificity toward the substrates, e.g. d-tagatose, l-ribulose, d-fructose, and d-allulose sub-
strate. However, the four types of KE have more or less similar attributes to catalytic
c10.indd 213 05/26/2023 19:16:23

transformation of d-fructose into d-allulose [26–28]. Till date, more than 26 KEs have been
characterized for the production of d-allulose from d-fructose from different microorganisms
viz., Pseudomonas cichorii [29], Caballeronia fortuita [28], Sinorhizobium sp. [30],
Christensenella minuta [31], Agrobacterium tumefaciens [32], Clostridium cellulolyticum
H10 [33], Clostridium bolteae [34], Ruminococcus sp. [35], Clostridium sp.[36], Clostridium
scindens [37], Desmospora sp. 8437 [38], Treponema primitia ZAS-1 [39], Dorea sp.
CAG317 [40], Arthrobacter globiformis [41], Flavonifractor plautii [42], Paenibacillus sene-
galensis [43], Agrobacterium sp. ATCC 31749 [44], Rhodopirellula baltica [45], Staphylococcus
aureus [46], DaeM [47], Bacillus sp. (DaeB) [26], Halanaerobium congolense [48], Pirellula
sp. [49], Thermoclostridium caenicola [50], Rhodobacter sphaeroides, and Mesorhizobium
loti [51] (Table 10.2).
Table 10.2 Microbial ketose 3-epimerase for d-allulose production with biochemical properties.
Optimum Optimum
Organism temperatue (°C) pH Half-life (min) Conversion (%) Reference
Pseudomonas cichorii 60 7.5 NR 20 : 80 (30 °C) [29]

Caballeronia fortuita 65 7.5 63 (60 °C) 28.1 : 71.9 [28]
307 (55 °C)
Christensenella minuta 50 6.0 40 (50 °C) 30 : 70 [31]
Agrobacterium 50 8.0 8.9 (55 °C) 32 : 68 (30 °C) [32]
tumefaciens 64 (50 °C)
Clostridium 55 8.0 408 (60 °C) 32 : 68 [33]
cellulolyticum
Ruminococcus sp. 60 7.5–8.0 ̴96 (60 °C) 28 : 72 [35]
Clostridium scindens 60 7.5 50 (60 °C) 28 : 72 [37]
108 (50 °C)
Clostridium sp. 65 8.0 15 (60 °C) 28 : 72 (65 °C) [36]
Desmospora sp. 60 7.5 120 (50 °C) 30 : 70 [38]
Clostridium bolteae 55 7.0 156 (55 °C) 32 : 68 (60 °C) [34]
Dorea sp. 70 6.0 30 (60 °C) 30 : 70 (70 °C) [40]
Treponema primitia 70 8.0 30 (50 °C) 28 : 72 [39]
Flavonifractor plautii 65 7.0 40 (65 °C) 31 : 69 [42]
Arthrobacter globiformis 70 7.0–8.0 NA 27 : 73 (70 °C) [41]
Agrobacterium sp. 55–60 7.5–8.0 267 (55 °C) 30 : 70 [44]
28.2 (60 °C)
3.8 (65 °C)
Paenibacillus 55 8.0 140 (60 °C) 30 : 70 [43]
senegalensis
Staphylococcus aureus 70 7.5 120 (70 °C) 38.9 : 61.1 [46]
Rhodopirellula baltica 60 8.0 52 (60 °C) 28.6 : 61.4 [45]
c10.indd 214 05/26/2023 19:16:24

10.3 D-Allulose 215
Optimum Optimum
Organism temperatue (°C) pH Half-life (min) Conversion (%) Reference
DaeM (from 80 7.0 9900 (60 °C) 31 : 69 [47]

metagenome) 3240 (70 °C)
49 (80 °C)
Bacillus sp. (DaeB) 55 8.0 36,000 28.5 : 71.5 [26]
(50 °C)
1320 (55 °C)
Halanaerobium 70 8.0 66 (70 °C) 35 : 65 [48]
congolense
Pirellula sp. 60 7.5 360 (60 °C) 30 : 70 [49]
Thermoclostridium 65 7.5 816 (50 °C) 28 : 72 [50]
caenicola
Rhodobacter sphaeroides 40 9.0 60 (50 °C) 23 : 77 (40 °C) [52]
NA, not available.
KEs have been demonstrated to show activity at temperature and pH ranges of 50–80 °C
and 7–9, respectively [25, 47]. d-Allulose 3-epimerase can be employed for conversion of
fructose present in plant biomass or agro-industrial by-products into d-allulose [53–55].
A higher reaction temperature is advisable not only to avoid contamination issues but also
to decrease the viscosity and increase the substrate’s solubility, which favors the reaction
kinetics. Most of the KEs are reported to achieve conversion yield of 30–33% from d-
fructose to d-allulose [32, 47]. Recently, d-allulose 3-epimerase has been expressed in food-
safe microorganisms such as Bacillus subtilis [47, 56], Saccharomyces cerevisiae [57], and
Corynebacterium glutamicum [2, 43]. Further, multienzyme cascade systems have also
been developed to convert high-calorie sugars, like sucrose, d-glucose, and d-fructose
derived from fruit juices or other sources, into d-allulose [49]. The microbial cells were
engineered with d-allulose-3-epimerase expression constructs and employed as a micro-
bial cell factory to produce d-allulose utilizing d-fructose. These whole-cell systems pro-
duce d-allulose with a conversion in the range of 30–32% [42, 47]. The use of a cell factory
for d-allulose biosynthesis avoids cell disruption, enzyme extraction, and purification
steps. However, d-allulose may be considered a GMO-derived product, as it is directly
recovered from the recombinant cell. Using purified enzyme or immobilized enzyme, fol-
lowed by making the enzymatic product, d-allulose, free from any enzyme contamination,
has a greater chance for consumption acceptability.
10.3
d-Tagatose
d-Tagatose is a naturally occurring ketohexose, an isomer of d-galactose and C-4 epimer of

d-fructose. It is counted as a rare sugar due to its limited existence in nature [55]. It is natu-
rally found mainly as a constituent of gum exudate from a tropical tree (Sterculia setigera)
c10.indd 215 05/26/2023 19:16:24

and some lichens. It has nearly 92% sweetness but only 38% caloric value of sucrose [59,
60]. Since it received the GRAS status from US-FDA regulation, d-tagatose became a
favorable functional sweetener in the food as well as pharmaceutical industries. It has been
found useful as a sweet ingredient in soft drinks, cereals, yogurt, diabetes-specific food,
meat product, cough syrups, oral disinfectants, candies, and confectionery, for enhancing
flavors and lowering calories [61, 62]. d-Tagatose has gained global awareness due to its
ability to reduce cholesterol levels, treat type II obesity, prevent colon cancer, have prebiotic
activity, and so on [63].
d-Tagatose can be synthesized by biological and chemical routes, where researchers
produce d-tagatose using the substrate, d-galactose, via a chemical process using potas-
sium aluminate, alkaline earth, or soluble alkali metal salt. However, chemical methods
have a few limitations, such as the formation of by-products, difficult purification steps,
and environmental pollution [64]. On the other hand, biological methods offer an eco-
friendly approach in which d-galactose is enzymatically converted into d-tagatose by the
biocatalyst, l-arabinose isomerase (EC 5.3.1.4; L-AI) [65]. Many attempts have been
made for the discovery of novel L-AIs with a high-temperature tolerance and catalytic
efficiency from several natural and engineered microorganisms (Table 10.3). Till date,
more than 30 L-AIs have been specified from different microorganisms, such as
Escherichia coli [66], Pediococcus pentosaceus [67], Bacillus coagulans NL01 [62], Shigella
flexneri [68], Bacillus stearothermophilus IAM1101 [69], Acidothermus cellulolyticus
Table 10.3 Microbial l-arabinose isomerase for d-tagatose biosynthesis with its
biochemical properties.
Temperature
Microbial sources Metal ions optima (°C) pH optima Reference
Escherichia coli Mn2+ 30 8 [66]

2+ 2+
Pediococcus Pentosaceus PC-5 Co , Mn 50 6 [67]
Bacillus coagulans NL01 Co2+, Mn2+ 60 7.5 [62]
2+ 2+
Shigella flexneri Co , Mn 40 8 [68]
Bacillus stearothermophilus Mn2+ 65 7.5 [69]
IAM1101
Acidothermus cellulolyticus ATCC Co2+, Mn2+ 75 7.5 [70]
43068
Anoxybacillus flavithermus Ni2+ 95 9.5–10.5 [71]
2+
Alicyclobacillus hesperidum Co 70 7 [72]
URH17-3-68
Thermoanaerobacterium saccharolyticum Co2+, Mn2+ 70 7–7.5 [73]
NTOU1
Thermotoga neapolitana Co2+, Mn2+ 85 7 [74]
2+ 2+
Thermotoga maritime Co , Mn 90 7–7.5 [72]
NA, not available.
c10.indd 216 05/26/2023 19:16:24

10.4 Trehalos 217
ATCC 43068 [70], Anoxybacillus flavithermus [71], Alicyclobacillus hesperidum

URH17-3-68 [72], Thermoanaerobacterium saccharolyticum NTOU1[73], and Thermotoga
neapolitana [74] for d-tagatose formation. Most of the L-AIs enzymes are active at higher
temperatures, optima ranging from 60 to 95 °C and neutral pH. Moreover, all the reported
L-AIs require divalent metal ions, namely Co2+ and Mn2+, for stability and activity [75].
However, for the production of d-tagatose at the industrial level, the enzyme, L-AI, needs
to function at acidic pH for reduced by-product formation. Also, enzymatic reactions
should be conducted without additional metal ions, mainly Co2+ ions, because it is unac-
ceptable for food applications [75]. At elevated temperatures, the reversible reaction
between d-galactose and d-tagatose is shifted toward d-tagatose, so biocatalysts with
activity at higher temperatures are favored. Thus, the study of l-arabinose isomerases
from thermophilic and hyper-thermophilic microbes is of special interest for the biocata-
lytic production of d-tagatose [76].
The higher bioconversion of d-tagatose from d-galactose has been demonstrated by
employing l-arabinose isomerase from Lactobacillus fermentum expressed at the surface of
B. subtilis cell, achieving about 75% conversion in 24 hours at 70 °C [77]. L-AI from
T. neapolitana produced d-tagatose having a conversion yield close to 68% at 80 °C [74].
Several generally regarded as safe (GRAS) microorganisms, such as C. glutamicum KCTC
13032, B. subtilis 168, Lactococcus lactis, and Lactobacillus delbrueckii, have been used for
d-tagatose production, with the conversion yield in the range of 24–75%. Several types of
the matrix have been examined for the immobilization of L-AIs viz., alginate, calcium
alginate, glutaraldehyde, polyethyleneimine, chitopearl beads, and agarose, experiencing
improvement toward thermal stability and recyclability [58, 78]. Nevertheless, research
gaps still exist, e.g. the biocatalytic affinity of l-arabinose isomerase for d-galactose is
comparatively low as compared to its natural substrate l-arabinose. The combination of
d-tagatose and d-galactose can be purified by applying simulated moving bed chromatog-
raphy (SSMB) (Patent No. CN103992362A) and by employing S. cerevisiae that can consume
d-galactose from the reaction mixture, obtaining about 95% pure d-tagatose [79]. However,
the downstream processing and purification of the reaction product is a challenge due to
the analogous property of d-tagatose and d-galactose.
10.4 Trehalose
Trehalose or α-d-glucopyranosyl-(1→1)-α-d-glucopyranoside is a naturally occurring non-

reducing di-saccharide. It is made up of two glucose units linked with an α,α-1,1-glycosidic
bond [80]. Naturally, it is available in a wide number of organisms, e.g. insects, nematodes,
yeasts, mycobacteria, and in plants. It is also known as mushroom sugar or mycose because
edible mushrooms carry a high content of trehalose [81]. However, it has been found in
many vertebrates but is not ascertained in mammalian cells [82]. Recent studies suggested
many biological applications of trehalose, such as a stabilizer for the proteins and cell
membrane, protecting the organism during drought conditions by acting as a water replace-
ment or vitrifying agent, anti-stress agent in hyperthermia, hypothermia, and osmotic
stress. It is a part of the cell wall in Corynebacteria and Mycobacteria. It is a crucial energy
source in insects, utilized during flight [80, 82].
c10.indd 217 05/26/2023 19:16:24

Trehalose was accorded GRAS status by US-FDA in 2000 (GRN No. 000045) [83]. Its calo-
rific value is close to sucrose, nearly 4 kcal/g [84]. However, it shows 45% sweetness com-
pared to sucrose [85] and reduced cariogenic activity [86]. It is very stable in a broad range
of pHs because of its low-energy glycosidic bond in contrast to other disaccharides [82].
With these characteristics, trehalose is a favored candidate for flavor improvement in the
food industry [83]. The self-life of food items can also be enhanced with trehalose, and it
also prevents starch aging [87].
Furthermore, it decreases the freezing point of food products [83, 88]. Trehalose was
found to be an essential additive that could reduce the progression of insulin resistance [89]
and maintain the antioxidant property and polyphenol content of food products [90]. Due
to its high water retention capacity, it reduces water loss in pharmaceutical, food, and cos-
metic products [91]. Without hindering cell viability, trehalose is also applicable for the
cryopreservation of blood stem cells and sperm cells [92]. Furthermore, it is a favorable
molecule for preserving numerous types of tissues and organs for transplantation [93]. In
the cosmetic sector, it is used as a moisture-retaining agent, enhances storage constancy,
and as a suppressor of foul odor in lotion and creams [83].
Initially, it was chemically synthesized via a reaction involving ethylene oxide addition
using 2,3,4,5-tetra-O-acetyl-d-glucose and 3, 4, 6-tri-O-acetyl-1,2-anhydro-d-glucose as
substrates. However, the chemical production of trehalose has remained very expen-
sive [80, 94]. The biosynthesis of trehalose is feasible by applying a microbial enzymatic
system. The enzymatic synthesis of trehalose is favored due to its straightforward reaction
and low expenses. Three enzymatic pathways are involved in the biosynthesis of trehalose:
(i) maltooligosyl trehalose synthase and maltooligosyl trehalose trehalohydrolase,
(ii) trehalose-6-phosphate synthase and trehalose-6-phosphate phosphatase, and
(iii) trehalose synthase [95]. The biosynthesis of trehalose via trehalose synthase is straight-
forward as well as relatively economical. Trehalose synthase reversibly synthesizes treha-
lose from maltose [96]. Trehalose synthase belongs to glycosyl hydrolase 13 family of
enzymes [97]. To date, more than 22 trehalose synthases (from bacterial species) have been
biochemically optimized for trehalose biosynthesis (Table 10.4). Many microbial strains
demonstrated >80% yield of trehalose, such as Pimelobacter sp. (81.8%), Pseudomonas sp.
P8005 (>80%), Thermus thermophiles (80%), Thermus aquaticus (80.7%), and Thermus
caldophilus (86%) (Table 10.4). The immobilization techniques were used for enhanced
stability, improved activity, separation from the reaction, and enzyme reusability. The
immobilization of trehalose synthase has been demonstrated on the carrier of eupergit
C250L and silanized magnetic ferrous-ferric oxide. Immobilization of trehalose synthase
leads to improvement in thermal activity, stability, and pH stability of the enzyme [82, 113].
In addition, trehalose has also been synthesized using maltose as a substrate via the whole
cell Pseudomonas monteilii TBRC 1196, harboring trehalose synthase enzyme [114].
10.5 Turanose
Turanose (α-d -glucopyranosyl-1,3-d -fructofuranose), a reducing disaccharide, is a

sugar made up of glucose and fructose units with α-1,3-glycosidic linkages. It is an iso-
mer of sucrose. It naturally exists in honey as a rare sugar. Turanose displays 50%
c10.indd 218 05/26/2023 19:16:24

10.5 Turanos 219
Table 10.4 Biochemical property of trehalose synthase characterize from different

microbial sources.
Optimum Optimum
Organism pH temperature (°C) Trehalose yield (%) Reference
Corynebacterium 7 35 69% (25 °C) in 9 h [98]

glutamicum (ATCC
13032)
Thermobifida fusca 6.5 25 55–65% (25 °C) [99]
(DSM 43792)
Thermomonospora 6.5 35 70% (60 °C) in 24 h [97]
curvata (DSM 43183)
Rhodococcus opacus 7 25 67% (25 °C) [100]
(ATCC 41021)
Thermus antranikianii 7 60 76.8% (40 °C) in 8 h; 62.6% [101]
(60 °C) in 2 h
Deinococcus 7.6 40 60.4% (40 °C) in 24 h [102]
geothermalis (DSMZ
11300)
Thermobaculum 7.5 45 70% (45 °C) in 10 h [95]
terrenum
Meiothermus ruber 6.5 50 64% (20 °C), 61% (30 °C), [103]
56% (40 °C), 47% (50 °C) in
24 h
Pimelobacter sp. R48 7.5 20 81.8% at 5 °C in 48 h [104]
Pseudomonas sp. P8005 7.2 37 >80% (10–40 °C, 30 min) [105]
10% (50 °C, 30 min)
Thermus thermophilus 6.5 65 80% (65 °C) in 48 h [106]
(ATCC 33923)
Arthrobacter aurescens 6.5 35 60% (35 °C) in 8 h [107]
Picrophilus torridus 6 45 71 (20 °C), 68 (30 °C), 61 [107]

(DSM 9790) (45 °C), 50 (60 °C) in 72 h
Mycobacterium 7.2 37 42–45% (37 °C) in 6 h [109]
smegmatis
Enterobacter hormaechei 6 37 48% (40 °C) in 30 min [110]
Pseudomonas stutzeri 8.5 35 72% (35 °C) in 19 h [111]

CJ 38
Thermus aquaticus 6.5 65 80.7% (40 °C) in 48 h [104]
(ATCC 33923)
Thermus caldophilus 6.3 40 86% (40 °C) [112]
Hot spring metagenome 7 45 66% (30 °C), 63% (45 °C) in [80]
(TreM) 3 h; 70% (20 °C), 74% (5 °C)
in 12 h; 52% (45 °C) in
15 min
c10.indd 219 05/26/2023 19:16:24

sweetness compared to sucrose, and it is also known to hydrolyze more slowly than
sucrose and maltose [115, 116]. Being a sugar of non-cariogenic nature, turanose
consumption can help to avoid dental plaque eroding the enamel. It is considered a
functional sweetener due to the potentially low glycemic effect and suppression of lipid
accumulation in the adipose tissues [117]. Furthermore, turanose’s ability to reduce
inflammation in macrophages showed that it might have a role in preventing metabolic
disorders. [118]. Apart from health beneficiary applications, it can be favored as a
functional component in food-based companies. The aforementioned application of
turanose made it a promising candidate in the category of non-fermentable and low-
calorie next-generation sweetener. Turanose has also shown potential for identifying
Pompe’s disease of the kidneys, where it functions as an inhibitor of the enzyme
glucosidase [119].
The chemical production of turanose is a tedious process and demands a high energy
consumption [115, 116]. It can be enzymatically produced from the mixture of fructose and
α-cyclodextrin using a dual-enzyme system, including the glucoamylase and cyclomalto-
dextrin glucanotransferase from B. stearothermophilus [120]. Amylosucrase, a glycoside
hydrolases family 13 protein, offers a one-step enzymatic reaction for turanose biosynthesis
via the transglycosylation of sucrose [121].
Amylosucrase works as glucansucrase, which performs the transglycosylation reaction
without extra energy [122]. Interestingly, in the reaction where amylosucrase is catalyzed
via transglycosylation, the energy required to form a new α-1,4 glycosidic bond is fulfilled
by breaking glucosidic linkage (α1-β2) of the sucrose substrate [123]. Utilizing sucrose,
amylosucrase catalyzes the isomerization, hydrolysis, and polymerization reaction. The
significant enzymatic activity of amylosucrase is a catalytic-polymerization reaction
resulting in the biosynthesis of glucan chain-like amylose by joining glucose moieties
with α-1,4 linkages and, concurrently, losing the fructose moieties. Otherwise, an isomer-
ization reaction may occur, depending on the substrate’s concentration [124].
Amylosucrase, which hydrolyzes sucrose into d-fructose and d-glucose molecules at
higher concentrations, may accelerate the isomerization reaction by transglycosylating
d-glucosyl molecules into free d-fructose molecules. The synthesis of sucrose isomer,
turanose, utilizes fructose as an acceptor molecule during the transglycosylation of the
d-glucosyl moiety of sucrose [125]. In turanose, d-glucose and d-fructose molecules are
linked via α-1,3 linkage.
The first amylosucrase was characterized from Neisseria perflava [126]. Afterward, more
than 12 microbial amylosucrase were recognized and characterized from different bacterial
species, e.g. Arthrobacter chlorophenolicus [127], Alteromonas macleodii [128],
Methylomicrobium alcaliphilum [129], Bifidobacterium thermophilum [130], Cellulomonas
carbonis [131], Deinococcus geothermalis [132], Deinococcus radiodurans [133], Deinococcus
radiopugnans [134], Methylobacillus flagellatus [135], Neisseria subflava [125], Neisseria
polysaccharea [136], Synechococcus sp., [137], Truepera radiovictrix [138], and from ther-
mal aquatic habitat metagenome, Asmet (Table 10.5). Among these the most investigated
amylosucrases are from the N. polysaccharea. Most of the characterized amylosucrases dis-
play the highest activity between 30 and 50 °C temperature and 7–9 pH range [115]. The
highest turanose yield of about 74% was reported from N. polysaccharea amylosucrase [136]
(Table 10.5).
c10.indd 220 05/26/2023 19:16:24

10.6 Trehalulos 221
Table 10.5 Comparison of biochemical property of amylosucrase characterize

from difference sources.
Optimum Optimum Thermal

Name of organism temperature (°C) pH stability (min) Turanose yield Reference
Arthrobactor NR 8 104 (40 °C), 23%, 1M sucrose [127]

chlorophenicolicus 3 (45 °C)
Alteromonas 45 8 708 (40 °C), NR [128]
macleodii 30 (45 °C)
Bifidobacterium 50 7 23104 h (45 °C), 43.3% (1 M sucrose [130]
thermophilum 577 h (50 °C), + 1 M fructose) at
70.7 h (55 °C) 48 h, 35 °C
Cellulomonas 40 7 16620 (40 °C), NR [131]
carbonis 44 (45 °C)
Deinococcus 45 8 1686 (50 °C), 22% [132]
geothermalis 408 (55 °C)
Deinococcus 50 8 900 (30 °C) 15%, 100 mM [133]
radiodurans sucrose, 24 h
Deinococcus 40–45 8 25260 (40 °C), NR [134]
radiopugnans 198 (45 °C)
Methylobacillus 45 8.5 20 (50 °C), 15%, 48 h [135]
flagellatus 4 (55 °C)
Neisseria subflava 45 8 23104 (40 °C), 29% (1 M sucrose) [125]
546 (45 °C) in 24 h
Synechococcus sp. 30 6.5–7 NR NR [137]
Truepera 45 7.5 2400 (55 °C), NR [138]
radiovictrix 384 (60 °C),
73 (65 °C)
Neisseria 37 8 1260 (30 °C), 73.7% (2 M sucrose [136]
polysaccharea 25 (45 °C) + 0.75 M fructose)
in 80 h, 35 °C
Asmet. 60 9 60 (60 °C), 47% (1.5 M sucrose [115]
390 (55 °C) + 0.5 M fructose)
10.6 Trehalulose
Trehalulose, a ketose analogue of trehalose, is a disaccharide made up of glucose and fruc-

tose residues linked with an α-1,1 glycosidic bond [80]. This disaccharide is chemically
close to isomaltulose and has been considered a bioactive compound and non-carcinogenic
sweetener [139]. It is a rare sugar as it occurs in minute quantities in nature, primarily
reported in high amounts from stingless bees, around 13–44 g/100 g of honey [140, 141]. It
can be enzymatically synthesized from sucrose. However, it exhibits a low glycemic index
with nearly 70% of the sweetness of sucrose [142]. It also shows several beneficial proper-
ties like antioxidant, antidiabetic, and high solubility in water. Therefore, it has a future in
food and pharmacological applications [141]. Trehalulose may be synthesized chemically via
c10.indd 221 05/26/2023 19:16:24

solid-phase extraction followed by hydrophilic interaction chromatography [143]. However,

chemical synthesis suffers from a lack of specificity and by-product formation [142].
Various enzymes from different microbial sources have been reported to produce treha-
lulose from sucrose. Some of these enzymes are sucrose isomerase, isomaltulose synthase,
trehalose synthase, and amylosucrase. The enzyme sucrose isomerase isolated from
Erwinia rhapontici was first reported for the biosynthesis of trehalulose. Later, many micro-
bial sources were applied for sucrose isomerases with different selectivity. Some produce
trehalulose as a by-product of isomaltulose, and some biosynthesize only trehalulose [144].
Some microbial sources of sucrose isomerase enzymes are E. rhapontici NX-5, Ervinia sp.
D12, Klebsiella sp., Pseudomonas mesoacidophila MX-45, Serratia plymuthica ATCC15928,
and E. rhapontici NCPPB 1578, E. rhapontici DSM 4484, E. rhapontici NX-5, P. mesoaci-
dophila MX-45, Enterobacter sp. FMB-1, Protaminobacter rubrum CBS 57477, Pantoea
dispersa UQ68J, Klebsiella pneumoniae NK33-98-8, Klebsiella planticola UQ14S, and
Klebsiella sp. [145]. Apart from this, the enzyme has also been reported in Bemisia argenti-
folii, E. rhapontici, and whiteflies which naturally harbor this enzyme and produce
trehalulose-rich honey [146].
Trehalose synthase from T. aquaticus ATCC 33923 and Thermus thermophilus HB-8 also
show trehalulose synthesizing capacity, which later can synthesize trehalulose selectively,
i.e. without any by-product [142]. Amylosucrase catalyzes transglycosylation of d-glucosyl
moiety onto d-fructose molecule and biosynthesizing sucrose isomers, i.e. turanose or tre-
halulose. Amylosucrase enzyme was first discovered from N. perflava and later character-
ized from multiple microbial sources such as N. subflava, N. polysaccharea, B. thermophilum,
T. radiovictrix, M. alcaliphilum, C. carbonis, M. flagellates, Synchococcus sp., D. geotherma-
lis, A. macleodii, D. radiodurans, A. chlorophenolicus, and D. radiopugnans [80] and very
recently discovered from Deinococcus deserti [142]. Therefore, there is a need for genetic
engineering of microbial strains to develop a system that can selectively and efficiently
produce trehalulose.
10.7
d-Allose
d-Allose is a monosaccharide naturally present in trace amounts. It is an aldohexose and a

C-3 epimer of d-glucose. It is a bioactive compound and a potential low-calorie sugar
(approximately 80% sweet to sucrose and gives an energy value close to zero) [147]. A trace
amount of d-allose has been reported in human cord blood, whereas Indian seaweed
Halodule pinifolia contains about 3.7% d-allose [148, 149]. It has been extracted from the
African shrub Protea rubropilosa, Veronica filiformis, Mentzelia, and potato leaves. Several
medicinal herbs, such as Tamarindus indica, Acalypha hispida leaves, and Crataeva nurvala
have also been reported to contain an ultralow amount of free d-allose [150, 151]. Toxicity
tests performed in rats suggested nontoxicity of d-allose [152]. Several studies revealed
great pharmacological potentials of d-allose, such as antioxidant [153], antitumor [153],
antihypertension [154], protection from ischemic perfusion injury [155], and suppression
of blood glucose elevation [149]. The role of rare sugars has also been reported in plant
metabolisms, such as triggering molecules of rice defense against reactive oxygen spe-
cies [156], the regulator of plant immunity in tomatoes and other plants [157, 158], etc.
c10.indd 222 05/26/2023 19:16:24

10.7 D-Allose 223
Due to the above-mentioned applications of d-allose, it is emerging as an important

molecule in food and pharmaceutical industries and agriculture. Hence, there is a need for
mass production of this promising molecule to get more insights into its applications.
However, the extraction and isolation of d-allose from natural sources is a cumbersome
process, thus impractical to perform. There are both chemical and biological methods of
d-allose synthesis. The biological approach is preferred over the chemical method due to
several drawbacks associated with chemical synthesis. d-Allose can be produced biologi-
cally using the Izumoring approach through enzymatic and microbiological processes [159].
d-Allulose is bioconverted into d-allose by the enzyme l-rhamnose isomerase. The d-
allulose is also a rare sugar and an expensive substrate that can be obtained from d-fructose
by employing d-allulose 3-epimerase enzyme. d-Allulose 3-epimerase converts d-fructose
into d-allulose, which can further be used for d-allose production via l-rhamnose isomer-
ase catalysis. Many enzymes are known to transform d-allulose into d-allose, like l-
rhamnose isomerase, d-galactose-6-phosphate isomerase, d-ribose-5-phosphate isomerase,
and glucose-6-phosphate isomerase. However, d-allose mass production is done using l-
rhamnose isomerase [160]. d-Allulose to d-allose isomerization is reversibly catalyzed by
l-rhamnose isomerase. This enzyme has been characterized from T. saccharolyticum,
Thermotoga maritima, Caldicellulosiruptor saccharolyticus, Bacillus halodurans, M. loti,
Dictyoglomus turgidum, and B. subtilis [161] (Table 10.6).
It has been demonstrated that the temperature range for working d-allose-producing
enzymes is 65–85 °C, and the pH range is 7–9 [161] (Table 10.6). The higher reaction
Table 10.6 Microbial l-rhamnose isomerase for d-allose production with biochemical properties.
Optimum
temperature Optimum Conversion
Organism name (°C) pH Half-life (h) (%) Reference
Escherichia coli 60 7.6 0.1 (50 °C) NA [162]

Pseudomonas stutzeri 60 9 0.1 (50 °C) 25 [163]
Bacillus pallidus Y25 65 7 1 (60 °C) 35 [164]
Thermoanaerobacterium 75 7 2 (70 °C) 34 [165]
saccharolyticum
Thermotoga maritima 85 8 773 (75 °C) NA [166]
Mesorhizobium loti 60 9 >1 (50 °C) NA [167]
Caldicellulosiruptor 90 7 6 (80 °C) 33 [168]
saccharolyticus ATCC 43494
Bacillus halodurans 70 7 0.42 (70 °C) NA [169]
Dictyoglomus turgidum 75 8 71.3 (65 °C) NA [170]
Bacillus subtilis 168 70 8.5 10 (60 °C) 37 [171]
Thermobacillus composti 65 7.5 10 (60 °C) 23.34 [172]
Caldicellulosiruptor 90 7 1 (90 °C) 25 [173]
saccharolyticus OB47
Clostridium stercorarium 75 7 22.8 (65 °C) 33 [161]
c10.indd 223 05/26/2023 19:16:24

temperature is favored at the industrial level to prevent contamination, reduce viscosity,

boost substrate solubility, and favor reaction kinetics. By utilizing B. subtilis l-rhamnose
isomerase, the highest conversion of d-allulose into d-allose is achieved, which is close to
38%. Microbial genome engineering and enzyme engineering approaches should be
explored for a higher conversion yield of this high-value sugar.
10.8
d-Talose
d-Talose is an aldohexose sugar a C-2 epimer of galactose. It is present in some plants and
bacteria in traces. Among the rare sugars, d-talose is very costly due to its scarcity in nature.
d-Talose and its derivative, specifically glycoconjugate derivatives, are well known for anti-
microbial (such as Caminoside A, Telbivudine, and Emtricitabine) and anticancer activi-
ties. The adenine derivative of l-talose, i.e. l-talofuranosyladenine, has shown promising
activity against inhibiting leukemia [76, 174–177]. Moreover, O2 and O3 methylated forms
of d-talose have been demonstrated to be submillimolar inhibitors of galactose-binding
galectin-8 and galectin-4 proteins that are responsible for cancer and inflammation [176].
It also acts as a maker for the O-antigen [177]. Therefore, developing a process to produce
this expensive sugar in bulk for use in other applications is crucial. Due to the aforemen-
tioned beneficial applications, including as a raw ingredient to create value-added products
and as a food additive to increase lifespan and promote health, it has immense application
in the food and pharmaceutical industries.
d-Talose production by chemical route is complicated or requires lots of solvents with
more than five consecutive chemical steps [176]. Therefore, researchers are exploring the
biological route for synthesizing d-talose for high efficiency, stereoselectivity, and environ-
mental friendliness. However, there are only a few reports on the enzymatic synthesis of
d-talose. The enzyme l-ribose isomerase (L-RI) catalyzes the conversion of d-tagatose to
d-talose. A few L-RIs have been identified from Acinetobacter sp. [178], Actinotalea fermen-
tans ATCC 43,279 [179], Cellulomonas parahominis MB426 [180], Geodermatophilus obscu-
rus [181], and Mycetocola miduiensis [182]. Researchers have also attempted immobilization
of L-RI in cobalt metal-based micro-composite construct and carbon-made nanomaterials,
such as MWCNT and GOx, for higher stability and reusability. Immobilized L-RI has been
estimated to produce 12–14% d-talose from the d-tagatose substrate [174, 175]. These pro-
cesses need to be streamlined for the continuous production of rare sugar molecules.
10.9 Conclusions
The industrial-scale production and physiological attribute study of functional sugars have
emerged today’s hot topic owing to its incredible demand and application in several indus-
trial fields. However, the limited availability of functional sugars in nature has restricted its
application. Nevertheless, its chemical synthesis requires several reaction steps that are
cumbersome, very expensive, non-environmentally friendly, and result in lower yields.
Mainly, d-allulose, d-tagatose, and trehalose have excellent potential to occupy the market
of functional sugar biomolecules. d-Allose has potential in the pharmaceutical industry.
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Reference 225
The enzymatic synthesis of functional sugar offers superiority over chemical synthesis
because of its high selectivity, environment-friendly, mild reaction conditions, and eco-
nomic values. Also, with the surge in demands for more sustainable and bio-renewable
products, the biological way of functional sugar production has become an eco-friendly
approach for functional sugar biosynthesis. The biotransformation efficiency (higher turn-
over number, catalytic efficiency, thermal stability with acidic pH active enzymes) can be
further improved by employing new genetic tools and technology to create highly efficient
enzymes. The enzyme’s yield, immobilization, constant production of functional sugar
molecules, and purification are critical challenges in the production and downstream pro-
cessing of the functional ingredient.
Acknowledgment
The Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Govt. of India, is acknowledged for all kinds of
support. SS and AKS acknowledge UGC-JRF and ICMR fellowships, respectively.
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237
11
Microbial Production of Bioactive Peptides

Adriano Gennari1,2, Fernanda Leonhardt1, Graziela Barbosa Paludo1,2,
Daniel Neutzling Lehn1, Gaby Renard3, Giandra Volpato4,
and Claucia Fernanda Volken de Souza1,2
1
Food Biotechnology Laboratory, University of Vale do Taquari – Univates, Lajeado, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
2
Biotechnology Graduate Program, University of Vale do Taquari – Univates, Lajeado, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
3
Quatro G Pesquisa & Desenvolvimento Ltda, TECNOPUC, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
4
Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
11.1 Introduction
Peptides are protein fragments consisting of short amino acid sequences, usually from 2 to
20 residues, derived from animal, plant, and microbial sources. These peptides are called
bioactive when they have one or more beneficial effects on human or animal health, such
as antioxidants, antimicrobials, antihypertensive, antidiabetic, immunomodulatory, anti-
tumor, opioid, and antithrombotic effects [1–3]. The methods to obtain bioactive peptides
are (i) conventional enzymatic hydrolysis, (ii) microbial fermentation (natural or induced),
(iii) combination of (i) and (ii), (iv) in vivo gastrointestinal digestion, (v) chemical hydroly-
sis, and (vi) chemical synthesis [4].
For the microbial production of bioactive peptides, different protein sources such as
dairy, meat, fish and shellfish, vegetables, cereals, pseudocereals, microalgae, and residues
from food processing, as well as complex culture media, can be employed in the fermenta-
tion process [2, 5]. The generation of these bioactive peptides involves yeast, filamentous
fungi, or bacteria, whose enzymes hydrolyze protein(s) releasing the microbial bioactive
peptides. Employing different cultivation conditions and microorganisms, it is possible to
generate hydrolysates containing peptides with different amino acid residues, according to
the enzymatic specificities of microbial proteases, and thus produce various bioactive
peptides. In contrast, this bioactivity diversity usually does not occur in conventional
hydrolysis processes employing specific commercial enzymes [6–8].
Among the microorganisms used in the production of bioactive peptides, yeast stands
out, mainly due to their hydrolytic activity. Yeast strains express aminopeptidases and car-
boxypeptidases, generating a variety of biologically active peptides [9]. The fermentation of
proteins from different sources with proteolytic starter cultures is another method of

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238 11 Microbial Production of Bioactive Peptides
producing these biologically active peptides. The proteolytic activity of lactic acid bacteria,
for example, involves a variety of proteases with different enzymatic specificities. Lactic
acid bacteria possess cell membrane-associated proteinases and intracellular peptidases,
such as endopeptidases, aminopeptidases, tripeptidases, and dipeptidases, for possible
application in the production of bioactive peptides [10]. Fermentation employing lactic
acid bacteria is considered a cost-effective and scalable way to obtain bioactive peptides.
However, once the growth conditions that promote the release of these peptides are deter-
mined, modifications such as denaturation or degradation are undesirable, as they can
affect the bioactivity of these biomolecules [11].
The use of bioactive peptides, mainly in the pharmaceutical and food industries, arouses
great interest due to their unique characteristics. Nevertheless, its production on an indus-
trial scale is still a challenge, especially concerning cost, yield, purity, and environmental
sustainability. Bioactive peptides are obtained mainly by chemical synthesis, which leads to
large consumption of solvents and as a consequence the accentuated generation of resi-
dues [12, 13]. Studies and technological advances in metabolic engineering of the enzy-
matic system of microorganisms and in the recombinant obtaining of active peptides are
important strategies to overcome these challenges and enable the large-scale bioproduc-
tion of these microbial peptides [4, 14–17].
In this context, this chapter describes the most recent investigations on microbial genera-
tion of biologically active peptides, highlighting the identification and biological activity of
peptides, the microorganisms used, and the characteristics of the culture processes. Finally,
some examples of the production of recombinant peptides in microbial expression systems
and the main challenges related to the concentration and purification of microbial biologi-
cally active peptides are presented.
11.2 Microbial Production of Peptides with

Antioxidant Activity
Oxidation is a vital process in aerobic organisms, which also occurs in the lipid portion of
foods, resulting in the formation of free radicals [18]. Synthetic or natural antioxidant com-
pounds can prevent the effects of these radicals and reactive oxygen species on the human
body and food products. Considering the health risks of synthetic antioxidants, it is neces-
sary to identify alternative and safe natural sources of these compounds [19, 20]. Among
synthetic antioxidants, microbial peptides with antioxidant activity stand out.
This biological activity of peptides is influenced by the processing conditions of protein
raw material; the type of protein; the extent of hydrolysis; the proteolytic enzyme; and the
structure, molecular weight, and concentration of the peptide. In addition, hydrolysis con-
ditions, such as enzyme/substrate ratio, pH, reaction time, and temperature, also influence
the antioxidant activity of the bioactive peptide [18, 21].
Several studies have shown that protein hydrolysate fractions with less than 3 kDa and
peptides with less than 10 amino acid residues have higher antioxidant activity [21]. This
occurs because smaller peptides are more accessible to oxidant molecules and have higher
bioavailability [22]. Moreover, bioactive peptides with higher antioxidant potential consist
of specific amino acids, such as histidine – which has peroxyl radical trapping and
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11.3 Microbial Production of Peptides with Antimicrobial Activit 239
Table 11.1 Bioprocess conditions to produce microbial peptides with antioxidant activity using
different protein sources.
Fermentation
Source of proteins Microorganism conditions Reference
Goat milk Lactobacillus plantarum 37 °C for 36 h [23]

Bovine milk Lactobacillus delbrueckii 37 °C for 96 h [22]
Bovine milk Kluyveromyces marxianus 35 °C for 6 h [24]
Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus
thermophilus
Colostrum Candida lipolytica and kefir grain 30 °C for 72 h [9]
Colostrum Candida lipolytica and kefir grain 30 °C for 48 h [25]
Bitter beans Lactobacillus fermentum 37 °C for 8 days [26]
Defatted wheat Bacillus subtilis 37 °C for 3 days [27]
Ground sorghum Saccharomyces cerevisiae 37 °C for 72 h [28]
Soft chhurpi Kluyveromyces marxianus and S. cerevisiae 30 °C for 48 h [29]
chelation power – and hydrophobic amino acids – which increase peptides’ accessibility to
target molecules [19]. Table 11.1 presents the bioprocess conditions to produce microbial
peptides with antioxidant activity, using different protein sources for production of these
compounds.
The in vitro antioxidant activity of bioactive peptides of microbial origin can be evalu-
ated through different methods. The most commonly used method for this determination
is 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl-hydrate (DPPH) free radical reduction and the evaluation
of color decrease when an antioxidant is added to the compound 2,2-azino-bis(3-ethylbenz
thiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) (blue-green chromophore) [19, 22]. In addition to these,
several other methodologies are less frequently employed for microbial fermentation prod-
ucts, such as oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) assay, phosphomolybdenum
method, β-carotene bleaching assay, ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP assay), and
the cupric ions (Cu2+) reducing antioxidant power (CUPRAC assay) [30].

Antimicrobial Activity
The antimicrobial activity of bioactive peptides of microbial origin depends on several

structural characteristics, such as net charge and hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties.
A relevant aspect for bioactive peptides to exhibit antimicrobial activity is their electrostatic
interaction with negatively charged components of microbial membranes, such as lipopol-
ysaccharide, lipoteichoic acid, and mannoproteins of bacterial membranes, and chitin and
β-1,3-glucan chains of fungal membranes [31]. Thus, the higher the net positive charge of
the bioactive peptide, the greater is its electrostatic interaction with the cell membrane, and
consequently the greater is its antimicrobial activity [32]. The positive charge of the
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Table 11.2 Production of bioactive peptides with antimicrobial activity using different protein
sources and microorganisms.
Source of Peptides
proteins Microorganism sequence Inhibitory activity Reference
Sheep Lactobacillus FAWPQYLK >13% with E. coli, Bacillus cereus, [35]

milk fermentum Salmonella typhimurium, and
Enterococcus faecalis
Camel Lactobacillus HPPGSGLL, >30% with E. coli and [32]
milk plantarum ELLPDMPLNQ, Staphylococcus aureus
RGLVPL
Camel L. plantarum 32 identified 5–20% with Staphylococcus [36]
milk peptides faecalis, Shigella dysenteriae,
S. aureus, and E. coli
Cheese Lactobacillus — MICa 8–64 μg/mL with S. aureus, [37]
whey and acidophilus and Listeria monocytogenes, E. coli,
milk Bifidobacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and
permeate lactis Salmonella enterica
Fresh L. plantarum — 17–30 mm of diameter with [38]
paneer and Salmonella typhi, Salmonella
whey Kluyveromyces abony, Shigella dysentariae, E. coli,
lactis B. cereus, L. monocytogenes,
S. aureus and E. faecalis
Corn Brevibacillus — MICa 1–62.5 μg/mL with [39]
steep laterosporus L. monocytogenes, S. aureus,
liquor B. cereus, Bacillus subtilis, E. coli,
Salmonella sp., Penicillium
citrinum, Aspergillus brasiliensis
a
MIC, minimum inhibitory concentration.
bioactive peptide is directly proportional to the number of amino acids arginine, lysine,
and histidine present in its peptide chain [33]. Furthermore, the hydrophobicity of the
peptide chain positively affects the antimicrobial activity of the bioactive peptide. Shang
et al. [34] found that 40–60% of amino acid residues are hydrophobic in peptides with anti-
microbial activity. Table 11.2 presents different sources of proteins and microorganisms for
the production of peptides with antimicrobial activity.

Antihypertensive Activity
Bioactive peptides have several positive effects on health, among them the antihyperten-
sive activity and inhibition of the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE). This protein con-
verts angiotensin I into vasoconstrictor angiotensin II, resulting in inactivation of the
vasodilator bradykinin. Thus, compounds with ACE-inhibiting effects can be used to con-
trol blood pressure in patients with hypertensive symptoms. Synthetic ACE inhibitors are
widely used to treat these symptoms and heart disease [40]. However, these inhibitors may
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11.4 Microbial Production of Peptides with Antihypertensive Activit 241
have different collateral effects, such as diarrhea, allergy, taste disturbances, and skin
rashes [18]. Thus, there has been an increasing search for natural ACE inhibitors, such as
bioactive peptides. Even though these peptides are less efficient compared to synthetic
inhibitors, they have high tissue affinities and can be eliminated more slowly from tissues,
increasing the antihypertensive effect [41].
The main characteristics of ACE-inhibiting bioactive peptides are directly related to
the quantity and sequence of the amino acid residues. Crystallographic analyses have
shown that long-chain peptides cannot bind to ACE-active sites, and thus, short-chain
peptides (2–12 amino acids) have higher ACE-inhibitory activity. However, regardless of
the size of the peptide chain, peptides that have hydrophobic (proline) and aliphatic (iso-
leucine and leucine) amino acids at the N-terminus may have higher ACE-inhibitory
activities [42].
Biologically active peptides with ACE-inhibitory activity can be obtained using enzymes of
various sources (microbial, animal, and plant). Among the commercial microbial enzymes,
Alcalase, Thermolysin, Flavourzyme, Proteinase K, and Corolase PP stand out [18]. Connolly
et al. [43] hydrolyzed brewers’ spent grain protein using commercial enzymes Flavourzyme,
Alcalase, and Corolase PP to produce bioactive peptides. The authors verified that the pep-
tides present in the extracts permeated through a 5 kDa ultrafiltration membrane showed
in vitro ACE-inhibitory activity. Contreras et al. [44] used the enzymes Thermolysin and
Corolase PP in the optimization of the hydrolysis process of whey protein concentrate
enriched with β-lactoglobulin. In the resulting hydrolysate, 19 peptides derived from
β-lactoglobulin were identified, and among them two showed amino acid composition with
potential use as ACE inhibitor. Karami et al. [45] also optimized the protein hydrolysis pro-
cess of an agro-industrial byproduct (wheat germ protein hydrolysate) using Proteinase K to
obtain antihypertensive peptides. Two of the released peptides showed antioxidant activity
(MDATALHYENQK and SGGSYADELVSTAK) and five had an inhibitory effect on ACE
activity (VALTGDNGHSDHVVHF, VDSLLTAAK, MDATALHYENQK, IGGIGTVPVGR, and
SGGSYADELVSTAK).
ACE-inhibiting microbial bioactive peptides can also be obtained by lactic acid bac-
teria through the proteolysis of matrices from different origins: animal, such as milk
and meat; marine organisms; and plants. Among them, bioactive peptides hydrolyzed
from milk proteins stand out, since caseins are a promising source of bifunctional bio-
logically active peptides, and can be applied in the initial treatment of hypertension
symptoms [13].
Wu et al. [46] isolated and purified peptides from the fermentation of milk casein by
Lactobacillus delbrueckii. The authors isolated a pentapeptide (LPYPY) with ACE-inhibitory
activity, whose activity was kept after the process of simulated pepsin gastrointestinal
digestion (pH 1.3). Furthermore, these authors found that peptides with molecular weights
below 3 kDa had the highest ACE-inhibitory activities.
Parmar et al. [47] employed Lactobacillus casei and Lactobacillus fermentum to obtain
biologically active peptides with ACE-inhibitory activity from goat milk. The product of
milk fermentation by L. fermentum was ultrafiltered on a 10 kDa membrane, and the
highest concentration of microbial peptides was identified in the retentate. In the fermen-
tation product by L. casei, the peptide sequence AFPEHK was identified, with evident
ACE-inhibitory activity among the biopeptides present in the permeate.
c11.indd 241 05/26/2023 19:16:30

The application of Lactobacillus to obtain bifunctional products, probiotics, and

products enriched with bioactive peptides has also been highlighted. Rutella et al. [48]
added L. casei to the traditional process of obtaining yogurt (fermentation of cow’s
milk with Streptococcus thermophilus and L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus) and evi-
denced the release of peptides with antihypertensive and antioxidant activities, both in
the fermentation process and during the cold storage time. In this study, Rutella
et al. [48] identified two ACE-inhibiting peptides, isoleucine-proline-proline (IPP)
and valine-proline-proline (VPP). Anayotova, Pashova-Baltova, and Dimitrov [49]
evaluated the obtainment of bioactive peptides with ACE-inhibitory activity in milk
fermented by Lactobacillus helveticus, S. thermophilus, and Lactobacillus bulgaricus.
The ACE-inhibitory effect was confirmed and the peptide sequences IPP, VPP, and
ALPM were identified, demonstrating that the L. helveticus added to the yogurt produc-
tion process has promising potential in the generation of biologically active peptides
with antihypertensive activity.
Besides milk, dairy coproducts, such as cheese whey, can be used as a protein source to
obtain microbial bioactive peptides by lactic acid bacteria. Daliri et al. [41] evaluated the
proteolytic capacity of 34 lactic acid bacteria to produce biologically active peptides
with ACE-inhibitory activity, using cheese whey as protein source. Seven hydrolysates
showed ACE-inhibitory activity, whose highest values were obtained using Pediococcus
acidilactici, and the peptides showed molecular weight below 7 kDa.

Antidiabetic Activity
Diabetes mellitus is a chronic disorder of glucose metabolism with severe clinical conse-
quences, such as nephropathy, retinopathy, and stroke [50]. Type 2 diabetes is a meta-
bolic disorder that results in increased blood glucose due to decreased insulin secretion
by pancreatic cells and deficiency or resistance to insulin action or both. Thus, it is neces-
sary to prevent the disease through the development of natural antidiabetic products
without adverse collateral effects. Inhibition of intestinal α-glucosidase is a strategy to
control hyperglycemia by delaying carbohydrate digestion and thus reducing glucose
absorption. Microbial bioactive peptides can be used to regulate the metabolism of this
monosaccharide [51].
Ofosu et al. [28] assessed the effects of heat treatment of sorghum in fermentation with
lactic acid bacteria to obtain bioactive peptides. After the pressurized cooking and fermen-
tation process using the microorganism P. acidilactici, a significant increase in the inhibi-
tion of α-glucosidase was evidenced. Lactic acid bacteria such as L. casei, Lactobacillus
plantarum, and Lactobacillus brevis were also identified by Mushtaq et al. [52] as promising
in releasing bioactive peptides with antidiabetic activity in the aqueous extract of
Kalari cheese.
Lermen et al. [53] obtained a soy protein hydrolysate using a partially purified Bacillus
sp. protease produced in a culture medium with salts, peptone, and chicken feathers. The
enzyme was characterized as a serine protease and could hydrolyze isolated soy protein
releasing bioactive peptides with antidiabetic effects in vitro.
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11.7 Microbial Production of Peptides with Antitumoral Activit 243

Immunomodulatory Activities
Microbial bioactive peptides with immunomodulatory activities can be obtained from tra-
ditional fermented products and by alternative sources of proteins, in which these peptides
are produced from controlled bioprocesses. In fermented food products, the lactic acid bac-
teria are the main ones responsible for producing peptides with immunomodulatory activi-
ties, helping in the prevention of chronic diseases through modulation of the immune
system and anti-inflammatory action [54, 55].
An example is the maturation process of Cheddar-type cheeses made with bubaline and
bovine milks, in which water-soluble peptides with in vitro anti-inflammatory property
were identified [7]. In addition, Dharmisthaben et al. [56] in the process of fermentation of
camel milk with L. plantarum verified peptides with anti-inflammatory activity by employ-
ing suitable temperature and inoculation conditions. On other hand, Luti et al. [57], in
addition to the acid-lactic bacteria, employed yeast in bread production and found that the
peptides generated showed in vitro anti-inflammatory activity in both yeast and baked bak-
ery products.
Bioactive peptides may also exhibit immunomodulatory action due to their potential
interactions with human cell membranes [58]. In this context, Izquierdo-González
et al. [59], when investigating bioactive peptide precursors formed during kefir produc-
tion, observed an increase in the immunomodulatory activity of the product after 24 hours
of fermentation. Furthermore, Ebner et al. [60] identified 236 peptides derived from kefir
fermentation, where two of them (YQEPVLGPVRGPFPIIV and LYQEPVLGPVRGPFPIIV)
showed immunomodulatory properties. Immunomodulatory activity has also been
observed in fermented products of plant origin, as reported by Zhao et al. [61] who
observed the formation of peptide as secondary metabolites in fig fermentation, and
attributed this biological activity to the original plant active compounds and secondary
metabolites of microorganisms.
Peptides with immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory activities can also be con-
sumed as supplements through incorporation into food and drug formulations [6, 62].
A challenge for the employment of active bioactive peptides as supplements is the reduc-
tion of their bitter taste, which negatively influences consumer perception. For this, one
alternative is the encapsulation of these bioactive peptides, which also allows for increased
shelf life and controlled release of the product [63].

Antitumoral Activity
The antitumoral activity of bioactive peptides released by microbial production is related to

the inhibition effect of peptide extracts during fermentation on cancer cells prolifera-
tion [64]. Bioactive peptides may induce the apoptosis of cancer cells. This mechanism is a
programmed cell death regulated by genes and cannot be stopped after its start. The in vitro
cytotoxicity assay of microbial bioactive peptides with anticancer activity is performed
c11.indd 243 05/26/2023 19:16:30

using human cancer cell lines and cisplatin as a positive control [65]. The cytotoxicity of
peptides is determined by the half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50), which is an
informative measure of a drug’s efficacy [66]. Table 11.3 shows peptides obtained via
microbial fermentation with antitumoral activity.
Table 11.3 Peptides obtained via microbial fermentation with antitumoral, opioid, or
antithrombotic activity.
Source of proteins Microorganism Fermentation conditions Reference
Antitumoral activity
Cheonggukjang Bacillus subtilis 37 °C for 48 h [67]
Skim milk Lactobacillus helveticus 37 °C for 24 h [64]
MRS medium Lactococcus lactis — [68]
— L. lactis — [69]
Nutrient broth B. subtilis 32 °C for 48 h, 160 rpm [70]
Nutrient broth B. subtilis 37 °C for 4 h [71]
GYM broth Streptomyces sp. 28 °C for 168 h, 95 rpm, [72]
pH 7.8
Milk Lactobacillus acidophilus 37 °C for 24 h [73]
Soymilk Schleiferilactobacillus harbinensis 37 °C for 24 h [74]
Goat milk Lactobacillus plantarum 37 °C for 24 h [75]
Cow milk L. plantarum and Lactobacillus casei 37 °C for 24 h [76]
Peptone from soya Aspergillus spp. — [77]
Potato dextrose Acremonium persicinum 28 °C for 7 days, [78]
broth 200 rpm
Beef extract-peptone Brevibacillus sp. 25–30 °C for 36–48 h, [79]
medium agar 180–200 rpm
Medium broth Micrococcus luteus 37 °C for 1 day, [80]
containing beef 150 rpm
extract
Opioid activity
Milk L. helveticus 37 °C for 12 h [81]
Bovine milk Kefir microorganisms 23 °C for 24 h, 800 rpm [82]
Bovine milk L. lactis, Leuconostoc spp., 25 °C until the pH [60]
Streptococcus thermophilus, decreased to 4.8
Lactobacillus spp., kefir yeast, and
kefir grain microflora
Cheese L. lactis subsp. lactis and L. lactis 25 °C for 24 h [83]
subsp. cremoris
Casein L. helveticus 37 °C for 7 h [84]
Antithrombotic activity
Milk Lactobacillus casei Shirota 37 °C for 42 h [85]
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11.7 Microbial Production of Peptides with Antitumoral Activit 245
Source of proteins Microorganism Fermentation conditions Reference
Milk Lactobacillus casei Shirota and 37 °C until the pH [86]

Lactobacillus johnsonii LA1 decreased to 4.5
Milk Lactobacillus casei Shirota and S. — [87]
thermophilus
Milk Lactobacillus casei Shirota 37, 39.5, and 42 °C for [88]
12 and 20 h, pH 6.0,
6.2, and 6.5
Amaranth L. casei Shirota and S. thermophilus 37 °C for 36 h [89]
Skim milk L. lactis, Leuconostoc spp., S. 25 °C until the pH [60]
thermophilus, Lactobacillus spp., decreased to 4.8
kefir yeast, and kefir grain
microflora
Milk Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. 37 °C for 12 h [90]
bulgaricus and S. thermophilus
Milk L. helveticus 37 °C for 12 h [55]
Milk L. lactis 30 °C for 24 and 48 h [91]
Milk Lactobacillus gasseri H10, L. gasseri 37 °C for 12, 24, 36, and [92]
H11, Lactobacillus fermentum H4, 48 h
and L. fermentum H9
Skim milk Lactobacillus paracasei B-4564 42 °C for 16 h and 25 °C [93]
for 48 h
Goat milk kefir Microbiota from kefir grains 25 °C for 12, 24, and [59]
36 h
Bovine milk Microbiota from kefir grains 23 °C for 24 h, 800 rpm [82]
Zheng et al. [74] observed antiproliferative activity on breast cancer (MCF-7) and liver
cancer (HepG2) cells of soy milk fermented by Schleiferilactobacillus harbinensis M1 due to
the presence of hydrolyzed antitumoral peptides. Gholamhosseinpour et al. [73] observed
antitumoral activity of bioactive peptides against colon adenocarcinoma (Caco-2) cells using
Lactobacillus acidophilus PTCC1643 to release secondary metabolites from the fermentation
process of cow milk. The antitumoral activity of these bioactive peptides against Caco-2 cells
increased over the fermentation time due to the bacteria proteolytic system activity.
In another study, Hashemi and Gholamhosseinpour [75] used L. plantarum LP3 and
LU5 as a source of microbial peptides derived from goat milk. The produced peptides were
tested regarding their capacity to inhibit Caco-2 cells and human primary colon cell (T4056)
lines. Concurrently, the effects of ongoing ultrasound treatment were investigated. The use
of ultrasound at 60% amplitude increased the antitumoral effects of peptides compared
with the control and ultrasound at 30% amplitude samples. Praveesh et al. [76] employed a
co-culture of L. plantarum and L. casei to ferment the cow milk and observed the release of
bioactive peptides with antitumor activity against human cervical carcinoma (HeLa) cells.
In addition to fermented foods, complex culture media have been employed to produce
bioactive peptides with antitumoral activity. Ebrahimi et al. [80] demonstrated that
c11.indd 245 05/26/2023 19:16:30

Micrococcus luteus protease was capable of releasing bioactive peptides with antitumor
activity from a culture medium containing beef extract, saline solution, and thiamine.
The cytotoxicity of the produced peptide was determined using MCF-7 cell lines
in vitro. The peptide was found to have a 4.5 kDa molecular mass, and its IC50 value was
59.5 μg/mL. Using four L. helveticus strains (in monoculture), Elfahri et al. [64] provided
in vitro evidence of the antitumoral activity of peptides released by microbial production,
using reconstituted skim milk as medium. In this regard, this study evaluated the inhibi-
tion effect of peptide extracts on colon cancer (HT-29) and healthy T4056 cells.
Xiong et al. [65] reported that Chromobacterium violaceum No. 968 was capable of releas-
ing bioactive peptides while fermented in broth medium. Romipeptides A and B were
released, and they were tested against human cancer cell lines including acute promyelo-
cytic leukemia (HL60), colonic carcinoma (SW620), and human lung carcinoma (A549).
The two new romipeptides (A and B) presented cytotoxic activity with the IC50 (mol/L)
value of 42.5 and 12.5 against SW620, 21.8 and 6.7 against HL-60, and 40.6 and 5.7 against
A549, respectively.
Besides, marine-derived microorganisms have been applied to produce antitumoral bio-
activity peptides employing complex culture media. Zheng et al. [79] demonstrated that
Brevibacillus sp. S-1 was capable of releasing antitumoral peptides from fermentation on
beef extract-peptone agar. This microbial production released a novel cytotoxic peptide
(SBP) that exhibited cytotoxicity against human lung carcinoma (A549), human glioma
(U251), human hepatocellular carcinoma (BEL-7402), human colon carcinoma (RKO),
and MCF-7 cells. In contrast, the peptide did not exhibit substantial cytotoxicity against
human normal fibroblast lung (HFL1) cells.
Ebada et al. [77] used two strains of Aspergillus in a co-culture to release antiproliferative
peptides from peptone from soy. Three main peptide compounds were sterigmatocystin,
5-methoxysterigmatocystin, and psychrophilin E, and they were tested for their antiprolif-
erative effects against human tumor cell lines: HCT116 (colon), K562 (leukemia), A2780CisR
(cisplatin-resistant mutant), and A2780 (ovary). These three peptides exhibited selective
antiproliferative activities particularly against colon cell lines with IC50 values (mM) of 10.3
(sterigmatocystin), 4.4 (5-methoxysterigmatocystin), and 28.5 (psychrophilin E).
Chen et al. [78] performed a microbial production with Acremonium persicinum
SCSIO115 in potato dextrose medium. Three peptides, cordyheptapeptides C−E, were iso-
lated from the fermentation. The cytotoxicity of the peptides was tested using MCF-7,
human lung cancer (NCI-H460), and human glioblastoma (SF-268) cell lines.
Cordyheptapeptide E demonstrated anticancer activity against the cell lines, with the
respective IC50 values of 2.7, 4.5, and 3.2 μM. Cordyheptapeptide C was found to exhibit
cytotoxicity against MCF-7 (IC50 = 3.0 μM) and SF-268 (IC50 = 3.7 μM) as well and a weaker
cytotoxicity against NCI-H460. Although the cordyheptapeptides E and C presented good
results, the peptide D exhibited no activity against the cell lines.
Lipopeptides stood out by their antitumoral activity. Zhao et al. [70] performed the pro-
duction of lipopeptides with biological activity with Bacillus subtilis using nutrient broth.
The released bacterial lipopeptides inhibited leukemia (K562) cells significantly and
induced apoptosis of these cells. In Zhao et al. [70], only 7 out of more than 30 lipopeptide
fractions were found to have antitumor effects related to K562 cells; these seven peptides
showed similar molecular weight and sequence to those of iturin. In a more recent study,
Zhao et al. [71] used B. subtilis strains in nutrient broth to release iturin A, a lipopeptide
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11.8 Microbial Production of Peptides with Opioid Activit 247
with multiple bioactivities, which contains a fatty acid chain and cyclic peptide. In the
in vitro analysis, Zhao et al. [71] found that iturin A could enter HepG2 cells and inhibit
their growth by inducing apoptosis, autophagy, and paraptosis.
Another example of lipopeptide is the surfactin, a cyclic lipopeptide with the GLLVDLL
sequence. Surfactin was released by B. subtilis CSY191 from a fermented soybean paste [67].
This hydrolyzed lipopeptide showed antiproliferative effects against MCF-7 cells with IC50
value of 10 μg/mL. Aftab and Sajid [72] investigated the use of Streptomyces sp. SSA13 in a
glucose yeast minerals salts (GYM) broth as a source to produce antitumor lipopeptides.
The released cyclic lipopeptide (iturin A6) showed bioactivity against the tumor cell lines
HepG2, HeLa, and MCF-7 with the respective IC50 values of 8.9, 1.73, and 6.44 μg/mL. Lu
et al. [94] performed an experimental study on the capacity of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens
X030 in producing peptides from fermentation in a Lennox broth (LB). A cyclic lipopeptide
was isolated from the bacterial broth, bacillomycin Lb (known as bacillopeptin B). This
secondary metabolite exhibited antitumor activity against several cancerous cells.
Among cyclic peptides, one of the most studied is nisin. This is a polycyclic peptide pro-
duced by Lactococcus lactis bacterial strains during fermentation. A study performed by
Avand et al. [95] determined that the optimum culture condition for producing nisin with
L. lactis is in the De Man, Rogosa, and Sharpe (MRS) medium supplemented with tryptone.
After the cytotoxicity assay, Avand et al. [95] proved that nisin exhibits a high activity (IC50:
5 μM) against MCF-7 cells. In addition, Ahmadi et al. [69] determined that nisin exhibits
cytotoxic impacts on epithelial-like colon cancer (SW480) cells and induces apoptosis
through an intrinsic pathway by modifying the expression levels of Bcl-2 and Bax genes.
Goudarzi et al. [68] investigated the effects of nisin on K562 cells. They proved that nisin
attacks these cells through mitochondrial pathway by modifying the expression of the
aforesaid genes.
11.8 Microbial Production of Peptides with Opioid Activity
The opioid activities of bioactive peptides released by microbial production have been
obtained mainly by the hydrolysis of casein, present in milk and dairy products, due to the
action of microbial enzymes. Table 11.3 shows peptides obtained via microbial fermenta-
tion with opioid activity.
Skrzypczak et al. [55] demonstrated that L. helveticus was capable of releasing opioid pep-
tides from bovine milk, especially from casein. Four peptides were found to have opiate-like
activities in the study; they were matched in the BIOPEP (Bioactive Peptides) database. Two
peptides were hydrolyzed from αS1-casein; one presented the sequence TTMPLW, with
747.3 Da and peptide identity f(209–214), and the other presented 1266.6 Da, YLGYLEQLLR
sequence, and f(106–115) identity. The other two peptides were released from κ-casein. The
f(74–83) peptide showed 1274.5 Da and the following sequence: NQFLPYPYYA. The last
one, f(76–86), presented the sequence FLPYPYYAKPA with 1328.0 Da.
Other studies revealed peptides generated from casein. Ebner et al. [60] used commercial
kefir starter culture (L. lactis, Leuconostoc spp., S. thermophilus, Lactobacillus spp., kefir yeast,
and kefir grain microflora) to ferment bovine milk. One opioid peptide, VYPFPGPIPN, hydro-
lyzed from β-casein was found in the kefir peptide profile, confirming the starter culture
hydrolyzing potential. Fan et al. [84] fermented casein with L. helveticus using the MASCOT
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database. One of the peptides identified showed an opioid potential, so it was hydrolyzed from
β-casein presenting the sequence YPFPGPIHNSLPQ with opioid agonist activity.
Dallas et al. [82] conducted an experiment with kefir microorganisms to ferment bovine
milk and release peptides with biological activities. All peptides had their sequence aligned
with a peptide database. Dallas et al. [82] matched five opioid peptides: β-casomorphin-7
(YPFPGPI) with an agonist opioid activity, casoxin-A (YPSYGLN) presenting an antagonist
action, β-neocasomorphin-6 (YPVEPF), pro-8-β-casomorphin-13 (YPFPGPIPNSLPQ), and
pro-8-β-casomorphin 9 (YPFPGPIPN).
Galli et al. [83] used L. lactis subsp. lactis and L. lactis subsp. cremoris to produce peptides
during the ripening of Camembert cheese. One of the peptides, the β-CN f(57–72), hydro-
lyzed from β-casein, showed opioid activity. This shows the capacity of the studied micro-
organisms to generate bioactive peptides with morphine-like activity.

Antithrombotic Activity
The antithrombotic activity of bioactive peptides released by microbial fermentation is

related to the inhibition of fibrin cross-linking, responsible for the clotting activity [85].
This bioactivity is determined by the inhibition of fibrinogen-fibrin conversion [86].
According to Oh et al. [92], milk is known as the main source of antithrombotic peptides.
Milk-derived compounds have shown potential preventive cardiovascular effects, such as
reduction of cholesterol uptake, fibrinolytic activity, and inhibition of thrombin and
3-hidroxi-3-methyl-glutaril-CoA reductase (HMGR). Table 11.3 shows the peptides
obtained via microbial fermentation with antithrombotic activity.
Studies have employed species of Lactobacillus to produce peptides with antithrombotic
activity. El-Fattah et al. [93] reported that the microorganism Lactobacillus paracasei B-4564
is capable of releasing bioactive peptides related to cardiovascular diseases with different
inhibition rates of thrombin in a skim milk matrix. Overall, the inhibition rate of thrombin
increased significantly due to the decrease in fermentation temperature and increase in fer-
mentation time. Rojas-Ronquillo et al. [85] demonstrated that L. casei Shirota produced bio-
logically active peptides with antithrombotic activity from bovine milk, specifically from the
β-casein protein. The most active peptide found had the following amino acid sequence,
YQEPVLGPVRGPFPIIV, with 1.88 kDa, showing a thrombin inhibition efficiency rate of
4.6%. Besides the antithrombotic activity, this peptide shows bioactivity against ACEs.
Guzmán-Rodríguez et al. [88] also employed L. casei Shirota to generate antithrombotic
bioactive peptides. They used milk as culture medium to hydrolyze casein under different
fermentation conditions, showing the highest antithrombotic activity of 79.1%.
Pérez-Escalante et al. [86] used strains of L. casei Shirota and Lactobacillus johnsonii LA1
separately for microbial production of peptides with fermentation of skim milk powder
and lactose. The microorganisms released antithrombotic peptides with low molecular
weight from bovine casein. Additionally, Oh et al. [92] used L. fermentum H9, L. fermentum
H4, Lactobacillus gasseri H10, and L. gasseri H11 to release antithrombotic peptides from
milk proteins using fermented Maillard reaction products. L. gasseri H11 was responsible
for the greatest activity (inhibition rate of 41.78 ± 2.22%).
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11.10 Production of Recombinant Peptides in Microbial Expression System 249
Due to the fact that κ-casein was considered to be the main source of short peptides
released by microbial fermentation, Skrzypczak et al. [81] used it as a matrix of short-chain
bioactive peptides. The microorganism selected for microbial production was L. helveticus.
The study proved that κ-casein was susceptible to the activity of proteases produced by
bacterial cultures and was capable of producing a peptide with antithrombotic activity:
HPHLSFMAIPPK, with peptide identity f(121–132) and mass of 1373.7 Da.
Besides Lactobacillus, other microorganisms can be used to obtain peptides with
antithrombotic activity. El-Fattah et al. [90] performed casein hydrolysis using S. thermophi-
lus and L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus using milk as culture medium. The antithrombotic
activity increased during fermentation, reaching 52.88% after 14 days. Domínguez-González
et al. [87] used L. casei Shirota and S. thermophilus concurrently to ferment milk. As a result,
six antithrombotic peptides hydrolyzed from casein were released. Although fermentation
was carried out with both bacteria, Domínguez-González et al. [87] assumed that the
antithrombotic bioactivity should come from L. casei Shirota considering the results of the
study performed by Rojas-Ronquillo et al. [85], who reported that no thrombin inhibition
activity was produced by casein with S. thermophilus. In contrast, Ayala-Niño et al. [89] used
the same microorganisms to hydrolyze amaranth proteins and conduct fermentation in a
monoculture and with the two bacteria together. The highest antithrombotic activity was
reached with the combined culture.
Kefir grains have also been highlighted to generate peptides with antithrombotic activity.
Izquierdo-González et al. [59] aimed to release antithrombotic peptides from goat milk
kefir using the kefir grains microbiota for microbial production. The antithrombotic pep-
tide TAQVTSTEV, hydrolyzed from κ-casein, was identified and matched in sequence
entries in the BIOPEP database. Dallas et al. [82] reported the peptide known as caso-
platein (MAIPPKKNQDK), capable of producing thrombin inhibitors, hydrolyzed from a
milk matrix, using a microbiota from kefir grains for microbial production. A trial per-
formed by Ebner et al. [60] found the same peptide sequence from β-casein while perform-
ing fermentation with Lactobacillus spp., Leuconostoc spp., kefir yeast, S. thermophilus,
kefir grain microflora, and L. lactis.
Additionally, Rendon-Rosales et al. [91], using strains of L. lactis, provided in vitro evi-
dence of the antithrombotic activity of peptide fractions hydrolyzed from casein, using
bovine milk, when exposed to simulated gastrointestinal digestion. The authors observed
that microbial peptide biological activities were maintained after the simulation. In this
study, the inhibition of thrombin activity was evaluated as a mechanism to prevent clots.
11.10 Production of Recombinant Peptides in Microbial

Expression Systems
Recombinant DNA techniques have enabled the production of different molecules of inter-
est by means of genetic manipulation. Biotechnological processes employing these tech-
niques favor productivity in obtaining microbial bioactive peptides with less environmental
impact [4, 14].
Recombinant expression systems involve different types of microbial cells, such as bacte-
ria, filamentous fungi, and yeast. Among the main microorganisms of recombinant enzyme
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Table 11.4 Bioactive recombinant peptides obtained in microbial expression systems.
Host microorganism Identified bioactive peptides Biological activities Reference
Bacillus subtilis Enniatin Antibacterial, insecticidal, [97]

antifungal, herbicidal,
anthelmintic, and antitumoral
Cordyceps militaris Magainin II-cecropin B Antibacterial and [98]
immunomodulatory
Escherichia coli Lasioglossin LL ΙΙΙ Antioxidant and antimicrobial [12]
Pichia pastoris Recombinant Abaecin Antimicrobial [99]
Recombinant PaDef Antimicrobial [100]
β-Defensin 3 Antimicrobial [101]
Bovine Lactoferrampin and Antimicrobial [102]
Bovine Lactoferricin
Saccharomyces Pediocin PA-1 Antimicrobial [103]
cerevisiae
expression are Escherichia coli, Lactobacillus spp., Aspergillus spp., Pichia pastoris, and
Saccharomyces cerevisiae [96]. Within this approach concerning the production of bioac-
tive peptides, E. coli and P. pastoris stand out. They are used to obtain peptides with antimi-
crobial, antioxidant, immunomodulatory, and antitumor bioactivities. Table 11.4 presents
microorganisms used to obtain recombinant peptides with different bioactivities.
Zhang et al. [98] expressed via the medicinal fungus Cordyceps militaris the hybrid anti-
microbial peptide magainin II-cecropin B from Xenopus laevis. The peptide presented anti-
bacterial and immunomodulatory activity in mice infected with E. coli ATCC25922, with
potential for use as antibiotics or food additive for bovine feed.
Among the host microorganisms, P. pastoris stands out in the bioproduction of peptides
with antimicrobial activity. Luiz et al. [99] expressed abaecine (broad-spectrum proline-
rich antibacterial peptide from Apis mellifera) in P. pastoris. The gene was synthesized,
cloned into the pUC57 vector, and subcloned into the pPIC9 expression vector, producing
a 5200 Da peptide, which significantly inhibited E. coli growth after 24 hours of treatment.
Another peptide with antimicrobial activity was cloned by Meng et al. [100]. The authors
expressed in P. pastoris, transformed with the expression vector pPICZαA, the peptide pro-
duced by Mexican avocado (Persea americana var. drymifolia defensin – PaDef) tagged with
6×His at the N-terminal. This expression system allowed the production of 32.8 mg/L of
recombinant PaDef, with 95.7% purity, indicating that this bioactive peptide is a promising
antibiotic against pathogenic bacteria. Also, in P. pastoris, the mzfDB3 gene encoding the
zebrafish β-defensin 3 peptide was expressed by employing codon optimization, tagged
with 6×His at the 3′ end [101]. Pichia pastoris X-33 was transformed with the pPICZαA vector.
The 5.9 kDa β-defensin 3 peptide showed antibacterial activity against Gram-negative
(Salmonella lignieres, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, E. coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) and
Gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria monocytogenes, and Bacillus cereus) bacteria.
The recombinant DNA tool has also been used to produce hybrid peptides with
high bioactivity, stability, and half-life. Wanmakok et al. [15] produced hybrid peptides
c11.indd 250 05/26/2023 19:16:31

11.11 Purification and Identification of Microbial Bioactive Peptide 251
(L-31 and P-113) with antimicrobial activity. The sequence was cloned into the pTXB-1 vec-
tor and the peptides expressed in E. coli BL21, presenting antimicrobial activity against
Gram-negative bacteria, and can be applied for microbial infection treatment.
11.11 Purification and Identification of Microbial

Bioactive Peptides
The optimization of the purification of bioactive peptides of microbial origin is a relevant

step for the development of scalable bioprocesses. The stability of the biological activity of
these compounds is a challenge in large-scale production to obtain an active, safe, and
standardized product [58]. The fractionation and enrichment methods should allow the
recovery of these peptides with a high yield. Advances in bioseparation technologies
employed in the isolation and purification of biomolecules can offer an economical and
scalable production platform for microbial bioactive peptides [18].
There are several methods for separation, isolation, identification, and analysis of bioac-
tive peptides (Figure 11.1), from detection to quantitative determination by mass
Affinity chromatography Fractional precipitation
Electro-membrane filtration Bioinformatics
Figure 11.1 Overview of methods for isolation by affinity chromatography and fractional
precipitation, concentration by electro-membrane filtration, and interaction analysis using
bioinformatics tools of bioactive peptides.
c11.indd 251 05/26/2023 19:16:31

spectrometry [27]. First, proteins must be separated from the other components of the fer-
mentation matrix, and subsequently the bioactive peptides of interest are isolated. Aqueous
extraction is the most commonly used technique for the separation of these biocomposites
due to their solubility and stability [104].
Fractional precipitation and chromatographic methods are employed for the separation,
purification, and identification of biologically active peptides resulting in products with
high yield and purity. Affinity chromatography techniques are the most robust for down-
stream processing of these biocomposites considering selectivity and recovery parame-
ters [104, 105]. In addition to these methods, electro-membrane filtration can be used
efficiently for charged molecules such as biologically active peptides, since this technique
combines electrophoresis and membrane filtration [106].
Besides, bioinformatics assists in the analysis of microbial bioactive peptides. In silico
techniques help predict the nature of peptides and their bioactivities before, during, and
after fermentation processes [104, 107–111].
11.12 Conclusions and Perspectives
The cultivation process of microorganisms employing different protein sources is a promis-

ing biotechnological tool for the generation of bioactive peptides with food and/or pharma-
ceutical grade. The bioactivity of peptides depends on protein origin, specificity, and
selectivity of the hydrolytic enzymes, the amino acid sequence, and the characteristics of
the uptake mechanism by the organism. Considering the microbial production of peptides,
in besides to these factors, the microorganism used and the conditions of the cultivation
process also influence the bioactivity. In this context, aspects such as separation, concentra-
tion, and purification of bioactive microbial peptides for food and pharmaceutical areas
should be improved aiming at industrial production. Thus, the production of recombinant
bioactive peptides employing microorganisms generally recognized as safe (GRAS) will
play a relevant role in the competitive scenario of biotechnology industries, aiming yield,
purity, environmental sustainability, and cost-effectiveness in their large-scale production
processes.
Another challenge to be overcome is the scale-up of microbial production of bioactive
peptides, since most studies are still performed at laboratory scale. Therefore, collaboration
between academia and the food and pharmaceutical industries is necessary to promote the
development of bioactive peptides with efficacy, stability during the processing, and feasi-
ble production cost for a promising commercialization.
Although studies have shown that biopeptides generated after microbial protein fermen-
tation may present bioactivity, their effects on the human body are still questionable, indi-
cating the need for further studies to prove the beneficial effects of these biocomposites in
the body. In the current state of knowledge to identify the therapeutic potential of these
biologically active peptides, in vivo clinical studies in humans are needed to clarify factors
such as dosage, mode of action, toxicity, and adverse effects in the body.
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Reference 253
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261
12
Trends in Microbial Sources of Oils, Fats, and Fatty Acids

for Industrial Use
Alaa Kareem Niamah1, Deepak Kumar Verma 2, Shayma Thyab Gddoa
Al-Sahlany1, Soubhagya Tripathy 2, Smita Singh3, Nihir Shah4, Ami R. Patel4,
Mamta Thakur 5, Gemilang Lara Utama6,7, Mónica L. Chávez-González8, and
Cristobal Noe Aguilar 8
1
Department of Food Science, College of Agriculture, University of Basrah, Basra City, Iraq
2
Agricultural and Food Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, West Bengal, India
3
Department of Allied Health Sciences, Chitkara School of Health Sciences, Chitkara University, Rajpura, Punjab, India
4
Division of Dairy Microbiology, Mansinhbhai Institute of Dairy and Food Technology-MIDFT, Dudhsagar Dairy Campus,
Mehsana, Gujarat, India
5
Department of Food Technology, School of Sciences, ITM University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India
6
Faculty of Agro-Industrial Technology, Universitas Padjadjaran, Sumedang, Indonesia
7
Center for Environment and Sustainability Science, Universitas Padjadjaran, Bandung, Indonesia
8
Bioprocesses and Bioproducts Research Group, Food Research Department, School of Chemistry, Autonomous University of
Coahuila, Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico
12.1 Introduction
The vast majority of oils and fats found around the globe come from either plants or
animals. Triacylglycerols, which are more commonly known as triglycerides, may be found
in these in practically every instance. The cost of producing oils and fats from microorgan-
isms is substantially higher than the cost of acquiring the same oils and fats from plants,
which results in microorganisms contributing a much smaller proportion of the total.
Animal fats, which are often produced as byproducts or primary products of the meat and
dairy industries, were historically quite affordable. This is because animal fats are normally
produced as a byproduct of other products. As a result, there is an urgent need to produce
high-value oils and lipids to compensate for the high production costs so unless we are to
rely on large-scale fermentation technology to grow bacteria in sufficient quantities to
deliver practical and usable amounts of their triglycerides [1].
The production of oils and fats from microorganisms as an alternative to supplies
obtained from agriculture and animals is an idea that has been proposed in several scien-
tific discussions. However, in order for microbial oils to be produced on a commercial scale,
they will eventually have to compete with traditional lipid products [2, 3, 4]. Given the
continuously falling prices of plant oils and animal fats, it is self-evident that there is zero

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262 12 Trends in Microbial Sources of Oils, Fats, and Fatty Acids for Industrial Use
possibility that microbial oils comparable to these could ever be produced in an economically
viable manner. In light of this, if microorganisms are to be regarded as potential providers
of single-cell oils (SCOs), then these oils will either need to be exceedingly specialized,
which is currently expensive to get from animal and agricultural sources, or not often
produced by animal and agricultural sources. There is an astonishing variety of fatty acid
structures to be discovered in the world of microbes; yet, many minor fatty acids are difficult
to get in sufficient quantities, despite the fact that they may have potential applications.
The increasing need for lipids with a high economic value has been an impetus behind the
production of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) [5]. These acids are used for a variety of
functions, including nutrition and health.
After the development of gas-liquid chromatography (GLC) analysis in the 1960s, there
was no scientific basis for presuming that the fatty acids that are found in the majority of
microorganisms would be harmful in any way to people or other animals that might ingest
them. This is because there was no evidence to support such a hypothesis. Instead, it
became clear very soon that these fatty acids were the same as those that are present in
microorganisms of a higher level. In addition, research showed that triacylglycerols and
storage techniques in the oils produced by microbes were identical to those found in plants
and animals [6].
The term “oil-bearing” is what is meant to be understood by the word “oleaginous,”
which refers to microorganisms that store oils within their cells. It was initially proposed
that the term should only be used to describe any microbe that accumulates more than 20%
of its biomass as storage lipid, as levels somewhat lower than this may simply be caused by
the characteristics of the organism’s development. However, it was ultimately decided that
the term should be used to describe any microbe that accumulates more than 20% of its
biomass as storage (Table 12.1). In hindsight, it has been shown that a minimum lipid con-
tent of 20% serves as a reasonable empirical criterion for establishing oleaginicity [20].
Recent research has focused on determining whether or not several bacteria that store
hydrophobic lipids might serve as possible sources of SCOs, particularly those that are uti-
lized in the production of biodiesel. Because the maximal levels of lipid accumulation that
are possible for various species and even different strains of the same species can vary
substantially [22], the amount of lipid that can be accumulated depends on the genetic
make-up of the microorganisms. The term SCOs is presently being used extensively to
describe oils that are being examined for usage in the biodiesel industry to make methyl
fatty acid esters in addition to oils that are meant for both human and animal use. Because
there is presently no commercially accessible technology that is developed particularly to
produce SCOs for the biofuel sector, this chapter will not address these concerns because
they are not relevant to the topic at hand.
As a result, the primary objective of this chapter is to provide knowledge of the most
recent tendencies and technical breakthroughs in microbial sources of oils, fats, and fatty
acids that have been carried out by a variety of groups of researchers and scientists. In addi-
tion, this chapter delves into the topic of several types of microorganisms, such as algae,
bacteria, fungi, and yeasts, which have been linked to diverse sources of oils, fats, and fatty
acids. In addition to this, microbial oils, fats, and fatty acids have also received a lot of
attention for the industrial uses that they have in the food and health industries. At the end
of the chapter, possibilities for study in the field of microbial oils, fats, and fatty acids as
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12.2 Microbial Source 263
Table 12.1 Oil content of some oleaginous microorganisms.
Oil content (%) in cell

Microorganisms on a dry weight basis References
Microalgae Botryococcus braunii 10–40 [7, 8]

Chlorella vulgaris 25–63 [8, 10]
Crypthecodinium cohnii 20–50 [11]
Cylindrotheca fusiformis 4.68 [12]
Nitzschia spp. 28–37 [13]
Phaeodactylum tricornutum 20–30 [14]
Schizochytrium spp. 50–77 [15]
Tetraselmis suecia 15–23 [15]
Bacteria Acinetobacter calcoaceticus 2–25 [16]
Rhodococcus spp. 4–85 [17]
Bacillus spp. 57 [17]
Pseudomonas spp. 38–92 [18]
Serratia spp. 64 [17]
Yeasts Aureobasidium melanogenum 32–66 [19]
Rhodosporidium spp. 48–70 [19]
Yarrowia lipolytica 40–50 [19]
Rhodosporidium spp. 62–74 [19]
Rhodosporidiobolus fluvialis 55–64 [19]
Molds Aspergillus oryzae 57 [20]
Mucor spp. 28–32 [21]
Mortierella isabellina 29 [21]
Phanerochaete chrysosporium >40 [21]
well as their potential future have been highlighted. These opportunities are aimed at
researchers, scientists, and industry professionals.
12.2 Microbial Sources
The oleochemicals sector of the economy places a significant emphasis on the use of oils and
fats derived from either plant or animal sources. The debate regarding whether it is more
important to prioritize food or fuel has, on the other hand, brought to light concerns regard-
ing the long-term viability and security of food supplies. As a result, traditional feedstocks
have had to be replaced with oils made from inedible crops, used cooking oil, and animal
tallow. The necessity to refine oils acquired from waste and non-edible products before they
can be utilized in industrial processing boosts the cost of the entire production process [15].
This requirement places a limitation on the use of such resources at the current time.
c12.indd 263 05/26/2023 19:16:35

Because the oil that is generated in microbial reactors has a fatty acid profile that is equiv-
alent to that of plant oils, it is capable of taking the place of traditional sources in industries
that are focused on the production of oleochemicals. The accumulation of lipids can reach
as high as 70% of the dry biomass depending on the strain of various oleaginous microor-
ganisms (bacteria, microalgae, yeast, and fungus) as well as the conditions of their cultiva-
tion. Oleaginous microorganisms can be used to produce biodiesel or as dietary supplements,
depending on how their fatty acids are produced [16, 19, 21].
Researchers have spent the past three to four decades investigating the role that oleaginous
bacteria can play in the conversion of feed material into triacylglycerols. This conversion
involves the use of materials like glucose. Because of this, researchers and scientists now
have a reasonable knowledge of how this is accomplished on a biochemical level [1, 2, 5].
When microorganisms move from the equitable phase of growth into the lipid consolidation
stage, they are no longer required to produce large amounts of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
ATP is the metabolically available energy that is used by cells to continue synthesizing new
cells and cellular components. This is the crucial step in the procedure. In the mitochondria
of the cell, the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, which is also known as the Krebs cycle, and the
process of oxidative phosphorylation, in which the reduced cofactors involved in the enzyme
reactions are converted to their oxidized counterparts, work together to produce ATP from
adenosine diphosphate (ADP). One of the most significant mechanisms is called isocitrate
dehydrogenase (ICDH) catalysis (Figure 12.1).
12.2.1 Microalgal Sources

Microalgae have been used by humans and animals alike for their nutritional value for a
very long time; nevertheless, it was not until recently that their cultivation and harvesting
on an industrial scale began to considerably increase. The biology of microalgae has been
researched more thoroughly than it has been in the previous 50 years owing to the
Glucose
Glycolysis Mitochondrion
c
1 yli
Malate Pyruvie acid Oxaloacetate r b ox le
ica yc
Tr cid c
a
2
3
Oxaloacetate Citrate Acetyl-CoA
e n
4
tiv
Isocitrate x ida ylatio
O hor
Acetyl-CoA osp
6
p h
2-Oxoglutate
5
Fatty acyl-CoA Triacylglycerols

Figure 12.1 The metabolism ways of oleaginous microorganisms to fatty acid production and
lipid accumulation in cells (1: malic enzyme; 2: malate dehydrogenase; 3: citrate lyase; 4:
adenosine triphosphate + co-enzyme A; 5: fatty acid synthase; 6: isocitrate dehydrogenase).
c12.indd 264 05/26/2023 19:16:36

incorporation of genetics and molecular biology methodologies into research programs in

the 1970s. This is the longest period of time during which such research has been con-
ducted. In recent times, the generation of energy and resources through the use of micro-
algae has garnered a significant amount of thought [23]. In contrast to terrestrial crops,
which take a whole growing season to mature and only have an oil content that can reach
a maximum of around 5% of their dry weight, microalgae develop quickly and have a high
oil content [23]. The construction of large-scale photobioreactors that are capable of func-
tioning under certain ideal circumstances while also posing a minimum danger of con-
tamination is essential for the future of microalgal biotechnology. Although closed systems
are able to eliminate the bulk of the problems that are caused by open-air systems, there is
still a need for the development of closed culturing systems that are both more inexpensive
and more effective [24].
There are three processes that must be carefully considered in order to successfully pro-
duce microalgal lipids that may be used for a number of purposes. These include (i) maxi-
mizing the extraction of the lipids that have accumulated in the microalgal cells,
(ii) optimizing the culture conditions to achieve maximum lipid production, and (iii) deter-
mining the fatty acid profile that is best suited for biodiesel production and achieving maxi-
mum lipid production. However, environmental factors and the conditions of the
production process can influence the type and quantity of lipid that is produced by micro-
algae. Because this might pose a risk to the process as a whole, it is imperative that rigorous
monitoring takes place [25]. During the procedure for producing biodiesel, these microal-
gal lipids go through a process called “transesterification,” in which they interact with alco-
hol in the presence of a catalyst. In the course of the process, glycerin, which is a structural
component of triglycerides, is removed. As a result, around 10% of the oil’s initial weight is
retained (Figure 12.2).
In order to comprehend the single-cell dynamics that occur during the process of lipid
production in microalgae and to conduct an analysis of a well-known model experiment, a
novel single-cell analytic approach was utilized. Sandmann and coworkers asserted that
the findings of these investigations can be helpful for further study into the method by
which microalgal lipids are accumulated [26]. The assessment methodologies for enhanc-
ing the overall economic viability of the lipid for trade revealed that a microalgal bioprocess
utilizing a microalgal strain with desirable features is essential for reducing the expenses
associated with the production of biodiesel. The manufacture of biodiesel from algae is
now the primary focus of research that attempts to address both the issue of energy sustain-
ability and the issue of environmental sustainability. Tan and coworkers emphasized that
it is of the utmost significance to conduct research into the practicability of using this
CH2–O–CO–R1 CH2–OH O
Acidic/basic catalyst
factors like NaOH
CH–O–CO–R2 + 3 Ŕ–OH CH–OH + 3 Ŕ–O–C–CH3
Biocatalyst factor Ester (biodiesel)
Methanol
such as lipase(s)
CH2–O–CO–R3 CH2–OH
Triglyceride Glycerol
Figure 12.2 Catalyzed biochemical process for transesterification of a triglyceride with methanol.
c12.indd 265 05/26/2023 19:16:37

innovative feedstock for the production of valuable byproducts and renewable fuels on an
industrial scale [27].
12.2.2 Bacterial Sources

Although bacteria have a fast rate of cell proliferation, in comparison to fungi and algae,
they acquire less amount of lipids. Under standard culture conditions, bacterial lipids are
produced in the form of minute droplets inside the bacterial cytoplasm at high cell growth
rates. Certain strains of bacteria are able to collect oil when exposed to a certain growth
condition. Polyhydroxyalkanoic acids are the most common form of neutral lipid found in
the majority of bacterial species. These acids are also utilized as intracellular carbon and
energy storage compounds. According to the findings of Koreti and coworkers on triacylg-
lycerol, the accumulation of lipids is more likely to take place during the stationary growth
phase of a bacterial culture. The composition and concentrations of microbial lipids change
in different ways depending on the metabolic processes involved in their formation. The
processes involved in lipid synthesis are susceptible to influence from a variety of attrib-
utes, such as culture conditions, carbon sources, nitrogen sources, temperature, pH, and
the availability of nutrients [18].
A variety of bacterial species, including Rhodococcus, Mycobacterium, Streptomyces,
Nocardia, and Acinetobacter, are responsible for the production of the largest quantities of
triacylglycerols. Gram-positive bacteria such as Rhodococcus opacus and Arthrobacter spp.
have the potential to store fatty acids making up as much as 87% of their cellular dry weight.
These bacteria also have significant biomass. R. opacus, an oleaginous bacterial strain that
is amenable to pilot-scale fermentation and may be optimized, has been the subject of the
most study. This strain can collect triacylglycerol at a rate of up to 86% of its cellular dry
weight. According to reports, Clostridium is capable of producing and storing hydrocar-
bons with a molecular weight range that extends from C11 to C35 [28]. The majority of
these hydrocarbons are classified as upper-range n-alkanes and medium-chain n-alkanes,
which fall within the range of C18 to C27 [28]. The halotolerant microorganisms include
the bacterium Vibrio furnissii, which produces internal and extracellular hydrocarbons
with molecular weights between C15 and C24 and characteristics similar to kerosene and
light oil [29]. These hydrocarbons are produced by the bacterium V. furnissii. In contrast to
Gram-positive bacteria, Gram-negative bacterial strains have not been subjected to nearly
as much research about the accumulation of triacylglycerol. The cultivation of these bacte-
rial strains on various carbon sources results in an increase in certain numbers (n-alkanes
or olive oil). A Gram-negative strain of Aeromonas can have fatty acids comprising as
much as 12% of its cellular dry weight [30]. Of these fatty acids, 30% are eicosatetraenoic
acid, which is a kind of PUFA.
For the purpose of treating wastewater, oleaginous Gram-negative bacterial strains of the
genus Nitratireductor have been developed. These bacteria utilize short-chain organic acids
as their primary source of carbon. This particular bacterial strain is also capable of produc-
ing combinations of fatty acids such as triacylglycerol, squalene, and the methyl ester of
2-butenoic acid. These are just a few examples. Genetic engineering is the most cutting-
edge technique now available for the purpose of optimizing and selecting carbon sources
for the synthesis of lipids and fatty acids [31, 32].
c12.indd 266 05/26/2023 19:16:37

12.2.3 Fungal and Yeast Sources

Fungi are classified as oleaginous if they have the ability to accumulate lipids at a rate that
is higher than 20% of their dry cell weight. In point of fact, depending on the dry weight of
their cells, many oleaginous yeasts are capable of accumulating more than 40% lipids.
Triacylglycerols and sterol esters are the principal types of lipids that are produced by ole-
aginous yeasts. These lipid classes are found deposited in the lipid particles that are found
in the cells of oleaginous yeast. The filamentous fungus Mortierella alpina has the potential
to accumulate considerable amounts of the triacylglycerol that contains PUFAs with a C20
chain length. In point of fact, M. alpina is capable of producing up to 20 g/L of culture
broth worth of triacylglycerol, and between 30 and 70% of the total fatty acid is arachidonic
acid, which is an essential PUFA for cellular signaling and structural purposes. The posi-
tive effects that functional PUFAs have on one’s health have sparked an increased interest
in the search for plentiful sources of these molecules, particularly fungal strains that exhibit
a better synthesis of specific PUFAs. Because of mutant screening and targeted gene edit-
ing in M. alpina, the functions of various enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of PUFAs
have been elucidated. This has also led to the development of lines with increased PUFA
production [33].
An oleaginous filamentous fungus known as Mucor circinelloides grew to notoriety due
to its great efficiency in producing and accumulating lipids, including a substantial amount
of γ-linolenic acid. Mycelium obtained from M. circinelloides has, in recent times, garnered
a great deal of attention due to the fact that it has been suggested as a convenient source of
raw materials for the synthesis of biodiesel by means of lipid transformation. Metabolic
engineering has been shown to be essential for a considerable increase in the yields of
lipids produced by M. circinelloides, despite the fact that this organism naturally accumu-
lates lipids. Fazili and coworkers found that M. circinelloides has the capacity for both the
modification of already-existing biosynthetic pathways as well as the creation of new bio-
synthetic pathways [34].
As noted by Xue and coworkers, the ascomycetous yeasts and the basidiomycetous yeasts
group are both included in the oleaginous yeasts (Figure 12.3) that have been successfully
isolated and described to this point [19]. There have been confirmations that certain strains
of Yarrowia lipolytica are oleaginous yeasts. For example, Y. lipolytica ACA-DC 50109 has
the ability to store a significant quantity of lipids (44–54% of the yeast cells’ dry weight is
composed of fat). Although the same transformant was able to obtain 50.6% of their cell dry
weight as lipid from an extract of Jerusalem artichoke tubers in their cells, and the cell dry
weight was 14.6 g/L within 78 hours of fermentation, the cell dry weight was much higher.
Due to the overexpression of an inulinase gene in Y. lipolytica ACA-DC 50109, the transfor-
mant was capable of obtaining 48.3% of their cell dry weight as lipid from inulin within
their cells within 78 hours, and their cell dry weight was 13.3 g/L [35]. According to
Kreger-van Rij, N. J. W., the wild-type strain of Y. lipolytica is incapable of absorbing inulin,
sucrose, lactose, soluble starch, d-xylose, cellobiose, or maltose and can only utilize glucose
and glycerol for the formation of its cells [36].
The yeast known as Cryptococcus albidus is classified as an oleaginous yeast. In the con-
tinuous cultures with a single stage, initial research focused on determining how dilution
rates affected the culture. To attain a high cell density at a constant dilution rate of 0.36/h
c12.indd 267 05/26/2023 19:16:37

Yeasts sources of oils, fats, and fatty acids
Ascomycetous family
1. Apiotrichum spp.: A. curvatum

2. Aureobasidium spp.: A. melanogenum
3. Candida spp.: C. curvata
4. Lipomyces spp.: L. starkeyi, L. tetrasporus, and
L. lipofera
5. Pichia spp.: P. guilliermondii, and P. kudriavzevii
6. Sporidiobolus spp.: S. ruineniae
7. Sporobolomyces spp.: S. carnicolor
8. Trichosporon spp.: T. capitatum, T. dermatis, and
T. pullulan
9. Yarrowia spp.: Y. lipolytica
1. Cryptococcus spp.: C. albidus, C. curvatus, C.

aerius, and C. musici
2. Rhodosporidiobolus spp.: R. fluvialis
3. Rhodosporidium spp.: R. sphaerocarpum, R.
babjevae, and R. toruloides
4. Rhodotorula spp.: R. colostri, R. glutinis, and R.
mucilaginosa
Basidiomycetous family
Figure 12.3 Yeasts are sources of oils, fats, and fatty acids, and they come from a variety of species
belonging to the ascomycetous and basidiomycetous families. Source: Adapted from [19]/ Taylor
and Francis.
with varying bleeding ratios, a single-stage continuous culture was carried out utilizing a
membrane cell recycling system. This culture was carried out in order to use. The highest
bleeding ratio, which was 0.4, resulted in the highest amount of lipid production, which
was 0.69 g/L/h. A two-stage continuous culture was carried out in order to get a higher lipid
production and content. This was accomplished by modifying the C/N ratio during two
separate periods of the culture. In the end, researchers got a lipid yield of 0.32 g/g and a
lipid content that was 56.4% [37].
Arachidonic acid is one of the fatty acids, and because of its unique biological properties,
it has a broad variety of applications in pharmacology, in food and agricultural industries,
and in the care of infants. It has been proven that the production of arachidonic acid is
extremely sensitive to pH values in an acidic environment and that it is completely inhib-
ited at a pH of 3. The range of 20–22 °C was considered to be the optimal temperature for
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12.3 Application in Food and Healt 269
the production of arachidonic acid. M. alpina NRRL-A-10995 was continually cultured in

a medium that included glycerol, and the development of the organism was limited by the
addition of nitrogen and the selection of optimal conditions (pH 6.0 and 20 °C). This
resulted in the active synthesis of arachidonic acid, which accounted for 25.2% of the lipids
and 3.1% of the biomass [38]. The product yield from the consumed glycerol was 1.6% by
mass and 3.4% by energy.
12.3 Application in Food and Health

Isolating the microbial lipid that is rich in PUFA allows for the creation of pure oil or stable
emulsions that can then be added to a wide range of foods. Alternately, a wide variety of
agricultural products (such as cereals) and byproducts (such as orange peels, apple or pear
pomace, and sweet sorghum) can be augmented with PUFAs by solid or semi-solid-state
fermentation with PUFA-producing microbes and then utilized directly as food and/or feed
supplements [39].
In view of the continually growing human population as well as the limited number of
natural PUFA sources, a significant number of studies have been carried out on the produc-
tion of PUFA. According to Bellou and coworkers, the bulk of the commercially available
microbial oils includes large quantities of PUFAs. This includes the oils that are generated
from the yeast Y. lipolytica, the fungus M. circinelloides, and M. alpina [40]. Microorganisms
were grown in the distillery effluent in prior research so that they could make biodiesel
from the lipids that they accumulated [41]. Metschnikowia pulcherrima was utilized to
inoculate the raw waste, and it was then cultured under different circumstances regarding
pH, temperature, and the duration of the culture period. The raw wastewater had a total
dissolved solids concentration of 46.9 g/L, and its COD concentration was 86 g/L. An analy-
sis was done to determine the ideal growth conditions for a C/N ratio of 11.4%, which is
already obtainable. It was demonstrated that the optimal conditions for growth in culture
were a pH of 6.2, a temperature of 300 °C, and a period of 120 hours [41]. After the proce-
dure of lipid extraction was finished, the extracted lipids were put to use in the production
of biodiesel.
Infectious diseases need more than one treatment option in order to be effectively treated
because many bacterial species are growing increasingly resistant to antibiotics [42].
According to the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United States Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention (US CDC), it is possible that infections such as those caused
by Neisseria gonorrhoeae will no longer be treatable in a few short years. One area of research
interest is looking at the possibility of employing antimicrobial fatty acids and the deriva-
tives of these acids in the therapeutic prevention or treatment of bacterial infections.
Numerous research has been conducted to study the efficacy of monoglycerides, fatty acids,
and derivatives of both of these in the fight against a wide variety of bacterial species [43].
The pathological implications of certain fatty acids, such as omega(ω)-3 PUFAs, which
influence human health conditions and slow the progression of some illnesses, make cer-
tain fatty acids particularly important to people. Their anti-arrhythmic, anti-inflammatory,
anti-thrombotic, anti-atherosclerotic, anti-fibrotic, and endothelial relaxing capabilities are
known as being advantageous in the prevention of a number of illnesses [44]. This is
c12.indd 269 05/26/2023 19:16:37

especially true in the case of CVDs. According to a number of studies, the administration
of dietary supplements rich in ω-3 PUFAs to young children diagnosed with attention defi-
cit hyperactivity disorder or any other kind of comparable developmental abnormality
causes a number of positive effects. Low levels of erythrocyte docosahexaenoic acid and
eicosapentaenoic acid have been associated with a variety of major issues, including bipo-
lar disorder, schizophrenia, and other psychiatric conditions. ω-3 PUFAs have favorable
benefits on any inflammatory region of the body, including those associated with rheuma-
toid arthritis, asthma, lupus erythematosus, diabetes, migraine, nephritis, and psoriasis.
These effects may be seen in the body’s physiological functioning. In addition, they protect
against or treat atherosclerosis, hypertriglyceridemia, and hypertension [45]. In a different
area of research, it was demonstrated that oleic, linoleic, capric, lauric, and myristic acids
are antiviral agents that are effective against vesicular herpes simplex type1, visna, and the
stomatitis virus. Thormar and coworkers revealed that the monoglycerides monocaprylin,
monocaprin, and monolaurin made these viruses inactive [46].
12.4 Opportunities and Prospective Future
Since the first time microbial oils were made available to the general public in 1985, the sig-
nificance and value of microbial oils have been steadily increasing in the specialized market
for high-value nutraceuticals. However, there is a very small proportion of people who loathe
taking fish oil capsules, and the primary reason for this aversion is that the capsules cause
them to have “fishy burps.” In addition, certain religious groups, individuals who follow a
vegetarian or vegan diet, and vegans do not desire to ingest these oils. Therefore, the only
thing that can fulfill these requirements is the use of microbial oils. Therefore, Crypthecodinium
cohnii and several species of Schizochytrium or Thraustochytrium serve as the basis for the
many primary sources that are now available. For the production of biodiesel from wet ole-
aginous microorganisms with a water content of more than 90% (weight basis), a novel direct
saponification-esterification of fatty acids microbial conversion approach has been devel-
oped [47]. This method involves the esterification of fatty acids rather than their saponifica-
tion. This approach is extremely simple, and it has the potential to supplant more conventional
methods of feedstock drying and lipid extraction in order to boost biodiesel production at an
affordable cost. In addition, the findings of the trial and the suggested kinetic model indi-
cated that the system operates primarily through the conversion of lipids produced from
microalgae cells into soap during the saponification stage and biodiesel during the subse-
quent esterification step. This was indicated by the fact that the system produced soap from
the lipid during the saponification stage. The production of biodiesel from waste oil is rather
confined since there is a shortage of waste oil, despite the fact that the process is successful
for independent small-scale producers. Large-scale commercial producers typically make use
of the oil that is extracted from seeds such as corn, soybeans, rapeseed, and palm, among oth-
ers. Unfortunately, the discussion around whether biodiesel ought to be categorized as food
or feed has resulted in the discovery that this particular resource, when utilized on a com-
mercial basis, carries a higher price tag. The higher yield of bacterial biomass that is produced
when waste materials are utilized as the carbon source is one potential solution that could be
used to bring the cost of the raw materials that are used in the production of biodiesel down
c12.indd 270 05/26/2023 19:16:37

Reference 271
to an affordable level. Following this step, the biomass may be transformed into fatty acids.
The efficient production of several groups of fatty acids and the derivatives of these acids was
made possible by the use of substrates such as alkanoic acids and alkanes. Nevertheless, addi-
tional challenges are presented by their high toxicity, low miscibility, and rapidly increasing
prices on the market [48]. The utilization of ultrasound as a cutting-edge method in the pro-
duction of fatty acids and biodiesel from oleaginous bacteria has just come to light. Ultrasonic
treatment, in general, has the effect of enhancing the mass-transfer capabilities of a material,
which, in turn, leads to an improved reaction rate, a quicker response time, and maybe even
cheaper production costs [49]. However, further research is required, particularly in the area
of the techno-economic feasibility of the proposed solution. The major impediment to the
synthesis of lipids derived from the associated carbon source is produced from microorgan-
isms, which account for up to 85% of the entire production expenses, hence making the man-
ufacturing process expensive. Therefore, the cost would be reduced if inexpensive carbon or
nitrogen sources were used, such as hydrolyzed plant biomass, molasses, crude glycerol from
the biodiesel industry, whey from the cheese industry, or sludge from wastewater treatment
facilities. These are all examples of carbon or nitrogen sources.
12.5 Conclusion
Because of the growing population density and the shift in lifestyle attitudes, there is a
greater amount of pressure being placed on the manufacturing market. This effort is neces-
sary in order to satisfy the demands and wishes of society. The production and consump-
tion patterns that have been built in recent times mainly rely on fossil fuels, which have a
severe impact on both the natural resources and the environment. The effective production
of biological materials is a burgeoning sector that shows signs of further expansion and
provides a diverse variety of options for businesses to expand their operations. The produc-
tion of biofuels from bacterial lipids, which is more applicable to real-world situations and
suitable for usage in production environments, is progressively becoming the primary
focus of study. The associated carbon source, which accounts for more than half of the
production costs, poses the greatest challenge in the whole process of creating lipid-derived
fuels from microorganisms. This presents the greatest challenge since it accounts for more
than half of the production costs. As a consequence of this, the production of lipids and
biodiesel from bacteria using a variety of waste materials as carbon sources, the application
of contemporary biotechnological techniques, and the improvement of transesterification
processes will make it possible to produce biodiesel at a price that is more affordable.
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275
13
Microbial Bioreactors for Secondary Metabolite Production

Luis V. Rodríguez-Durán1, Mariela R. Michel2, Alejandra Pichardo3,
and Pedro Aguilar-Zárate2
1
Biochemical Engineering Department, UAM-Mante, Universidad Autónoma de Tamaulipas, Ciudad Mante, Tamaulipas, Mexico
2
Engineering Department, Tecnológico Nacional de México/I. T. de Ciudad Valles, Ciudad Valles, San Luis Potosí, Mexico
3
Department of Biotechnology, Universidad Autonoma Metropolitana-Unidad Iztapalapa, Colonia Vicentina, Mexico City, Mexico
13.1 Introduction
Microbial secondary metabolites include several compounds such as antibiotics, growth hor-
mones, and pigments, among others. They are not involved directly in microbial growth but
have applications in pharmaceuticals, food, cosmetics, and biocontrol [1, 2]. Secondary
metabolites are produced by bacteria and fungi, and their production is influenced by culture
conditions [3] affecting microbial physiology, metabolism, and stress responses [4–6].
The composition of culture media mainly the carbon-to-nitrogen (C/N) ratio, salinity,
and metal ion can regulate the degree and pattern of secondary metabolites expression by
genes. As well the culture conditions such as adequate temperature, pH, oxygen concentra-
tion, and cultivation status are necessary for the growth of the microbes and the correct
biochemistry reactions allowing the production of secondary metabolites [7]. The control
or variation of the above-mentioned factors may affect the production of microbial second-
ary metabolites or change the chemical diversity of the compounds.
The type of cultivation affects directly the microbe’s metabolic process. The secondary
metabolites are produced generally during the late growth phase of the microorganisms
and are repressed in the logarithmic phase and depressed in the stationary phase [8, 9]. The
production of secondary metabolites has been carried out mainly by submerged and
solid-state cultures. The submerged culture has the characteristic that the parameters can
be monitored on-line and can be automated. It allows the scaling up of the processes.
However, the solid-state culture imitates the natural environment for microorganisms and
imitates the performance in their natural habitat [1].
The bioreactor is a basic requirement for the fermentation process. The bioreactor is a
device or a system that allows a biologically active environment. They have been tools for
scientists in the biotechnology field for obtaining particular microbial products, such as

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276 13 Microbial Bioreactors for Secondary Metabolite Production
secondary metabolites [10]. The bioreactor design must assure homogeneity in the system
and optimal conditions for the microbial growth and obtention of products. Also, the
design must consider problems such as oxygen transfer, which depends on the complexity
of the matrix and is the factor that affects the design and control strategies [11].
According to the above described, the use of the correct bioreactor under the correct
conditions and the adequate nutrients will allow the microbes to produce (or not) the
metabolites. Hence, the present chapter describes the commonly used bioreactors, their
design, and their impact on the production of microbial secondary metabolites.
13.2 Design of Bioreactors
Bioreactors are core elements for biological reactions. Into the bioreactors, the microbial
processes occur. The bioreactors must have the conditions and satisfy the requirements
(chemical and physical) of microbes [12]. In submerged fermentation and solid-state
culture, secondary metabolites are produced generally by batch and fed-batch even at an
industrial scale. For submerged fermentation, the control parameters are medium
composition, pH, temperature, agitation, and aeration rate. In solid-state culture, the
parameters to control are similar to the parameters for submerged fermentation but is
necessary to control initial moisture, particle size, and medium concentration [13].
The bioreactors exist in numerous designs and configurations according to their
applications. The integrated control systems allow working from lab scale to industrial
bioreactors [14]. It is important to take into account different considerations for the design
of the bioreactors.
The above-depicted information about the bioreactors highlights the purpose of the
design efforts. The bioreactors provide the conditions where diverse cell types can grow
and produce a variety of biologicals. Hence, this is derived in an assortment of bioreactors
systems with different design solutions.
The challenges start when cells start growing need nutrients and growth factors, also
generating the necessity of mass and energy transfer. The bioreactor must provide the
nutrients and the correct heat removal to the microbes [15]. The cells are variable and
sensible to microenvironmental conditions that affect microbial growth. Gradients of
chemicals, mainly nutrients, are generated into the bioreactor when lacks a good design or
has agitation problems. It causes growth and heat gradients, and changes in metabolic
pathways causing variation in the production of metabolites.
The purity of the strains inoculated is important since the bioreactor must assure an
environment free of external microorganisms with the correct temperature and moisture to
carry out the bioprocess. Hence, sterilization is another challenge in bioreactor design
since it depends on the shape and construction material.
The lab-scale bioreactors are generally constructed on glass, while the industrial-scale
bioreactors are constructed on stainless steel [16]. Nonetheless, there are other materials
such as polyethylene (bags) and acrylic used for the elaboration of bioreactors. The material
for the construction of the bioreactor must be chemically inert and not allow the trespass-
ing of external elements to the media. The construction material for the bioreactor will be
determined by the operating scale of the process, the process itself, and the economic con-
siderations and requirements of the operator [17, 18]. Also, it is important that bioreactors
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13.2 Design of Bioreactor 277
provide functional characteristics such as transparency, mechanical force, wear resistance,

chemical stability, and be easy to clean [19].
Based on the above premises, several designs of bioreactors have emerged. The
commonly used bioreactor for submerged fermentation is the stirred tank. Despite its
versatile design, operability, and manufacturability, mechanical agitation could be its
main disadvantage depending on the used microorganism. Since mechanical agitation
causes shear stress to the cells changing the metabolic pathways or causing the death of
the microbes. This problem was solved by designing the bubble column and air-lift
bioreactors. They can be used in aerobic and anaerobic fermentations [20]. Both types of
bioreactors have the characteristic of substituting the mechanical impeller with rising
bubbles. But in the design, it must be taken into account the possible low volumetric
oxygen transfer overall for the fast-growing microorganisms and/or for high-density
culture media. Similar advantages and disadvantages are found in the fixed bed, fluidized
bed, and biofilm bioreactors. The main challenge in the design of these bioreactors is the
integration of the external pumping, the metabolic heat control, and the efficient supply
of oxygen and CO2 removal.
The design of solid-state bioreactors can be as simple as a polyethylene bag or as
complex as the instrumented rotating/stirred drum bioreactors. There are several types
of bioreactors with different geometries for developing solid-state culture of microbes.
It includes bioreactors without aeration such as tray bioreactors and bags, bioreactors
with continuous agitation as the rotating/stirred drum, and bioreactors with forced
aeration such as packed bed bioreactors, among others. However, it is important to
consider that the design of the bioreactor must fit the requirements of the microbes. For
example, some fungal strains are sensitive to mechanical agitation. In that case, the
bioreactor must be without rotating or stirred agitation. Instead, a tray bioreactor or a
forced aeration column must be used. The main challenges in the design of solid-state
bioreactors are the control of metabolic heat, the control or monitoring of growth, and
the control of factors such as pH, moisture, and oxygen supply [21, 22]. The control of
the temperature of the process in solid-state culture has been solved by using an incuba-
tor (for tray bioreactors and bags). Other geometries, such as packed bed bioreactors, are
easy to introduce into a fish tank with tempered water for heat transfer. In this latter
case also the forced aeration acts as metabolic heat removal [23, 24]. The stirred drum
and rotating drum generally include a heat jacket [25]. The pH and moisture content are
difficult factors for controlling. Many of the literature reports indicate the adjustment of
the pH and humidity content at the very beginning of the fermentation process [23,
26–30]. An alternative for controlling the moisture content is by the supply of sterile
humid air at the air inlet port [23]. The heterogeneity of the solid-state culture makes
difficult the measurement of microbial growth. The CO2 production and O2 consumption
rates have been used to estimate biomass production [21]. Hence, it is important to
consider the implementation of gaseous O2 and CO2 sensors for microbial growth
monitoring. Generally, they are installed at the gas exit of the bioreactor [24]. Sterilization
is a process that can be handled in different ways depending on the bioreactor type,
dimensions, building material, substrate, and solid support. Some bioreactors can be
autoclaved, but large bioreactors only can be sanitized using chemical agents, steam, or
hot water. However, the most often procedure is the separate sterilization of substrate/
support and the bioreactor [25].
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The microbial secondary metabolites have been produced mostly in the above-mentioned
bioreactors. Nevertheless, still there are challenges in bioreactors design, for example the
scale-up, the integration of all features in a single bioreactor, or the development of a single
bioreactor capable to handle most of the fermentation processes or that accommodates
most microbes. So, investigations are still needed.
13.3 Types of Bioreactors for Secondary Metabolite Production
This section discusses the information related to the main reported bioreactors used for the
production of microbial secondary metabolites. Also, there are examples of the microor-
ganisms and the produced metabolites.
13.3.1 Stirred Tank Bioreactor (STB)

STB is the most widely used reactor for industrial applications. It consists of a glass or
stainless-steel vessel equipped with a motor and a shaft with one or more impellers attached
to it (Figure 13.1). The height: diameter ratio of the vessel varies from 2 : 1 to 6 : 1 and the
working volume is usually 75% of the total volume. Baffles (4–12) are used to prevent the
formation of a central vortex and to improve mass and heat transfer. The most common
type of impeller used is the four-blade disc turbine, but, depending on the characteristics of
the culture medium, other types of impeller can be used. Gases are supplied from the bot-
tom of the reactor through a sparger. A multiple-orifice ring sparger is generally used for
efficient mass transfer [31].
STB is highly versatile as it can operate in batch, fed-batch, and continuous modes. It
provides good mixing and high mass and heat transfer. This reactor is ideal for the aerobic
cultivation of microorganisms, where high oxygen transfer rates are required to maintain
the high growth rates. On the other hand, the high shear stress can be detrimental to the
growth of eukaryotic cells [32].
STB has been used for the production of secondary metabolites including antibiotics,
pigments, biosurfactants, biopolymers, phenolic compounds, alkaloids, and terpenes,
Figure 13.1 Main components of stirred tank

Air inlet bioreactor (STB).
Motor
Shaft
Baffle
Impeller
Sparger
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13.3 Types of Bioreactors for Secondary Metabolite Productio 279
among others (Table 13.1). These compounds are obtained by microbial culture or by plant
cell culture.
Penicillin was one of the first secondary metabolites produced at an industrial scale by
submerged culture. The high demand for this antibiotic prompted the development of
modern STBs in the 1940s [54]. In STB the filamentous fungi grow in the form of spherical
pellets. This form of growth has advantages over the cultivation in static bioreactors. For
example, in static culture, fungal growth increases viscosity and hinders oxygen transfer.
The formation of pellets facilitates the mixing of the culture medium and increases the
oxygen transfer rate [55]. Penicillin, like other secondary metabolites, is produced at the
end of the exponential growth phase. For this reason, the industrial production of penicil-
lin is carried out mainly by fed-batch cultivation. In the first stage, the fungus grows at a
high rate. In the second stage, the carbon source is fed at a low rate to maintain penicillin
production [56]. A similar approach has been followed for the production of other
antibiotics, such as streptomycin [51] and cephalosporin [47].
Table 13.1 Summary of representative secondary metabolites produced in STB.
Product Organism Mode of operation Reference
Mycophenolic acid Penicillium brevicompactum Batch, fed batch, and [33]

continuous
Sclerotiorin Penicillium sclerotiorum Batch [34]
Compactin Penicillium solitum Batch [35]
Prodigiosin Serratia sp. Batch [36]
Resveratrol Vitis labrusca Fed-batch [37]
Surfactin Bacillus subtilis Batch [38]
Polyhydroxybutyrate Cupriavidus necator Fed-batch [39]
Rubromycin Streptomyces sp. Batch [40]
Sanguinarine Papaver somniferum Batch [41]
Lavendamycin Streptomyces flocculus Batch [42]
Anthraquinones Rubia tinctorum Batch [43]
Red and orange pigments Monascus purpureus Batch [44]
Ginsenoside Panax quinquefolium Batch and fed-batch [45]
Gibberellic acid Gibberella fujikuroi Batch [46]
Cephalosporin Acremonium chrysogenum Fed batch [47]
Lovastatin and geodin Aspergillus terreus Batch and Fed batch [48]
Azadirachtin Azadirachta indica Batch [49]
Guggulsterone Commiphora wightii Batch [50]
Streptomicyn Streptomyces griseus Fed batch [51]
Sophorolipids Candida bombicola Fed batch [52]
Penicillin Penicillium chrysogenum Fed batch [53]
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Filamentous fungi have been used for the production of natural pigments since ancient
times. For example, in Asia, fungi of the genus Monascus are used to make a traditional
fermented food known as fermented red rice, or red koji. During the preparation of this
food, a series of red, orange, and yellow pigments are produced. These pigments are a
mixture of azaphilones, which are secondary metabolites with important biological
activities [57]. Although the commercial production of Monascus pigments is carried out
mainly by solid-state fermentation, several authors have studied the production of these
metabolites in STB [44, 58]. The production of pigments in STB allows for better control of
fermentation parameters and facilitates the scaling up and the downstream processing.
Biosurfactants are amphiphilic molecules of biological origin produced by plants and
microorganisms. For example, Bacillus subtilis produces biosurfactant lipopeptides such as
surfactin, iturin, and fengycin. Currently, the production costs of these metabolites are very
high, so their production at the industrial level has not been established [59]. However,
some attempts have been made to scale-up surfactin production to stirred-tank bioreactors
at benchtop [60] and pilot scale [61]. Sophorolipids are biosurfactant glycolipids produced
mainly by yeasts of the genus Starmerella [62]. Sophorolipids are produced in the presence
of a hydrophilic and a hydrophobic carbon source. Starmerella bombicola fed-batch culture
in STB can reach concentrations of more than 400 g/L of sophorolipids. First, the microor-
ganism grows in a medium composed of glucose and corn oil; when the glucose is depleted,
corn oil is added discontinuously [52].
Plants produce a wide variety of secondary metabolites, such as terpenes, phenolic
compounds, and alkaloids. These compounds are traditionally produced by field cultivation.
However, this approach has some problems such as low yields, variations due to environ-
mental factors, the need for large cultivation areas, and intensive labor [63]. Plant cell
culture in bioreactors is an alternative that has some advantages over traditional field
cultivation, for example control of environmental conditions, higher and reproducible
yields, simpler extraction and recovery processes, and ease of scaling [64]. STB has been
used for the production of guggulsterone by Commiphora wightii cells [50], azadirachtin by
Azadirachta indica cells [49], ginsenoside by Panax quinquefolium cells [45], anthraqui-
nones by Rubia tinctorum cells [43], sanguinarine by Papaver somniferum cells, and
resveratrol by Vitis labrusca cells [37], among others.
13.3.2 Bubble Column

Bubble column bioreactors have no mechanical agitation. Instead, they have pneumatic
agitation, which means a gas (generally air) is injected into the bottom of the bioreactor
(Figure 13.2). The gas enters the bioreactor via a diffuser. The bubbles travel through the
liquid media and along the cylinder (that is the common shape of this type of bioreactors)
until reaching the air exit port. The cylinder generally has a diameter-height ratio of 6 : 1.
Temperature keep constant by using a heat jacket or coolant coil installed outside of
the vessel.
Despite the simple design of the bioreactor, it is important to consider the rheological
properties of the fluid. Since the oxygen transfer and agitation are affected by these proper-
ties [65]. Branco et al. [66] mentioned the production of xylitol by immobilized yeast cells
is influenced by a high aeration rate improving the oxygenation of the system and the
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Figure 13.2 Bubble column bioreactor.

Gas outlet
Bubble column
Sparger
Gas inlet
homogeneity of the high concentration of cells. This latter point is really important mainly
when filamentous fungi are involved since the morphology of the microorganisms changes
the rheology of the culture media. For example, in the biosynthesis of antibiotics using a
bubble column is necessary to supply high oxygen transfer. For that reason, the high
superficial gas velocity is necessary for increasing the gas holdup [67]. This parameter is
important when gases are the main entrance product into the bioreactor. For microbial
ethanol production using CO, CO2, and H2, solubilization of the gases is important. Here
appears another parameter as thermodynamic, necessary for mass transfer and microbial
growth [68, 69]. Kheradmandnia et al. [70] reported that by increasing the temperature of
the process the KLa, maximum growth rate, and oxygen uptake rate are increased in a
bioprocess for the culture of Escherichia coli. The composition of the gases is also important
to induce microbes to produce secondary metabolites. Rahnama et al. [71] evaluated the
methane to air ratio and nitrogen content in a bioprocess for the production of poly-3-
hydroxybutyrate (PHB) by Methylocystis hirsuta. Methane to air ratio of 1 : 1 and 50% of
nitrogen provided the highest accumulation of PHB. For these bioprocesses, the presence
of oxygen is important for microbial growth. The increase in methane concentration
(10–50%) did not affect the biosynthesis of PHB [72].
Most of the applications of bubble column bioreactors are for biological wastewater
treatment. The commonly used microorganisms for this purpose are Chlorella species.
They are used for the removal of contaminants such as organic matter, ammonium, and
phosphorous and for increasing the chemical and biochemical oxygen demand. However,
the Chlorella cells produced valued secondary metabolites such as pigments and
lipids [73–75]. The production of metabolites such as chlorophyll and carotenoids are
affected besides the shear rate by the presence or absence of light [74].
The synthesis of bio-oils has been carried out by using refinery wastewater. For this
purpose, strains such as Rhodococcus opacus are used. The strain besides removing chemical
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oxygen demand produces high amounts of lipids transformed a posteriori into bio-oil [76].
The production of lipids and microbial growth is also affected by the bubble size. The gas
transfer and the shear are the main factors affected. Hoseinkhani et al. [77] reported high
production of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) by Crypthecodinium cohnii by using a bigger
bubble diameter despite the low biomass production. So, the oxygen limitation derived
from the big bubble diameter induces the microorganism to survive producing DHA.
Very recent and interesting use of the bubble column bioreactors is for the treatment of
the e-waste. Nili et al. [78] developed a bioleaching process to extract copper and nickel
from waste mobile phones using a pure culture of Penicillium simplicissimum in a bubble
column bioreactor and molasses as a carbon source. They recovered 96.94% and 71.51% of
Cu and Ni, respectively.
13.3.3 Air-Lift
The air-lift bioreactors have received attention due to their relatively simple construction
and the less shear damage to microbial cells that are sensitive to stirred tanks. The air-lift
bioreactors consider also gas–liquid–solid pneumatic contacting devices. The main
characteristic of these bioreactors is the fluid circulation in a defined cyclic pattern through
channels built specifically for this purpose [20, 79]. The bioreactor is composed generally
of the following elements: the main vessel, the draft tube, gas sparger, and gas outlet
(Figure 13.3). The presence of the draft tube generates the formation of the gas raiser and
downcomer zones. The zones are generated because of the different densities of gas and
liquid. The use of air-lift bioreactors in the production of microbial secondary metabolites
is due to the advantages of the above-mentioned characteristics.
Similar to the bubble column bioreactor, the aeration rate is a factor that affects the micro-
bial bioprocesses. Hence, it is important to consider the rheology of the culture media for an
efficient mass transfer, the dissolution of oxygen, and the homogeneity of the system [80].
Godó et al. [81] evaluated the mixing time during the production of citric acid by Aspergillus
niger. They discussed that the changes in viscosity of culture media due to fungal growth
Figure 13.3 Air-lift bioreactor.

Gas outlet
t
Disengagement
zone
Downcomer Gas riser
Daft tube
Gas inlet
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changes the mixing efficiency. Despite keeping the same gas flow rate, the velocity of liquid
in the downcomer at the end of fermentation was four times lower than at the beginning.
The gas transfer into the air-lift bioreactor is important in the bioprocess for the
conversion of methane into methanol. The solubilization of methane through a hydraulic
transfer chamber was an important factor in the efficient bioconversion to methanol by
methanogenic bacteria [82]. When no devices are available for the gas transfer, high aera-
tion rates are used for dissolving the gases. Manowattana et al. [83] applied 6 vvm (volume
of air/volume of culture media/min) to maintain 60% of dissolved oxygen in a bioprocess
for the production of lipids, carotene, and carotenoids by the red yeast Sporidiobolus para-
roseus KM281507. In all the cases mentioned previously, the sparger is a very important
accessory for adequate shear and efficient gas transfer [84, 85]. Hence, there exist wide and
very innovative gas spargers for air-lift bioreactors.
The air-lift bioreactors are very versatile devices that allow to researchers innovate and
improve bioprocesses. Matsumoto and Furuta [86] designed a bioreactor for the production
of lactic acid by Rhizopus oryzae. The same air-lift bioreactor was designed with an
extraction section/phase for the in situ extraction of the lactic acid. The use of moderately
elevated pressure in an air-lift bioreactor is a very interesting trend in bioreactor design.
Pressures between 5 and 10 bar have been explored for the solubilization of gases such as
CO2, CH4, CO, H2, and O2. However, microbial growth rate and metabolite formation need
to be improved [87]. Żywicka et al. [88] designed a novel magnetically assisted external
loop air-lift bioreactor for the production of bacterial cellulose by Komagataeibacter xylinus.
It was equipped with a rotating magnetic field generator that induces the microorganism to
a stable metabolic activity.
13.3.4 Biofilm Bioreactor

Biofilm bioreactors are used with microorganisms capable to get attached to a surface and
adhering within the reactor. They have mostly been used for the treatment of wastewater,
and the organisms present in the biofilm absorb and break down toxic substances in the
water [89]. The rotating disc contractors and membrane bioreactors are the most common
examples where biofilm production occurs on the bioreactor surface [90]. In most biofilm
bioreactors, the microorganisms are attached to organic or inorganic support materials,
generate a biofilm, then catalyze reactions within the bioreactor, and finally are removed or
inactivated once the bioreaction is completed [91].
The biofilm bioreactors are classified according to the flow pattern into the groups:
fixed-bed and expanded-bed bioreactors. The fixed-bed bioreactors are designs where the
microbial biofilm is formed in a static media. Basically, the biofilm bioreactors are designed
from a stirred tank, fixed-bed, rotating disc, fluidized bed, air-lift, or membrane biofilm.
Combination and modification of these basic reactors systems broaden the range of biofilm
bioreactors. An important part of the biofilm bioreactors is the biofilm support (Figure 13.4).
They can be inorganic and organic materials [92].
The biofilm formation is regulated by different genetic and environmental factors such
as nutrient availability and hydrodynamics. Hydrodynamics (provided by the bioreactor)
greatly influence the mass transfer mechanisms and also create stresses that create direct
action on the biostructure and the production of the metabolites (Table 13.2).
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Figure 13.4 Stainless steel biofilm support with the mycelium of Beauveria bassiana.
Table 13.2 Recent applications of biofilm bioreactors for the production of secondary metabolites.
Material support/type Productivity

Product Organism of bioreactor (g/L/h) Reference
Bioenergy
Ethanol Zymomonas mobilis and Packed-bed reactor 5.0–124.0 [93] [94]
Saccharomyces cerevisiae with PCS ring
Butanol Clostridium Packed-bed reactor 4.4 [95]
acetobutylicum with Tygon® rings
Organic acids
Acetic acid Acetobacter aceti M7 Multistage shallow 4.3 [96]
flow biofilm reactor
Citric acid Aspergillus niger Polyurethane foam, 0.13 [97]
fluidized-bed reactor
Aspergillus niger Polyurethane foam 0.11 [98]
particles
Aspergillus niger Rotating disc reactor 0.9 [99]
Fumaric acid Rhizopus oryzae Rotating disc reactor 3.78 [100]
Lactic acid Lactobacillus amylophilus, Packed-bed reactor 13–60 g/L [101]
Lacticaseibacillus casei, with PCS
Lactobacillus delbrueckii
Lacticaseibacillus casei Packed-bed reactor 7.6 g/L [102]
with PCS
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Material support/type Productivity

Product Organism of bioreactor (g/L/h) Reference
Lacticaseibacillus casei Grid-like orientation 9.0 [103]

PCS biofilm reactor
Succinic acid Actinobacillus Packed-bed reactor 2.08 [104]
succinogenes with PCS
Antimicrobials
Cephalosporin C Cephalosporium Air-lift biofilm 0.2–1.3 g/L [105]
acremonium reactor
Nisin Lactococcus lactis PCS tubes attached 4314 U/mL [106]
on the agitator shaft
Oosporein Beauveria bassiana Bubbled bottle 183 mg/L [107]
bioreactor with
stainless steel fiber
Source: Cheng et al. [106] / Modified with permission from Springer Nature.
The performance of a biofilm reactor depends on the biofilm characteristics such as bio-
film density and biofilm thickness since the overall reaction critically depends on these
parameters. Into biofilm bioreactors occurs the most complex microbial metabolic pro-
cesses since liquid and solid (biofilm) fermentations are carried out. The availability of
oxygen in the gaseous phase is necessary even when there is oxygen saturation in the liq-
uid phase.
In addition, the biomass attachment to the support confers some advantages, such as the
low viscosity of the culture broth and easy recovery of the products [109]. However, the
attachment of biomass to the solid support represents a disadvantage mainly to fungi
because the growth measurement is complicated. The adhesion of biomass to solid support
can be estimated by measuring the CO2 production [23, 24]. The gaseous CO2 monitoring
of the whole fermentation process (liquid and solid phases) can indicate the physiological
stage of the microorganism in the biofilm bioreactors [107].
13.3.5 Solid-State Fermentation (SSF) Bioreactors

Solid-state fermentation (SSF) is a biological process that occurs in the absence or near
absence of free water, which increases the efficiency of fermentation. SSF leads to concen-
trated products, reduces catabolic repression, and facilitates the growth of microorganisms
in hydrophobic substrates. In addition, SSF allows the use of agro-industrial residues to
obtain high-value-added products [110].
One of the main drawbacks of SSF is the difficulty in measuring and controlling process
variables, such as temperature, pH, the concentration of substrates/products, and micro-
bial growth. Furthermore, the scale-up of SSF reactors is generally more complex than in
submerged culture reactors. The main challenge for SSF scaling is metabolic heat dissipa-
tion. This is because in SSF the inter-particle spaces are filled with air, and the thermal
c13.indd 285 05/26/2023 19:16:44

conductivity of air is much lower than that of water. Also, in most cases, in SSF there is no
mixing or mixing is less efficient than in submerged fermentation [111].
SSF bioreactors are classified into four types: static bioreactors without forced aeration
(e.g. tray bioreactor), forcefully-aerated bioreactors but without mixing (e.g. packed-bed
bioreactor), bioreactors with mixing but without forced aeration (e.g. rotating-drum and
stirred-drum bioreactors), and bioreactors with mixing and forced aeration (e.g.
fluidized-bed, rocking-drum, and stirred-aerated bioreactors) [112]. In this section, the
main bioreactors used for the SFF are reviewed.
13.3.6 Tray Bioreactor

Tray reactors are characterized by a thin layer of solid substrate spread on a horizontal tray
with a bed height of 1–4 cm. The trays are placed inside a closed chamber (Figure 13.5).
This type of bioreactor allows good aeration and dissipation of metabolic heat. In this type
of bioreactors, the humidity, temperature, and composition of the gaseous atmosphere can
be monitored and controlled. The investment cost for this type of reactor is relatively
low [113].
These types of reactors are used for the production of enzymes and other products,
including some secondary metabolites. For example, fungi of the genus Monascus produce
orange, red, and yellow pigments during their growth on starch as a substrate. These
pigments are a mixture of at least six secondary compounds: ankaflavin, monascin,
monascorubrin, rubropunctatin, monascorubramine, and rubropunctamine [114].
Monascus is cultivated on a solid medium in Asian countries to produce a red colorant
named “Anka,”, or “red mold rice,” which is used as a food ingredient. The classical method
consists of steaming grains of rice, spreading them on large trays and inoculating them
with a strain of Monascus sp. The trays are incubated for 20 days in a room with controlled
temperature and aeration. [115]. Zhang et al. [116] conducted a comparative study between
submerged fermentation and solid-state fermentation with Monascus purpureus AS3.531
and they found that the pigment yield was 1.2 times higher in submerged fermentation
compared to SSF. However, citrinin production was 100 times higher in submerged
fermentation than in solid fermentation. This study shows how SSF is a competitive system
with submerged fermentation and decreases the synthesis of citrinin (a nephrotoxic
mycotoxin).
Air outlet
Tray Solid substrate
Incubator
Air inlet
Figure 13.5 Tray bioreactor used for solid-state fermentation.
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Another of the secondary metabolites produced by solid fermentation is lovastatin, a

hypocholesterolemic agent that inhibits HMG-CoA reductase [117]. Conventional
production of lovastatin is carried out by submerged culture. However, SSF has become an
interesting alternative for the industrial production of this drug. Baños et al. [118]
conducted a comparative study on the production of lovastatin in SSF and submerged
fermentation by Aspergillus terreus. Lovastatin yields were 30 times higher in SSF than
those in submerged fermentation and lovastatin biomass was almost 15 times more pro-
ductive. In 2001, a patent for a semi-automated tray technology for SSF was granted to the
Indian biopharmaceutical company Biocon. This bioreactor, known as PlaFractor, allows
the sterilization of the solid support, the inoculation under aseptic conditions, and extrac-
tion of the product in the same device [119]. Currently, Biocon produces lovastatin,
cultivating A. terreus on wheat bran SSF, probably using the PlaFractor technology [120].
13.3.7 Packed Bed Bioreactor

Packed bed bioreactors are static reactors of cylindrical geometry. Oxygen is supplied by
forced aeration (Figure 13.6). The air stream passes through a humidifier before entering
the reactor to regulate the temperature and humidity of the air. The bioreactor temperature
can be controlled by immersion in a thermostatic bath or the use of water jackets [113].
This type of bioreactor allows the measurement of exhaust gases.
Respirometry is a technique based on the measurement of O2 consumption and of CO2
production. Respirometry is used to estimate microbial growth and metabolic heat
generation in SSF. These measurements can be used for process optimization and as
scale-up criteria [121].
The most important challenges for the use of this type of reactor on a large scale are the
accumulation of metabolic heat, the formation of temperature gradients, the drying of the
solid bed, and the channeling [122].
An example of the application of a packed bed bioreactor where the gases were monitored
is the work carried out by Ranjbar and Hejazi [123]. The authors used packed glass columns
to study the kinetic parameters of growth and production of secondary metabolites by
Figure 13.6 Packed bed bioreactor used for

solid-state fermentation. Air outlet
Solid substrate
Air filter
Air inlet
Humidifier
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Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The kinetic study was carried out in small reactors (12 cm × 2.5 cm;
height × internal diameter) with 10 g of initial dry substrate, each column was connected to
a flow of humidified air, and the outlet gases were monitored by sensors to quantify the
CO2 production and oxygen consumption. They evaluated the effect of bed temperature
and initial moisture content on kinetic parameters and rhamnolipid production. The
results were used to model the kinetics and transport phenomena in the column reactor.
The model generated was successfully validated in a larger scale jacketed glass column
bioreactor (3 L, 60 cm height × 6 cm internal diameter).
13.3.8 Stirred and Rotating Drum Bioreactor

Stirred and rotating drum bioreactors are two types of reactors with mixing but without
forced aeration. These bioreactors are typically horizontally lying cylindrical drums
partially filled with a solid substrate. Oxygen is supplied by an air current blowing
through the headspace of the reactor (Figure 13.7). In a rotating drum reactor, mixing is
conducted by rotating the entire bioreactor around its central axis. In stirred drum biore-
actor, mixing is provided by mechanical devices attached to a shaft such as paddles or
scrapers [112].
An interesting example of the application of this type of reactor for the production of
secondary metabolites in SSF is the production of biosurfactant rhamnolipids by
P. aeruginosa from soybean meal. Dabaghi et al. [124] studied the effect of the air-flow rate,
initial moisture content, incubation temperature, and rotation time on the production of
rhamnolipid biosurfactant by P. aeruginosa in a laboratory-scale rotating drum bioreactor.
They found that the aeration of the bed and intermittent rotation of the baffled drum
enhanced rhamnolipid production.
(a) Rotation Baffle
Air inlet Air outlet
Solid substrate
(b)
Baffle
Air inlet Air outlet

Rotation
Solid substrate
Paddle mixer
Figure 13.7 Stirred (a) and rotating (b) drum bioreactors used for solid-state fermentation.
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Reference 289
13.4 Conclusion
Bioreactors are an important part of the biosynthesis of microbial secondary metabolites

since they are the environment for microbes’ growth. Understanding the physical, chemical,
and mechanical requirements of microorganisms is an important topic. This could help
operators and/or researchers to select/design the adequate bioreactor configuration for
producing the desired secondary metabolites. The high demands of microbial secondary
metabolites worldwide promote the necessity of improving or developing bioreactors.
However, most of the literature reports used laboratory-scale bioreactors. Despite the good
productivity yields and the very interesting bioreactor developments, the real challenge is
to scale up the bioreactor designs and to keep or enhance the production of microbial
secondary metabolites. For that reason, research works are still necessary for understand-
ing how the microorganism pattern is and how can be induced to produce secondary
metabolites. Also, the partnering between researchers and companies will promote the
rapid dissemination and application of knowledge.
Acknowledgment
The chapter is part of the projects 6691.18-P and 10394.21-P funded by Tecnológico
Nacional de México and the project SEP-CONACYT A1-S-29456 Identificación de esterasas
fúngicas capaces de catalizar la síntesis de derivados bioactivos del ácido cafeico.
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14
Microbial Cell Factories for Nitrilase Production

and Its Applications
Neerja Thakur1, Vinay Kumar 2, and Shashi Kant Bhatia3
1
Department of Biotechnology and Microbiology, RKMV, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, India
2
Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH, USA
3
Department of Biological Engineering, College of Engineering, Konkuk University, Seoul, South Korea
14.1 Introduction
Enzymes are gaining importance in various industries due to numerous catalytic properties
such as specificity, catalytic efficiency, selectivity, and mild reaction conditions [1, 2].
These useful properties make them commercially useful tools for the production of various
industrially important products [3, 4]. Enzyme-based processes are environment friendly
generating less or negligible waste compounds and utilizing mild reaction conditions when
compared to catalysts-mediated reactions [5, 6]. Enzymes can be purified, well charac-
terized, and prepared for large-scale production by applying advanced techniques and
bioprocesses [7, 8]. Thereby, enzyme industries are raising continuously due to the making
of value-added chemical compounds and products [9, 10]. Among various commercially
important enzymes, nitrilase enzymes are having a role in the production of various
commodity chemicals [11, 12]. Nitrilase is one of the valuable biocatalysts that are employed
for the transformation of nitriles into their corresponding carboxylic acids [13]. Nitrilases
belong to the superfamily of thiol enzymes having a conserved catalytic triad (glutamate-
lysine-cysteine) at their active site and are also referred to CN-hydrolases due to their
capability to hydrolyze non-peptide carbon-nitrogen bonds [14]. Nitrilases are classified
based on substrate catalyzed by them, e.g. aliphatic-[15], aromatic-[16, 17], heterocyclic [18],
and arylaceto-nitrilases [19]. This substrate specificity of nitrilases is exploited to transform
nitriles into valuable chemicals like acrylic acid, benzoic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid,
nicotinic acid, glycolic acid, and mandelic acid [19–23]. Nitrilases can be isolated from
different sources such as microorganisms, plants, animals, algae, yeast, nematodes, and
archaea [24–27]. These enzymes were discovered initially in certain plants and then
isolated from several microorganisms such as Acinetobacter, Alcaligenes, Arthrobacter,
Bacillus, Nocardia, Pseudomonas, Rhodococcus, and Rhodobacter [27–29]. The selection of
a particular source depends upon the use of the product, enzyme efficiency, manufacturing

c14.indd 297 05/26/2023 19:16:51

298 14 Microbial Cell Factories for Nitrilase Production and Its Applications
process, etc. Microbes are preferred candidates for the production of commercially
important enzymes due to their ease of handling, manipulation, and cultivation under
controlled conditions [30]. Keeping in view the commercial application of nitriles and
products (acid and amides) produced by nitrilase-mediated reactions, this chapter was
planned to provide an overview of the importance of nitrilase.
14.2 Nitrilase Categorization, Sources, Metabolism,

and Production Process
14.2.1 Nitrilase Categorization
Nitrilases are broadly classified as aliphatic, aromatic, and arylaceto-nitrilases based on
their substrates [31]. The aromatic nitrilases prefer aromatic and heteroaromatic substrates
with reduced activity against aliphatic nitriles. Aliphatic nitrilases are active against a wide
variety of aliphatic nitriles and some also exhibited activity toward aromatic and heterocy-
clic nitriles [32]. Arylacetonitrilases are specific to arylacetonitrile compounds with a
preference for phenyl acetonitrile and (R, S)-mandelonitrile as substrates while very less or
negligible activity was observed for aromatic and heteroaromatic nitriles [26, 33].
14.2.2 Nitrilase Sources

Nitrile hydrolyzing enzymes are distributed in plants, animals, and microbes [15, 33–35].
Thimann and Mahadevan [35] reported indoleacetonitrile (IAN) to indole acetic acid
(IAA) degrading enzyme from barley leaves. In the same year, the first bacterial nitrilase
from Pseudomonas sp. was reported by Hook and Robinson [36] that utilized naturally
occurring nitrile ricinine.
The majority of aromatic nitrilase has been reported from the genera Rhodococcus,
Nocardia, Pseudomonas (bacteria); Aspergillus, Fusarium, Gibberella, Penicillium (fungi);
and Exophiala, Cryptococcus (yeast) [26, 37–39]. Aliphatic nitrilases are active against ali-
phatic nitriles and have been reported from genera Rhodococcus, Acidovorax, Pseudomonas,
Alcaligenes, Acidovorax, Comamonas, Pyrococcus, Synechocystis as per earlier reports
by [32, 37]. Arylacetonitrilases have been reported from several bacteria belonging to the
genera Alcaligenes, Pseudomonas, Burkholderia, Bradyrhizobium, Halomonas, Labrenzia,
etc. [20, 22, 28, 29, 40–42].
14.2.3 Nitrilase in the Metabolism of Nitriles

Nitriles (R─C≡N) are organic compounds synthesized naturally by a diverse set of plants
and animals from terrestrial and marine habitats [43]. Naturally, these are present in the
form of cyanoglycosides, cyanolipids, and phenylacetonitriles, which are the defensive
metabolites in plants and able to release toxic hydrogen cyanide (HCN), ketones, and
aldehydes [44]. They are commonly found in higher plants, especially almonds, Brassica
crops (cabbage, cauliflower), and microorganisms such as fungi, bacteria, sponges, and
algae [43, 45–47]. Nitrilases have versatile functions in plant and microbe’s metabolism
c14.indd 298 05/26/2023 19:16:51

14.2 Nitrilase Categorization, Sources, Metabolism, and Production Proces 299
and play a crucial role in cyanide detoxification and nitrogen recycling [21, 48]. A chemical
warfare among plants and microbes enforces co-evolution. Plants can synthesize a wide
variety of cyanogenic glucosides (CNglcs), glucocynolates, and phenolics in their meta-
bolic pathways [48, 49]. These secondary metabolites perform various functions such as
defense and signaling. Microbes generally that live in close association with plants possess
nitrilase superfamily enzymes to metabolize nitrile and amides of plant origin [50].
14.2.4 Isolation and Screening of Nitrilase-Producing Microorganisms

There is an increased interest in the isolation, identification, and screening of
nitrile-hydrolyzing biocatalysts to find an alternative and ecofriendly way to replace the
chemical synthetic reactions [51]. Nitrile-converting biocatalysts are useful due to their
chemo-, regio-, or enantioselectivity activity that is not easy to attain in chemical
reactions [52]. These capabilities of nitrilases are enhancing the interest of several research-
ers in the isolation of nitriles hydrolyzing bacteria, archaea, yeasts, and fungi [31]. A variety
of microorganisms harboring nitrilase production capability have been isolated. Shen
et al. [53] used acrylonitrile as a nitrogen source to isolate Arthrobacter nitroguajacolicus
from soil samples that can hydrolyze acrylonitrile to acrylic acid. In another study, research-
ers used glucose and acetonitrile for the isolation of an acid-tolerant nitrilase-producing
black yeast Exophiala oligosperma [54]. Nitrilase activity detection is generally based on
the estimation of ammonia, which is produced equimolarly with acids from the hydrolysis
of nitriles. The use of enrichment method using nitriles as the sole carbon and nitrogen
source is a conventional method for screening for nitrilase-producing strains. This method
helps in the survival of microbes harboring nitrile degrading activity and able to grow on
nitriles. These conventional enrichment methods are time consuming. Researchers have
developed a high-throughput screening method that involves the use of fluorogenic and
chromogenic substrates or pH indicator reagents for the screening of new biocatalysts.
Santoshkumar et al. [55] used pH indicators (phenol red, bromothymol blue, and phenol-
phthalein) to screen microbes able to degrade aliphatic nitrile. Banerjee et al. [56] proposed
a fluorometric method involving o-phthaldialdehyde-2-mercaptoethanol reagent that
forms a fluorochrome with the nitrilase reaction solution. The use of metagenomics
technology has also been reported in nitrilase screening. DeSantis et al. [57] used metagen-
omics approach to screen environmental DNA mandelonitrile-hydrolyzing nitrilases.
Bayer et al. [58] created four metagenomic libraries to search nitriles hydrolyzing enzymes.
Genome mining and metagenomics methods are advantageous over the conventional
methods as they have greatly shortened the working time. The rational genome mining
method along with functional analysis was used for various nitrilase screening [59, 60].
14.2.5 Cultivation of Nitrilase-Producing Microbes

The nitrilase-producing microorganisms are generally cultivated in a medium supplemented
with nitriles (inducer). Different nitriles, amides, and acids have been used for the induc-
tion of the nitrilase enzyme (Table 14.1). Constitutive expression of nitrilases has also been
reported in some bacterial species [69, 70]. Aliphatic nitriles are potential inducers for
their ability to induce various nitrilases, which are evident from the literature [31].
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Table 14.1 Culture conditions for nitrilase production by various microorganisms.
Microorganism Inducer Incubation conditions Reference
Alcaligenes faecalis n-Butyronitrile 30 °C, pH 7.5, 24 h [61]

CCTCC M 208168
Rhodobacter Acetonitrile 30 °C for 24 h and 160 rpm [27]
sphaeroides LHS-305
Alcaligenes faecalis Various nitriles like 24 h at 35 °C and 200 rpm [62]
MTCC 10757 benzonitrile/e-caprolactum/
acetonitrile/3-cyanopyridine
Alcaligenes faecalis n-Butyronitrile 30 °C at 120 rpm for 24 h [63]
ZJUTB10
Gibberella intermedia Caprolactam 30 °C on a shaker [64]
CA3-1 (120 rpm) for 48 h
Gordonia terrae MTCC Isobutyronitrile 30 °C at 150 rpm for 42 h [17]
8139
Isoptericola variabilis Acetonitrile 30 °C, 200 rpm, 48 h [65]
RGT01
Rhodococcus — 20 h at 30 °C and 180 rpm [66]
rhodochrous BX2
Alcaligenes sp. MTCC Isobutyronitrile 30 °C, pH 7.0, 24 h [12]
10675
Alcaligenes faecalis Isobutyronitrile 30 °C, pH 7.0, 21 h [67]
MTCC 12629
Rhodococcus Dimethylformamide 30 °C, 72 h [68]
rhodochrous
ATCC-BAA870
Halomonas sp. Glutaronitrile 37 °C, 160 rpm [40]
IIIMB2797
The induction of nitrilase varies with the capability of various nitriles, species, and strains,
which further depends on transcription regulators [31]. In some cases, it has been observed
that substrate specificity of nitrilase differs when induced with different inducers, which
shows the presence of more than one nitrilase enzyme [62, 65]. In many cases, the nitrile
inhibiting the growth of a microorganism was hydrolyzed by the nitrilase-induced cells of
the same organism [67]. A benzonitrile hydrolyzing nitrilase was induced in Nocardia
sp. 11216 and Fusarium solani by adding benzonitrile 0.005% inducer with in mineral salt
medium containing yeast extract as a carbon source [71, 72]. Many aliphatic nitriles have
been reported to act as both C and N sources for the growth and inducer for the production
of nitrilase, i.e. acetonitrile for Geotrichum sp. JR1, isobutyronitrile for Nocardia globerula
NHB2, and Alcaligenes sp. MTCC 10674 [73, 74]. Glycerol, glucose, sorbitol, ammonium
acetate, sodium succinate, sucrose, starch, and sodium citrate have been added to the
production medium to serve as a carbon source to support the growth of various microor-
ganisms. The growth medium of various microorganisms also comprises inorganic nitrogen
source: ammonium acetate, sodium nitrate, ammonium sulfate [61], and complex organic
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14.2 Nitrilase Categorization, Sources, Metabolism, and Production Proces 301
nitrogen sources (peptone, yeast extract, malt extract, tryptone) [17, 27, 67]. Some microbial
strains Rhodococcus rhodochrous K22, R. rhodochrous J1, N. globerula NHB2, and Alcaligenes
sp. MTCC 10674 exhibited slower growth in the minimal salt medium [73, 74].
14.2.6 Nitrilase Production in Bioreactor

Nitrilase-mediated biocatalysis has proved to be an attractive tool for an industrial scale
chemical production (Figure 14.1). It is a green catalyst to synthesize commercially
important compounds due to clean reactions and other catalytic activities [38]. To meet the
industrial demands, scale-up of process at a large scale is required and fermentation is the
preferred method [75]. Nitrilase production was carried out in a stirred tank bioreactor
from Streptomyces sp. MTCC 7546 and reported 10.26 g/L cell biomass [75]. Nitrilase from
A. faecalis was overexpressed in Escherichia coli and performed fermentation in a 7 L lab
scale bioreactor [76]. A fed-batch method was performed using DO-stat feeding approach
and under induction strategy and process results in a yield of nitrilase (247 kU/L).
14.2.6.1 Factors Affecting Nitrilase Production in a Bioreactor

Aeration is one of the key fermentation parameters required for the growth of microbes in
the bioreactor. It is provided in the reactor to prevent the depletion of oxygen in the
broth [77]. Stirring is provided in stirred tank reactors, especially to provide mixing and
proper aeration in the culture broth. The effect of aeration has also been studied in reactors
Soil sample
Water sample
Enrichment
• Nitrile feeding Microbes
Isolation of pure culture
Improvement of strain
• Mutation
• Genetic engineering
• Directed evolution
Optimization of cultural conditions
Product Biotransformation Fermentation

• Purity analysis • Substrate feeding • Enzyme productions
• Marketing • Enzyme reaction
• Downstream processing
Figure 14.1 The overview of various steps of nitrilase production and biotransformation.
c14.indd 301 05/26/2023 19:16:51

in various studies as it also affects product formation. Aeration rate also affects the growth
and nitrilase production of microbes in the stirred tank bioreactors whether the reaction is
made in batch or fed-batch mode. It has been seen that the growth of E. coli cells was
increased and enantioselective nitrilase activity was decreased with an increase in aeration
rate at higher values [78]. A minor boost in the aeration rate did not affect the growth of
cells and nitrilase activity in the case of thermostable mutant nitrilase of recombinant
E. coli [77].
Dissolved oxygen concentration in the surrounding of microorganisms is very crucial to
obtain the maximum growth of microorganisms and heterologous protein expression. The
optimum value of aeration and agitation is required to retain the oxygen for appropriate
growth and activity of the enzyme produced by the microorganism [77]. Impellers are the
equipment installed in the bioreactor to agitate the culture broth. The speed of the impeller
affects the growth of microorganisms and nitrilase production, thereby it is varied to check
the optimum value of agitation in the bioreactor. The agitation rate above the optimum
value decreases the nitrilase activity due to shear stress, whereas the lower agitation affects
the cell mass concentration adversely. Reduced agitation leads to lower biomass and
nitrilase due to insufficient mixing and less availability of oxygen to the microbial culture.
A similar trend was observed for E. coli expressing nitrilase where the agitation rate was
varied in the bioreactor from 200 to 500 rpm at 37 °C. Above and below this value resulted
in decreased biomass and nitrilase activity. A similar effect of agitation on nitrilase activity
and specific growth rate of microorganisms was observed with the reduction and enhance-
ment of agitation values from the optimum value in the previous studies on nitrilase trans-
formation in stirred tank reactor [77]. Temperature and pH are other important parameters
that have a remarkable effect on the microbial productivity in the bioreactor. Both the
parameters are required to control while carrying out the reaction in the reactor as they
have a drastic effect on the enzyme activity. Different microorganisms require optimum
temperature and pH for their growth. The temperature has a direct effect on the stability of
enzymes and pH also affects the activity of enzymes, thereby reducing productivity. The
bioreactor studies pertaining to nitrilase conversions involve the investigation of such
parameters for high yield and nitrilase activity [77, 79].
14.3 Nitrilase in the Biotransformation of Nitriles
Enzymes capable of nitrile and amide degradation are continuously evolving as nitriles and
amide compounds are widespread and occur naturally. There are two pathways that have
been reported for hydrolysis of nitrile compounds where single-step reaction is mediated
by nitrilase and nitriles are directly hydrolyzed into acids and ammonia while in two-step
reaction, nitriles are first hydrolyzed into amide by nitrile hydratase and then amides are
hydrolyzed by amidase into acids and ammonia [21]. Nitrile are synthesized and used as
solvents, precursors in pharmaceutical, plastic industry, herbicides, and other industrially
important pharmaceutical precursors [80, 81]. There are various nitrile compounds that
are aromatic, aliphatic, heterocyclic, and aryl in nature that are catalyzed by nitrilase to
respective products (Table 14.2). Biotransformation of nitriles into acids can be performed
using whole resting cells, free enzymes, or immobilized cells, which depends upon the
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Table 14.2 Bioprocess development using the whole cell and immobilized nitrilase enzyme from various microorganisms.
Biocatalyst form/
Nitrile Nitrilase source Product Matrix Reaction Applications Reference
Glycolonitrile (GLN) Alcaligenes sp. ECU0401 Glycolic acid Whole cells 100 mL Polymers synthesis [82]
and pharmaceuticals
3-Cyanopyridine Escherichia coli Nicotinic acid Immobilized/ 250 mL Food additives and [73]
JM109 harboring nitrilase sodium alginate pharmaceutical
gene from Alcaligenes intermediates
faecalis MTCC 126
Nocardia globerula NHB-2 Whole cells 1 L, fed batch [83]
4-Cyanopyridine Nocardia globerula NHB-2 Isonicotinic acid Whole cells 1 L, fed batch Antituberculosis [18]
drugs
o-Chloromandelonitrile Labrenzia aggregate (R)-o-chloromandelic Whole cells 250 mL Synthesis of [42]
clopidogrel
(cardiovascular drug)
Recombinant E. coli (R)-o-Chloromandelic Recombinant cells 2L [22]
M15 harboring nitrilase acid
from Burkholderia
cenocepacia J2315
Burkholderia cenocepacia (R)-o-Chloromandelic Whole cell 250 mL [84]
J2315 acid enzyme
Recombinant E. coli cells (R)-o-Chloromandelic Recombinant cells 100 mL [85]
expressing nitrilase of acid
Alcaligenes faecalis
ZJUTB10
Isobutyronitrile Alcaligenes sp. Isobutyric acid Whole cells 40 mL, fed batch Pharmaceutical [59]
MTCC 10674 intermediates and
polymer synthesis
(Continued)
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Biocatalyst form/
Nitrile Nitrilase source Product Matrix Reaction Applications Reference
Mandelonitrile Recombinant Escherichia (R)-(−)-mandelic acid Whole cells 2L Semi-synthetic [86]

coli harboring nitrilase of penicillins,
Alcaligenes sp. ECU0401 cephalosporins, and
cosmetics
Alcaligenes sp. (R)-(−)-mandelic acid Whole cells 1 L, fed batch [12]
MTCC 10675
Alcaligenes faecalis (R)-(−)-mandelic acid Immobilized 100 mL [87]
ECU0401 enzyme
Escherichia coli (R)-(−)-mandelic acid Recombinant cells 20,000 L [88]
BL21(DE3)/pET-Nit Whole cell
4-Hydroxybenzonitrile Gordonia terrae 4-Hydroxybenzoic acid Whole cells 500 L, fed batch Cosmetics, fragrance, [17]
food, preservatives,
and polymer synthesis
Alcaligenes faecalis 4-Hydroxyphenylacetic Whole-cell 500 mL [67]
MTCC 12629 acid enzyme
Phenylacetonitrile Alcaligenes sp. Phenylacetic acid Whole-cell 1L Used as an adjunct to [89]
MTCC 10675 enzyme treat acute
hyperammonemia
Recombinant Escherichia Phenylacetic acid Recombinant cells 300 mL [20]
coli M15 harboring
nitrilase from Burkholderia
cenocepacia J2315
Alcaligenes faecalis 4-Aminophenylacetic Whole-cell 500 mL [28]
MTCC 12629 acid enzyme
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14.3 Nitrilase in the Biotransformation of Nitrile 305
product and their applications. Biotransformation using the whole cell is economical as it
provides a natural environment to the enzyme inside [90]. Some of the very important
commercial compounds and their reactor synthesis are discussed below.
14.3.1 Aliphatic Acids

14.3.1.1 Acrylic Acid
Acrylic acid is used in textiles, surface coatings, and many other applications [91]. Acrylic
acid can be produced by biotransformation of acrylonitrile using nitrilase-mediated
hydrolysis reactions [53, 92, 93]. Use of the whole cell of Alcaligenes sp. having nitrilase
activity has been reported for the synthesis of acrylic acid (115 g/L) [93]. Acrylic acid
(390 g/L) production using nitrilase activity of R. rhodochrous J1 was reported [94]. An
accumulation of 414.5 g/L acrylic acid in 10 hours of reaction using a mutant of
R. rhodochrous J1 as biocatalyst has been reported by Luo et al. [94].
14.3.1.2 Glycolic Acid

Glycolic acid is α-hydroxycarboxylic acid having wide applications in medicine and
pharmaceuticals. Many researchers have explored the enzymatic transformation of glyco-
nitrile to glycolic acid [82, 95, 96]. An engineered nitrilase of Acidovorax facilis 72W with
improved catalytic efficiency has been used for the biotransformation of glycolonitrile into
glycolic acid [97]. Acidovorax facilis mutant F168V has exhibited very high productivity of
1010 g/g dcw after 55 cycles of reactions. He et al. [82] immobilized the whole cell of
Alcaligenes sp. having nitrilase using carrageenan cross-linked with glutaraldehyde/PEI
and used for biotransformation (18.0 g/L/h glycolic acids).
14.3.2 Aromatic Acids

14.3.2.1 Nicotinic Acid
Nicotinic acid is an important vitamin being synthesized through chemical routes involving
high-energy inputs. Nicotinic acid (Vitamin B3) or 3-pyridine carboxylic acid is an important
vitamin and its deficiency causes pellagra. There are reports on the biological synthesis of
nicotinic acid through nitrilase-mediated hydrolysis of 3-cyanopyridine. Nitrilase-mediated
synthesis of nicotinic acid was first performed by using free cells of R. rhodochrous Jl at
50 mL scale in fed-batch system and the process resulted in 172 g/L nicotinic acids [98]. A
column reactor packed with calcium-alginate-entrapped Nocardia rhodochrous LL100-21
cells were employed for the synthesis of nicotinic acid by Vaughan et al. [99]. The column
was maintained at 30 °C through a circulatory water jacket and 3-cyanopyridine (0.3 M)
substrate was pumped upward at 14 mL/h through the column. Through this method, 96 g
of nicotinic acid was produced in 150 hours of reaction [99]. A similar column bioreactor was
used for the 3-cyanopyridine conversion to nicotinic acid by taking thermophilic nitrilase
of Bacillus pallidus Dac 521 [100]. The glass column was packed with calcium-alginate-
immobilized biocatalyst and operated at 50 °C. The substrate 3-cyanopyridine (0.1 M) was
pumped upward to the column and a total of 3.12 g of 3-cyanopyridine conversion to the
product was achieved in 100 h at a rate of 104 mg/g cells/h [100]. Fed-batch reaction of 1 L
scale was carried out to produce nicotinic acid using free cells of N. globerula NHB-2 with
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the productivity of 3.21 g/g dcw [101]. A continuous 3-cyanopyridine conversion to nico-
tinic acid using membrane bioreactor and resting cells of Microbacterium imperiale CBS
498-74 have been also reported [102].
14.3.2.2 Isonicotinic Acid

Isonicotinic acid (pyridine-4-carboxylic acid) is widely used for the production of isoniazid
antituberculastic drug. It has various applications in the synthesis of inabenfide,
terefenadine, an antihistamine, nialamide, and antidepressant [18]. Isobutyronitrile-
induced nitrilase of N. globerula NHB-2 has been used in fed-batch reaction at 1 L scale for
isonicotinic acid production from 4-CP (21.1 g/h/mg) [18].
14.3.2.3 Benzoic Acid

Benzoic acid is used in homeopathic formulations and the production of glycol benzoate.
Nocardia globerula NHB-2 nitrilase was utilized for benzonitrile hydrolysis into benzoic
acid in fed-batch mode and reported 108 and 84 g/L benzoic acid production using free
and agar confined cells [103]. p-Hydroxybenzoic acid has applications as antioxidant,
esters synthesis, food preservatives, flavors, polymers, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical
products [17, 104]. Free cells of Gordonia terrae possessing nitrilase activity were used for
the conversion of p-hydroxybenzonitrile to p-hydroxybenzoic acid and 98.7% conversion has
been reported by Kumar and Bhalla [17]. Biotransformation of 1-cyanocyclohexaneacetonitrile
to 1-cyanocyclohexaneacetic acid was performed in a 2 L stirred reactor with a productivity
of 244.5 g/L/d [105]. Table 14.2 presents the nitrilase-mediated synthesis of some impor-
tant aromatic acids.
14.3.3 Arylacetic Acids

Nitrilases, which preferably utilizes aryl as substrates, are termed arylacetonitrilases
and they specifically catalyze arylacetonitriles to corresponding acid and ammonia. The
preferable substrates for bacterial arylacetonitrilases are phenylacetonitrile, mandeloni-
trile, and their substitutive compounds such as methoxy or hydroxyphenylacetonitriles
and chloromandelonitrile. Nitrilase-mediated bioreactor studies have been reported
for the synthesis of mandelic acid, phenylacetic acid, p-methoxyphenylacetic acid,
and o-chloromandelic acid [20, 28, 42, 67, 104]. Arylacetonitrilase-mediated synthesis of
some important arylacetic acid is discussed in the successive sections and summarized
in Table 14.2.
14.3.3.1 Mandelic Acid

Many researchers have reported the enantioselective nitrilase-based reactions for the
synthesis of (R)-(−)-mandelic acid from racemic mandelonitrile [12, 106–108]. A number
of bacteria have been reported for arylacetonitrilase production and biotransformation
of mandelonitrile to mandelic acid, i.e. Pseudomonas putida MTCC 5110 (0.39 g/g
dcw), A. faecalis ECU0401 (3.8 g/g dcw), Alcaligenes sp. MTCC 10675 (3.9 g/g dcw).
Zhang et al., used engineered E. coli cells overexpressing nitrilase gene of Alcaligenes
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14.4 Conclusio 307
sp. overexpressed and reported 4.5 g/L/h R(−) mandelic acids with 99% enantiomeric
excess (ee) [86]. Fed-batch reaction at 1L scale using free cells of Alcaligenes sp. MTCC
10675 and 10 mM substrate per feed leads to the production of 130 mM of mandelic acid
with 0.78 g/L/h productivity [12]. Zhang et al. [70] used immobilized cells in a 2 L stirred
reactor with toluene–water biphasic system to relieve substrate inhibition and reported
13.8 g/g dcw R-(−)-mandelic acid with 98.0% ee. Engineered E. coli M15/BCJ2315 cells
overexpressing nitrilase from Burkholderia cenocepacia J2315 immobilized in magnetized
chitosan nanoparticles have been used for hydrolysis of mandelonitrile and the process
resulted in 37.3 g/L/h R-(−)-mandelic acid with 95% ee [107].
Enantiopure (R)-o-chloromandelic acid is used as a precursor for the synthesis of
Clopidogrel®, a platelet aggregation inhibitor [42, 109, 110]. (R)-o-chloromandelic acid
production from the hydrolysis of o-chloromandelonitrile using Labrenzia aggregata
nitrilase in toluene–water (1 : 9, v/v) biphasic system has been reported with 154.4 g/L/day
productivity and 96.3% ee [42].
14.3.3.2 Phenylacetic Acid

Phenylacetic acid is widely used in medicine, pesticide, and perfume industries and as a pre-
cursor penicillin G production [111]. Other applications include making phenobarbital, primi-
done, pesticide, and fungicide (3-chlorophenylacetic acid and rodenticide) and antimicrobial
activity [89]. The arylacetonitrile hydrolyzing activity of nitrilase from A. faecalis MTCC
12629 was explored for conversion of 4-hydroxyphenlyacetonitrile to 4-hydroxyphenylacetic
acid and fed-batch reaction at 500 mL scale 4.13 g/g dcw/h product [67]. p-Methoxyphenylacetic
acid is another aryl acid used as an intermediate for the synthesis of formoterol fumarate
(anti-asthmatic drug), venlafaxine (antidepressant agent), and a flavoring agent [112].
Biotransformation of p-methoxyphenylacetonitrile to p-methoxyphenylacetic acid was carried
out by using resting cells of Bacillus subtilis ZJB-063 [113].
14.4 Conclusion
Nitrilase enzyme holds great potential in the industrial production of useful compounds
in biotransformation reactions and extensively studied enzyme in this field. This enzyme
is an important tool over chemical catalysts for the synthesis of useful chemicals and
contributes to green chemistry. Nitrilase can be used as a whole cell, purified, or immo-
bilized form in the bioreactors to catalyze the reactions. However, the bioprocess reac-
tions suffer from substrate/product inhibitions that affect the productivity of enzymes at
a large scale. This problem can be overcome by overcoming product inhibition using in
situ product removal or enzyme engineering to improve substrate and product tolerance.
The most preferable reaction modes in a reactor are batch and fed-batch reactions to
obtain a high yield. Development of improved methods, processes, and employing differ-
ent strategies based on these enzymes will further improve the prospects of these enzymes
for wider use in the industrial synthesis of several compounds that have not been
commercialized to date.
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315
15
Chemistry and Sources of Lactase Enzyme with an

Emphasis on Microbial Biotransformation in Milk
Alaa Kareem Niamah1, Shayma Thyab Gddoa Al-Sahlany1, Deepak Kumar
Verma2, Smita Singh3, Soubhagya Tripathy2, Deepika Baranwal4, Nihir Shah5,
Ami R. Patel5, Mamta Thakur6, Gemilang Lara Utama7,8, Mónica L. Chávez-
González9, and Cristobal Noe Aguilar9
1
2
3
4
Department of Home Science, Arya Mahila PG College, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
5
Division of Dairy Microbiology, Mansinhbhai Institute of Dairy and Food Technology-MIDFT, Dudhsagar Dairy Campus,
Mehsana, Gujarat, India
6
7
8
9
Bioprocesses and Bioproducts Research Group, Food Research Department, School of Chemistry. Autonomous University of
Coahuila, Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico
15.1 Introduction
Enzymes are referred to as the “powerhouses” of the metabolic system because they
catalyze all of the chemical reactions that are necessary for life and make it possible for
these reactions to take place far more quickly than they would be able to without
enzymes [1]. Glycosidases are enzymes that hydrolyze glycosides into oligosaccharides,
polysaccharides, and glycoconjugates in a manner that is efficient and inexpensive. Lactase
is an enzyme that is found in higher plants, animals, and microbes. It is a member of the
β-glycosidases enzyme family and may be found in all three. Lactose in milk is digested by
enzymes known as β-glycosidases, which results in lactose-free milk that is sweeter than
ordinary milk and is suited for persons who are unable to digest lactose due to a lactose
intolerance [2]. β-Galactosidase is an enzyme that breaks down lactose and is utilized in
the food industry to make dairy products easier to digest, sweeter, more soluble, and have
a better flavor. β-Galactosidase is put to use in the food processing industry for a variety of
purposes, including the production of hydrolyzed milk products, whey, and galactooligo-
saccharides [3]. As a consequence of this, this enzyme is a functional protein that can now
be produced through the utilization of recombinant technology [4, 5].

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316 15 Chemistry and Sources of Lactase Enzyme with an Emphasis on Microbial Biotransformation in Milk
Lactase is an enzyme that is generated by a broad range of animals. It is located along the
brush boundary of the small intestine in animals, including humans and other mammals.
Lactase is required to digest milk because it breaks down lactose, the sugar responsible for
milk’s distinctive sweetness. A person who consumes dairy products but lacks sufficient
lactase production may develop lactose intolerance. Lactase is a dietary supplement added
to milk in order to generate lactose-free dairy products. Lactase is the digestive
enzyme responsible for breaking down lactose, a sugar present in milk and other dairy
products [6].
Lactase, sometimes referred to as lactase-phlorizin hydrolase or LPH, is the glycoside
hydrolase that is responsible for the hydrolysis of lactose into the monomers of glucose and
galactose. The enzyme family known as β-galactosidase includes lactase as one of its own
members. The majority of lactase is found on the brush border membranes of differenti-
ated enterocytes that line the villi in the small intestine. The lct gene, which is located on
chromosome 2 in humans, is responsible for encoding lactase [7].
Both the dimer and the tetramer forms of the lactase enzyme have been shown to have
biological activity, with the predominant form being determined by factors such as pH and
temperature during experimentation. The strength of the interaction between two different
subunits is significantly impacted by the parameters of the experiment. Within the range of
their optimal pH, multimeric enzymes are stable and active; nevertheless, more extreme
pH values in both directions (the acidic and alkaline zones) may cause them to become
inactive [8].
Lactase preparations that have been purified have been produced by Escherichia coli,
Kluyveromyces species, and fungi. Only analytical chemists have made use of the first
enzyme, which comes from E. coli and breaks down lactose. It is possible to get economi-
cally valuable enzymes from the yeast Kluyveromyces lactis and the fungi Aspergillus niger,
which are both used in the dairy and other food industries. Kluyveromyces lactis lactase is
the commercial preparation that is utilized the most frequently at the present time [8, 9].
In this chapter, we explore the origins of β-galactosidase as well as its structure, recombi-
nant synthesis, and the important modifications that were made to the enzyme in order to
improve its performance.
15.2 Lactase Enzyme
The hydrolysis of β-galactosides is catalyzed by the enzyme known as lactase. Other names
for this enzyme include β-galactosidase or β-d-galactosidegalactohydrolase (EC 3.2.1.23).
Lactose (milk sugar) is a naturally occurring substrate of lactase that may be present in
cow’s milk in concentrations of up to 5%. Lactose is a disaccharide composed of two sugar
molecules: β-galactose and glucose (Figure 15.1). Human lactose intolerance is due to a
lack of lactase activity. Due to an inability to hydrolyze the disaccharide and absorb its
components into circulation, lactose accumulates in the digestive tracts of affected indi-
viduals who ingest milk products. Lactose, if undigested, can produce flatulence, diarrhea,
and abdominal discomfort [11, 12].
The well-known biocatalyst known as β-galactosidase is responsible for catalyzing both
the hydrolytic and transgalactosylation reactions. It is conceivable for it to take part in the
c15.indd 316 05/26/2023 19:16:57

15.2 Lactase Enzym 317
Lactose
sugar
OHOH OH OH N
N OH HO OH
O HO OH O O
H +
HO O O HO HO OH
S HO
OH H OH
S OH
Lactase
enzyme
NH HO N HO
R–O OH OH
O O–R H
O
SH HO HO H S HO HO
Figure 15.1 A mechanism for the breakdown of the sugar lactose by the enzyme lactase.
formation of prebiotic galactooligosaccharide (GOS) or lactulose in certain circumstances

due to its activity as an associative transglycosylase, which makes this participation feasible.
β-Galactosidase is an enzyme that performs two distinct enzymatic activities: on the one
hand, it cleaves or separates the β-glycosidic link between galactose and its organic resi-
dues; on the other hand, it also cleaves cellobiose, calories, collaterals, and cellulose.
Both of these activities are necessary for the digestion of galactose. On the other side, it
catalyzes the transgalactosylation reaction, which is the process that converts lactose to
allolactose [13].
Lactases are categorized as neutral or acidic based on their optimal pH for action. The
food and pharmaceutical industries utilized β-galactosidase extensively [14]. Due to lactose
maldigestion or intolerance caused by lactose maldigestion in a significant portion of the
world’s population, lactose’s nutritional value has decreased. Lactose is a hygroscopic sugar
that has a powerful capacity to take on the flavors and odors of its surroundings. This leads
to a variety of problems with frozen foods, including the crystallization of milk products,
an improvement in sandy or gritty texture, and the creation of layers [15]. Therefore,
β-galactosidase may have certain advantages. Lactose hydrolysis by enzymes may help in
the digestion of lactose-rich foods. Lactose intolerant people and the food industry both
need the lactase enzyme because it is used to prevent lactose crystallization, increase the
solubility of milk products, and address the issue of whey consumption and disposal,
which may cause environmental or health concerns [16]. Lactose crystallization is a prob-
lem for lactose intolerant people and the food industry.
β-Galactosidase, which is the inducer of the lac operon, converts lactose to allolactose
through a process known as transgalactosylation [17]. As a consequence of this, a virtuous
cycle of positive feedback can be produced. The affinity of the lac operon is decreased as a
result of the binding of allolactose to the lac repressor. When the lac operon is turned on, it
causes the synthesis of the enzyme β-galactosidase. In the field of molecular research, the
LacZ gene is frequently utilized as a reporter marker in order to analyze the expression of
c15.indd 317 05/26/2023 19:16:57

genes located in the lac operon [18]. The enzyme β-galactosidase uses lactose as its natural
substrate. However, it is just selective for the galactose residue; thus, it may convert other
substrates as well. The enzyme β-galactosidase has the ability to convert several different
aglycones, such as X-gal, oNPG, and pNPG. The oNPG and pNPG are the substrates that are
employed for enzyme assays the majority of the time. The screening method known as
blue/white screening, which more commonly goes by the name α-complementation,
makes use of X-gal [19].
15.3 Sources of Lactase
The enzyme is found in a diverse selection of natural environments across the world. Many
different kinds of species, including plants, animals, and microbes, are capable of producing
the enzyme known as β-galactosidase. It is possible to find it in many different plants, such
as almonds (Prunus amygdalus, syn. Prunus dulcis), peaches (Prunus persica), apricots
(Prunus armeniaca), apples (Malus domestica), wild rose (Rosa canina) tips, alfalfa
(Medicago sativa), coffee (Coffea arabica), and soybean (Glycine max) seeds [20, 21]. It was
discovered that the enzyme is present in animal organs such as the intestines, the brain, the
placenta, and the testicles of dogs, rabbits, snails, calves, sheep, goats, and rats. In addition,
lactase was found in the saliva of humans, primates, and farm animals, as well as in the
tissues of rats and mice, as well as in the plasma, serum, and urine of dogs [3].
15.3.1 Plants
Plant tissues have an abundance of lactase. These enzymes have been associated with
several biological procedures, including development of plant, fruit ripening, and lactose
breakdown. Using molecular techniques, lactase’s role in the development of fruit and
their ripening was also examined. β-Galactosidase (lactase)/exo-galactanase activity was
observed in ripening tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) fruit, and a family of seven
tomato β-galactosidase (TBG)-cDNAs were identified [22]. In addition, softening-related
lactase enzyme has also been identified from L. esculentum, M. domestica, muskmelon
(Cucumis melo), avocado (Persea americana), kiwi (Actinidia deliciosa), C. arabica, mango
(Mangifera indica), and Japanese pear (Pyrus pyrifolia) plant fruits [23]. Moreover, Hussien
and Doosh [24] assessed the enzyme activity of L. esculentum-isolated β-galactosidase by its
ability to hydrolyze the substrate 2-nitrophenyl-β-d-galactopyranoside. The isoelectric
point of the enzyme was 4.4. Using the phenol–sulfuric acid method, the enzyme’s carbo-
hydrate content was confirmed to be 19.5%. The Km and Vmax of the enzyme are 3.65 mM
and 0.18 mol/min, respectively. The P. dulcis extract β-galactosidase was isolated via.
ammonium sulfate ([NH4]2SO4) precipitation. The optimal pH and temperature for the
partially purified β-galactosidase were 5.5 °C and 50 °C, respectively. Heat, pH, Ca2+ ions,
Mg2+ ions, and d-galactose all demonstrated significant effects on the stability of the
enzyme. Prunus dulcis β-galactosidase retained approximately 89% of its activity after being
stored at 4 °C for two months. This enzyme was utilized in a stirring batch process to hydro-
lyze lactose in milk and whey, and it was observed that the rate of lactose hydrolysis rose
steadily over time [25]. A study performed recently demonstrated that these two
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15.3 Sources of Lactas 319
phytohormones might influence rice seed germination via β-galactosidase (lactase) activity.
The increased transcriptional expression of OsBAGL1, OsBAGL4, OsBAGL8, and OsBAGL11
during seed germination compared to other comparable genes suggests that these four
genes are involved in the germination process [26].
15.3.2 Bacteria
Microbial β-galactosidase has a number of advantages over other sources of the enzyme
that are already available on the market. These advantages include how simple it is to work
with, how quickly it can reproduce, how productive it can be, how active and stable it is,
and how simple fermentation can be. For lactose hydrolysis, β-galactosidase, which is
derived from bacterial sources, has been used because of its many advantages, including its
high activity level, its simplicity in terms of fermentation, and its stability as an enzyme [3].
Lactic acid bacteria (LAB), which include streptococci, lactococci, and lactobacilli, have
recently become the focus of research in the scientific community for the following three
reasons [27–29, 30]: (i) People who have trouble digesting lactose can safely consume
fermented dairy products; (ii) LAB are Generally regarded as safe (GRAS); as a result,
enzymes generated from them can be used without extensive purification; and (iii) certain
strains exhibit probiotic activity, such as enhanced lactose digestion.
There have been reports of the production of lactase (β-galactosidase) by Bacillus spp.
(Bacillus aryabhattai), Pseudoalteromonas spp., Bifidobacterium longum, Alicyclobacillus
acidocaldarius, Lactobacillus leichmannii, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Streptococcus thermo-
philus, Enterobacter spp., Aspergillus oryzae (Aspergillus alliaceus, Aspergillus lacticoffeatus,
A. niger), Rhizomucor spp., Talaromyces thermophilus, and Teratosphaeria acidotherma
(Tables 15.1 and 15.2). The pH range of 6.5–7.5 is maintained due to the presence of bacte-
rial β-galactosidase. They perform at their best at optimal temperature ranging from 50 to
60 °C. Enzymes produced by bacteria can have molecular weights that range anywhere
from 20,000 to 50,000 Da. Thermophilic bacteria are also responsible for the production of
a temperature-stable form of β-galactosidase. Recently, metagenomic resource generated
from environmental niches has been shown as a potent source for β-galactosidase with acid
and cold activity of the enzyme [52]. This β-galactosidase variant showed catalytic activity
at acidic pH, a catalytic property useful in the processing of acidic whey samples.
The highest levels of β-galactosidase activity were discovered in Bifidobacterium infantis
strain CCRC 14633, and B. longum strain CCRC 15708, respectively [32]. Bifidobacterium
spp. and Lactobacillus spp. are the species of bacteria that are most frequently utilized in
the production of probiotics due to the potential health benefits they offer [29]. The micro-
biota in the colon has chosen Bifidobacterium to serve as a model organism for the study of
lactose fermentation [53, 54]. In an earlier investigation, Zárate and Chaia [55] used
Propionibacterium acidipropionici and found that the highest level of β-galactosidase activ-
ity was observed in a solution that consisted only of lactate. This was the case when they
tested the bacteria. They investigated how the addition of lactose and lactate as primary
and secondary sources of energy affected the development of P. acidipropionici Q4 as well
as the activity of the β-galactosidase enzyme. There was a large rise in intracellular pyru-
vate when this strain used lactate as a secondary energy source. This was followed by
lactate ingesting and an increase in particular β-galactosidase activity; however, lactose
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Table 15.1 Synthesis of β-galactosidase by bacteria during submerged fermentation.
Bacteria species Location Substrate Yield of enzyme Reference
Pseudoalteromonas spp. Extracellular Lactose 1 IU/mL [31]

Bifidobacterium longum B6 Extracellular Fermentation 18.6 IU/mL [32]
media contain
4% lactose
Alicyclobacillus acidocaldarius Intracellular Lactose 0.6 IU/mg protein [33]
subsp. rittmannii
Bacillus sp. MSP7 Extracellular Lactose 65 IU/mg protein [34]
Lactobacillus acidophilus Extracellular Modified MRS 1.01 IU/mL [35]
ATCC 4356
Streptococcus thermophilus Extracellular Whey 11 IU/mL [36]
Enterobacter sp. 3TP2A Extracellular Lactose 76.5 IU/mg protein [37]
Lactobacillus leichmannii 313 Extracellular MRS 4.5 IU/mg protein [38]
Bacillus aryabhattai GEL-09 Extracellular Milk 8 IU/mL [39]
Table 15.2 The characteristics of the lactase (β-galactosidases) that is produced by fungus.
Optimal Molecular
Molds source of lactase temperature (°C) Optimal pH weight (kDa) Reference
Aspergillus oryzae 55 3.5–8 — [40]

Rhizomucor spp. 60 4.5 — [41]
Talaromyces thermophilus 50 5.5–6.0 50 [42]
Guehomyces pullulans 50 4 — [43]
Aspergillus alliaceus 45 7.2 — [44]
Teratosphaeria acidotherma 70 2.5–4.0 140 [45]
Aspergillus lacticoffeatus 50–60 3.5–4.5 — [46]
Aspergillus niger 50 5 76 [47]
Aspergillus terreus 40 6 42 [48]
Kluyveromyces lactis 30 6.6 135 [13]
Aspergillus terreus 60 6 — [49]
Thielaviopsis ethacetica 60 7 50 [50]
Cladosporium tenuissimum 35–55 3.0–4.5 — [51]
intake was very modest. After the addition of lactose as a second source of energy, the pro-
cessing of lactic acid stopped, the amount of pyruvate contained inside the cell decreased,
and the activity of β-galactosidase rapidly reverted to a level that was comparable to that of
glucose [27, 55].
Ultrasound treatment was one of the many methods that were tried in an effort to boost
the amount of lactase enzyme that was produced by bacteria. The effect of treatment with
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15.3 Sources of Lactas 321
ultrasonic waves of low frequency on the β-galactosidase enzyme that is produced by

probiotic bacteria. The use of ultrasound induced all strains of probiotic bacteria to rupture
led to an increase in the extracellular release of the β-galactosidase enzyme. When the time
of exposure was extended, there was a corresponding rise in enzymatic activity. Lactobacillus
reuteri (Limosilactobacillus reuteri) had 2.9 unit/mL of β-galactosidase after being subjected
to ultrasonic treatment for a period of 20 minutes [56]. In all fermented camel milk prepared
with mixed cells of L. acidophilus, Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus, and
S. thermophilus, the highest activity of β-galactosidase was found after four hours of
fermentation. The values for this activity were 1.970.12, 1.770.06, and 1.700.01, respectively.
According to the findings of this study, an appropriate rupture-cell technique has the poten-
tial to simultaneously boost the rate of microbial growth in fermented camel milk [57].
People who have trouble digesting lactose can still eat fermented dairy products without
suffering many of the unpleasant side effects that are often associated with lactose
consumption, and the probiotic activity of LAB will assist with the digestion of lactose. The
strains of Bifidobacterium spp. and Lactobacillus spp. that are most often utilized as probiotics
in food and food systems are the two kinds of bacteria mentioned here. This is because there
is speculation that some strains of bacteria may provide certain health advantages. The bac-
terium Bifidobacterium has been chosen to serve as a model organism for the research project
that investigates the process of lactose fermentation carried out by bacteria found in the colon.
15.3.3 Yeasts
Due to the fact that its native habitat is the environment of dairy production, the yeast
K. lactis is a vital component in the commercial production of lactase (β-galactosidase).
This is because it is an enzyme that breaks down lactose. The production of β-galactosidase
by yeast seems to be of interest because this enzyme is utilized in the food sector to produce
reduced lactose milk, which is a remarkable commercial product that is consumed by a
considerable number of lactose-intolerant individuals [58]. It is possible for K. marxianus
to produce homologous enzymes such as β-galactosidase as well as heterologous proteins,
and it has the capacity to thrive on a wide variety of substrates, including lactose as the only
source of carbon and energy. Other substrates include glucose, xylose, and mannose. Due
to the high lactose-hydrolyzing activity of this yeast lactase, it is employed in the commer-
cial production of low-lactose milk for persons who are lactose intolerant [59].
β-Galactosidase, which is produced by a type of psychrophilic yeast known as Guehomyces
pullulans, has been put to use in the food sector to hydrolyze whey and milk. In addition,
the temperature of 30 °C, pH of 6.0, and enzyme concentration of 3% (v/v) were the
optimum operational conditions for maximizing lactose hydrolysis and optimizing enzyme
activity for produced β-galactosidase from Saccharomyces fragilis. The optimum operational
conditions for permeabilized cells were temperature of 44 °C, pH 7.0, and enzyme
concentration of 4% (v/v), respectively [60]. Lactase (β-d-galactosidase) is produced by
Candida pseudotropicalis when it is cultivated in deproteinized whey. At a temperature of
37 °C, the lactase enzyme can hydrolyze 50% and 100% of the lactose in whey and milk in
four and five hours, respectively. The lyophilized enzyme retained 95% of its original
activity even after being stored at 20 °C for three months [61]. The most important proper-
ties of yeast β-galactosidase are stated in Table 15.2.
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15.3.4 Molds
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has determined that certain species of Aspergillus
are “Generally regarded as safe” (GRAS). Aspergillus oryzae is responsible for the production
of extracellular β-galactosidase, which finds use in the commercial sector. The research
was conducted on purified β-galactosidase from A. oryzae at optimum pH and tempera-
tures of 5 and 50 °C [62]. An enzyme derived from A. oryzae was shown to be more
appropriate for the use of whey when compared to lactose hydrolysis. Fungi are capable of
breaking down lactose through two primary pathways: (i) the extracellular hydrolysis and
subsequent absorption of monomers, and (ii) the uptake of disaccharides. In place of
lactose hydrolysis, the enzyme β-galactosidase, which is derived from the fungus A. niger,
is typically utilized in the process of removing galactose residues from plant-derived oligo-
saccharides and polysaccharides [63]. This has been shown by different expression rates on
different carbon sources, with arabinose, pectin, and xylose having the highest expression
of the lacA gene, which codes for the enzyme that is being produced [64]. In a fermentation
process that takes place in the solid state and uses wheat bran as the solid substrate,
Trichoderma spp. generates the enzyme β-galactosidase. The optimal conditions for enzyme
activity were found to be 55 °C and a pH of 45. According to the research of De Jesus and
Guimares from 2021, the catalytic activity remained stable for up to 180 minutes when
incubated at temperatures between 35 and 45 °C and for up to 24 hours when the pH was
acidic or alkaline [65]. Purification of fungal β-galactosidase has been shown to be possible
through the application of a variety of chromatographic techniques, including DEAE-
cellulose chromatography, ammonium sulfate fractionation, and DEAE-Sephadex column
chromatography in a number of different studies. The characteristics of β-galactosidase
found in molds are described in Table 15.2.
15.4 Microbial Biotransformation of Lactase Enzyme
15.4.1 Improvement of Microbial Strains

In order to get β-galactosidase to the market, researchers have tried a variety of different
approaches. The use of genetic engineering technologies to produce recombinant
β-galactosidase and metagenomic research to uncover sources of β-galactosidase with
better kinetic and catalytic characteristics have both been described in the published
research [66, 67]. Utilizing recombinant enzymes may result in a variety of possible benefits
that have been indicated in the Figure 15.2. Utilizing recombinant DNA technology for the
overexpression of lactase with interesting features from microbial sources that are already
known for highly resourceful heterologous protein synthesis enables the cost-effective use
of lactase in industrial processes and their potential range of applications to be substan-
tially broadened. Recombinant DNA technology also allows for the production of lactase
with intriguing properties from microbial sources that are already recognized for producing
heterologous proteins. Because of this, recombinant DNA technology enables the
overexpression of lactase with fascinating features from microbial sources that are already
recognized for producing extremely useful heterologous proteins. This is because recombi-
nant DNA technology allows for the overexpression of lactase [68]. Protein engineering
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15.4 Microbial Biotransformation of Lactase Enzym 323
Their rigidity and Their ability to

permeability 01 06 regenerate themselves
Possible
benefits of They protect enzymes’
Their hydrophobic or utilizing active areas from
hydrophilic character 02 recombinant 05 deactivation, allowing
enzymes to regenerate
enzymes
Immediate separation
The ease of from the reaction
purification and large-
scale prodcuction 03 04 mixture without
chemicals or heating.
Figure 15.2 Graphical representation of a number of potential advantages that might result from
the utilization of recombinant enzymes. Source: Adapted from de Andrade et al. [67].
techniques that are technologically advanced allow for the construction of unique
properties into a specific lactase, such as reduced product inhibition, increased product
yields, or secretion signals. These properties can be engineered into the lactase while
genetic engineering techniques are used [66, 69].
It has been established that β-galactosidase derived from bacterial as well as nonbacterial
sources are capable of being created using recombinant technology. Those from filamentous
fungi like A. niger, Penicillium expansum, Pichia pastoris, and others, as well as those from
the yeast K. lactis, are examples of nonbacterial β-galactosidase that are overexpressed in
recombinant yeast hosts. According to the findings of Bury et al. [70], increasing the
content of lactose and yeast extract by 0.2–0.8% greatly increased the activity of recombi-
nant β-galactosidase. In addition to this, the activity of the recombinant β-galactosidase
was purified to a significant degree. In addition to this, they demonstrated that lactose was
entirely digested in a timeframe of less than 40 hours when recombinant β-galactosidase
was produced using cheese whey permeate. This leads one to believe that the recombinant
system is capable of performing both the biosynthesis of β-galactosidase and the bioreme-
diation of cheese whey at the same time. The researchers discovered a 21-fold increase in
β-galactosidase synthesis in a 10-L bioreactor under optimum circumstances when
compared to fermentation in Erlenmeyer flasks. These results were obtained by comparing
the two processes [71].
In the most recent decades, a lot of work has been put into developing efficient
heterologous expression techniques that may be used for the production of β-galactosidase.
Some enzymes exhibit dual catalytic activity of glucosidase and galactosidase [72]. One of
the expression hosts is E. coli, while others include yeast, Lactiplantibacillus plantarum,
Lactococcus lactis. Galactosidases that have been recombinantly produced in E. coli,
Lactobacillus, and Lactococcus are often found in the cytoplasm, which makes purification
challenging and costly. In addition to the low secretion efficiency of β-galactosidase in
yeast strains, other problems include plasmid instability, the presence of toxic methyl alco-
hol, and the presence of antibiotic resistance markers on the host genome. In addition to
c15.indd 323 05/26/2023 19:16:58

these issues, yeast strains often have a low capacity for efficiently secreting β-
galactosidase [4]. Escherichia coli is the bacteria of choice in the pharmaceutical industry
for the production of recombinant non-glycosylated proteins utilizing recombinant DNA
technology. This process utilizes E. coli as the host organism.
15.4.2 Galactooligosaccharide Synthesis and Transglycosylation

Prebiotics include galactooligosaccharides (GOS), also known as oligogalactosyllactose, oli-
gogalactose, oligolactose, or transgalactooligosaccharides (TOS). Prebiotics are nondigestible
components of food that have a favorable effect on the host by encouraging the growth and/
or activity of beneficial bacteria in the colon [73]. This process is known as probiotic activ-
ity [29]. GOS can be found in products that are easily available commercially, such as food
for babies and adults [74, 75]. During the process of lactose hydrolysis, GOSs are simultane-
ously produced because of the transglycosylation activity of β-galactosidase. The origin of
the enzyme determines which of these processes takes priority, and it is possible for both
processes to occur simultaneously. Aspergillus oryzae and Bacillus circulans β-galactosidase
have strong transgalactosylation activity, whereas Kluyveromyces β-galactosidases have high
hydrolytic activity but moderate transgalactosylation activity. The origin of the enzyme has
an effect on both the affinity of β-galactosidase for the source (lactose or lactulose) and
acceptor (lactose, lactulose, or fructose) of transgalactosylated galactose, which can be either
lactose, lactulose, or fructose. In addition to hydrolyzing the lactose saccharide link, they
also catalyze processes that result in galactooligosaccharides that are prebiotic in nature.
Dextransucrase can catalyse the transglucosylation of sucrose and lactose into 2-α-d-
glucopyranosyl-lactose (4-galactosyl-kojibiose), a prebiotic molecule [76].
Figure 15.3 depicts the enzyme β-galactosidase in operation throughout the manufacturing
process of GOS. In order to produce oligosaccharides from mono-and disaccharides, either
transglycosylation or polysaccharide hydrolysis must first take place. There are three stages
involved in the production of oligosaccharide [77], and they are as follows: (i) the release of
glucose residue, which, in turn, leaves galactosyl residue, which can then be processed
further by the complex enzyme galactosyl; (ii) the transfer of this complex to an acceptor
such as saccharides or water molecules, both of which contain a hydroxyl group. When
there is a low concentration of lactose in a solution, the water molecule functions as an
acceptor and creates galactose. This occurs because galactose is a more stable sugar than
β-Galactosidase + Lactose (milk sugar) β-Galactosidas - lactose
Glucose
β-Galactosidase - galactocyl
K-nucleophil - saccharide K-water
Galactocyl-nucleophil-saccharide Galactose
Figure 15.3 A schematic representation of the reaction that takes place when β-galactosidase
produces galactooligosaccharides, where K denotes a reaction constant.
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15.4 Microbial Biotransformation of Lactase Enzym 325
lactose. (iii) If there is a high concentration of lactose in the solution, the lactose acts as an
acceptor, binding the complex and leading to the formation of galactosyloligosaccharides.
There were 5.06% lactose, 8.76% monosaccharides, and 13.43% GOS detected in this GOS
syrup. The transgalactosylation and lactose conversion rates in this GOS syrup were at
25.2% and 83%, respectively, with a maximum GOS production of 40.6% [78].
Oligosaccharides offer a number of beneficial features for one’s health, including
anti-carcinogenic capabilities and the ability to reduce blood cholesterol levels (as a result
of oligosaccharides binding with cholesterol in the small intestine) and the ability to
improve liver function. Because of this, there has been a significant increase in the general
population’s desire for GOS and low-cost oligosaccharides. GOS are now being utilized in a
wide range of items, some of which include cosmetics, low-calorie sweeteners, soft drinks,
cereals, powdered milk, and infant food [79].
This article published by Zerva et al. [80] describes the heterologous production of a
novel β-galactosidase from the fungus Thermothielavioides terrestris in P. pastoris. It was
determined that the enzyme, TtbGal1, had the highest level of activity at a temperature of
60 °C and a pH of 4. TtbGal1 is thermostable, maintaining almost all of its activity for a
whole day at a temperature of 50 °C [80].
Overexpression of the glycosyl hydrolase B-gal42 in E. coli allowed for its use in the
synthesis of GOS from lactose or milk whey. B-gal42 was isolated from the Pantoea anthoph-
ila strain that was found in Tejuino. Because of their superior stability, crude enzyme extracts
that are devoid of cells were utilized in the manufacturing processes of GOS. In reactions
with 400 g/L of lactose, HPAEC-PAD found that a GOS yield of 40% (w/w), which is equiva-
lent to an 86% conversion rate, was optimal. This enzyme showed a strong predilection for
producing GOS with galactosyl links (1–6), and it also produced GOS with galactosyl links
(1–3). Both milk whey and pure lactose produced the same product profile and yielded 38%
of GOS when tested at a concentration of 300 g/L for synthesis [81]. This was determined by
comparing the two substrates in a GOS production experiment.
The presence of GOS in human milk is associated with an increase in the number of
bifidobacteria in the small intestine of a breastfed newborn. As a result of their bifidogenic
effect, these GOS reduce the number of potentially dangerous bacteria. As a direct
consequence of this, companies that produce infant food are increasingly including GOS in
their milk- and cereal-based products [82]. Oligosaccharides offer a number of beneficial
features for one’s health, including anticarcinogenic capabilities, and the ability to reduce
blood cholesterol levels (as a result of oligosaccharides binding with cholesterol in the
small intestine), and the ability to improve liver function. As a direct consequence of this,
there has been a significant surge in demand for GOS and low-cost oligosaccharides. GOS
are now being utilized in a wide range of items, some of which include cosmetics,
low-calorie sweeteners, soft drinks, cereals, powdered milk, and infant food [83, 84].
15.4.3 Lactose Intolerance

Glucose and galactose are the two monosaccharides that combine to form the disaccharide
known as lactose, which is also commonly referred to as milk sugar. These two monosac-
charides constitute milk’s primary and most important sources of carbohydrates. Lactase,
also known as β-galactosidase, is an enzyme that plays a role in the process of absorbing
c15.indd 325 05/26/2023 19:16:59

lactose. This enzyme is situated on the brush boundary of the small intestine. In lactose
intolerance, the body is unable to hydrolyze lactose, a kind of sugar that may be found in
dairy products such as milk, curd, butter, cheese, and yoghurt. This disease is known as
lactose intolerance. Because there is less available β-galactosidase, there are greater levels of
lactose that have not been digested. It has been determined that lactose intolerance, which
is also referred to as lactose malabsorption, is a significant health problem that affects more
than 70% of the globe [85]. Individuals who are lactose intolerant may already be at a disad-
vantage when it comes to getting enough calcium in their diets because there are few lactose-
free foods that are also high in calcium. In this review, we offer data from research conducted
on both humans and animals about the effects of lactose and lactase deficiency on the body’s
ability to absorb calcium and maintain healthy bones. According to the findings of the
research, neither consuming lactose in the diet nor having a lactase deficiency has a signifi-
cant impact on the amount of calcium that individuals absorb [86]. As a consequence of
this, roughly 60% of the population has a diminished capacity to digest lactose as a result of
low levels of β-galactosidase enzyme activity. Live bacteria or yeasts are known as probiotics,
and they are used to help restore a healthy balance to the gut flora that is found in the diges-
tive tract. Studies have shown that probiotics give a number of health advantages, some of
which include enhanced gut health, increased immune system responses, and decreased
blood cholesterol levels. According to an ever-expanding body of research, the presence of
particular probiotic bacteria in fermented and unfermented milk products has been shown
to assist in the reduction of clinical symptoms associated with lactose intolerance. These
symptoms include abdominal pain, bloating, gas, and d iarrhea [29, 87].
A precise diagnosis is necessary before beginning any kind of treatment, and several
methods have been tried out in an effort to achieve this objective. Included in this category
are genetic tests, hydrogen breath tests (also known as HBT), fast lactase tests, and lactose
tolerance tests. The HBT method is the one that is utilized the most frequently as a result
of its noninvasive nature, cheap cost, high sensitivity and specificity, and ease of application.
In clinical practice, other methodologies are often used for HBT integration testing.
Additionally, there are several therapy options available. A suitable kind of intervention is
a change in dietary styles, such as the consumption of lactose-free meals that have nutri-
tional values comparable to those of dairy products. Other feasible choices include choosing
milk that has specific forms of β-caseins, consuming exogenous enzymes, and taking
probiotics and/or prebiotics [88].
15.5 Conclusion
Lactases (β-galactosidase) research is becoming increasingly popular, both for the purpose
of locating new sources of the enzyme that have the potential to generate high enzyme titers
for large-scale manufacturing and for the purpose of identifying β-galactosidase enzymes
that have distinctive properties. When cold-active and thermophilic enzymes are required
for lactose breakdown in milk or whey, large-scale synthesis of β-galactosidase may fre-
quently be achieved through the utilization of recombinant enzyme expression systems in
combination with a variety of genetic engineering approaches. The large-scale production
of lactose breakdown in milk or whey, where cold-active and thermophilic enzymes are
utilized, is often accomplished through the use of recombinant enzyme expression systems
c15.indd 326 05/26/2023 19:16:59

Reference 327
in conjunction with various genetic engineering. Investigations are now being carried out
to discover new cold-active sources of β-galactosidase that may be utilized in the process of
removing lactose from milk in a chilled environment. In the processing of dairy products,
which involves the simultaneous breakdown of lactose and the application of heat, ther-
mostable enzymes are also utilized. In addition to the hydrolysis of lactose, more research
is required to locate microbial sources of β-galactosidase that have enhanced transglyco-
sylation characteristics. In order to produce microbial sources that are capable of galactoo-
ligosaccharide synthesis in a more efficient manner, considerable use of genetic engineering
technologies will be used.
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16
Microbial Biogas Production: Challenges and Opportunities

Diana B. Muñiz-Márquez1, Christian Iván Cano-Gómez2, Jorge Enrique
Wong-Paz1, Victor Emmanuel Balderas-Hernández3, and Fabiola Veana2
1
Facultad de Estudios Profesionales Zona Huasteca, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, Ciudad Valles, San Luis Potosí, Mexico
2
Tecnológico Nacional de México/IT de Ciudad Valles, Ciudad Valles, San Luis Potosí, Mexico
3
División de Biología Molecular, Instituto Potosino de Investigación Científica y Tecnológica, A. C. San Luis Potosí, San Luis Potosí, Mexico
16.1 Introduction
Food loss and waste (FLW) represent a great amount of squandered food in the world. In
2019, about 158 million-tons (17% of total food) accessible to consumers ended up as
trash garbage cans from households, retail business, restaurants, and food services,
according to Food Waste Index Report 2021 [1]. In agreement with Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs13.2), for 2030 it is necessary to reduce by 50% the per-capita
global food waste at retail and consumer levels. In addition, cut down the food losses of
forward production, supply chains, and postharvest losses [2]. Generation of food wastes
is a problem that needs an urgent solution, because during food production natural
resources are involved, such as water, land, and energy, which are also wasted. Around
8–10% of global emissions of “greenhouse gases” involved the not consumed food, and to
25% of the total freshwater used by agriculture, each year [1, 3]. These situations causes
ecosystem degradation and loss of biodiversity [3]. Circular bioeconomy is an excellent
alternative to reduce FLW, since food wastes have been used as sources of bioactive com-
pounds, such as phenols, carotenoids, anthocyanins, peptides, fatty acids, fibers, and
enzymes. These compounds can be recovered for the introduction of new products into
the market, such as beverage and food fermentation [4–6]. Additionally, these waste are
excellent for usage as feedstock during biogas production, including food waste related
(29.1%), sludge related (22.8%), manure related (20.3%), agricultural and horticulture
waste related (15.2%), industrial bioethanol waste (6.3%) and others (6.3%) [7]. In con-
trast, an alternative to reduce these waste generation problems is the usage of food wastes
in biogas production too, which is a promising strategy to decrease the wastes and use
them as energy sources [8].

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334 16 Microbial Biogas Production: Challenges and Opportunities
The composition of municipal solid wastes (MSW) is mainly of organic nature with a
high energy content; however, its recovery is inefficient, costly, and limited to the conversion
of biodegradable fractions into methane (CH4) within landfills and thermal conversion in
incinerators [9]. Besides, biogas is an excellent alternative as an economic energy carrier
that is applicable to move vehicles designed to burn gaseous fuel, where biogas can be puri-
fied as 95% of CH4 [10]. As well as evaluation of its efficiency in microturbines and micro
humid air turbine. As well as other systems, such as solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) and its
hybrid systems [11].
Biogas is an interesting product obtained during anaerobic digestion (AD) from biodegradable
organic materials or solid residues [12, 13]. Biogas composition is composed from major to
minor components: CH4 (50–70%), carbon dioxide (30–50%), water vapors (5–10%), nitrogen
(0–3%), oxygen (0–1%), an others compounds such as hydrogen sulfide (0–10,000 ppm), silox-
anes, ammonia, and hydrocarbons [14]. Essentially, in biogas production, an AD is developed
following the next steps: hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis, and methanogenesis [15, 16].
In each stage microorganisms are protagonists and responsible for the biochemical reactions
occurred, including bacteria of Clostridium genus (Clostridium ultunense and Clostridium
bornimense), Herbinix hemicellulosilytica, Peptoniphilus sp., and thermophilic bacterium
Ruminiclostridium cellulosi [17], fungi (Aspergillus nidulans, Rhizomucor miehei, Gilbertella
persicari, and Trichoderma reesei) [18], archaeal (Methanoculleus bourgensis, Methano
thermobacter sp., Methanothermobacter defluvii, Methanosacarcina mazeis), among oth-
ers [19], and even macro- and microalgae (Ulva lactuca, Chlorella minutissima, Chlorella
pyrenoidosa, and others) [20, 21, 22]. At the end of AD, a digestate is obtained and can be used
as fertilizer, soil amendment, and livestock bedding, which also contributes to circular
bioeconomy [23].
New trends focused on emerging bioelectrochemical technologies, such as power-to-gas
AD (P2G-AD), AD microbial electrosynthesis (AD-MES), and microbial electrolysis cell
AD (MEC-AD), which are considered in the design of future “cascading circular bio-
systems” with the objective to produce sustainable advanced biofuels [24]. In this sense,
biogas implementation in developing countries is an opportunity with potential, where
infrastructure, capital, and policy are focused for its success, from household or domestic
implementation (small-scale) to large scale [25]. As an example, India has worked with
government programs focused on biogas production and establishing goals in production
of energy and in the promotion of social and environment conditions with this energetic
production [25].
This chapter deals with the generalities in biogas production, such as substrates, micro-
organisms, and enzymes involved in the process, as well as challenges and opportunities in
this topic.
16.2 Generalities of Biogas Production: the Process

and Its Yields
The biogas production associated with the utilization of organic wastes is an interesting
area to be explored, since circular bioeconomy is focused in reducing FWL. In AD, around
50–70% of biogas is produced, being CH4 or biomethane the major compound after biogas
c16.indd 334 05/26/2023 19:17:05

16.2 Generalities of Biogas Production: the Process and Its Yield 335
purification [26–28]. However, many factors have influence over biogas yield, such as
organic loading rate, biomass pretreatments, temperature, co-digestion, reactor design,
among others [29].
A first step for biogas production is the “pretreatment” of substrates to create the right
scenario for feedstock degradation (enzyme-cellulose or enzyme-hemicellulose bonding),
including the maximum degradation of carbohydrates, a decreased release of growth
inhibitors and, the reduction of the environmental impact [29, 30]. The biomass pretreat-
ments include addition of sodium hydroxide, sulfuric acid, sodium carbonate, and
aqueous ammonia [31], which might affect the microbial diversity and their growth dur-
ing the AD process.
In a second step, acidogenesis microorganisms produce short-chain fatty acid (SCFA),
CO2, and hydrogen. Next step is acetogenesis where SCFA are converted to acetic acid by
acetogenic microoganisms; in this step, the acetic acid formed originates 70% of the CH4
produced during AD in last step that is realized by methanogenic microorganisms. The
formed CH4 is from substrates with one or two carbon atoms covalently bonded, such as
acetate, H2, CO2, formate, methanol, and some methylamines [32].
Having clarified the process, it is important to talk about the yields of the biogas produced.
Since a 15-year-old agricultural biogas plant in Poland reported different CH4 yields, using
cheese production waste and post floating settlements from slaughterhouses, generating
yields of 610.2 and 680 m3/tone dry organic mass, respectively, while minor yields were
obtained using cow slurry and chicken waste as substrate (~230 m3/tone dry organic
mass) [33]. In this sense, some of the previously reported biogas yields obtained using
different types of substrates are presented in Table 16.1.
Table 16.1 Biogas production yields obtained using different types of wastes as substrates
and conditions.
Biogas composition
Biogas Other
Wastes Conditions generated/yield Methane gases References
Cow dung 32–36 °C for 280 67.9% CO2: 27.2% [26]

21 days CO: 4.7%
H2S: 0.1%
Wood chips Mesophilic (25.5 L) 55.3% NM [27]
Corn stover conditions
Dust mills (35–40 °C) for
22 days
Leachate
Manure
Oxidation lagoon
water
Rumen
(Continued)
c16.indd 335 05/26/2023 19:17:05

Biogas composition
Biogas Other
Wastes Conditions generated/yield Methane gases References
Shavings from the 35 °C for 26.1 mL of 52% NM [28]

thickness 150 days biogas/gVSS of
adjustment waste
operation of the
tannery process
Sludge from the
wastewater
treatment plant of
the tannery
Nutrient solution
(yeast extract,
peptone, K2HPO4,
KH2PO4, and water)
Ulva lactuca 35 and 55 °C; 342.59 cm3/g VS 166.16 cm3/g NM [20]
Chlorella particle sizes (0.2 VS
minutissima and 0.75 mm) for
Sludge 30 days
NM, not mentioned.
16.3 Feedstocks Used in Biogas Production

and Their Characteristics
Biogas is a biofuel product obtained from chemical reactions in natural environments or

specific devices through the biodegradation and fermentation of organic matter by the
activity of specialized microorganisms, absence of oxygen, and other factors [34]. This kind
of gas can be produced from different materials, such as food waste, lignocellulosic materi-
als, animal manure, and environment samples, such as sewage sludge, wastewater, sewage,
among others. The latter has recently been of interest for biogas production; however, it is
necessary to subject them to a pretreatment, either physical, thermal, chemical, or thermo-
chemical, to facilitate their degradation prior to AD. In this sense, lignocellulosic materials
are constituted in three fractions which are cellulose between 40 and 50%, hemicellulose
between 25 and 35%, and lignin between 15 and 20%, the quantity and quality will depend
on the type of plant and its origin [35]. This material can be found as agricultural residues,
forestry residues, and domestic food waste. Crops of wheat, rice, corn, and sugarcane after
being harvested produce large amount of crop residues such as wheat straw, rice straw,
husk, stalks, and bagasse, which can be effectively used as a source of biomass energy; this
lignocellulosic biomass is part of the production of second generation of biofuels. For
example, wheat straw is economical and most available renewable biomasses worldwide
with a production of 500 Mt/year, so it is a potential biomass substrate for biogas
c16.indd 336 05/26/2023 19:17:05

16.4 Microbial Biodiversity in Biogas Productio 337
roduction [35, 36]. Another available agricultural waste with a high potential is sugarcane
p
bagasse through its pretreatment and AD to obtain biogas [38]; similarly, acid-pretreated
rice straw improves AD for biogas production [39].
On the other hand, the chicken, pig, and cow manure are commonly used for the biogas
production, with chicken manure having a higher potential than pig and cow manure,
being high content of organic matter and nutrients (potassium, nitrogen, and phosphorus).
However, during microbial degradation in biogas production, organic nitrogen is trans-
formed into ammonia, which is a capable inhibitor during microbiological transformation
in the AD. A total ammonia nitrogen concentration above 3 g/L causes a decrease in biogas
production and should be avoided. In order to stop such inhibition, several techniques have
been implemented, including a co-digestion with a high carbon content in substrates,
temperature and pH adjustment, dilution of the substrate, the use of materials with adsorp-
tion capacity (activated carbon, bentonite, and zeolite), trace elements, use of microflora
adaptation and bio-augmentation, pickling, struvite precipitation, membrane processes,
ultrasound and microwave irradiation, and biological process such as anaerobic ammonium
ion oxidation (Anammox) [40, 41].
On the other hand, co-digestion has been used to enhance biogas production, i.e.
utilizing the mixture of two substrates such as straw and manure. For example,
Sumardiono et al. [42] used the mixture of corn stalk and cow manure, through a physi-
cal pretreatment (smaller particle size), biological, and chemical with the addition of
NaOH placed in a biodigester in a 1 : 1 ratio for fermentation obtaining a yield of 215.77 L/kg
of total biogas production. Sánchez-Sánchez et al. [43] made a mixture of sheep manure
(20% w/w), cheese serum (80% w/w), and porous materials (almond shells, walnut shells,
kenaf fiber, and charcoal) crushed them and placed them in a bioreactor with a fixed bed.
The result was an increase of more than 27% in biogas production compared to biometha-
nization without porous materials and a 50% decrease in chemical oxygen demand.
Ihoeghian et al. [39], studied the biogas production and process stability. The co-digestion
was realized with rumen cattle and food waste, where the 50 : 50 ratio of substrates was
the optimal treatment and the one with the highest yield with a production of 320.52 mL/g
added, plus the co-digestion characteristics of volatile fatty acids, pH, and ammonia
nitrogen in the AD.
16.4 Microbial Biodiversity in Biogas Production
16.4.1 Generalities
The microbial communities are dynamic during biogas production. Studies about biogas
production have revealed the increase around 50% of Bacteroidetes phyla at 150 days and
reduction of Firmicutes. At class level, Bacteroidia and Clostridia were increased and
decreased, respectively. These results were observed when treated wastewater from tannery
(sludge) or tannery process (shavings) were used [28]. In other studies, microorganisms
present in a full-scale anaerobic digester using on food waste were monitored through
qPCR during 18 months. The presence of substrates or inhibitors impact under the
c16.indd 337 05/26/2023 19:17:05

ethanogenic population in digesters. Methanosaetaceae was dominant in the digester,

m
suggesting that the acetic acid methanogenic as principal methane production pathway.
However, a decrease to 69% from Methanosaetaceae was presented with an accumulation
of volatile fatty-acids, but later a recovery of microorganisms caused the volatile fatty-acids
consumption. Inhibition by ammonia was observed and changes in acetate utilization at
hydrogen was reported. In addition, oligo elements and alkalinity with high concentrations
of propionate stimulated the microbial growth. These results are interesting for stability
and optimization during the process [44].
Multiple studies have been development to describe the microbial communities that
participate in the different steps of AD during biogas production, where the microbial
dynamics is direct relationship with the feedstock used for biogas production. Whole
genome of mesophilic microorganisms found in AD, such as M. bourgensis, C. bornimense,
C. ultunense, Peptoniphilus sp. and H. hemicellulosilytica, and thermophilic R. cellulosi have
been sequenced and characterized for different steps of AD [17].
Also, during the biogas production step, microbial communities have been monitored.
The Bacteria domain highlights the phylum Bacteroidetes, Chloroflexi, and Firmicutes. In
the latter, the Clostridiales order was found with the highest abundance of 28% [7].
Specifically, in the first stage (hydrolysis), Trichococcus was predominant; in the second
stage (acidogenesis), Aminobacterium was present; and in the third stage (methanogene-
sis), Levilinea was the most abundant [7]. According to Amoozegar et al. [45], bacterial and
archaeal strains have been reported with activity for CH4 production, such as the family
Fusobacteriaceae and the genus Methanosaeta, respectively.
Another study about the monitoring of microbial communities during biogas production
using cow dung (CD) and fruit and vegetable waste mix (FVWM) with individual
mono-digestion and co-digestion (CO) of both substrates. The phylogenetic analysis
revealed that the phylas Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes (55% in FVWM), Proteobacteria, and
Actinobacteria (0.2–15.91% in CO) were dominant in the three treatments. In addition, the
class Bacteroidia and Clostridia were abundant in CD (67%) and CO (59.5%). At genus level,
Syntrophomonas predominated in co-digestion. Therefore, at genus level, the relative
abundance of archaeal communities in all samples were Methanobrevibacter,
Methanosarcina, and Methanobacterium. Particularly, Methanobrevibacter was present in
great quantities in FVWM and CD, and Methanosarcina in CD too [12].
16.4.2 Anaerobic Fungi in Biogas Production

Biogas is mostly a fuel from anaerobic fermentation of organic and agricultural wastes
or sewage sludge. Particularly, substrates such as municipal solid wastes, animal wastes,
or other by-products derived from industrial processes such as pulp, paper, forestry,
agriculture, and food production are used for biogas production with anaerobic fungi [46].
The phylum Neocallimastigomycota are anaerobic fungi present in the digestive tract of
the herbivorous that decompose a portion of the ingested forage. Dollhofer et al. [47] stud-
ied the hydrolysis of various lignocellulolytic materials (grass silage, maize silage, hay,
straw, molasses, and soja) to increase biogas production with Neocallimastix frontalis and
the preprocessing of the lignocellulosic substrates was suitable for future biotechnological
applications. Aydin et al. [48] studied biogas production with microalgae Haematococcus
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16.4 Microbial Biodiversity in Biogas Productio 339
pluvialis using anaerobic rumen fungi such as N. frontalis, Piromyces sp., Orpinomyces sp.,
and Anaeromyces sp. and obtained an increase in the CH4 production up to 41% with a 91%
more algae biomass degradation. According to Li et al. [49], the anaerobic fungi genera
that have been identified as a biogas producer have the following morphology: mono
centric, filamentous, and uniflagellate, such as Agriosomyces, Aklioshbomyces,
Buwchfawromyces, Capellomyces, Joblinomyces, Khoyollomyces, Liebetanzomyces,
Pecoramyces, Piromyces, Oontomyces, and Tahromyces; monocentric, filamentous, and
polyflagellate, such as Feramyces, Ghazallomyces, and Neocallimastix; monocentric, bul-
bous and uniflagellate, such as Caecomyces; polycentric, filamentous, and uniflagellate,
such as Anaeromyces; polycentric, filamentous, and polyflagellate, such as Orpinomyces;
and polycentric, bulbous, and uniflagellate, such as Cyllamyces. These microorganisms
have been isolated from sheep rumen contents, horse caecum, Holstein steer rumen,
Holstein steer rumen, cow rumen, cow feces, buffalo feces, Indian camel stomach, sheep
feces, Barbary sheep, goats’ rumen samples, Mouflon sheep feces, white-tailed deer feces,
Boer goat feces, Axis deer feces, goat feces, Grevy’s zebra feces, and Nilgiri Tahr feces,
respectively. Yildirim et al. [50] studied biogas production in anaerobic digesters with
filamentous fungi rumen, such as Anaeromyces sp., Orpinomyces sp., N. frontalis, and
Piromyces sp. and their results showed an increase by 60% of CH4 production using animal
manure [18], also tested filamentous fungi for the pretreatment of lignocellulosic sub-
strates for enhancing biogas production (A. nidulans, G. persicaria, R. miehei and T. reesei),
and they observed that the addition of these microorganisms confirmed to be an excellent
β-glucosidase and endo-(1,4)-β-d-glucanase sources for lignocellulosic materials pretreat-
ment. The obtained CH4 can be used for rural cooking, vehicular fuel, or power genera-
tion; therefore, the researches continues to focus on the biogas production and in the
establishment and optimization process to enhance the production of CH4 from
agricultural wastes with fungal or bacterial strains (Figure 16.1) [51, 52].
Industry Organic wastes
Biogas production
Electricity
Anaerobic fermentation Digestor
Figure 16.1 Biogas production with organic wastes for electricity generation.
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16.4.3 Anaerobic Bacteria in Biogas Production

In oxygen-free conditions, the organic materials are broken down by different
microorganisms that are classified into hydrolyzing/fermenting bacteria, obligate
hydrogen-producing acetogenic and methanogenic bacteria. On the other hand, informa-
tion on biogas-producing fungi is scarce [46]. The biogas production can be carried out in a
digester or in a natural way in anaerobic environment in the forestomach of animals.
Here, a wide variety and great amount of microorganisms are involved, such as Clostridium,
Fibrobacter, Ruminobacter, Ruminococcus, and methanogens (Methanobrevibacter,
Methanobacterium, Methanomicrobium) and are found in this habitat [18]. Methanogenic
archaea are important organisms in the production of biogas in anaerobic conditions with
yields of 50–75% of CH4. Chen et al. [53] evaluated the Methanobacterium congolense for
the CH4 production; however, the cellular biomass and CH4 production were affected at
low CO2 concentrations; therefore, the inorganic carbon, which is availability, with low CO
levels might not greatly reduce methanogenic activities control also other parameters such
as pH. Gopinath et al. [54], mentioned that CH4 production is a complex process classified
into four stages: (i) hydrolysis, (ii) acidogenesis, (iii) acetogenesis, and (iv) methanogene-
sis. The first microorganisms’ group (hydrolytic bacteria) is composed of strict anaerobes
(Bacteriocides, Bifidobacteria, and Clostridia) and other facultative anaerobes
(Enterobacteriaceae and Streptococci). The second microorganism group corresponds to
acidogenic bacteria and the third microorganism group is acetogenic bacteria (homoace-
togenic bacteria) such as Acetobacterium woodii and Clostridium acetium. In the last
degradation process, two classes of methanogenic bacteria synthesize CH4 from acetate/
hydrogen and carbon dioxide, which are strict bacteria that want a minor redox potential
for reproduction. Only few classes are capable to downgrade acetate into CH4 and carbon
dioxide such as M. mazei, Methanosarcina barkeri, and Methanotrix soehngenii.
16.4.4 Methanogenic Archaeal and Algae in Biogas Production

The microbia involved in biogas production is diverse, fungi and bacteria, as well as
archaea. In the biogas plant “Luchki” (AltEnergo L.L.C., Belgorod oblast, Russia), archaea
population was monitored. Particularly, the plant has four tanks and operates for biogas
production at 39 °C using a mix of swine manure, sugar beet pulp, silage, meat waste, and
other organic substrates. In tanks 3 and 1, the major percentages of archaea, with values of
7.9–8.3%, was observed, respectively. In addition, the microbial diversity was variable at
different temperatures (9, 15, 21, 35, 45, and 55 °C) during biogas production. The most
dominant archaeal group was at phylum level Euryarchaeota in all temperatures and
Crenarchaeota in minor dominance [55]. Therefore, other archaea have been detected dur-
ing AD when oil palm was used as substrate, Methanothermobacter sp., M. defluvii, and
M. mazei were found, these microorganisms were detected by PCR-DGGE [19]. The ther-
mophilic microorganisms of genus Methanosacarcina grow at 50–60 °C and tolerate high
concentration of acetic acid as substrate [19].
Reports suggested that when anaerobic rumen fungi are added, an increase in CH4
production is observed, until 60%. The anaerobic rumen fungi were compound by Piromyces sp.,
Anaeromyces sp., Orpinomyces sp., and N. frontalis and mixed in equal ratios.
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16.5 The Role of the Enzymes in Biogas Productio 341
The biodigester with inoculum at different percentages (v/v) of animal manure as

inoculum: 0% (R0), 5% (R1), 15% (R2), 20% (R3). The presence of archaeal communities
was composed as follows: Methanosarcinales (digester R0), Methanoasaeta (digester R1),
Methanobacteriales (digester R2), and 3 Methanomicrobiales (digester R3) with dominances
of Methanosarcinales, Methanoasaeta, Methanobacteriales, and 3 Methanomicrobiales,
respectively. Particularly, Methanobacterium kanagiense was detected in digester R2, which
registered the higher biogas production [50].
Archaeal communities of 10 household biogas digesters (YL1 to YL10) with pig, sheep
and cow manures, human feces, and food wastes have been described. The most dominant
archaea were Methanomicrobiales (13.5–81.34% of abundance), specifically Methanoc
orpusculum was present in all digesters. Particularly, the major abundances were observed
as follows: Methanogenium in digesters YL4 (100% pig manure) and YL6 (80% pig manure
and 20% human feces); Methanosarcina and Methanosaeta in digester YL1 (60% sheep
manure and 40% pig manure) and YL9 (100% vegetable wastes) [56]. The high amount of
biogas/CH4 observed in day 7 (sample P2) was associated with Methanobacteriaceae fam-
ily in a digester and usage of different wastes as float and activated sludges, pig and poultry
bloods, mainly [57].
In the other hand, microalgae have been used during more than 60 years as feedstock for
biogas production and other high-value products. The microalgae are considered renewable
and sustainable biomass and are important to climate change mitigation due to its facility for
sequestering atmospheric carbondioxide [58, 59]. The U. lactuca macroalgae and C. minutis
sima microalgae have been used for optimal biogas production conditions, where the major
yield was observed with macroalgae U. lactuca [20]. Other strains of alga have been reported,
such as Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, Chollera vulgaris, Nannochloropsis sp. [23].
16.5 The Role of the Enzymes in Biogas Production
As previously described, production of biogas can arise from a wide variety of biodegradable
feedstocks, many of which are a mixture of complex polymers such as lipids, carbohydrates,
or proteins [60–62]. These polymeric carbon skeletons cannot be directly fermented into
biogas production; they require their preliminary breakdown. In order to obtain simpler and
more assimilable monomers, specialized microorganisms can secrete saccharolytic enzymes
such as amylases, cellulases, xylanases, as well as lipases and proteases [63]. Enzymatic lib-
eration of sugar monomers from complex carbohydrate polymers is denominated sacchari-
fication [64]. Plant-based polysaccharides include mostly cellulose, hemicellulose, gums,
xylans, or starch, and from their enzymatic depolymerization glucose, xylose, fructose, ara-
binose, galactose, or some of its dimers can be obtained, conditional on the nature of the raw
material [65, 66]. As the complexity of the polymers in the feedstock increases the more
difficult for a single microorganism to produce all the required hydrolytic enzymes. Thus,
utilization of microbial consortiums, including bacteria, fungi, and archaea, to produce a
large range of hydrolytic enzymes is an advantageous strategy for the efficient degradation
of complex substrates [67, 68]. In this sense, AD of organic materials is the basis to produce
biogas in which waste is used for energy generation. Bacteroides and Firmicutes are the main
phyla that contributes with the hydrolytic bacteria found in anaerobic digesters [69, 70].
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Thus, to fully and optimally degrade the organic substrates availability of diverse hydrolytic
bacteria is a key requisite. However, even in the presence of a wide microbial diversity,
organic substrates will require long residence times in the anaerobic digester to depolymer-
ize most of the components [13, 29]. Also, organic material can be recalcitrant to degrada-
tion, i.e. cellulose and hemicellulose, requiring physicochemical pretreatments such as acid
or alkali hydrolysis, organosolv processes, or steam explosion, making the process economi-
cally and environmentally inefficient [71, 72]. Also, these pretreatment processes are respon-
sible for the generation of inhibitor compounds that are toxic for the fermentative
microorganisms, such as acetic and formic acids, furfural, and hydroxymethylfur-
fural [73, 74]. An alternative to the requirement of pretreatment to improve the digestibility
of recalcitrant materials is the biological treatment using specialized hydrolytic microorgan-
isms [75–77]. In nature, fungi efficiently degrade plant biomass by secreting multiple hydro-
lytic enzymes, also known as carbohydrate active enzymes (CASy) [78, 79]. Hydrolysis of
β-1→4 glycosidic bonds in cellulose requires the action of endoglucanases (EC 3.2.1.4) that
release oligosaccharides from amorphous regions of cellulose, then exoglucanases (EC
3.2.1.176; EC 3.2.1.91) act gradually on the ends of the oligosaccharides releasing cellobiose
disaccharides. The latter is then degraded by β-glucosidases (EC 3.2.1.21) [46]. For the ligno-
cellulose residues, CASy family members found in some filamentous fungi include man-
nanases (GH26), pectinases (GH28, GH78, GH93, PL1, CE8, and CE12), xyloglucanases
(GH29 and gh74), amylases (GH31), inulinases (GH32), cellulases (GH45 and AA9), and
xylanases (GH115 and CE15). As well as members of the family’s lipase (abH03 and abH23),
cutinase (abH36), and protease (S09 and A01) [80–82]. Also, wood decay fungi, especially
white root fungi, can delignify the plant material by the combined action of the lignin per-
oxidase (EC 1.11.1.14), catalase (EC 1.10.3.2), and/or by the action of manganese peroxidase
(EC 1.11.1.13), oxidizing or cleaving the phenolic and non-phenolic aromatic lignin
rings [83, 84]. Addition of fungal strains Cephalotrichum stemonitis MUT 6326, Coprinopsis
cinerea MUT 6385, and Cyclocybe aegerita MUT 5639 in the anaerobic digester of solid frac-
tions from agricultural wastes improved the hemicellulose, lignin, and cellulose digestibil-
ity. This was also accompanied by an increment in the biogas and CH4 yields by around two
times, in contrast with the production obtained from the untreated material (no fungal addi-
tion) [85]. Similar results, reporting increments ranging from 20 to 300% in the biogas yields
obtained by the fungal pretreatment of the biomass substrate, have been described else-
where [46, 86–89]. A major drawback in the biological pretreatment of biological substrates
is the slow growth rates of some of the microbial sources for hydrolytic enzymes. A strategy
to improve the hydrolysis rate of biomass substrates independent of the microbial growth
rates is the in situ addition of the specialized hydrolytic enzymes (Figure 16.2). For plant-
based materials, the most common strategy is the direct addition of commercial and already
available cellulases and other polysaccharases as a main treatment [90, 91] or posterior to an
alkaline hydrolysis –pretreatment [92, 93]. Enzymatic pretreatment of different types of bio-
masses has been used to produce biogas, such as algae treated with cellulase, chitinase, and
protease [94], pulp and paper biosludge treated with glucosidases (EC 3.2.1) and proteases
(EC 3.4) [90], poultry waste and feathers digested with keratinases [95], wastewater plant
treatment primary sludge digested with lipases and proteases isolated from different
wild-type bacteria [96]. In all these reports, the enzymatic pretreatment improved the cor-
responding biogas production. These results indicate that under appropriate conditions,
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16.5 The Role of the Enzymes in Biogas Productio 343
(a)
Amorphous cellulose Crystalline cellulose Cellobiose Glucose
Endo-β-1→4-glucanase Exo-β-1→4-glucanase β-glucosidase
(b) Endo-1,4-xylosidase
Cellulose Galactose Xylobiose
β-1→4
galactosidase
β-Glucosidase
Exo-1,4-xylosidase
Xylan
α-Arabino-
furanosidase
d-Glucuronidase
Arabinose
Glucuronic acid Xylose
(c)
Triglyceride Glycerol Fatty acids
Lipase
(d) Protein
Amino acids
Protease
Figure 16.2 Enzymes used in the depolymerization of complex substrates for biogas production.
Enzymes used for the degradation of (a) cellulose, (b) hemicellulose, (c) proteins, and (d) lipidic-
based materials. Enzymes are indicated with scissors.
recalcitrant organic materials such as fats, lignocellulose, or even hard protein-based fibers
can be digested and serve as substrate for biogas and other biofuels and value-added metab-
olites (Figure 16.2). Optimization of enzyme concentration, type of enzymes to be added,
operational conditions, material pretreatment requirements, among other parameters is
strongly suggested to enhance the hydrolysis rate, which is fundamental to improve the
production yield and the production rate of biogas formation, and also will have a positive
impact on the process economics [29, 97].
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16.6 Challenges and Opportunities in Biogas Production
In the face of global concern about climate change and efforts to reduce the carbon
footprint, biomass conversion technologies are an effective way to decrease carbon dioxide
emissions, cutdown fossil fuel consumption, and gradually replace them with sources of
renewable energy, which are now a necessary element of the energy supply system. The
development of renewable resources around the world and their scale of utilization have
continuously expanded, and the operation costs have reduced; therefore, the progress of
renewable resources has become important for a global climate change management and
national energy transformation in various countries [98]. Biogas production is considered
a cleaner and renewable energy source that is the most imminent “biorefinery” solution to
global energy problems. AD is an appropriate complex biological process that requires
accelerated efforts to determine the most important factors and optimal conditions
for its stabilization and to generate higher yields and productivity for new high-value
products [99].
16.6.1 Challenges for Biogas Production

The implementation of biogas-based plants and the utilization of biofuels imply facing
some challenges, which are mainly related to production, social, economic, and political
issues (Figure 16.3).
The challenges of biogas production are of diverse nature; for instance, the first decision
to make is the selection of the raw material to be used and how it will provide the adequate
carbon monomers; this can be solved with efficient pretreatment strategies. Other
challenges involve the high cost of biogas production, as well as the production technology,
utility requirements, and biofuel properties [100]. Some promising approaches reveal the
Production Social
• Feedsock selection • Rural population
• Production cost • Aging population
• Utility requirements
• Educational level
• Production tecnologies
• Fuel properties
Economic Policy
• Movility of agricultural • Subsidies and programs
labor force • Government investment
• Finance grants
Figure 16.3 Challenges involved in the microbial biogas production.
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16.6 Challenges and Opportunities in Biogas Productio 345
microbial communities involved in AD, including the application of traditional and more
advanced methods, such as molecular techniques and meta-omics approaches, which
includes PCR, real-time PCR, RT-qPCR, PCR-DGGE, FISH, RFLP, mainly, as well as a
correct inspection of the process, real-time control, and the application of mathematical
models to characterize the performance of the microbial communities that participate dur-
ing AD. The latter has been reached from an omics perspective approach, since it provides
information to understand the complexity of microbial communities (structure, function,
activities, and interactions) to reveal their biodiversity and organization in different
anaerobic digesters, although not all species have been identified yet [99].
It is known that the high level of production, processing, and capital investment costs for
biogas production has led to a negative energy balance [101, 102]. Currently, it is estimated
that a household biodigester (50 kg) costs approximately $1500/day, being a large invest-
ment for low-income people who would not be able to afford it. In addition, there are no
successful models of biogas plants that are adopted in factories, which in turn do not
capture or use CH4. There are no regulations or restrictions in this regard [101].
Other factors influencing biogas production (decrease in the use of rural digesters) are
social and economic factors. Particularly, a drastic decrease in the rural population, the
mobility of the agricultural labor force to the city, and the aging of the population, as well
as the educational level or the lack of information regarding maintenance and technical
support in the use of rural digesters. This has resulted in the failure of the establishment of
biogas projects due to poor management [98, 103].
There is a lack of incentives for electricity generation from biogas, which conditions
further research on biogas, digestate, and other end products that support biogas produc-
tion and circular bioeconomy of food waste for urban and rural residents. Government
investment grants, industry investment, and capital investment are needed to provide
financial support for the construction of large-scale biogas plants, as the area of renewable
energy has not been given the attention it deserves [25, 98, 103]. However, in developing
countries, biogas technology continues to advance from small to large scale because of the
issues of sustainability of financing, policy issues, technical services, awareness raising,
and education. These areas are key factors for a correct implementation to maximize the
use of biogas. Financial support is also crucial to facilitate the installation of biogas plants
up to large-scale level for energy and electricity generation, and transportation [25, 101].
Environmental policy is very deficient and its application in renewable energy is not well
regulated since waste managers deposit their waste in unregulated landfills or burn it in
open. There is a lack of government commitment and lack of follow-up on biogas programs
that become key challenges limiting the progress of biogas deployment. In addition,
corruption is a complex challenge, among others in the biogas value chain (substrate sup-
ply, biogas production, distribution, and use). In addition, policy coherence and coordina-
tion are necessary [100]. Policies should be reviewed according to the priorities and
characteristics of each sector for improvement, and a system of biogas standards should be
established at the national level [104].
In countries such as China, India, and Nepal, the government provides financial and
technical support for biogas programs. In fact, when the government decreased subsidies
and programs, new biogas plants also decreased significantly [103]. Biogas utilization is
important, but it requires capital investment and management by large companies, which
c16.indd 345 05/26/2023 19:17:09

may be easier to use private capital. For small and medium farms, financing is
necessary [105]. At the level of rural communities, microfinance institutions can be chosen
to enable them to dispense biogas technology in their homes. In addition, collaboration and
cooperation between institutions should be promoted to improve the structure of
biogas [103, 104, 106]. There is a need for comprehensive policies for biogas deployment
and reduction of the rate of return on investment [107]. Ideally, multisectoral policies
should drive the adoption of more sustainable technologies, such as carbon trading mecha-
nisms and an operation to improve biogas carbon emission reduction schemes, and carbon
trading pilot projects can be developed [25, 98, 100]. Cost-effective transformation of power
system infrastructure and fuel consumption mode is required, as well as the combination
of different renewable generation technologies. Thus, biogas plants are an option to
improve system integration of intermittent renewables [108]. The strong modification of
technologies, social behavior, economic aspirations, and government policies cause a vital
analysis of these factors to successfully generate energy from waste [109]. In summary, the
lack of adequate infrastructure, sufficient capital, and convenient policies have hindered
the successful application of biogas.
16.6.2 Opportunities for Biogas Production

Concerns about the exhaustion of fossil fuels has conducted an increased research activity on
renewable energy development, such as biogas production from waste for a sustainable
energy generation. The fulfillment of future energy demands is a big challenge considering
the growing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and the socioeconomic stability [101, 102]. The
use of food waste for AD instead of its landfill accumulation can counteract climate change
by avoiding food losses or wastage, as CH4 production contributes globally to 90% of total
GHG, which is mainly generated in landfills. It has been evaluated that the use of biogas as a
fuel boosted with more than 90% CH4 can lead to a decrease in GHG emissions of 60–80%
compared to conventional fossil fuels [23]. Biogas is a suitable alternative with a huge poten-
tial and a conceivable outcome; it has an implied potential in producing clean energy, improv-
ing waste management, reducing workload, and building employment opportunities for
local communities. The conversion of “waste to bioenergy” offers to decrease our depend-
ence on fossil fuels. For example, biohydrogen and biogas production using agricultural resi-
dues [23, 103]. Technologies have been developed to promote the biogas process, such as the
use of biomass ash as a high buffering additive not only increases the efficiency during biogas
production but also significantly reduces the usage of commercial alkaline reagents and the
constant pH adjustment in anaerobic digesters [110].
New trends in energy allow us to produce advanced and sustainable biofuels, and
understanding endogenous enzyme activities (distribution and relative activity in AD)
can lead to improved biogas production from high solids-organic matter. In addition,
three emerging bioelectrochemical technologies, power-to-gas DA (P2G-DA), microbial
electrolysis cell DA (MEC-DA), and DA microbial electrosynthesis (AD-MES), have
been evaluated, three future circular cascade bioelectrochemical systems with different
configurations in terms of potential to reduce GHG and augment CH4 produc-
tion [24, 111].
The reasons for biofuel production lies in energy security issues and environmental
concerns and the need to produce clean energy and the future potential of bioenergy. But
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Reference 347
among the different biofuels, biogas stands out as a key player in the circular bioeconomy,
reducing food losses or waste, as well as being a clean, environmentally friendly and versa-
tile fuel [23]. AD not only helps to generate biogas as a source of bioenergy, it is a conver-
sion process from which versatile uses of the products, CH4 and digestate, are possible; the
latter can be used as organic field supplements, compost, and feedstock for biochar synthe-
sis, it is still rich in macronutrients and micronutrients and, when applied to land, improves
attributes of the soil (physical, chemical, and biological) and increases crop productiv-
ity [23, 103, 112]. The use of biogas and its derivatives afford a clean energy source to farm-
ers, care for the ecological environment and living conditions, and improves the quality of
agricultural products, contributing to the circular bioeconomy [23].
The building of biogas plants at large scale in regions where agriculture is the main activ-
ity and crop straw/livestock manure are abundant as feedstocks for biogas production can
give gas and heat to farmers and rural people. In addition, electricity generation from
biogas can be utilized in the power grid or by enterprises, and biogas residues can be
returned to fields, composted, or used in other ways [98]. To decrease installation costs and
reduce operation and care of digesters, several strategies have been implemented, such as
polyethylene film tubes to reduce cost in digesters, which are built using easily available
materials (polyvinyl chloride and plastic bags). Finding low-cost alternatives makes it
affordable for developing countries [103].
In general, the development of domestic biogas digesters (small and medium size levels)
of low maintenance for agricultural regions could concede the biogas usage in households
and farms to accommodate the clean fuel needs, where biogas residues and sludge obtained
can be used as fertilizer to generate green and organic agricultural products [98]. Finally,
biomass energy is expected to contribute greatly to future sustainability since it is a renew-
able and sustainable energy system, becoming an important global energy source driving a
green civilization, a low-carbon economy, the evolution of sustainable rural villages, and
the response to climate change [23, 98].
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355
17
Molecular Farming and Anticancer Vaccine

Current Opportunities and Openings
Yashwant Kumar Ratre1, Arundhati Mehta1, Sapnita Shinde1, Vibha Sinha1,
Vivek Kumar Soni1, Subash Chandra Sonkar2, Dhananjay Shukla1,
and Naveen Kumar Vishvakarma1
1
Department of Biotechnology, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya, Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh, India
2
Multidisciplinary Research Unit, Maulana Azad Medical College and Associated Hospitals, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
17.1 Introduction
Cancer is one of the most devastating community health concerns of the twenty-first
century. The prevalence and mortality rate is significantly increasing worldwide [1].
According to International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), cancer alone is respon-
sible for more than 19.3 million new cases and 10 million deaths globally in 2020 [1]. As
per an estimate, expectedly cancer cases may raise up to 28.4 million by 2040 [1]. The high
rate of increasing cancer burden, aggressiveness, and drug resistance is the major obstacle
to the better management of cancer. Until recently, conventional therapeutic options
including chemotherapy, radiotherapy, surgery, targeted therapy, hormonal therapy, and
immunotherapy are the commonly used interventions for all types of cancer. However,
treatment potency differs according to clinical conditions. Moreover, the currently availa-
ble therapeutic approaches are effective in improving the overall survival of patients.
Existing therapies are mainly designed to disrupt the dysregulated pathways and mecha-
nisms underlying hallmarks of cancer. In recent trends, combination therapies have gained
attention among cancer researchers to synergistically provide benefits to patients via
improving drug efficiency. However, conventional therapeutic approaches are less specific
to particular tumors and have uninvited side effects, multi-organ toxicities, and off-target
effects [2]. Therefore, more prominent and promising advanced solutions are needed.
Over the last few decades, cancer is introducing new challenges to the public health
community. Thus, the revolution in cancer management strategies is in demand.
Vaccination is rising as one of the most effective and significant ways to prevent and control
diseases. It is very popular against healthcare-associated infections, multidrug resistance
microbes, and minimizing antimicrobial use. Vaccine mitigates or controls infections in all
age groups, particularly in the older population. The remarkable success in designing and

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356 17 Molecular Farming and Anticancer Vaccine
developing immunization against communicable diseases (i.e. smallpox, polio, tetanus,

measles, diphtheria, and rabies) was a boon for modern science [2, 3]. This milestone
success can guide future vaccine production and development for diseases of noncommu-
nicable nature like cancer that have not conventionally been addressed by vaccination as
standard therapy. However, several challenges remain to exist in vaccine manufacturing
and development for malignant disorders. These concerns need to be addressed to achieve
optimal utilization of the prophylactic benefits of vaccination against cancer. Consequently,
it becomes imperative to highlight the significance of vaccines from classical to modern
times followed by discussing exciting opportunities in vaccine biology to produce various
therapeutically important molecules, proteins, and antigens using bioengineering of
microbes to treat cancer in the future. Such large-scale production strategies for pharma-
ceutical molecules is called “molecular pharming” also known as “molecular farming.”
A focused discussion on research progress in the cancer vaccine, current microbial-based
clinical trials, and their clinical efficiency will help the scientific audience to design a
future vaccine.
17.2 Vaccines and the Possibility in Noncommunicable Diseases
The vaccine is one of the finest and greatest healthcare inventions all the time in history to
provide ensured protection against various communicable diseases. A vaccine is a biological
inducer designed as an inactivated or attenuated pathogen or a component of a pathogen
such as protein, DNA, or RNA to stimulate immune response via adapting defensive
mechanism against a given disease [4]. Vaccination is a great initiative for all countries world-
wide to deliver benefits, especially to pregnant women, infants, children, older individuals,
and those who have significant susceptibility, and high risk of contracting infections. To date,
a significant number of causative agents have been reported against which vaccines are
approved and many microbial agents are in pipeline for the development and production of
vaccines [5–7]. The committee of the World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that
vaccines prevent two to three million human deaths every year. The toll of lives saved can rise
to six million if all children receive the recommended vaccines and specified times.
Vaccination exceptionally contributed to mitigating mortality of children aged below 5 years
from 93 deaths per 1000 live births in 1990 to 39 deaths per 1000 live births in 2018 [7]. These
statistics indicate the power of vaccination in preventing the contract of infection, and/or
developing pathological consequences afterward in a large fraction of the population.
In the past century, transmissible diseases such as tuberculosis, diphtheria, smallpox,
pertussis, measles, influenza, and typhoid fever were the leading causes of death. They had
been associated with high morbidity in affected individuals. According to a study con-
ducted in the United States, since 1924 more than 40 million cases of diphtheria, 35 million
cases of measles, and 103 million cases of infants and childhood diseases were protected by
the vaccine [8]. Today life expectancy has increased, however, in the last few decades, the
incidence and prevalence of noncommunicable diseases have dramatically increased. Such
noncommunicable diseases include cancer, hypertension, diabetes, stroke, Alzheimer’s,
and cardiovascular disease [9]. These diseases are becoming a leading cause of death
worldwide [9].
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17.3 Vaccine Productio 357
The area of vaccine biology has received much more attention since the innovation of the
small-pox vaccine by British physician Edward Jenner in 1978. In the early 1980s, the
development of a vaccine was tentatively introduced to fight against pathogenic microbes.
In modern days, vaccines are used to improve and accelerate the defensive ability of the
body to fight severe human infections and diseases. Conventionally, the vaccine is ideally
administered to combat various viral diseases such as Tdap, HPV, and Meningitis. Even
studies dictated that three times administration of HPV vaccine has able to protect (90%)
human against HPV infection for up to five years [10]. Biomedical researchers are now
exploring preventive measures through vaccination strategies to avert the menace associ-
ated with cancer and other noncommunicable diseases.
Despite the great success in vaccine biology, there are still several challenges that remain
to unfold in vaccine development and administration. The most common adverse effect
reported is hypersensitivity, neurological manifestations, autoimmunity, etc. A study also
reported that a more number of vaccines administered are associated with the incidence of
adverse effects [11]. Therefore, scientists need to validate, upgrade, and innovate key strate-
gies to overcome the risk associated with vaccine administration followed by enhancing
the safety measures to establish vaccines at the global level against current deadly
noncommunicable diseases like cancer.
17.3 Vaccine Production
The invention of vaccination has revolutionized the whole world more than any other
invention or discovery yet did [12]. Progressively, it has become a key to improving life
expectancy, overall survival, and health outcomes. Currently, the development of highly
advanced, cost-effective, rapid, and specific techniques for the production of vaccines is
highly in demand. Even the current COVID-19 pandemic [13] has witnessed the importance
of the vaccine for public health. The journey of vaccine manufacturing is a multistep time-
consuming process. It takes around 7–10 years for a vaccine to be available for public use.
Therefore, update in current vaccine development strategies and techniques are further
warranted. Although, there have been several “eras of vaccine” with aided scientific knowl-
edge and technological advancement that continually improve the vaccine journey from a
trial-and-error approach to reverse vaccinology [14]. Although vaccine designing and vali-
dation strategies have undergone multifold improvisation, large-scale production warrants
microbial farming utilizing bioreactor-based culture of genetically manipulated microbes
for non-whole-cell vaccines. Nevertheless, microbes play a vital role in the production of
many medically important molecules including antigenic components as vaccine
candidates. Various etiologic agents have been used as a vector for the cloning, expression,
and purification of antigenic vaccines. The level of success may differ according to the suit-
ability of chosen expression platform. The current advancement in microbiology, molecu-
lar biology, and immunology allows the expression of antigenic peptides in both eukaryotes
(mammalian cells, yeast, and cells of insects, plants, and animals) and prokaryotes
(Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis). As the molecular farming approach utilizes the
production of molecules in plants or microbes after the insertion of gene encoding peptides
of interest [15, 16]. The microbial hosts have several merits as farmlands are required for
c17.indd 357 05/26/2023 19:17:13

growing plant hosts. Biotic and abiotic stress-induced damages are frequent due to absolute
control of growing conditions for genetically modified plants in molecular farming [17].
However, in a bioreactor, microbes carrying genes of interest grow in optimally regulated
conditions. The bacterial-based expression system is one of the most common approaches
used for the efficient production of vaccines. Although microbes and microbial bioreactors
are apt for large production of vaccines, mammalian or insect cell culture has been pre-
ferred where post-translational modifications (e.g. glycosylation) are necessary [18, 19].
Moreover, there are various challenges associated with vaccine production, which need to
be addressed including process development, production facilities, equipment varieties,
time length, product portfolio management, and life cycle management [20]. Therefore,
currently, strategies are being optimized for emphasizing the significance of a highly
robust, rapid, and stable production process to ensure the efficiency and long life cycle of a
vaccine. Over the decades, production can be done in the traditional bioreactor (stainless
steel fermenters), single-use system, or mixed approach as per necessities and the produc-
tion scale [21]. Currently, from the COVID-19 pandemic, the use of the next-generation
vaccine platform is prospering. Therefore, establishing novel technical approaches, which
can shorten the time cycle and elicit rapid responses against given diseases, is expected to
improve the producibility and efficacy.
17.3.1 Cancer Vaccine

A vaccine is a foremost weapon to prevent disease, which is even more efficient and
promising than curative efforts through treatment and the use of therapeutic drugs [22].
Historically, a vaccine is specially introduced to eradicate infectious diseases. However, the
global burden of NCDs is quite large. In the present scenario, the burden of NCDs has
significantly increased over communicable diseases. Surprisingly, the death ratio is also
observed to increase in the case of NCDs such as cancer and cardiovascular disease as com-
pared to CDs [23]. In the recent past, cancer has emerged as one of the leading causes of
death globally. In the past few decades, scientists have observed that conventional thera-
peutic interventions are not quite effective to eradicate cancer from the root. Moreover, it
also has very adverse events during and after treatment. Likewise, tumor recurrence and
multidrug resistance (MDR) circumvent a major obstacle to interrupting the treatment
strategies in cancer. Therefore, new therapies are warranted to be introduced to enormously
increase the survival outcome of cancer patients by providing the best remedial solutions.
Over the last few years, vaccine biology has earned much more attention for developing
cancer vaccines. Cancer vaccines are specially designed as an active immunotherapeutic
regimen, particularly in an established disease state in which cancer expresses all func-
tional phenotypes or hallmarks [24]. The principles of cancer vaccine formulation have
been ideally structured to trigger or increase immune fitness via adopting various strategies
such as immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) and engineered T-cell-based therapies against
cancer [25–27]. The journey of therapeutic cancer vaccine development is still challenging
and tough trying. However, the clinical and preclinical cancer researchers along with
whole biomedical researchers are excited after the great success of vaccines as therapeutics
against hepatitis B virus (HBV) and HPV to avert liver and cervical cancer, respec-
tively [28, 29]. For the first time, Hoover et al. developed a tumor cell/lysate-based cancer
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17.4 Types of Cancer Vaccin 359
vaccine to treat colorectal cancer [30]. Over time, researchers developed cancer vaccines by
using various sources of tumor antigens such as purified or synthesized tumor cell surface
molecules like peptides, proteins, tumor cells, or their lysates of allogeneic or autologous
tumor cells. In the early 1990s, melanoma-associated antigen 1 (MAA1) was discovered as
a tumor antigen, which opened new opportunities for the scientific community to use
tumor antigen in cancer vaccines [31]. To date, only two therapeutic vaccines have been
clinically approved, namely sipuleucel-T, a first dendritic-cell (DC)-based vaccine to treat
prostate cancer, and Bacillus Calmette–Guerin (BCG) for treating early-stage bladder can-
cer [32]. These successes in vaccines against cancer provide strength to the idea of tumor-
cell-based cancer vaccines for future use [32]. Tumor antigens include tumor-associated
antigens (TAAs) and tumor-specific antigens (TSAs). These antigens play an essential role
in tumorigenesis and cancer progression. These are molecule of interest and key for the
development of vaccines against neoplastic disorders. These vaccines augment the antitu-
mor immune response in the host. Conventionally, the vaccine could stimulate both cell-
and humoral-mediated immunity against tumor growth [33]. Today, a number of cancer
vaccines are in the pre-clinical and clinical phases [34]. Antigen-specific vaccination has a
focus of attention due to its ability to modulate not only the course of pathogenic acute and
chronic illness but also graft rejection, autoimmunity, and cancer [34–36]. The period from
1990 to 2010 was proven very effective to discover and develop more TAAs to use in
combination to achieve the best possible immunogenicity and clinical outcomes [37]. The
first clinical trial either tested was a peptide-based vaccine and vaccines formulated from
tumor cells/lysates containing various TAAs including the breast cancer antigen human
epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2), tumor antigen mucin 1 (MUC1) [38], and
melanoma-associated antigen 3 (MAGEA3), etc. [39]. The discovery of antigen-presenting
cells (APCs) including dendritic cells (DCs) has opened an existing window for the delivery
of TAAs. After that more than hundreds of DC-based vaccines were designed and produced
and are currently under clinical trials against different malignancies. However, several bio-
logical models were also used for the high-yield production and development of vaccines
such as bacterial and viral vectors, virus-like particles, and nucleic-acid (DNA, RNA)-based
vaccines [40–43].
Unfortunately, due to poor immunogenicity of tumor antigen and undesirable safety,
very few cancer vaccines have been approved in the clinical trial. Thus, understanding the
link between the structure and function of cancer vaccines is crucial to increase their
opportunities to trigger the immune system for prolonging survival and quality of life in
cancer patients. In addition, improvements in vaccine delivery techniques including proac-
tive adjuvant and novel antigen expression systems like microbes have profoundly upgraded
and accelerated antigen-based immunity in cancer patients.
17.4 Types of Cancer Vaccine
The fundamental aim of vaccination is to deliver the best and most affordable remedial to
overcome the disease burden. A vaccine provokes the immune system by eliciting possible
immune responses to destroy foreign particles like antigens via producing defensive mole-
cules including antibodies, cytotoxic cells, and memory cells. Thus, identifying and
c17.indd 359 05/26/2023 19:17:13

discovering complex mechanisms adapted by the cancer cells to modulate immune system
might be a gold standard. This is approach to revolutionize the invention of key tools
including competent immune cells (both lymphocyte and leukocytes), peptides, and
proteins including antibodies, nucleic acids, and other molecular moieties for immuno-
therapy against malignancies. In the coming future, a cancer vaccine might be a choice of
therapy to prevent malignant disorders. Presently, various types of cancer vaccines has
been emerging as a fruitful means to fight cancer. Few common types of cancer vaccines
are recombinant live vector vaccines (viral/bacterial), nucleic acid (DNA, RNA) vaccines,
protein/peptide vaccines, viral-like particle (VLP) vaccines, whole-cell vaccines (DC or
tumor immune cell-based), edible vaccines, and combined approaches (e.g. prime-boost
vaccination) [44].
A cell-based vaccine is one of the classical approaches evaluated using a tumor
antigen-based method. Different kinds of biological components such as whole cells/
cell fragments are used as a key source of tumor antigen (TA) to elicit an immune
response. DC vaccine is a form of the cell-based vaccine. Personalized neoantigens
cancer vaccine relies on DCs and has resulted in very effective anti-tumor efficiency in
clinical settings. This method has been implemented for many cancers including
colon [45], prostate [46], lung [47], melanoma [48], and renal cell carcinoma [49]. In
many varieties of malignancies, heterogenic populations of tumor cells are bioengi-
neered to gain immune functions including production immuno-stimulants such as
interleukins and colony-stimulating factors. GVAX is a cancer cell-based vaccine, which
is engineered to produce GM-CSF [50]. These types of strategies are used after radiation
therapy to stop the uncontrollable growth of cancer cells [51]. However, obtaining a
high yield of cells is sometimes difficult, limiting their further application in cancer vac-
cine development and production [52, 53]. Protein/peptide-based therapeutic cancer
vaccines were mainly produced by incorporating 20–30 amino acid peptides from spe-
cific TA coding sequences to boost immunity. This boosted immunity is against key anti-
genic determinants identified to be expressed on malignant cells and are used in the
preparation of anticancer vaccine. These artificial antigenic peptides are administered
and are taken up by APCs to complex with human leukocyte antigen (HLA) molecules
on their cell surface. HLA-antigenic peptide complexes are then recognized by T cells to
induce a cancer-specific immune response. Peptide-based cancer vaccine could offer a
range of benefits such as cost-effectiveness, convenient manufacturing, and production,
low risk of carcinogenic potential, reduced contamination risk, and high chemical sta-
bility. After many decades of hard work, scientists completed the sequencing of the
whole human genome. The human genome project has opened diverse windows to
understand the genetic material and its associated opportunities broadly. Nucleic acid
(DNA, RNA) vaccine is emerging as a promising platform for the development of genetic
vaccines because they can induce MHC I-mediated CD8+T immune responses against
multiple epitopes to trigger humoral and cell-mediated immunity. Several preclinical
studies reveal the importance and future of DNA vaccines [53]. For instance, currently,
a DNA-based vaccine VGX3100 is in phase 3 clinical trials [54]. Unlike DNA vaccine,
RNA vaccine is not integrated into the genome, thereby preventing malignancies.
Collectively, findings indicate that the nucleic acid vaccine might be a suitable strategy
for the development of a personalized neoantigen cancer vaccine.
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17.5 Microbial Production of Anticancer Vaccine: Challenges and Opportunitie 361
17.5 Microbial Production of Anticancer Vaccine:

Challenges and Opportunities
The trend of using the microbial platform as vehicles to deliver recombinant antigens has
gained much more attention for the mass production and development of a vaccine for
various NCDs including cancer. Over the last two decades, the evolution of tools of genetic
manipulation has increased the opportunity to produce therapeutic molecules by incorpo-
rating the concept of microbiology, immunology, and molecular biology. The implementa-
tion of new strategies has enabled the construction of recombinant microorganisms with
the potential to express heterogeneous proteins in different components of the cell to
enhance their immunogenic ability for the production of vaccines against pathogenic bac-
teria, viruses, parasites, and other deadly diseases like cancer (Figure 17.1).
Currently, the development of an efficient, affordable, and reproducible microbial system
is needed for the mass production of immuno-protective molecules such as monoclonal
antibodies (mAbs), TAs, and DCs to defeat cancer cells. Additionally, safety concerns are
one of the biggest hurdles in achieving the regulatory standard and quality control in vac-
cine formulation. Recently, microbe-based cancer immunotherapy has developed as an
effective approach for accelerating immune functioning. To date, various classes of
microbes inclusding bacteria [55–57], yeast and fungus [58], and oncolytic viruses [59]
have been implemented to sensitize adaptive and innate immunity to deliver the best anti-
tumor immune response. For instance, a genetically engineered attenuated Salmonella
typhimurium can be used to induce infiltration of immune cells and pro-inflammatory
cytokine production in the tumor microenvironment (TME) to augment immunity against
cancer [60]. Presently, many yeast and bacteria-based vaccines have been clinically tested
and are in the trial phase (Tables 17.1 and 17.2) [61].
Incorporation into
TSAs host microbes
Tumor cells
TAAs Antigen
producing Encoding gene
WTAs gene sequences by
bioengineering
Tumor antigen as a
potential source for
cancer vaccine Laboratory scale
optimization
Large-scale
production of
Anticancer
vaccine molecules
immune in bioreactor
response
Administration Cancer vaccine Formulation Purification
Figure 17.1 Illustration of bioengineering of tumor antigen molecules for anticancer vaccine
development. Source: TILT Biotherapeutics LLC.
c17.indd 361 05/26/2023 19:17:14

Table 17.1 Yeast-based pre-clinical and clinical studies for cancer vaccine development.
Microbial
species Tumor antigen Strategies Cancer Status Reference
Saccharomyces Brachyury Whole Advanced Phase-I [62]

cerevisiae (GI-6301) recombinant malignant solid
yeast tumors
Brachyury Epithelial [63]
(GI-6301) mesenchyma
CEA Carcinoma [64]
Human MART-1 Melanoma Pre-clinical [65]
(hMART-IT)
derived granulocyte
KRAS Lung Phase-II [66]
adenocarcinoma
BCR-ABLT315I Leukemias Pre-clinical [67]
Cancer testis Yeast surface Melanoma Phase-I [68]
antigen NY-ESO-1 display
Derived GM-CSF Purified protein Melanoma Phase-III [69]
Single-chain Purified protein — Pre-clinical [70]
chimeric peptide
composed of hCGβ
&oLHα
Pichia pastoris HPV16 L1 antigen Whole Papilloma virus [71]
recombinant associated cancer
yeast
17.5.1 Yeast-Based Cancer Vaccine (YBCV)

Yeast or unicellular fungus occupied an honored place in the field of biotechnology,
commonly used in bioreactor and particularly play a translational role in food industries.
Yeasts emerge as an ideal choice for the routine expression of therapeutically important
biomolecules such as protein. Despite its nonpathogenic nature (Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
Pichia pastoris), yeast carries some key salient features like efficient heterologous gene
expression ability. This makes them suitable for the expression of various heterogeneous
proteins for clinical as well as veterinary purposes [72]. The component of the yeast cell
wall including β-glucan and chitin [73] does not exist in the mammalian system but pos-
sess a strong signal to stimulate a multiepitope immune response [74]. Recently, yeast-
derived β-glucan was reported to activate DCs and macrophages leading to the activation of
T cells and enhanced antitumor immune response [75]. To explore yeast as an expression
system, it is very crucial to know that yeast-based vaccine approaches can trigger antitumor
immune protective molecules such as CD81 CTLs cells to recognize and kill tumor cells.
The current efforts should include constructing yeasts capable of expressing an adequate
and defensive level of tumor-specific or TAAs. However, many studies have incorporated
these strategies to enhance immune response which has been nicely reviewed earlier [76].
c17.indd 362 05/26/2023 19:17:14

Table 17.2 Recent and ongoing clinical studies using bacteria for cancer vaccine development.
Mode of
Trail ID Status Microbial agent Cancer type administration Participant Phase
a
NCT02302170 Completed Helicobacter pylori vaccine H. pylori-associated cancer Oral 4464 III
NCT01838200a Terminated Bacillus Calmette-Guerin Metastatic Melanoma Subcutaneous 5 I
NCT02371447a Active Recombinant Bacillus Calmette–Guérin Bladder cancer Intravenous 39 I/II
(VPM1002BC)
NCT02243371a Completed Listeria monocytogenes-expressing mesothelin Previously treated metastatic Intravenous 93 II
(CRS-207) adenocarcinoma of the pancreas
NCT04025307a Completed Bifidobacterium longum expressing IL-12 Advanced and treatment-refractory Intravenous 38 I
(bacTRL-IL-12) solid tumors
a
NCT03762291 Recruiting Salmonella CVD908ssb strain producing Multiple myeloma Oral 18 I
Survivin (TXSVN)
a
NCT03847519 Recruiting Listeria monocytogenes engineered to express Lung cancer, non-small cell Intravenous 74 I/II
22 tumor antigens commonly found in Metastatic squamous cell carcinoma
non–small cell lung cancer (NSCLC; i.e. 11 Metastatic non–squamous cell
hotspot mutations and 11 tumor-associated carcinoma
antigens (ADXS-503 or A503)
NCT02002182a Active B. longum expressing cytosine deaminase Head and neck cancer squamous Intravenous 15 II
(APS001F) cell carcinoma of the head and neck
HPV positive oropharyngeal
squamous cell carcinoma
NCT02325557a Unknown Listeria monocytogenes secreting an antigen- Prostate cancer Intravenous 51 I/II
adjuvant fusion protein tLLO-HPV-16 E7
(ADXS11-001)
NCT03750071a Recruiting Attenuated Salmonella typhimurium Recurrent and progressive Oral 30 I/II
encoding murine vascular endothelial growth glioblastoma
factor receptor 2 (VEGFR-2) (VXM01)
a
https://clinicaltrials.gov/ For more details, readers can visit mentioned URL link.
c17.indd 363 05/26/2023 19:17:14

Heery and colleagues demonstrated that S. cerevisiae expressing brachyury (embryonic

transcription factor) was able to activate human T-cells [62]. In one more finding,
S. cerevisiae-derived micro-particles conjugated with ova albumin are recognized by DCs
leading to inducing an immune response against malignant tumors [77]. Recently, the
yeast-CEA (GI-6207) vaccine is under Phase I clinical trial. Yeast-CEA is an engineered
moiety generated using heat-killed S. cerevisiae to express recombinant carcinoembryonic
antigen (CEA) protein [64]. This vaccine is effective against metastatic CEA-expressing
carcinoma in adults [64]. Jiang et al. demonstrated that a budding yeast-derived rabbit anti-
hCGβ-oHLα IgG was able to in vitro inhibit the growth of human chorionic gonadotropin
(hCG) expressing colorectal cancer cell lines and also able to neutralize its bioactivity [66].
In another finding, yeast cells were used to express and purify melanoma protein for the
use possibly as a prophylactic vaccine to provide defense against melanoma cancer, despite
enough amount of knowledge about epitopes recognized by MHC class molecules. Further,
this expressed protein is also able to protect mice from developing tumors [78]. Currently,
two antiviral vaccines, HBV and HPV, were developed using S. cerevisiae as a model system.
HPV is potentially associated with cervical cancer [79, 80]. Another species of yeast called
P. pastoris can hold great value for the production of vaccine antigens and immunothera-
peutics. Pichia pastoris was introduced in the 1960s as a food additive and later its large-
scale production was achieved via a fermentation approach [81]. Now, P. pastoris has been
established as a tightly regulated expression system and has been studied to cultivate
recombinant antigens for human vaccines [82, 83]. This accumulated evidence established
the yeast as a strong microbial model for the expression, purification, and production of
tumor antigens. It can be possible that extending the application of recombinant yeast may
be transformed the era of vaccine development with high specificity against the tumor.
17.5.2 Bacteria-Based Cancer Vaccine (BBCV)

Historically, bacteria are a well-practiced model for the cultivation of industrial and recom-
binant therapeutic molecules. Of note, the strategy of using bacteria as vehicles to deliver
recombinant antigens has continually evolved for the development of new recombinant
vaccines and immunotherapeutic molecules. The motility is a very critical feature of bacte-
ria that allows them to move away from the vasculature and deeply penetrate hypoxic
regions of the tumor [84] and proliferate within tumor cells [85]. However, as a delivery
and expression system bacteria can offer a spectrum of advantages such as they carry well-
identified virulence mutations, having the ability to regulate in vivo expression of antigens
and their number and amount, they can provide multiple delivery routes and also can regu-
late both innate and adaptive immune response. Additionally, the growing number of
knowledge helped in unfolding the key immunological events of bacterial physiology
linked with host–pathogen interactions to use attenuated bacteria as conventional vaccine
vectors [86]. All these features play various crucial roles in designing and developing any
vaccines using bacteria.
Almost a century back, William Coley transformed medical science by establishing bac-
terial products as immunotherapy agents; later on, he prepared a vaccine using live and
attenuated bacteria (Streptococcus pyrogenes, Seretia marcescenes). This preparation, known
as Cooley’s toxin, has served as a gold standard alternative to defeat carcinoma, lymphoma,
c17.indd 364 05/26/2023 19:17:14

17.6 Conclusio 365
sarcoma, melanoma, and myeloma [87–89]. Previously, various bacteria have been used as
a vector including E. coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Yersinia, Salmonella, and Shigella [90].
Many findings support the use of bacterial vectors specifically L. monocytogenes, and
P. aeruginosa as an expression system for the development of cancer vaccines [91, 92].
Nowadays, bacterial cells have been genetically modified to carry and express TAAs,
recombinant protein, deliver genes, or transport anticancer molecules [93]. Thus, cultivat-
ing bioengineered bacteria as a high-throughput system can boost the expression, produc-
tion, and purification of antitumor molecules used for the generation of cancer vaccines. In
addition, advancements in large-scale fermentation tools and highly efficient bioengineer-
ing techniques provide a convenient platform to produce cost-effective and affordable
vaccines using bacterial cells.
Bacterial vectors can be used to supply and propagate molecules that overcome or kill
tumor cells by protecting them from self-antigen and heterologous antigens. In one study,
it was noted that an attenuated S. typhimurium vector has been used to elicit an immune
response in tumor-bearing mice and some cases of humans against the malignant tumor.
These outcomes highlight this vector as a great model for vaccine development [94].
Although bacterial type, species, mode of antigen delivery to APCs, and route of adminis-
tration remain to understand fully to match the safety concerns of vectors against patients
and the environment [42].
To date, various bacterial strains have been genetically modified for adding some cancer-
protective properties to enhance immune fitness. Some bacteria-based vaccines are cur-
rently in the clinical trial phases [56]. A genetically manipulated bacteria S. typhimurium
has been developed by editing the cyp/crp gene (which encodes a protein associated with
cyclic AMP regulation). This is used to express interleukin-2 (IL-2) to possibly treat liver
cancer in the preclinical study [95, 96]. In another study, transformed S. typhimurium has
been used as a vehicle to orally administer immunotherapeutic molecules expressed in
eukaryotic vectors (IL-2, mIL-12, human interleukin-12 [hIL-12], human granulocyte/
macrophage colony-stimulating factor [hGM-CSF], mGM-CSF, and green fluorescent pro-
tein [GFP]). These transformants increased the number of cytotoxic T cells and facilitated
the prolonging survival in mice with lung tumors [86]. In addition, Bifidobacterium adoles-
centis has also been considered a putative gene delivery vector after its success at the pre-
clinical level. This B. adolescentis strain has been found effective to inhibit the growth of
various cancer cells (liver cancer, breast cancer) and is also able to induce an immune
response [98]. Most recently, Cheng et al. developed a bacteria-derived genetically modi-
fied outer membrane vesicle (OMV)-based vaccine platform via plug and display technique
for tumor antigen display to elicit antitumor immunity using a preclinical tumor model [99].
17.6 Conclusion
In the current century, cancer or malignant disease is growing as one of the leading causes
of death [100]. With time, the toll of concerns associated with standard and conventional
cancer treatment is rising due to drug resistance, tumor dormancy, and other relevant con-
sequences discovered with the advancement of science. Vaccination, an old approach
devised against communicable diseases, is being implemented against malignant
c17.indd 365 05/26/2023 19:17:14

disorders. Vaccines against cancer were used first as a therapeutic setup; however, preven-
tive effects will be of immense advantage to prevent mortality and morbidity. A variety of
vaccines against different malignant disorders are tested or currently under pre-clinical or
clinical evaluation. One of the concerns about the requirement of a large number of cancer
vaccines (either peptides of cancer origin, their nucleic acid, etc.). Conventional approaches
for commercial production of cancer vaccines or their components utilize the cell-culture-
based method. Nowadays, the advancement of genetic manipulation can easily assist the
production of vaccines against cancer through microbial bioreactors. The insertion of a
gene-encoding antigenic peptides in the genome of a microbial host can be exploited for
commercial production of vaccines even against cancers after laboratory-level optimiza-
tion. Vaccines are the cornerstone for the management of pathogenic diseases and provide
the surest means of defusing pandemics and epidemics.
The delivery of antitumor antigen has special attention for successful vaccine delivery.
Of note, various forms of vaccine delivery have been reported including peptide, nucleic
acid (mRNA/DNA) vaccines, or loaded on DCs ex vivo. Microbial-based culture platforms
can offer large-scale production and purification of antigens for loading on DCs to pro-
mote specific immune responses and boost T-cells. These approaches have increased the
opportunity for personalized vaccine development for future use. However, the field of
cancer vaccine is not fully matured and needs further development to enhance the quality
of epitopes and neoepitopes to maximize their efficiency. However, the microbial system
for expression of tumor antigen candidates with suitability for vaccines will be available
for any development. The previously optimized process for upstream and downstream
processing of products in microbial bioreactors offers new opportunities. In such a way,
molecular farming is not only serving as a platform for the production of pharmaceuti-
cally active molecules but also aids in cancer vaccine production. Thus, incorporating the
diversified mechanisms of microbes for cancer vaccine development and production can
transform the era of cancer therapy. Additionally, the administration of the traditional
approach with the vaccine in combination might be also a good idea for the management
of cancer.
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375
18
Microbial Bioreactors at Different Scales for the Alginate

Production by Azotobacter vinelandii
Belén Ponce1, Viviana Urtuvia1, Tania Castillo2, Daniel Segura3, Carlos Peña2,
and Alvaro Díaz-Barrera1
1
Escuela de Ingeniería Bioquímica, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
2
Departamento de Ingeniería Celular y Biocatálisis, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México,
Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
3
Departamento de Microbiología Molecular, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México,
Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
18.1 Introduction
Alginates are polysaccharides composed of β,d-mannuronic acid (M) and its C-5 epimer, α,
l-guluronic acid (G) [1]. Alginates are extracted from seaweed and are mainly applied in
the food and pharmaceutical industries. These polymers can also be produced by bacteria
of the genera Pseudomonas and Azotobacter as a component of the extracellular matrix [1, 2].
However, bacterial alginates are acetylated and typically have a higher molecular weight
than algal polymers. It is important to mention that the acetylation and the molecular
weight determine the viscosifying capacity and, in general, the rheological properties of the
polymer solutions. This has an important impact on the specific applications of alginate [3].
Alginates mainly are used as a viscosifying, gelling, thickening agent, or as a source of
dietary fiber in the food industry [4, 5, 6]. In the pharmaceutical industry, they have poten-
tial application as an agent for the controlled release of drugs and the design of matrices,
allowing cell anchoring and proliferation in tissue engineering [7].
Azotobacter vinelandii is a Gram-negative, strictly aerobic bacterium capable of fixing
atmospheric nitrogen. This bacterium produces two polymers of industrial interest, poly-
hydroxy butyrate (PHB) and alginate. The alginate produced by A. vinelandii has molecular
weights higher than 1000 kDa and presents acetylation in positions 2 and/or 3 of the man-
nuronic acid residues [8]. This acetylation causes an expansion of the molecular chain of
the polymer [9], which, together with the high molecular weight, gives the alginate a
higher viscosifying capacity than that obtained with algal alginate [3].
In recent decades, the study of the production of alginates using microbial sources has
been very extensive, highlighting the use of A. vinelandii for the large-scale production of
these polymers. In the present review, the following topics are addressed: research

c18.indd 375 05/26/2023 19:17:19

376 18 Microbial Bioreactors at Different Scales for the Alginate Production by Azotobacter vinelandii
concerning alginate biosynthesis and genetic regulation, bacterial production on a bioreac-

tor scale, different cultivation modalities for the production of alginate, as well as the influ-
ence of cultivation parameters on the quantity and quality of the alginate and finally the
main studies on the scaling-up of alginate production are discussed.
18.2 Bacterial Alginate
18.2.1 Compositions and Structures

Alginates are formed by monomers of α-l-guluronic (G) and β-d-mannuronic (M) acids,
and these monomers are linked by glycosidic bonds (1–4) [10, 11]. The mannuronic and
guluronic acids, in the alginates, can be grouped as MMMM, GGGG, and MGMG blocks.
In addition, the carbons 2 and 3 of the mannuronic residues, the bacterial alginates can
present acetyl groups. These polymers are polysaccharides, which are hydrophilic, biode-
gradable, edible, and biocompatible [11], and show high water absorption and crosslinking
capability, as well as chemical versatility [11, 12]. Due to the presence of carboxylic groups,
this polymer is characterized by its polyanionic nature, and in the presence of cations, algi-
nates can form gels mainly by the interaction of the G residues with the cations, forming
structures called egg boxes. On the other hand, alginates can increase the viscosity of the
solutions. The gel-forming capability of alginates is mainly determined by the G/M ratio
and GGGG blocks, whereas the presence of acetyl groups increases the swelling and vis-
cosifying capabilities of alginates [8, 13], in addition, the viscosity of the solutions of algi-
nate is determined by the mean molecular weight of this polymer [3, 14].
These polymers are naturally produced by brown seaweed such as Laminaria, Macrocystis,
and Sargasso and species of the bacterial genus Azotobacter and Pseudomonas [11]. The
algal alginates show high variability in their composition and can be contaminated with
heavy metals, in contrast, the chemical composition of the alginates produced in cultiva-
tions of A. vinelandii can be modulated and controlled by the growth conditions [15].
18.2.2 Applications
Alginates have been widely recognized because of their applications as viscosifying, thickening,
and gel-forming agents in the food, textile, and cosmetic industries. However, in the past dec-
ade, alginate applications have been diversified through ecofriendly packaging and functional
food, bioremediation, and agricultural purposes, as well as, for pharmaceutical and biomedical
approaches, some examples of the most novel applications are summarized in Table 18.1.
18.3 Alginate Biosynthesis and Genetic Regulation
The biosynthesis and the regulation of the expression of the alginate biosynthetic genes
have been studied both in Pseudomonas and Azotobacter species. Because of the interest in
the use of a nonpathogenic bacterium for alginate production, here we will focus on what
is known in A. vinelandii. We present only a summary because this theme has been
reviewed by Hay et al. [24], Urtuvia et al. [1], and more recently by Núñez et al. [25].
c18.indd 376 05/26/2023 19:17:19

18.3 Alginate Biosynthesis and Genetic Regulatio 377
Table 18.1 Novel applications of alginate.
Area of
application Application Description Reference
Bioremediation Sodium alginate-based Sodium alginate (apparent viscosity [16]

and strategies aerogel with 20 mPa s). Combined with graphene
for agriculture antimicrobial activity for and ZIF-8 nanoparticles and
oil absorption methyltrimethoxysilane
Amphiphilic calcium Alginate showed an apparent viscosity [17]
alginate hydrogels for soil <100 mPa s. Alginate hydrogels reduce
aggregation and pesticide the presence of pesticides in soil and
(acetamiprid) retention improve the quality of soils
Hydrogels as adsorbents Sodium alginate hydrogels combined [18]
of antibiotics in water with graphene oxide modified
treatment κ-carrageenan, the moieties of
carrageenan increase swelling
capability and viscosity
Ecofriendly Biofilm made with The mixture of alginate- [19]
packaging alginate- carboxymethylcellulose-gluten have
carboxymethylcellulose- improved properties such as water
gluten-onion waste vapor barrier
extract for food packaging
Biofilm of calcium Addition of NP improved preservation [20]
alginate – nanoparticles of food and can be used as carriers of
(NP) of Fe2TiO5 for food other active compounds, such as
packaging with peptides and oils
antibacterial activity
A composite made with Composite of alginate and citrus pectin [21]
sodium alginate and showed a good tensile strength and
citrus pectin and elongation at break, and addition of
pterostilbene with pterostilbene increased the moisture
antioxidant properties resistance
Biomedical Hydrogel bioink loaded A bioink based on oxidized and [22]
with stem cell for methacrylated alginate showed
complex 3D tissue shear-thinning behavior; these were
engineering mechanically stable, printable, and
cytocompatible
Sponges of alginate/ These sponges had an improved water [23]
chitosan/carbon dots as vapor transmission rate, porosity, water
wound dressings absorption rate, and hydrophilicity
able to absorb the moisture of the
blood with hemocompatibility and
without cytotoxicity
Nanogels in aerosol for Sodium alginate in an oil phase was [16]
drug (quercetin) delivery combined with quercetin in calcium
in treatment of acute ethanolic phase; nanogels were
lung injury lyophilized for their application. Nanogels
of less than 100 nm were obtained
increasing the quercetin bioavailability. In
rats, inhalation of this aerosol reduced
pulmonary inflammation and prevented
pulmonary fibrosis
c18.indd 377 05/26/2023 19:17:19

Aly
Aly
A3 AlyB
Extracellular AlgE1-7
environment
AlgJ AlgJ
OM
Aly AlgK
A1 AlgL
AlgX
Periplasm Aly
A2 AlgG AlgF
Alg44
AlgV
MucR Alg8 Algl
IM
MucG PilZ
Cytosol C-di-GMP
pGpG
GDP-
Mannuronic acid
AvGReg GTP AlgD

GDP-mannuronic acid, M residues
GDP- G residues
Fru6P M6P M1P Mannose
O-acetyl groups
AlgA AlgC AlgA
Figure 18.1 Schematic representation of the alginate biosynthesis in A. vinelandii. Source: Adapted
from Hay et al. [26], Ertesvåg [27], and Ahumada-Manuel et al. [28].
Alginates are polymerized first as polymannuronic acid (Figure 18.1). The activated
monomer required for its synthesis is guanosine diphosphate (GDP) mannuronic acid. The
production of this monomer starts with fructose-6-phosphate, which can be generated
from gluconeogenesis [29]. The reaction converting fructose-6-phosphate to GDP-
mannuronic acid is achieved through four enzymatic reactions: the production of
mannose-6-phosphate from fructose-6-phosphate catalyzed by the activity phosphoman-
nose isomerase of the bifunctional enzyme AlgA; later, the phosphomannomutase AlgC
isomerizes mannose-6-phosphate to mannose-1-phosphate, the mannose-1-phosphate is
converted to GDP-mannose by the GDP-mannose pyrophorylase activity of AlgA (using
GTP), and finally, the GDP-mannose is oxidized to GDP mannuronic acid by the GDP-
mannose dehydrogenase named AlgD. These reactions occur in the cytosol [26]. The sub-
sequent polymerization needs the activity of two inner membrane-bound enzymes: Alg8
and Alg44. These are transmembrane proteins, Alg8 is presumably a glycosyltransferase
(polymerase), and Alg44 probably plays an indirect role in the polymerization. It may also
play a role in bridging the polymerase to the periplasmic multiprotein scaffold formed by
AlgG, AlgX, AlgK, AlgV, AlgI, AlgF, and AlgL. This complex translocates alginate to the
outer membrane and also modifies the polymer by acetylating some mannuronic acid resi-
dues (AlgI, AlgF, AlgV, and AlgX) and epimerizing some mannuronate residues to guluro-
nate (AlgG). The alginate lyase AlgL degrades alginates that fail to be secreted out of
the periplasm. Finally, alginates cross the outer membrane through the porin protein
AlgJ [1, 24, 25, 29].
In A. vinelandii, contrary to what occurs in Pseudomonas spp., additional modification of
the alginates occurs outside the cell. Six additional mannuronan C-5 epimerases (AlgE1-6),
c18.indd 378 05/26/2023 19:17:20

18.3 Alginate Biosynthesis and Genetic Regulatio 379
four alginate lyases (AlyA1-3 and AlyB), and a bifunctional epimerase-lyase (AlgE7) par-
ticipate in this modification [25, 27, 30]. The additional epimerization can create different
distributions of M and G monomers in the A. vinelandii alginates generating stretches or
blocks of consecutive mannuronic acid residues, or consecutive guluronic acids residues,
or alternating mannuronic-guluronic residues [27, 31].
Most of the genes coding for the alginate biosynthetic enzymes are found clustered. The
cluster algD-8-44-K-J-X-L-I-V-F-A contains all but one (algC) of the genes needed for
the synthesis of the activated monomer GDP-mannuronic acid (algD and algA), those for
the polymerization of polymannuronate (alg8 and alg44), the genes for the formation of a
periplasmic scaffold (alg44, algG, algX, and algK), those coding for the enzymes that acety-
late (algI, algF, algV, and algX), epimerize alginate (algG), the alginate lyase (algL), and the
gene that codes for the porin (algJ), which is located in the outer membrane [24-26].
In A. vinelandii, three promoters upstream algD have been identified and partially char-
acterized, but additional promoters upstream algA, algG, and alg8 have also been
mapped [25, 32, 33]. The other genes needed for the synthesis and additional modification
of alginate are found in different locations in the genome, like algC [34], the mannuronan
C-5 epimerases genes algE1-6, the genes for alginate lyases alyA1-3 and alyB, and algE7,
the gene for the bifunctional epimerase-lyase [25, 27, 30]. The expression of these genes is
regulated by several mechanisms. The use of alternative sigma factors is one of them. The
three promoters of algD are important targets because the corresponding enzyme catalyzes
an irreversible step in alginate synthesis [33]. One of the promoters is recognized by RpoS,
the sigma factor of the stationary phase. A second promoter is recognized by the extracyto-
plasmic function sigma factor AlgU, also named σE, whereas the third promoter has not
been fully characterized [32, 33, 35, 36]. The promoter of algC is also dependent on AlgU
and in this case, is essential for its expression [34]. Thus, AlgU is central in regulating algi-
nate synthesis.
The activity of AlgU is negatively controlled by interaction with the membrane-bound
anti-sigma factor MucA [35, 37, 38], which sequesters AlgU, preventing its interaction with
RNA polymerase and therefore its target promoters [39]. MucA also interacts with the peri-
plasmic protein MucB, providing an additional mechanism of environmental sensing.
AlgU is activated through proteolysis of MucA, releasing AlgU and inducing alginate syn-
thesis [40], so mutations in mucA increase the alginate production [35, 37]. Bacterial enve-
lope stress and misfold outer member proteins [24], and cell wall recycling impairment [39]
activate the proteases.
Besides the participation of RpoS in the transcription of one of the promoters of algD, it
is also needed for a full expression of the epimerases genes algE1-7 and of its secretory
system eexDEF, thus regulating proportions of G residues in alginate [33]. Besides sigma
factors, the expression of the alginate genes is also controlled by other regulators. AmrZ
(alginate and motility regulator) is needed for full alginate synthesis, and although the
molecular mechanism has not been studied, it is probably similar to Pseudomonas aerugi-
nosa, which is required for normal transcription algD [40].
Post-transcriptional control is also present in the regulation of alginate synthesis. The
two-component GacS/GacA system regulates algD expression [36, 41], and this control
works through the Rsm system, which is formed by the RsmA protein, a translational
repressor of algD mRNA and is counteracted by the small RNAs RsmZ1–7 and RsmY,
c18.indd 379 05/26/2023 19:17:20

which titrate it. GacA activates transcription of the genes of these small RNAs [42, 43]. The
two-component system CbrA/CbrB negatively regulates algD translation, and this is prob-
ably related to the need for this system for optimal rsmA expression. CbrA/CbrB was also
required for normal accumulation of RpoS [44].
The second messenger cyclic dimeric GMP (c-di-GMP) post-translationally controls algi-
nate synthesis, because binding of this molecule to the PilZ domain of Alg44 activates the
polymerase activity of the complex Alg8-Alg44. The diguanylate cyclase protein AvGReg
provides the c-di-GMP for Alg44, and the inner membrane protein MucG is probably the
phosphodiesterase degrading c-di-GMP to inhibit alginate synthesis [28, 45]. In addition,
the c-di-GMP has a role in the regulation of the content of guluronic residues of alginate
during cyst formation. Under this physiological condition, the content of c-di-GMP is
increased by the alternative diguanylate cyclase MucR, which in P. aeruginosa provides the
c-di-GMP for Alg44. This increase is needed for the expression of the epimerases genes
algE1 to algE6, which modify the alginate to form the different layers of the cyst capsule.
The expression of mucR is in turn activated by the response regulator AlgR [46].
18.4 Production of Bacterial Alginate on a Bioreactor Scale
18.4.1 Cultivation Modality for Alginate Production

In a particular bioprocess, a proper cultivation strategy will provide controlled kinetics
parameters and productivities for optimal growth and bioproduct formation. In this sec-
tion, we summarize the effects of cultivation modalities on alginate production in A. vine-
landii cultures, which has been widely studied in shake flasks to small fermenters at the
laboratory level. Recompilation of different studies (n = 29) about alginate production
under different cultivation modalities is presented in Figure 18.2.
In shake flasks many experiments at a small scale can be conducted simultaneously [3, 47],
usually used for optimizing culture conditions (e.g. medium composition), screening micro-
organisms, and establishing basic process conditions; however, using shake flasks important
process variables cannot be controlled (e.g. pH or dissolved oxygen) [14, 48, 49]. Goméz-
Pazarín et al. [49] demonstrated that by changing the filling volumes, the alginate produc-
tion by A. vinelandii ATCC 9046 varied between 1.6 and 5.8 g/L. Later, García et al. [14]
reported the alginate production using shake flask cultures and different strains of A. vine-
landii: ATCC 9046, AT9 (ATCC 9046 derivative carrying a mucG::Tn5 mutation), CG9 (AEIV
derivative carrying a mucG::Tn5 mutation), and OPAlgU+ (OP derivative carrying an
algU::Kmr), reaching an alginate concentration between 2.5 and 3.6 g/L. One of the factors
that importantly influence the alginate concentration in shake flasks is the viscosity, which
is directly associated with cell growth in A. vinelandii [3, 47]. Peña et al. [3] demonstrated
the relationship between alginate production and viscosity in shake flasks. These authors
using alginate 3 g/L reported that the viscosity of cultures conducted at 100 rpm was twofold
more with respect to those obtained at 200 rpm (∼17 MPa s).
Oxygen has an important role in alginate production in A. vinelandii [1, 15, 50]. The cul-
tivation operational conditions such as agitation rate and aeration or process variables such
as dissolved oxygen tension (DOT), oxygen transfer rate (OTR), and pH can be controlled
c18.indd 380 05/26/2023 19:17:20

18.4 Production f Bacterial on a Bioreactor Scal 381
10
8
Maximum alginate production (g/L)
6
Shake flask cultures
Batch cultures
5 Chemostat cultures
Fed-batch cultures
4
0
Figure 18.2 Production of bacterial alginate by A. vinelandii sp. obtained under different
cultivation modalities.
or variated in bioreactor systems [1, 15, 51]. In cultures developed in a bioreactor (stirred
tank), it has been possible to produce alginates with a specific composition by manipulat-
ing the operational conditions during the cultivation. Usually, these processes are simple
and result in high substrate to product yields [52–55].
In batch cultures the alginate production has been widely studied using A. vinelandii
ATCC 9046, where the alginate concentration can vary between 0.5 and 4.8 g/L (Figure 18.2),
depending on cultivation conditions. Flores et al. [50] obtained alginates between 1.5 and
1.8 g/L from batch cultures of A. vinelandii ATCC 9046 grown under DOT control (1% and
5%) using gas blending and non-diazotrophic conditions. Díaz-Barrera et al. [54] demon-
strated that increasing the agitation rate (from 300 to 700 rpm) in cultures without DOT
control increased the alginate concentration from 2.1 to 3.3 g/L. In order to enhance algi-
nate production, a two-stage or exponential fermentation strategy has been evaluated.
Mejía et al. [56] using two-stage in fed-batch culture of A. vinelandii AT6 (ATCC 9046
derivative carrying a phbB::Tn5-lacZ mutation) reached a maximum concentration of algi-
nate of up to 9.0 g/L (Figure 18.3). More recently, under this modality (batch mode), the
studies have focused on optimizing alginate concentration without adding more nutrients
to the medium culture (as in fed-batch mode), just controlled by process variables (such as
pH or DOT). Our group [55] has studied the controlled OTR during the cell growth in
A. vinelandii cultures as an appropriate strategy to enhance alginate production (up
to 5.5 g/L).
On the other hand, chemostat cultures provide an ideal system for characterizing and
studying biological systems, i.e. provide a steady state for different metabolic studies. The
advantage of using this type of cultivation strategy is to allow (at steady state operated at the
fixed dilution rate) a cellular growth and alginate concentration controlled and defined that
c18.indd 381 05/26/2023 19:17:21

3500
3000
Mean Molecular weight (kDa)
2500
2000 Shake flask cultures

Batch cultures
Chemostat cultures
1500 Fed-Batch cultures
1000
500
0
Figure 18.3 Mean molecular weight of alginate obtained under different cultivation modalities.
does not change over time [57–62]. In steady state, the dilution rate and OTR can be used to
vary the alginate composition [61, 63]. The data collected from the chemostat cultures
(Figure 18.2) shows that it is possible to reach an alginate concentration up to 2.2 g/L. Díaz-
Barrera et al. [61] reported that in steady state (D = 0.06 1/h), the alginate concentration
(1.1 g/L) was not affected by the change in DOT control (1% and 8%) in the cultures.
18.4.2 Influence of Oxygen on Alginate Production

As aforementioned, DOT and oxygen availability are two key parameters in the alginate
synthesis by A. vinelandii. Several studies in the literature on alginate production have
focused on optimizing polymer yield and process productivity at high OTR condi-
tions [15, 64, 65]. In a fermentation process, oxygen is continuously supplied by a gas
phase during the cultivation operation, and thus the OTR can be used for bioreactor
design at the laboratory and pilot plant level [50, 66, 67].
In the cultivation process of A. vinelandii, in the cell growth, the DOT is nearly zero, and
the OTR can be used for indicating that the cultures are limited by oxygen [3, 64, 65, 68].
During the period of maximum and constant OTR in the culture, the dissolved oxygen does
not accumulate (dO2/dt ≈ 0), and it is possible to consider the OTR equal to the appropriate
oxygen demand (OUR) for the microorganism [55, 64, 67]. Therefore, OTR values depend
on the operation conditions in the fermenter, such as the DOT, agitation, or aeration
rate [51, 59, 61, 62].
To compare the alginate concentration and maximum specific alginate production rate
(qp) in A. vinelandii, we present a summary of shake flasks and batch cultures performed at
different OTRs. The collected data (Table 18.2) highlights that in shaken flasks, changes in
c18.indd 382 05/26/2023 19:17:21

Table 18.2 Alginate production under different cultivation strategies in A. vinelandii sp.
Mode of Agitation OTRmax Alginate

cultivation Strain Oxygen transfer strategy rate (rpm) (mmol/L/h) (g/L) qp (g/g/h) Reference
Shake flasks ATCC 9046 100 mL of filling vol. /500 mL vol. total 200 3.1 1.3 0.03 [69]
AT6 100 mL of filling vol. /500 mL vol. total 200 3.4 1.7 0.09 [69]
GG9 50 mL of filling vol. /250 mL vol. total 200 4.8 2.5 0.037 [14]
ATCC 9046 50 mL of filling vol. /250 mL vol. total 200 4.8 3.6 0.05 [14]
OPAlgU+ 50 mL of filling vol. /250 mL vol. total 200 5.2 2.5 0.046 [14]
AT9 50 mL of filling vol. /250 mL vol. total 200 5.2 3.8 0.052 [14]
OPAlgU+ 10 mL of filling vol. /250 mL vol. total 200 24.0 4.2 0.6 [70]
ATCC 9046 10 mL of filling vol. /250 mL vol. total 200 29.4 4.1 0.5 [70]
ATCC 9046 100 mL of filling vol. /500 mL vol. total 100 2.6 3.1 nr. [3]
ATCC 9046 200 mL of filling vol. /500 mL vol. total 200 6.0 4.3 nr. [3]
Batch culture ATCC 9046 Oxygen at 21% in inlet gas (air) 300 5.0 2.1 0.014 [54]
(bioreactor) ATCC 9046 Oxygen at 21% in inlet gas (air) 500 10.4 2.9 0.017 [54]
ATCC 9046 Oxygen at 21% in inlet gas (air) 700 19.2 3.3 0.014 [54]
ATCC 9046 Non-controlled OTR 500 16.8 2.9 0.011 [55]
ATCC 9046 Controlled OTR 500 20.3 5.5 0.042 [55]
ATCC 9046 DOT = 0.5% 700 70 2.1 0.025 [51]
ATCC 9046 DOT = 5% 700 100 3.1 0.031 [51]
ATCC 9046 Oxygen at 21% in inlet gas (air) 200 18 3.8 0.021 [60]
ATCC 9046 Oxygen at 21% in inlet gas (air) 600 19 3.8 0.093 [60]
nr., not reported; vol., volume.
c18.indd 383 05/26/2023 19:17:21

the OTR (for example, manipulating the filling volume) and depending on the microorganism
employed it is possible to obtain alginates with a high concentration (between 1.3 and 4.3
g/L) and higher specific alginate production rate (from 0.03 to 0.6 g/g/h). Peña et al. [3] in
shaken flasks of A. vinelandii ATCC 9046 reported that by modifying the shaking frequency
from 100 to 200 rpm, the OTR increased from 2.6 to 6.0 mmol/L/h and alginate production
from 3.1 to 4.3 g/L. Jiménez et al. [69] demonstrated that the qp was high (0.09 g/g/h) for
the A. vinelandii AT6, compared to ATCC 9046 strain (0.03 g/g/h), both in shaken flasks
cultures with OTR similar (∼3.0 mmol/L/h). On the other hand, some studies [51, 54, 71]
in batch culture have demonstrated the importance of the DOT and agitation rate on algi-
nate production and productivity. Díaz-Barrera et al. [54] in batch culture of A. vinelandii
ATCC 9046 demonstrated that by modifying the agitation rate from 300 to 500 rpm, the
OTR increases from 5.0 to 10.4 mmol/L/h, increased the alginate productivity (0.014 to
0.017 g/g/h). Under 0.5% and 5% DOT, Lozano et al. [51] in batch cultures at 700 rpm of
A. vinelandii ATCC 9046 demonstrated that DOT control caused an increase in the OTR
from 70 to 100 mmol/L/h, enhancing alginate production, as well as, the qp.
18.4.3 Influence of Cultivation Modality on the Molecular

Weight of Alginate
Figure 18.3 shows a recompilation of the mean molecular weight of alginate obtained
under different cultivation modalities. In shake flasks [14, 48, 49, 72] it has been reported
that alginates with a wide molecular weight range from 400 to 3112 kDa – an advantage in
terms of their viscosifying ability required for different industrial applications [73]. For
example, García et al. [14] in shake flasks reported that is possible to obtain alginates with
a higher molecular weight using different A. vinelandii strain, between 2100 and 3112 kDa.
In batch culture [50, 54, 74, 75] and fed-batch culture [56, 73], it is possible to obtain algi-
nates having molecular weights between 20 and 1900 kDa, varying the operational condi-
tions in the bioreactor. For example, Trujillo-Roldan et al. [75] observed in batch culture (at
700 rpm) of A. vinelandii SML2 (ATCC 9046 derivative carrying a nonpolar mutation
within algL) that the molecular weight increased from 250 to 985 kDa under an increase of
DOT control from 1 % to 3 %. In chemostat culture, the dilution rate, DOT, or OTR (by
adjusting the agitation rate) set at steady state influences the molecular weight of alginate.
The data collected (Figure 18.3) shows a recompilation of molecular weight from 480 to
1250 kDa [57, 60, 61, 63]. The advantage of using this type of cultivation strategy is that it
permits maintaining the molecular weight during the steady state of culture [1, 61].
18.5 Chemical Characterization of Alginate Quality
The bacterial alginate has a wide range of biotechnological applications as a biomaterial

(e.g. hydrogels, encapsulation of drugs or foods). It is well known that the alginate compo-
sition depends on the guluronic/mannuronic (G/M) ratio, acetylation level, and molecular
weight that varies according to the microorganism of study and cultivation strategy, which
determines their rheological properties [1, 13, 26, 64, 76, 77]. Unlike brown algae (which
serve as an alginate source in industrial applications), the bacterial alginate is often
c18.indd 384 05/26/2023 19:17:21

18.5 Chemical Characterization of Alginate Qualit 385
O-acetylated (at C2 and/or C3 positions of mannuronic acid residues), and acetylation level
affects water holding and viscosity of alginate [15, 64, 78, 79], expanding the application
commercial of this polysaccharide. To compare the alginate quality that determines their
rheological properties in A. vinelandii, we present a summary of its chemical composition
in different modes of cultivation and operational conditions at the laboratory level
(Table 18.3); however, the evidence indicates that the number of studies of G/M ratio and
acetylation degree is scarce.
The collected data (Table 18.3) highlights that in shaken flasks and batch cultures it is
possible to obtain alginates with the widest range of molecular weight (from 193 to
4000 kDa) and G/M ratio (between 0.37 and 4.50) [53, 54, 80]. So, the G/M ratio and molec-
ular weight are affected by the nutritional conditions and changing the cultivation param-
eters. Gaytán et al. [48] reported that the alginate quality (molecular weight, G/M ratio, and
acetylation degree) produced by A. vinelandii ATCN4 (ATCC 9046 derivative carrying a
nqrE::Tn5) in shake flasks could be altered under non- or diazotrophic conditions. More
recently, Díaz-Barrera et al. [54] in batch cultures of A. vinelandii ATCC 9046 demonstrated
that the molecular weight of alginate decreased from 520 to 370 kDa when the OTR
increased from 10.4 to 19.2 mmol/L/h, but no differences were observed in the G/M
ratio (0.83).
On the other hand, the acetylation degree can be controlled by the cultivation conditions
in the bioreactor, such as DOT control, and microorganism of study [8, 81]. Peña et al. [81]
reported in batch culture of A. vinelandii ATCC 9046, keeping DOT control (3%) and
300 rpm, an acetylation degree of 3.6%, whereas under similar conditions using A. vinelandii
AT268 (ATCC 9046 derivative carrying a phbR::mini-Tn5 of mutant strain DS268) only
reached 3.3%. Subsequent studies reported that small changes in the degree of acetylation
positively affect alginate viscosity and are independent of the molecular weight obtained [3].
Even if the acetylation degree has not been studied extensively, only a study has demon-
strated that the addition of sodium salt of MOPS (as a buffer for maintaining the pH in the
medium culture) has a strong influence on the acetylation degree [13]. Peña et al. [13]
reported that shaken flasks of A. vinelandii ATCC 9046 supplemented with MOPS
(13.6 mmol/L) increased twofold the acetylation degree, in comparison with cultures with-
out MOPS.
18.5.1 Scale-up of Alginate Production

In the cultures where high viscosities are achieved, such as in polysaccharide production,
the scaling faces several problems [82]. Such is the case of alginate production, where the
viscosities can increase at the end of the culture to values close to 600 MPa s [15, 52, 72].
However, the scale-up of alginate production has not been studied extensively. Maybe
because currently there is no industrial process reported on the bacterial production of this
polysaccharide.
To our knowledge, the commercial alginate that is currently used is of algal origin and
not bacterial. Most of the information in the literature is focused on the scale-up from
shake flasks to small bioreactors and bioreactors at the pilot plant level. The first approach
to this subject is the study by Trujillo-Roldán et al. [83], who carried out an analysis of
scaling-down of the alginate production. In that study, the authors simulated conditions
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Table 18.3 Chemical composition of alginates in A. vinelandii sp. under different conditions of cultivation.
Operational conditions
Carbon
Mode of source Nitrogen DOT (% air Agitation MMW G/M Acetylation
cultivation Strain (g/L) source (g/L) saturation) rate (rpm) (kDa) ratio (%) Reference
Shake ATCN4 Suc 20 Diazotrophy Non-controlled 200 2200 2.0 4.2 [42]
flasks ATCN4 Suc 20 Yeast extracta Non-controlled 200 1500 4.5 0.0 [48]
ATCC 9046 Glu 20 Diazotrophy Non-controlled 200 nr. nr. 4.7 [69]
AT6 Glu 20 Diazotrophy Non-controlled 200 nr. nr. 4.4 [69]
ATCC 9046 Suc 20 Yeast extracta Non-controlled 200 1430 0.78 0.7 [13]
ATCC 9046 Suc 20 Yeast extracta Non-controlled 200 550 1.0 [72]
Batch DSM 576 Glu 20 (NH4)2SO4 0.6 nr. 400 193 0.27 29.2 [80]
culture ATCC 9046 Suc 20 Yeast extracta 5% 700 160 3.63 nr. [53]
(bioreactor)
ATCC 9046 Suc 20 Diazotrophy Non-controlled 300 406 0.73 nr. [54]
Batch ATCC 9046 Suc 20 Yeast extracta 3% 300 800 nr. 3.6 [81]
culture AT268 Suc 20 Yeast extracta 3% 300 850 nr. 3.3 [81]
(bioreactor)
DM Suc 20 Yeast extracta 3% 300 4000 nr. 2.6 [81]
AT6 Glu 6 Diazotrophy 1% 300 nr. nr. 1.5 [69]
Glu, glucose; MMW, mean molecular weight; nr, not reported; Suc, sucrose.
a
Yeast extract concentration = 3 g/L.
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18.5 Chemical Characterization of Alginate Qualit 387
occurring in large-scale bioreactors in 1.0 L laboratory bioreactors. When A. vinelandii was

grown under oscillating DOT (similar to larger-scale fermenters), the molecular weight of
the alginate was negatively affected and therefore the quality of the product [83]. The
results highlight the importance of maintaining strict control of DOT in order to produce
alginates with a constant molecular weight during cultivation, particularly in large fer-
menters, where very extreme oxygen concentration gradients occur, caused by the high
viscosity of the broth and insufficient mixing. Later, Reyes et al. [52], in studies of scaling-
up from shake flasks to bioreactors, found that initial power input, as a scale-up criterion,
did not reproduce culture behavior, in terms of broth viscosity, alginate concentration, and
molecular weight. These authors proposed that the evolution of power input during the
cultures developed in shake flasks and bioreactors was very different. They found that
using a low initial P/V in the bioreactor allowed to obtain alginates with a molecular weight
very similar to that obtained in shake flasks.
The design of new equipment for measurement of the power input and the OTR in
shaken flasks [84, 85] has allowed characterizing (online) the changes in both parameters,
in cultures where broth viscosities are very high. Taking into account the above has charac-
terized the evolution of P/V and OTR [3, 86], in cultures of A. vinelandii producers of algi-
nate under different conditions [47]. Due to an increase in viscosity in the broth culture, an
exponential increase in the power consumption was observed during the course of the
fermentation (up to 1.4 kW/m3). A slight decrease in power consumption was observed at
the end of the cultivation when the viscosity and alginate concentration reached a maxi-
mum [3, 47]. Taking into account that information, our group reported [86] that by simu-
lating the evolution of the power input (determined in shake flasks), in 14 L bioreactors, it
was possible to reproduce both the concentration and molecular weight of the alginates
synthesized by A. vinelandii. Using this strategy, a maximal production of 3.6 ± 0.5 g/L and
a molecular weight of 1700 ± 200 kDa were obtained, with very similar values to those
achieved in shaken flasks [86].
Another culture parameter widely used as a scale-up criterion is the OTR [71]. Díaz-
Barrera et al. [71] reported that by maintaining the OTRmax (19 mmol/L/h,) in bioreactors
of 3 and 14 L, the same concentration of alginate (3.8 g/L) was reached, during the cell
growth on both scales. In contrast, the maximal molecular weight of alginate was 1250 kDa
in a 3 L bioreactor and 590 kDa in a 14 L bioreactor. The authors explain these discrepan-
cies based on differences in the specific oxygen consumption rate (qO2) between the two
fermenters, reaching 8.3 mmol/g/h in a 3 L bioreactor and 10.6 mmol/g/h in a 14 L
bioreactor. Based on this information, the authors propose the use of qO2 instead of OTR
as a scale-up criterion to produce polymers with similar molecular weights during
cultivation [71].
Subsequently, Gómez-Pazarín et al. [49] found in cultures of A. vinelandii in shaken
flasks that the use of very low power input (0.02–0.68 kW/m3) and an OTRmax of
0.85–2.8 mmol/L/h negatively affected both the growth of the bacteria and the production
of alginate. In contrast, the viscosifying capacity and the molecular weight of the alginate
increased significantly, with respect to that obtained when using higher powers (1.6 kW/m3) [49].
In that same study, the evolution of input power, measured in shake flasks, was simulated
in a 3 L bioreactor. Using this strategy, it was possible to reproduce the same trends in both
alginate production and polymer viscosifying capacity. This study offers useful information
c18.indd 387 05/26/2023 19:17:21

to implement new scale-up strategies for the production of alginates, exhibiting chemical
characteristics and viscosifying properties superior to commercial alginates.
In order to reach a viable cell concentration of Azotobacter chroococcum, a scaling-up
strategy for a liquid fermentation process was validated and adjusted on a laboratory and
pilot scale, using two strains of A. chroococcum. For this purpose, a batch fermentation
process was developed under the previously defined conditions in a 3.5 L bioreactor. In
order to optimize the process, the influence of decreasing the agitation rate was analyzed
in combination with a fed-batch type culture modality. In order to reproduce the parame-
ters obtained on a smaller scale, the geometric and fluid dynamic behavior was kept con-
stant. By using this strategy, it was possible to simulate cell concentration in pilot and
laboratory cultures [87] and in both scales, the kinetic parameters were not affected.
More recently, Díaz-Barrera et al. [84] studied the effect of scale-up on alginate produc-
tion, especially evaluating the molecular weight and G/M ratio in A. vinelandii cultures of
3–30 L scale in different OTRs under diazotrophic conditions. These authors found that
the OTR as a scaling criterion for the production of alginate from 3 to 30 L bioreactors
allowed reproducing the concentration and productivity of alginate; however, the quality
(molecular weight and G/M ratio) was not reproduced. It was found that the molecular
weight, in both scales, could be reproduced when the same specific oxygen consumption
rates were applied in the bioreactors, which indicates that this parameter may be more
appropriate to scale the molecular weight of alginate. However, by using both scale-up
criteria (OTR and specific oxygen consumption rate), it was not possible to reproduce the
G/M ratio of the alginates. The authors propose that the molecular weight and G/M ratio
of alginate are affected by cellular respiration and that the design of a process for the pro-
duction of alginates on a larger scale and with a defined composition could be based on
the oxygen consumption of the cells, more than in the OTR. In general, the earlier data
reveal that depending on the objective function (concentration, molecular weight, or G/M
ratio) is the type of scaling criteria to be used in the development of the bioprocess. The
compilation of different studies on the scale-up of alginate production is presented in
Table 18.4.
18.6 Prospects and Conclusions
Alginates are polymers that have ideal chemical and geological characteristics for their
application as viscosifiers, thickeners, and gelling agents. In the past decades, these materi-
als have been attracting attention because of their potential use in the medical field as tis-
sue support and scaffold, drug delivery systems, and soft robots among others. Because the
performance of alginates for particular applications is determined by their chemical and
physical properties, and these are affected by the molecular weight and mannuronate to
guluronate composition, the use of A. vinelandii is interesting due to the diversity of algi-
nate modifying enzymes present in this bacterium: six epimerases, four alginate lyases, and
a bifunctional epimerase-lyase, in addition to the enzymes usually present in other bacte-
ria [27]. The different epimerases produce different distributions of M and G [88]; thus, the
selective genetic manipulation of the expression of these enzymes could enable the
production of new alginates with controlled properties. A few examples of this kind of
c18.indd 388 05/26/2023 19:17:22

18.6 Prospects and Conclusion 389
Table 18.4 Scale-up of bacterial alginate production using A. vinelandii sp.
Scale Scale-up criterion Main results Reference
Scale-down in Oscillating DOT Cultures of cells under oscillating DOT [83]

2 L bioreactor promoting a decrease in the quality of the
alginate, in terms of its molecular weight,
were observed.
Scale-up from Initial power Initial P/V did not reproduce culture [52]
shake flasks to input behavior, in terms of broth viscosity,
3 L bioreactor alginate concentration, and molecular
weight.
Scale-up from Power input Simulating the evolution of P/V during the [86]
shake flasks to evolution cultivation it was possible to reproduce both
14 L bioreactor the production and the molecular weight of
the alginates.
Scale-up from Oxygen transfer Keeping constant the OTRmax the same [71]
3 to 14 L rate alginate concentration was obtained in both
bioreactor scales. However, the maximum molecular
weight of the alginate was very different.
Scale-up from Power input Simulating the profiles of P/V was possible [49]
shake flasks to evolution to reproduce the same trends in both the
3 L bioreactor alginate production and the polymer
viscosifying power.
Scale-up from Manipulation of Keeping the same geometric configuration [87]
4 to 70 L power input and fluid dynamic behavior was possible to
bioreactor reach the same cellular concentration in
both scales.
Scale-up from Oxygen transfer A similar alginate molecular weight was [54]
3 to 30 L rate/oxygen reached when the cultures were conducted
bioreactor consumption rate at similar specific oxygen uptake rate.
genetic manipulation have been reported [28, 30, 89], so this is a field with opportunities
for investigation.
The chemical composition of alginates can also be tailor-made by the growth conditions.
It is known that the culture modality will affect both the production and the molecular
weight of the alginate. For example, in batch cultures, both in shake flasks and bioreactors
using A. vinelandii ATCC 9046, the alginate concentration can vary between 0.5 and
5.8 g/L. On the other hand, in order to improve alginate production, a two-stage or expo-
nential cultivation strategy has been evaluated, where a maximal concentration of alginate
of up to 9.0 g/L was reached. Finally, the chemostat cultures provide an ideal system for
characterizing and studying biological systems, i.e. provide a steady state for different met-
abolic studies. The advantage of using this type of cultivation strategy is to allow (at steady
state operated at the fixed dilution rate) a cellular growth and alginate concentration con-
trolled and defined that does not change over time.
There are a large number of reports in literature related to the effect of culture conditions
on the synthesis and chemical characteristics of alginates. Among these parameters, oxy-
gen plays a relevant role. It is known that increasing the DOT or OTR promotes the
c18.indd 389 05/26/2023 19:17:22

synthesis of alginate and the acetylation degree of the polymer. However, the molecular
weight of the alginate is affected at high levels of oxygenation in the cultures. It is for that
reason that a compromise must be established in the culture conditions to generate algi-
nates with a high yield and desirable chemical characteristics. In this context, multistage
cultures, such as fed-batch, turn out to be viable strategies.
Several strategies for scaling up the alginate production process, most of them based on
the use of power consumption and OTR as scaling-up criteria, have been reported. Most of
the results have shown that it is possible to replicate both the alginate yields and the chemi-
cal characteristics, such as the molecular weight and G/M ratio of the polymer at different
scales, from shake flask level to pilot scale bioreactors. However, the commercial produc-
tion of bacterial alginate has not yet materialized, mainly due to the low yields obtained so
far. In the case of fed-batch cultures, maximum concentrations of alginate close to 10 g/L
have been reached; however, the cost of production limits the commercial production of
the bacterial polymer. Taking into account the above, it would be interesting to implement
new production strategies, such as multistage fermentation, which promote better growth
and alginate production, in order to take advantage of the higher specific alginate produc-
tion capacities of strains overproducing of alginate. On the other hand, the use of low-cost
raw materials, such as agricultural waste or industrial byproducts, such as glycerol, whey,
or even molasses, will make it possible to propose more attractive processes from the eco-
nomic point of view.
Acknowledgment
VU is grateful to FONDECYT postdoctoral project 3180406, ANID-Chile.
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397
19
Environment-Friendly Microbial Bioremediation

Areej Shahbaz1, Nazim Hussain1, Tehreem Mahmood2, Mubeen Ashraf 3,
and Nida Khaliq3
1
Center for Applied Molecular Biology (CAMB), University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
2
Department of Biotechnology, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan
3
Department of Microbiology, University of Central Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
19.1 Introduction
There are a wide variety of microorganisms that are spread over the whole biosphere. This
distribution is basically based on the fact that their metabolic capacities are different and
unique and allows them to show growth in a greater range of ecological conditions. For the
process of biodegradation of various forms of pollutants, the versatility of their nutritional
requirements can also undergo exploitation. The process is sustained though on the basis
of the capacity of the microorganism for converting, modifying, and utilizing the deadly
chemicals or pollutants for the purpose of gaining energy and the production of bio-
mass [1]. As compared to the simple process of pollutants accumulation and storage, biore-
mediation is a microbiology-based and highly systematized process that is used for breaking
down and transforming toxic compounds into least toxic elements or compounds with zero
toxicity. Those agents that are required for this process of bioremediation for the purpose
of cleaning up polluted areas are called bioremediators. Primary type of bioreactors
includes archaea, fungi, and bacteria [2]. As a claim to be considered as a process of bio-
technological nature, bioremediation is a method of using various microbes that are able to
solve and remove the dangers caused by different toxic agents from the surroundings over
and done with the process of biodegradation. The words “biodegradation” and “bioreme-
diation” can be used interchangeably. Microorganisms have an advantage over other kinds
of protocol that are used for remediation process and thus are considered a potential tool
for removing the lethal pollutants from water, sediments, and soil. Microorganisms are
gaining attention because they are helpful not only for the restoration of the original and
usual environmental conditions but also for the protection of surroundings from any addi-
tional pollutant accumulation [3, 4, 5]. The target of the review is to describe the ongoing

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398 19 Environment-Friendly Microbial Bioremediation
trends in bioremediation protocols carried out by the exploitation of microorganisms and

to include the appropriate context that acknowledged the gaps in this particular area.
Currently, it is a hot topic in the research field because microbes are environmentally
friendly and constitute a favorable and treasured genome for solving ecological fears.
Resources that were once accessible have now been overutilized because of industriali-
zation and overpopulation. Such advancements have also led to enhanced air, water, and
land pollution. Currently, because of the great economic importance of heavy metals in
industrial area, it has posed a number of ecological difficulties over the globe [6, 7].
Within an ecosystem, the pollution of the environment caused by heavy metals has now
become the main cause of threatening conditions for living beings [8, 9]. Referring to the
definition posed by Environmental Protection Agency in 2010 [10], the process of param-
eterization is a process that is carried out spontaneously in which the microbiological
protocol is required for breaking down and transforming the precarious contaminating
agents into forms that are either least toxic or having no toxicity. As a result, the contami-
nants are removed, eliminated, or remedied from the environment. Chemical contami-
nants are exploited as a major source of energy by microbes. The microbes utilize their
metabolic abilities to carry out the whole microbiological action. Nevertheless, the biore-
mediation mediating activity of the microbes can be inhibited by the presence in the soil
of large quantities of inorganic nutrients [11]. Microorganisms, notably, have the capac-
ity for detoxifying, degrading, and even accumulating lethal compounds that can be both
organic or inorganic. Several different sources contribute to the accumulation of toxic
heavy metals in the surroundings, which include natural, agricultural, atmospheric,
inland effluent, and sources of industrial solid wastes. A diverse range of areas through-
out the world has been polluted because of different activities, which include the usage
of pesticides and fertilizers, mining processes such as metallurgical smelting activities,
and electroporation [12].
The production of crops and the quality of food crops have been reduced to a great extent
because of the increasing pollution posed by heavy metals. The reason underlies the use of
different agricultural inputs, such as the application of pesticides or fertilizers, as a conse-
quence of which soils are heavily contaminated by heavy metals [13]. Organic compounds
are most commonly applied as pesticides. However, some inorganic compounds, as well as
pure minerals, can also be used as pesticides. Moreover, a few heavy metals such as Zn, Hg,
As, and Cu can also be employed as heavy metals [14]. As compared with the contaminants
of organic nature, metals are unable to degrade and can be retained in the environment for
a longer time period. Because of their accessibility for a long time and because of being
available in large quantities, heavy metals can have destructive effects on the metabolism
of the plant [15]. There is a dire need to develop inventive management strategies to remove
heavy metal ions from the water bodies or the soil. A diverse range of microbes have been
considered as efficient and cost-effective substitutes for eliminating heavy metals that are
present in soil or water bodies [11] (Figure 19.1).
The microbes are first discovered on a biochemical basis, and then their capacity to
resist the presence of heavy metals is described. A number of advancements to carry out
the bioremediation process have been made in the past two decades, the main purpose
of which is the restoration of natural environments from polluted ecosystems at an
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19.1 Introductio 399
Microbes
Bioremediation
Biofertilizers Biopesticides of organic
pollutants
Inducing Detoxification
Nutrient
abiotic stress of heavy
production
resistance metals
Figure 19.1 Uses of soil microbes in bioremediation.
effective cost. A number of different bioremediation techniques have been modeled and
established. However, on the basis of the type and nature of the pollutant that needs to
be removed, there is not even a single strategy that we can say acts as a “silver bullet” for
the restoration of the environment that has been polluted. Key problems that are
encountered during the biodegradation or bioremediation processes are most likely to
be solved by the presence of autochthonous (indigenous) microbes in the contaminated
surroundings [16] provided that the circumstances of the environment are appropriate
for the metabolism and growth of these microorganisms. Unlike the physical and chem-
ical methods, the most important benefit provided by the bioremediation process is the
cost-effectiveness and the ecofriendly nature of the process. In some cases, however,
bioremediation and biodegradation are interchangeable terms, the latter term referring
to the process under the former. In this review, bioremediation is described as a method
that depends on biological means in order to achieve the aim of degrading, mineraliz-
ing, detoxifying, or transforming hazardous amounts of pollutants into a form that is
nonpoisonous.
Depending on the type of the pollutant, whether it is a chlorinated compound, an agro-
chemical, any greenhouse gas, heavy metals, plastics, or any sewage material, pollutant
removal takes place. There are two categories of the bioremediation process on the basis of
the site of the protocol. The process can be carried out in both ex situ or in situ environment.
In order to choose a better and appropriate strategy for bioremediation, some factors must
be taken into account, such as the extent of pollution, types of contaminant, the environ-
ment that is polluted, the site of action, and the expense of the whole process [17]. In addi-
tion to this criterion on the basis of which bioremediation technique is selected, other
c19.indd 399 05/26/2023 19:17:26

criteria for the performance must also be given some important considerations before car-
rying out the whole project of bioremediation. This performance criteria is the one that
regulates the extent to which the bioremediation technique would be successful [18].
Advancements in the field of bioremediation technology and the attention of current
research are now focused on microbe-mediated bioremediation, which is considered as a
novel and effective strategy for solving the problem of polluted environments that retain
high amounts of accumulated heavy metals. The following review addresses the types of
microorganisms that have been reported to be a potential root for carrying out the process
of bioremediation.
19.2 Principle of Bioremediation
Currently, bioremediation technique is being used at a high rate. The use of microbes for
this purpose is now considered as a highly efficient and the most reliable method
because of its environment-friendly characteristics. Since the past two decades, a num-
ber of advancements have been made in the field of bioremediation, and the ultimate
goal of these developments was to successfully achieve the restoration of the contami-
nated surroundings keeping the expenses low and utilizing the approach that should be
environment friendly. Some of the researchers succeeded in developing different strate-
gies that carried out bioremediation in a suitable manner. Both indigenous and non-
indigenous types of microbes can be exploited for this purpose. The microbes holding
the key to removing the problems that are related to bioremediation process are mostly
of indigenous type [19]. The most important benefits that are provided by microbe-
mediated bioremediation involve the cost-effectiveness and the ecofriendly features
it offers.
The principle of bioremediation involves the reduction, detoxification, degradation,
mineralization, or transformation of the toxic agents into a form that shows the least
toxicity (Figure 19.2). The whole pathway of removing the pollutant relies on the type
of pollutant. The pollutant can be of any nature, such as pesticides, chlorinated
Cycles of bioremediation
2. Experiments in the lab 3. Transfer of land
and the identification of excavation to a location
1. Defining polluted sites
bacteria that degrade where they will be
and sampling the soil
pollutants cleaned
5. By lowering the levels

4. The addition of nutrients
of pollutants in the soil, 6. Bringing the land back
and microorganisms independent of how the to the location where it
required for the effective analysis is conducted and was removed
breakdown of pollutants the outcome is confirmed
Figure 19.2 Cycles of bioremediation.
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19.2 Principle of Bioremediatio 401
components, heavy metals, compounds having xenobiotic nature, agricultural com-

pounds, hydrocarbons, waste from nuclear industries, plastics, and untreated sludge.
Cleaning approaches are employed for removing the polluting wastes from the con-
taminated surroundings. Bioremediation greatly focuses on the possibility of degrad-
ing, immobilizing, detoxifying, and completely eradicating the wide range of toxic
chemical and physical agents from the environment by means of all-encompassing
activity of microbes [20].
The process of removing, detoxifying, or reducing the amounts of a harmful xenobi-
otic polluting agent from the surroundings by means of biological living beings is
described as bioremediation. The living beings employed can be microbes or their
enzymes. Plants can also be used, in case of which the process is termed “phytoreme-
diation.” The process of bioremediation proposes the probability of using microbial [21, 22],
fungal [23], or plant-based actions in order to remove, degrade, alter, immobilize, or
detoxify the toxic and pollution causing chemicals that exist in the biosphere. The
action of microbes in bioremediation ends up in the cleanup of harmful polluting
agents from the surroundings by detoxifying, breaking, mineralizing, removing, or
sequestering them.
The process by which structurally large and chemically intricate groups of polluting
agents are crumbled or decomposed into a minute and simple compound that are nontoxic
is termed as “degradation.” Some byproducts are also produced during the process, which
may include water, carbon dioxide, or any other nontoxic component. The process of
sequestration refers to the one by which the toxic agents present in the surroundings are
either confined or manipulated in such a way that they become harmless or inaccessible to
living beings. In the method of removing pollutants, though the harmful polluting agent is
not essentially degraded, toxic agents are physically removed from the surroundings so that
they can be carefully extracted and disposed of. Normally, when toxic compounds get
retained in the surroundings for a very long time, bioremediation technique takes place in
a series of steps by means of the microbial enzymes or by various microbial members exist-
ing in the polluted location. The process is typically applied at different sites such as waste-
water, agricultural soil, groundwater or surface water, water bodies, air, or sediments,
which can get polluted by the release of harmful polluting agents or chemicals [24, 25].
One of the most useful and environment-friendly strategy involved in removing per-
sistent toxic agents from the surroundings is the degradation of the xenobiotic by means
of microorganisms. The capability of microbes to degrade, metabolizing and transform-
ing the xenobiotic components has been renowned as a proficient method of eliminat-
ing toxic and unfavorable trashes [26, 27]. Microbes are preferably appropriate for the
job of pollutant annihilation and elimination because they have an enzyme system, per-
mitting them to utilize ecologically poisonous contaminants as food and energy. The
maximum of the developments in bioremediation discipline has been accredited to the
discrete and interdisciplinary input provided by technical fields of molecular biology,
biochemistry, environmental engineering, analytical chemistry, and microbiology [28].
The bioremediation method encompasses mineralization and detoxification, where the
waste is transformed into inorganic complexes, for instance, methane, carbon dioxide,
and water [29].
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19.3 Types
of Bioremediations
There are diverse forms of management

Types of approaches or methods under bioremedia-
bioremediation tion process and the types (Figure 19.3).
• Biostimulation
• Bioattenuation
• Bioaugmentation 19.3.1 Biostimulation
• Genetically engineered The strategy of biostimulation involves the
microorganisms
inoculation of particular nutrients at the
location of groundwater or soil. This injec-
tion is done for the purpose of stimulating
the action of indigenous microbes.
Figure 19.3 Types of bioremediations. Biostimulation is focused on prompting the
activity of indigenous microbes as well as the
bacterial and fungal community that exists
naturally in the soil. This can be done first by adding trace elements and growth supplements
or by employing fertilizers. Further, the metabolic activities and pathways of the microbes
can be enhanced by fulfilling their ecological necessities, such as oxygen, temperature, or
pH [30, 31]. The operons coding for the enzymes involved in bioremediation can be turned
on by the availability of minute quantities of a pollutant that has the ability to act as a stimu-
lant. Most frequently, this kind of pathway is followed by adding nutrients and oxygen to aid
local microorganisms. Microorganisms are capable of producing basic needs by taking help
from the nutrients, which are considered as the elementary building blocks of life. Carbon,
nitrogen, and phosphorous are required by most microbes. These basic necessities include
cell biomass, energy, or the enzymes required for the degradation of polluting agents [32].
19.3.2 Bioattenuation
The process of eradicating the pollutants from the environment is termed as “bioattenuation”
or “natural attenuation.” It is done by means of a biological method, including uptake by
plants or animals and biodegradation carried out in either an aerobic or an anaerobic man-
ner. Volatilization, diffusion, advection, dilution, dispersion, and desorption/sorption com-
prise the physical methods, while chemical ones constitute the reactions involving abiotic
transformation, complexation, and the process of ion exchange. Biotransformation and
intrinsic remediation are the terms that are encompassed in the more common definition
of natural attenuation [33].
There are four methods that nature can adopt in order to remove the toxic and pollution-
causing agents from the surroundings [33]: (i) some of the chemicals are utilized as food by a
number of microorganisms inhabiting the soil. Chemicals, after being fully digested, are
transformed into H2O and gases that are not harmful at all. (ii) Soil makes the chemicals stick
or sorb over the soil by holding them in the abode. This method does not help in removing the
chemicals, but it surely helps in protecting the groundwater from getting polluted. (iii) As the
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19.3 Types of Bioremediation 403
pollution flows over the soil and groundwater and can get mixed with pure water, this method
can help in either diluting or reducing pollution. (iv) The fourth way in which the environ-
ment can be cleaned is by the evaporation of chemicals. For instance, in the soil, the conver-
sion of solvents or oils into gases, which might get escaped in the air and get extinguished by
the sunlight. If the process of natural process solely is not done rapidly, the bioremediation
can be further augmented by the methods of bioaugmentation as well as biostimulation.
19.3.3 Bioaugmentation
It is one of the strategies adopted for carrying out the process of degradation. Bioaugmentation
refers to the process by which the ability of the indigenous microbial community to degrade
the polluting agents is augmented or enhanced in the polluted environment. With the aim
of achieving the degradation, the microbial population increased that relies on feeding over
the polluting agents in the polluted space. Microbes are isolated from the bioremediation
site, followed by their individual culturing and genetic modifications. After that, the
microbes are placed back at the site. It has been recognized that almost every necessary
microbe exists in the soil or groundwater, which have become polluted because of the pres-
ence of chlorinated ethenes, for instance, trichloroethylene or tetrachloroethylene. Thus, it
has been made sure that the contaminants like these can be efficiently eliminated or modi-
fied by in situ microbes into forms like ethylene or chloride, which have no toxicity [34].
During the process of bioaugmentation, genetically modified microbes are counted into the
system, which then shows the actions of bioremediators for the purpose of eliminating the
polluting agents in a rapid manner. Relying on the fact that microbial communities com-
prise varied metabolism capacity for producing the least harmful end compounds [35].
Recombinant DNA technology is exploited in order to manipulate the microorganisms for
effective degradation of the polluting agents because the naturally existing microbial species
do not perform this action in a quick manner. Moreover, genetically modified microorgan-
isms greatly compete with naturally existing microbes and predators for abiotic factors.
A number of different sites such as contaminated soil, activated sludge, and water bodies
have been shown to effectively undergo the process of bioremediation by genetically
modified microbes because these microbial communities offer better degradation abilities
leading to the removal of a wide range of physical and chemical polluting agents [36].
19.3.4 Genetically Engineered Microorganisms (GEMs)

A microorganism having its genetic material altered by means of different genetic engi-
neering approaches is referred to as genetically engineered microorganism (GEM). This
type of creative work and technical approach falls under the field of recombinant DNA
technology. A number of harmful and toxic pollutant agents have been completely utilized
or removed by means of developing genetically engineered microbes attributing to the sci-
ence of genetic engineering [37]. Genetically modified microbes can be obtained either by
exploiting the approaches of recombinant DNA technology or by the exchange of genetic
components between the microorganisms that exist naturally. Currently, it is done by the
insertion of a suitable gene that codes for a specific enzyme involved in the degradation of
a diverse range of polluting substances [38].
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Currently, a variety of opportunities advance toward the enhancement of the degrada-

tion capability of microorganisms by using genetic engineering techniques. For instance,
rate-limiting steps in well-known metabolic processes can be genetically altered to produce
faster rates of degradation, or brand-new metabolic pathways might be added to bacterial
strains to speed up the degradation of chemicals that have previously shown resistance.
Four kinds of actions are done while developing genetically modified organisms. These
strategies are: (i) altering the affinity and particularity of the targeted enzyme; (ii) building
and regulating the mechanism pathway; (iii) establishing, monitoring, and regulating the
bioprocess; (iv) developing the bioreporter sensor employments for sensing chemicals,
eliminating toxins, and making end point inquiries. The necessary bacterial genes are usu-
ally present on an individual chromosome, but those genes that code for the enzymes
involved in catabolizing the rare pollutant substrates may be present on the extrachromo-
somal DNA that is plasmid. The catabolism has been linked to plasmids. As a result, GEMs
can be effectively exploited for biodegradation purposes, which represents or indicates a
research frontier with significant future consequences [39].
19.4 Factors Affecting Microbial Bioremediation
The lack of contact between bacteria and contaminants is the main factor affecting the rate
of deterioration. Additionally, the distribution of bacteria and contaminants in the environ-
ment is not constant. Due to a variety of circumstances, regulation and optimization of
bioremediation processes are complex systems. The presence of a microbial population
able to degrade pollutants, the accessibility of contaminants to the microbial population,
and environmental conditions are all considered here (pH, temperature, type of soil, nutri-
ents, presence of oxygen, and other electron acceptors) (Figure 19.4).
Factors
Biological Environmental
pH
Toxic compounts
Metal ions
Site characterization and selection
Moisture content
Concentration of oxygen
Temperature
Availabilty of nutrients
Figure 19.4 Factors affecting microbial bioremediation.
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19.4 Factors Affecting Microbial Bioremediatio 405
19.4.1 Biological Factors

Microbes involved in bioremediation compete with each other for inadequate carbon
supplies. Moreover, on the basis of the antagonistic communication between microbes
and predators, biotic factors can influence the rate at which the organic substrates are
degraded. This rate at which the contaminants are degraded is usually reliant on the
amounts of existing contaminant and catalysts. Here, the catalyst concentration refers
to the quantity of the microbial organisms that have the ability to metabolize the pollut-
ing agents as well as the sum of enzymes made by every cell. The rate of pollutant deg-
radation also depends on the upregulation or downregulation of the gene expression
that codes for such degrading enzymes. In addition, the access of the contaminant to
enzymes, the affinity of the enzymes, and the availability of a particular enzyme also
influence the degree to which the contaminants are metabolized. The size of the popula-
tion; gene transfer by horizontal manner; action of the enzymes involved; interactions
such as predation, succession, or competition; critical biomass obtained; and the pres-
ence of mutagenesis are some of the significant biological aspects that influence the
degree of bioremediation [32].
19.4.2 Environmental Factors

How the microbes will possibly communicate during the process is determined by the
metabolizing features of the microbes as well as the physiochemical characteristics of the
pollutants that need to be removed. However, an actual effective collaboration is usually
reliant on the circumstances of the polluted site. The pH, temperature, humidity, soil com-
position, water solubility, nutrients, site features, redox potential, oxygen levels, shortage of
competent human resources in this field, and physiochemical accessibility of contami-
nants are all factors that affect microorganism growth and activity. The kinetics of biodeg-
radation also relies on the aforementioned aspects [30, 32]. A diverse range of pH can be
employed during the biodegradation process, but an optimal biodegradation process occur-
ring in water bodies or land ecosystems is usually carried out at pH of 6.5–8.5. Since it
impacts the type and supply of soluble materials, and also the turgor stress and pH of land
and freshwater systems, moisture influences the speed of contaminant metabolism [40].
Following is a list of a majority of environmental factors.
19.4.2.1 Availability of Nutrients

The growing and reproductive capacity of the microbes require a vital balance of nutri-
ent supply. This is the reason why nutrients are supplied for adjusting this balance.
Moreover, the nutrient supply also influences the frequency and efficacy of the biodeg-
radation process. The effectiveness of the process can be enhanced by the optimization
of C: N: P ratio provided by an enriched supply of nutrients, particularly nitrogen and
phosphorus. Moreover, a diverse range of nutrients, especially phosphorus, carbon, and
nitrogen, are required by microbes in order to survive and maintain their microbial
actions. The degradation of the hydrocarbons is also reduced if the nutrient supply is
provided in small amounts. The metabolizing action of microbes and consequently the
degree of bioremediation process in cold surroundings is enhanced by providing an
adequate amount of nutrients [41, 42]. The process of biodegradation is reduced by the
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accessibility of nutrients in water bodies [43]. Apart from fulfilling the nutritional
requirement of other organisms, optimal growth and development of the oil-eating
microorganisms also need nutrient supply. In the natural surroundings, these nutrients
exist but in small amounts [44].
19.4.2.2 Temperature and pH

Several physical aspects influence the ability of microorganisms to survive, among which
temperature is the most vital one. The configuration of hydrocarbons is also reliant on
temperature [45]. The degradation of oil by means of a natural approach proceeds at a low
rate in cold surroundings, such as those of the Arctic region. It puts the microbial commu-
nity under a higher burden of cleaning up the dropped petroleum. Inactivation of the
metabolizing activity of the microbial cells results from the below zero temperature of
water in such areas, which inhibit the transport pathways in the microbial cells or may
even cause freezing of the whole cytoplasm. The reason that lies under this phenomenon
is that all biologically coded enzymes work in order to degrade only at an optimal tempera-
ture, and once the temperature rises or falls below the optimum range, the degradation and
metabolic capacity of the enzyme will not remain the same. In addition, a particular tem-
perature is required in order to degrade a particular substrate. The physiochemical features
of the microbial community are greatly impacted by the temperature leading to the upregu-
lation or downregulation of the bioremediation protocol. Temperature affects the rate of
microbial activity, which rises with temperature and peaks at the ideal temperature. As the
temperature continued to rise or fall, it abruptly started to plummet and eventually stopped
when it reached a certain value [46].
The metabolic potential of microorganisms is likely to be affected by the nature of the
pollutant, whether it is a base, acid, or alkali. Moreover, the pH of a substrate also has the
potential to enhance or limit the removal process. Measuring the pH of the soil can help us
to identify the possibility of the growth of microbial communities [47]. However, pH values
that are really high or really low may result in low-grade consequences as the metabolic
actions are greatly vulnerable to even minute alterations in pH [48].
19.4.2.3 Concentration of Oxygen and Moisture Content

The requirement of oxygen varies between different microbes, and the basis of this oxygen
requirement assists the biodegradation extent in an improved manner. As oxygen acts as a
gaseous need for a huge number of living beings, its presence in a number of cases can
improve the degradation of hydrocarbons [44]. The growth of microbes is achieved in the
presence of a sufficient quantity of water. The amount of water present in the soil also
adversely impacts the agents required for bioremediation process.
19.4.2.4 Site Characterization and Selection

Before proposing an appropriate bioremediation approach, a satisfactory remedial explora-
tion effort must be made in order to sufficiently describe the scale and degree of pollution.
This task should be done at a minimal level and include the following elements: fully defin-
ing the lateral and vertical magnitude of pollutants, reviewing the variables and sites to be
sampled and the explanation for their selection, and defining the steps to be taken for
sample collection and analysis.
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19.5 Bioremediation Technique 407
19.4.2.5 Metal Ions and Toxic Compounds

When present in trace quantities, metal ions are vital for the fungal and bacterial commu-
nity, but their excess amounts may block the metabolizing action of the cells. The extent of
the degradation process is directly or indirectly influenced by metal ions. When the pollut-
ing agents having contaminating features are present in an excess amount, they can lead to
the development of toxicity leading to the downregulation of bioremediation process. The
amounts and presence of the particular pollutants and accessibility of the microbes deter-
mine the extent and pathway of toxicity development. Living beings may be affected by the
toxicity of some organic or inorganic substrates [32].
19.5 Bioremediation Techniques
Both ex situ and in situ systems can be employed for carrying out the process of bioremedia-
tion. When choosing an appropriate bioremediation system, several aspects must be con-
sidered, such as the type of contaminant, concentration of the polluting agent, the type of
contaminated surroundings, expenses, and the ecological policies. The rate at which the
process is successfully done is reliant on the performance standards such as pH, oxygen
and nutrient supply, temperature, and several added abiotic elements [17, 49].
The process of bioremediation in which the polluting agents are first dug up from the
contaminated environment followed by their successful transport toward the other man-
agement sites is referred to as ex situ bioremediation techniques. These kinds of bioreme-
diation approaches are usually considered on the basis of the extent of pollution, the kind
of polluting agent, the expense of the process, and the place at which the contaminated site
is located. The selection of an appropriate ex situ bioremediation strategy is also regulated
by the performance standards [20]
In an ex situ microbe-mediated bioremediation method, the polluted soil needs to be
evacuated, and the contaminated groundwater needs to be pumped for the facilitation of
the degrading process. However, this method has more drawbacks than benefits. The
expenses for this kind of bioremediation technique are usually higher due to the fact that
the polluted samples are needed to be evacuated. Moreover, in contrast to the in situ biore-
mediation approaches, the frequency and constancy of the ex situ bioremediation method
results can be changed. The solid phase and the slurry phase methods are the two classes
of ex situ bioremediation on the basis of the state of the polluted agent that needs to be
evacuated. A number of different solids, for instance, municipal wastes, wastes from the
chemical and agricultural industries, sludge, organic wastes, and waste from water bodies
are all encompassed in the solid phase treatment. The methods of soil biopile, composting,
and land farming are all involved in the solid phase system. In land farming, a complete
breakdown or conversion of the pollutants is done by stimulating the naturally existing
microbes having the ability to degrade. This is a simple approach for remediation in which
the contaminated soil is dug and spread on a created bed and occasionally turned over to
encourage the microbes. However, when only the superior 0.5 m of the soil is contami-
nated, the process can only be beneficial. Since it can be considered a good option for clean
disposal, land farming has gained huge attention [50]. One other form of surface manage-
ment that has been effectively utilized for the degradation, removal, or transformation of
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Solid phase
treatment
Slurry phase
Ex situ bioremediation
bioremediation
techniques
Intrinsic
Bioremediation bioremediation
techniques
In situ
Engineered
bioremediation in situ
techniques bioremediation
Figure 19.5 Techniques of bioremediation.
toxic agents is composting. In this method, the process is the speed by improving the estab-
lishment of a rich microbial community. This developmental process is usually enhanced
by mixing the polluted soil with nontoxic organic wastes [51].
When the techniques of land farming and composting get combined, they lead to a new
bioremediation approach that is called biopiles. The main purpose of this technique is to
limit the physical loss of the pollutants that occur as a result of leaching and volatilization.
It is a revised form of land farming technique, and the sites that have become polluted with
petroleum hydrocarbons are usually treated with biopiles. Suitable conditions for both
aerobic and anaerobic microflora are offered by this process of biopiles [48]. In contrast to
other treatment techniques, the slurry phase system offers a faster approach. It involves
mixing the polluted soil with water and naturally existing microbes in a bioreactor.
Moreover, some of the appropriate oxygen and nutrient supply is provided to the bioreactor
to regulate the optimal conditions required to carry out the bioremediation process. Once
the process has been done, the liquid part of the soil is extracted and carefully disposed [51].
The frequency and degree of the bioremediation process are higher when performed in a
bioreactor or fermenter as compared to the one carried out in in situ or solid phase systems
because a bioreactor offers a more predictive and controllable process (Figure 19.5).
19.6 Methods for Ex Situ Bioremediation
19.6.1 Solid Phase Treatment

Solid phase treatment falls under the category of an ex situ technique and involves the
evacuation and piling up of the soil, which is polluted by a number of pollutants. A number
of different organic wastes are also encompassed in this technology, such as the leaves.
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19.6 Methods for Ex Situ Bioremediation 409
Moreover, wastes from industries, agricultural productions, domestic places, and animals
are also included. A number of piles have diverged from the pipes through which the bacte-
rial community is moved. In order to make the respiration of the microorganisms and for
proper ventilation, it is vital to aerate the pipes. Unlike the slurry phase method, this is an
extensive process that needs a large space. Methods for solid phase management encom-
pass composting, land farming, windrows, biopiles, and more [52].
19.6.1.1 Slurry Phase Bioremediation

In contrast to other approaches employed for treatment, the method of slurry phase biore-
mediation occurs more quickly. Inside a bioreactor, soil that has been polluted with a
variety of contaminants is mixed with oxygen, nutrients, and water for the purpose of
developing an optimized condition that will further facilitate the degradation of the pol-
lutants by means of microbes. This method also helps in separating the grits and other
debris from the polluted soil. The rate at which the biodegradation takes place and the
amounts of pollutants along with the physiochemical features of the soil determine the
concentration of water that needs to be added. Once the process has been completely
done, the soil is removed, followed up by drying by the use of centrifugation, vacuum fil-
tration, or pressure filtration. Subsequently, the resulting fluids are treated in an advanced
manner, and the soil is disposed.
19.6.1.2 In Situ Bioremediation

In contrast to other methods, the in situ bioremediation strategy does not need the
extraction and elimination of polluted soil or water with the aim of achieving bioreme-
diation. Generally, this process involves the flow of aqueous suspensions through the
contaminated soil for the excitation of the originally existing microbes, thus enhancing
the degradation of the toxic polluting agents. This circulation is done for the purpose
of providing the source of electron acceptors, oxygen, and some other nutrients. In situ
bioremediation involves exploitation of microorganism-based inoculum and the
enzymes that are at liberty from the cell. This usually treats saturated soils and water
at the surface of ground being contaminated by employing this strategy [53]. This
approach of cleaning up the surroundings is considered to be better than other strate-
gies because it is cost-effective and exploits the naturally existing and not-so-toxic
microbes in order to achieve the degradation of the contaminants. Moreover, this pro-
cess is a safe method and can help in managing the huge amounts of polluted soil and
water bodies with the discharge of the polluting agents in minute amounts. Two groups
that fall under the in situ bioremediation category are engineered bioremediation and
intrinsic bioremediation.
19.6.2 Engineered Bioremediation

The provision of particular engineered microbes to the polluted site, thus enhancing
the microbial growth by improving their physiochemical changes, is termed as
“engineered bioremediation.” This method results in the acceleration of the biore-
mediation process.
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19.6.3 Intrinsic Bioremediation

On the other hand, the intrinsic bioremediation strategy involves the stimulation of the
naturally existing microbes and their metabolizing action by nourishing them with stimu-
lants, which are usually oxygen and some other nutrients. Natural reduction, another
name for intrinsic bioremediation, is an in situ bioremediation process that involves pas-
sive remediation of polluted places without the need for any outside force (human inter-
vention). Electron acceptors, oxygen, phosphorus, and nitrogen are usually employed for
enhancing the growth of microbes as well as for speeding up the bioremediation pro-
cess [53]. Chlorinated hydrocarbons, nitriles, nitrobenzenes, and plasticizers are generally
degraded by this strategy of in situ bioremediation [54].
19.7 Bioremediation Using Microbial Enzymes
Bioremediation is primarily dependent on degrading enzymes to implement a system. It is

an emerging approach in the modern technological age use of enzymes as an ecofriendly,
sustainable approach for soil and water cleanup. Enzyme-based bioremediation is a fusion
of biological and chemical remediation technology. Because of current innovations in biol-
ogy, it is now possible to isolate and purify these enzymes. These enzymes are then extracted
and infused into contaminated water or soil. Enzyme remediation has been successfully
tested in other countries for the cleanup of sites contaminated with a variety of organic
contaminants, such as petroleum, PCBs, and nitrophenols. Since no waste is produced or
disposed of during this enzymatic bioremediation, there is no long-term environmental
consequence. It has been revealed that a vast number of enzymes secreted by bacteria and
fungi are crucial in the biodegradation of hazardous organic contaminants. Bioremediation,
which is powered by microbial enzymes, is an innovative bioprocess technology. It is eco-
nomical and environmentally friendly. Different classes of enzymes used in bioremedia-
tion have been identified (Figure 19.6).
Laccases
2.
Purification
Lipases 1. Isolation
Used in
bioremediation
Proteases
3.
Harvesting
Peroxidases
Hydrolytic enzymes
Oxidoreductases
Injecting into contaminated
water and soil
Figure 19.6 Enzymes used in bioremediation.
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19.7 Bioremediation Using Microbial Enzyme 411
19.7.1 Laccases
Laccases are a group of multicopper oxidases that are made by bacteria, fungi, and insects.
These laccases stimulate the oxidation of a wide spectrum of reduced phenolic and aromatic
compounds while concurrently reducing molecular oxygen to water [55]. According to
Rodriguez Couto and Toca Herrera [55], laccases are produced both inside and outside of cells
and have the ability to catalyze the oxidation of ortho- and para-diphenyls, aminophenols,
polyphenols, polyamines, lignins, and aryl diamines as well as some inorganic ions. They are
also responsible for the depolymerization of lignin, making them appear to be a universal set
of enzymes with a lot of potential for biotechnological and bioremediation applications [56].
19.7.2 Lipases
The biodegradation of soil-based organic contaminants is closely linked to lipases. They
operate on a variety of lipids produced by microbes, animals, and plants and breakdown
them. Lipases, which may be extracted from bacteria, actinomycetes, and mammalian
cells, have been shown to significantly lower the overall hydrocarbon content of polluted
soil [57]. Because of their significant contribution to the remediation of oil spills, industrial
wastes, triglycerides [58], and hydrocarbon pollutants, microbial lipases are more adapta-
ble [58]. They have been discovered to be the most helpful by catalyzing a variety of
processes, including hydrolysis, interesterification, esterification, alcoholysis, and amyloly-
sis [59]. A total of 157 factors for measuring hydrocarbon breakdown in the soil are included
in the paper “Microbe-Mediated Bioremediation: An Eco-friendly Sustainable Approach.”
Although they are used for bioremediation diagnostic purposes, the cost of manufacture
has limited their industrial utilization [58].
19.7.3 Proteases
A lot of proteinaceous material enters the environment as a byproduct of some industries,
such as poultry, fishing, and textiles, as well as from the withering and molting of animal
appendages. The proteases, which are classified into endopeptidase and exopeptidase
groups based on where they are active on the substrate, hydrolyze these proteinaceous
molecules. With their numerous uses in food, medicinal, textile, and chemical industries,
proteases play both a direct and an indirect role in bioremediation [60, 61].
19.7.4 Peroxidases
Another group of universal enzymes generated by fungi and prokaryotes is the peroxidase
family. Chlorinated phenolic are eliminated by peroxidase from polluted surroundings [62].
At the expense of hydrogen peroxide, peroxidases also stimulate the oxidation of lignin and
other phenolic substances (H2O2). They are essential for auxin metabolism, lignin
and suberin synthesis, cross-linking of cell wall constituents, protection toward pathogens,
and cell elongation in plants. They can be heme or non-heme peptides [63]. Peroxidases are
classified as lignin peroxidase (LiP), manganese-dependent peroxidase (MnP), and versa-
tile peroxidase based on their origin and action (VP). Due to their strong capacity to break
down harmful chemicals in nature, all of these have been extensively examined.
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19.7.5 Hydrolytic Enzymes

Hydrolytic enzymes are a significant threat as harmful pollutants in many aquatic and ter-
restrial environments because of the widespread use of industrial chemicals and petroleum
hydrocarbons. An efficient route for the microbial degradation of oil spills and organophos-
phate and carbamate pesticides is provided by hydrolytic enzymes, which break important
chemical interactions in hazardous chemicals. They are crucial in the degradation process
of organochlorine pesticides like DDT and heptachlor that are durable in soil with good air
circulation but quickly disintegrate in anaerobic conditions [64]. Due to their use in the
decomposition of biomass, hemicellulose, cellulose, and glycosidase, all have significant
potential applications [65].
19.7.6 Oxidoreductases
According to [62], oxidoreductases are a group of microbial enzymes that perform
oxidation-reduction processes and also help in the detoxification of a variety of hazard-
ous chemical molecules. These oxidative coupling processes change the contaminants
into nontoxic molecules. Numerous microbial oxidoreductases have been used to detox-
ify various harmful xenobiotics, including phenolic or anilinic chemicals, by polymeriza-
tion, copolymerization with some other targets, or coupling to compounds as well as
degrading azo dyes [66]. Oxidoreductases are crucial for the biodegradation of a number
of phenolic compounds that are formed during the decomposition of lignin in a terres-
trial ecosystem.
19.8 Bioremediation Prospects
Bioremediation techniques are diverse and ought to be established effectively in reinstating

contaminated places. Microorganisms show a central part in bioremediation; thus, their
variety, profusion, and communal assembly in contaminated surroundings propose a
vision into the chance of some bioremediation method as long as additional ecological
influences can inhibit the action of microbes.
“Omics” encompasses the fields of transcriptomic, metabolomics, proteomics, and
genomics and is considered a promising advancement in the science of molecular biology.
It offers a significant contribution to the process of identifying microbes and their func-
tions. Moreover, their metabolic and catabolic potential is also determined by using this
science. Inconsistency in the nutrient supply and no presence of required amounts of
microbes having the potential to degrade may lead to delayed accomplishment of the biore-
mediation process. As the process of bioremediation is microbe mediated, the strategies to
carry out bioremediation and bioaugmentation help in speeding up the metabolizing
actions of the microbial community in the contaminated surroundings. Biostimulation
offers the provision of nutrient stimulants in order to enhance the degradation capacities
of the microbes at the polluted site. An excess amount of microbes usually inhabits a
diverse range of environments; thus, it is perceptible that microorganisms having the
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19.8 Bioremediation Prospect 413
ability to degrade the polluting agents already exist in the contaminated location. The type
of pollutant that needs to be removed and its concentration may have a significant impact
on the growth and metabolizing action of the microbes. The nutrient supply may provide
the polluted sites by means of the wastes obtained from agricultural industries. As com-
pared to pure isolates, an association of microbes has been described to achieve biodegra-
dation in a more effective manner [67].
When such isolates are combined, this activity may result in complete and quick deg-
radation of pollutants due to the metabolic diversity of individual isolates, which
potency is created by their isolation source, adaption process, pollutant composition,
and synergistic effects [68]. Additionally, compared to a non-amended setup (control),
both bioaugmentation and biostimulation have been reported to be successful in elimi-
nating pollutants such polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from a substantially polluted
sample [69].
Although the process of biodegradation is considered to be an efficient strategy,
thereby enhancing degradation of many compounds, if adequate microbes do not exist
in the polluted surroundings or if the pollutants reduce the amounts of the microbial
community, particular microbes can be provided to enhance the existing microbial com-
munity and the likelihood that the injected microbes may not endure the new surround-
ings; this may lead to the explanation of this process as an uncertain approach.
Bioaugmentation process refers to a bioremediation approach that involves the use of
microbes having particular metabolic features and either existing naturally or engi-
neered genetically. There are certain hurdles that are related to the process of bioaug-
mentation, which involves the utilization of carrier substances such as gelatin, agar,
alginate, polyurethane, and gellan gum [70].
Biosurfactants are considered to be equivalent to the chemical compounds exhibiting a
number of environment-friendly and recyclable features. Nevertheless, high expenses asso-
ciated with the construction and applicability of the biosurfactants to the contaminated
surroundings at a low scale make this process economically unsuitable. During fermenta-
tion, combining the wastes from the agricultural industries acts as a nutrient supply for the
establishment of biosurfactant manufacturers [71]. The employment of the genetically
modified microbes for the purpose of improving the bioremediation potential is considered
a promising strategy.
Nevertheless, gene transferring in a parallel manner and the reproduction of the
genetically engineered microbes in a surrounding application are also considered as a
promising strategy. A process that involves the containment of bacterial community
encompasses the escaping of any genetically modified microorganism into the sur-
roundings for the purpose of rebuilding the environment that has become contami-
nated. Furthermore, the efficacy of the bioremediation approach can be enhanced by
employing the derivative mechanisms of GEM with a directed polluting agent. The time
to complete the bioremediation process and the associated expenses can be reduced by
the use of nanomaterials. This is due to the fact that nanoparticles have the high surface
area to volume ratio, have low energy of activation, and can decrease the toxicity that
the polluting agents cause to microbes [72]. The merits, demerits, and limitations of
bioremediation are mentioned in Table 19.1.
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Table 19.1 Merits, demerits, and possible limitations of bioremediation.
Merits Demerits Limitations
1) Offers the chance for The formation of harmful The biological processes are very
organic contaminants to intermediate molecules with particular. The availability of
completely break down, greater mobility than the metabolically competent
degrade, or mineralize original pollutants due to microbial populations, optimal
into other harmless incomplete or partial breakdown environmental growth
substances in a natural of organic contaminants. conditions, and appropriate
ecosystem. quantities of nutrients and
pollutants are crucial site
elements that are essential for
success.
2) Depending on the Tracking the development Scaling up the bioremediation
circumstances, it can be of the organic pollutants’ process from batch and pilot
used as both an in situ biodegradation requires outdoor scale investigations to large-scale
and an ex situ approach. monitoring. field operations is challenging.
3) When compared to other Process takes longer than other For sites with composite
remediation techniques, remediation technologies and combinations of toxins that are
the cost of treatment per typically needs longer treatment not evenly distributed in the
unit volume of soil or times. environment, modern
groundwater is quite low. engineered bioremediation
systems must still be developed.
It might exist in the form of
solids, liquids, or gases.
4) Low environmental In contaminated areas, residual In comparison to alternative
effect and minimal site levels of dangerous treatment options like excavation
disruption, making it intermediates can occasionally and soil removal from
simple for the public to become too high (exceeding contaminated sites, bioremediation
view positively. regulatory requirements), requires more time.
persistent, and toxic.
5) Need low-technology Performance evaluations are There is no acceptable goal for
equipment or equipment challenging because there is no bioremediation therapies since it
that is easily accessible. set standard for a “clean” site is difficult to evaluate their
because there are no regulations effectiveness.
governing performance criteria.
Source: Adapted from Sharma [20]; Sangwan and Dukare [73].
19.9 Future Prospective
When it comes to remediating, cleaning, maintaining, and recovering methods for resolving a
polluted environment via microbial activity, biodegradation is a very profitable and appealing
alternative. The competition between biological agents like fungi, bacteria, and algae as well as
unfavorable external abiotic factors (aeration, moisture, pH, and temperature) and limited bio-
availability dictate how quickly undesired waste materials degrade. The effectiveness of biore-
mediation depends on a number of parameters, including but not limited to cost, site features,
and the kind and quantity of pollutants. The site description is the first step in successful
bioremediation since it aids in the creation of the most effective bioremediation technique
c19.indd 414 05/26/2023 19:17:29

Reference 415
(ex situ or in situ). Due to excavation and transportation from the archaeological site, bioreme-
diation processes are typically more expensive. They can, however, be utilized to remediate a
variety of contaminants. Contrarily, in situ techniques do not incur additional costs for excava-
tion, yet some inefficient in situ bioremediation approaches can be reduced by the onsite
installation equipment costs, connected efficiently, and controlling the bottom of a contami-
nated environment. When choosing the most effective bioremediation method to successfully
treat polluted sites, geological features of the contaminated environment, particularly soil; pol-
lutant kind and depth; human settlements on site; and performance of each bioremediation
approach should be considered [11].
19.10 Conclusion
Environmental pollution is the major problem of the twenty-first century, and research
communities are paying close attention to it. Because microbes exhibit the capability of
adapting to new and potentially toxic environments, bioremediation using microbes is a
useful method for reducing pollution by boosting innate biodegradation systems.
Acknowledging the microbial populations as well as how they react to the natural sur-
roundings and in the existence of contaminants is essential for developing environmentally
sustainable, new, and potentially helpful bioremediation strategies.
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421
20
Microbial Bioresource for Plastic-Degrading Enzymes

Ayodeji Amobonye1, Christiana Eleojo Aruwa1,2, and Santhosh Pillai1
1
Department of Biotechnology and Food Science, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Durban University of Technology,
Durban, South Africa
2
Department of Microbiology, School of Sciences, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria
20.1 Introduction
The invention of plastics and their unprecedented global acceptance have encouraged
the fabrication of different conventional plastic polymers, which include polyethylene
(PE), polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyethylene terephthalate (PET),
polyurethane, and polystyrene (PS), from nonrenewable sources like petroleum, coal,
and natural gas. Although conventional plastics have provided humans with enormous
potential and an array of diverse functions, they are practically nondegradable and per-
sist in the environment for centuries [1]. Subsequently, the bioplastic industry has
emerged as a promising solution to alleviate some of the challenges posed by fossil fuel-
based polymers. Interestingly, the building blocks of these bioplastics are sourced from
plant biomass making them more renewable and relatively more degradable. Common
examples of bioplastics include polybutylene succinate (PBS), polyhydroxyalkanoates
(PHAs), polylactic acid (PLA), and thermoplastic starch (TPS). Others include bio-
polyethylene (bioPE) and bio-polyethylene terephthalate (bioPET) that have similar
properties to their petroleum-derived counterpart polymers [2, 3]. However, despite
the progress gained due to the emergence of bioplastics, there are still many gaps that
need to be filled to ensure the resounding effects of these advancements. For instance,
the bioplastic proportion of the total plastic market is still less than one percent [4],
which makes their supposed advantages less impactful. Furthermore, although the deg-
radation of bioplastics is faster than their conventional counterparts, both types of plas-
tics still accumulate in the environment, especially in aquatic environments. For instance,
Lebreton et al. [5] observed that approximately 80 metric tons of plastic were floating
in the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, an approximately 1.6 million km2 area, formed in
subtropical waters between California and Hawaii. Numerous marine species have
been found to be entangled by or ingested with plastic litter, which is likely to have

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422 20 Microbial Bioresource for Plastic-Degrading Enzymes
unpredictable consequences for the ecosystem [6]. Furthermore, the miniaturized forms
of plastics, viz., microplastics and nanoplastics, have been revealed to be more likely to
be taken up by marine organisms such as bivalves, copepods, echinoderms, and poly-
chaetes at different stages of their life cycle [7].
Considering the persistent increase in plastic production and plastic waste generation,
the economic cost associated with plastic litter in the marine environment was estimated
at $21.3 billion in 2020 and projected to rise to $229 billion and $731 billion by 2030 and
2050, respectively [8]. However, current approaches aimed at mitigating this deleterious
environmental threat, viz., incineration, recycling, and landfilling, all come at a massive
cost, are unsustainable, and are more likely to increase the burden on the different ecosys-
tems [9]. Incineration of various plastic polymers, for example, has been described to end
in the generation of more poisonous wastes such as dioxins, furans, heavy metals, and
sulfides [10]. Plastic recycling has also been found economically nonviable due to the
aggregated costs of the technology and labor involved, especially the cost of segregation,
processing, and byproduct disposal, which cumulatively render recycled plastics costlier
than virgin plastics [11]. Hence, in recent decades, much emphasis has been placed on the
application of biological systems as ecofriendly alternatives to degrade defiant plastic pol-
ymers. It is hoped that these microbes, in their natural states, in consortiums or as micro-
bial bioreactors will be more effective and efficient in fighting the plastic waste menace on
a long-term basis.
Generally, a bioreactor is any system that involves organisms or biochemically active
substances sourced from organisms, and they have been useful in the manufacturing of
biopharmaceuticals, chemicals, food, and food additives. In addition, significant progress
has been made in the application of microbial bioreactors in the bioremediation of various
environmental pollutants such as dyes [12, 13], heavy metals [14], organic contami-
nants [15], petroleum hydrocarbons, and, to a lesser degree, microplastics [16]. Thus, it is
believed that designing and developing microbial bioreactors to facilitate the degradation
of plastic, both in bulk and miniaturized form, are essential steps for the large-scale appli-
cations of plastic bioremediation.
Studies have shown that organisms, including higher and lower ones, are capable of
metabolizing and transforming plastic polymers into less complex compounds such as
CO2 and H2O. For instance, different insect larvae including waxworm, mealworm, and
superworm have been investigated for their ability to ingest, breakdown, and mineral-
ize a wide variety of plastic materials, with the aid of their gut microbiome [17, 18].
In addition to the symbiotic microorganisms in the larvae’s gut, remarkable microbes
isolated from various ecosystems have also been shown with notable biodegradative
potential [6, 19, 20]. In this regard, actinomycetes [21], algae [22], bacteria [23], and
fungi [24], functioning through their enzymatic systems, have been highlighted to
possess remarkable potential in plastic degradation and can serve as a repository for
plastic-degrading enzymes. Although the plastic biodegradative system is relatively
slow, various efforts are being made, through protein engineering and recombinant
technology, to improve the efficiency of degradation. This chapter thus sheds more
light on the key areas regarding the production, improvement, and potential of micro-
bial enzymes for the biodegradation of plastic polymers in the increasing efforts against
plastic bioaccumulation.
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20.2 Classification of Plastics: Biobased, Biodegradable, and Fossil-Based Plastic 423
20.2 Classification of Plastics: Biobased, Biodegradable,

and Fossil-Based Plastics
Approximately 99% of all plastic materials are petroleum based, while the remaining one
percent is biobased and derived from natural raw materials such as corn, cane sugar, pota-
toes, wheat, and vegetable oil [4]. Despite being produced from natural or renewable
resources, bioplastics are not the sole solution to plastics bioaccumulation, since they are
not readily biodegradable [25]. Furthermore, it is critical to distinguish between biodegrad-
able plastics, bioplastics, and biobased plastics, despite the terms being commonly used,
interchangeably.
20.2.1 Fossil-Based Plastics

The majority of plastic products are petroleum-based or fossil fuel-based plastic polymers,
derived from nonrenewable fossil fuels as their feedstock. These widely exploited fossil-
based polymers include PE, PET, PP, PVC, and PS [26]. PET, one of the most popular among
plastics, is synthesized using ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid, both derived from the
cracking process of fossil fuels [27]. Similarly, PVC is produced from the polymerization
of its monomer, vinyl chloride, which is synthesized from ethylene sourced from natural
gas [28]. The global plastic production of fossil-based plastics has tripled in the past
25 years. Thus, recent estimates revealed that 8.3 billion tons of virgin plastic have been
produced so far, with more than two-thirds of them ending up being discarded indiscrimi-
nately in different habitats [29]. This has prompted the search for environmentally sustain-
able alternatives to fossil-based plastics.
20.2.2 Biobased Plastics

Biobased polymers, more popularly referred to as bioplastics, utilize renewable biological
products as the major feedstock. According to the United States Department of Agriculture
(USDA), under its Biopreferred Program, the ASTM’s (American Society for Testing and
Materials) D6866 standard is the yardstick for measuring and certifying biobased products
such as bioplastics [30]. This standard evaluates the percentage of a material’s biobased
content by measuring the presence and the proportion of carbon-14 in the test material,
hence, differentiating between carbon-sourced renewable (bioplastics) and carbon sourced
from nonrenewable petroleum (fossil-based plastic). There are many bioplastics currently
on the market such as PLA, Bio-PET polycaprolactone (PCL), PBS, and poly(butylene
adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) [25]. By design, some bioplastics are both functionally
and chemically similar to some fossil-based polymers and are commonly referred to as
“drop-ins,” whereas others are entirely different polymers [31]. Examples include PLA,
which may serve as an alternative to PS; biobased polybutylene succinate (Bio-PBS), which
exhibits similar properties to PP; and biobased polyethylene terephthalate (Bio-PET), a
potential substitute for fossil-based PET. Unlike its conventional counterpart, Bio-PET is
manufactured from ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid that are sourced from the fermen-
tation of sugarcane and the oxidization of p-xylene from lignocellulosic materials,
respectively [32].
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20.2.3 Biodegradable Plastics

Confusion exists between the two terms “biodegradable plastics” and “biobased plastics,”
with many assuming they are interchangeable. In the long run, all organic matter-based
materials undergo biodegradation including the most recalcitrant conventional petroleum-
based plastics. However, it should be noted that the biodegradation rate of different plastic
polymers can vary exponentially with the degradation environment, acting as a significant
factor. Hence, this warrants the need to specify the timeframe and the environment, while
defining the biodegradability of a plastic polymer. Typically, plastics referred to as “biode-
gradable” are created to degrade under set environments and/or conditions, which include
the soil and aquatic environments, under sunlight, industrial, home composting facilities,
etc. [33]. Thus, plastics labeled as biodegradable or compostable are designed to degrade in
an industrial composting environment at a comparable rate to other well-known com-
postable substances with no visual or toxic residue. However, certain countries have spe-
cific requirements for plastic to be considered biodegradable. For example, in the United
States, biodegradable plastic must pass the ASTM’s D6400 test protocols [34]. In this test,
the polymer, which is in a controlled environment, must have disintegrated to less or
approximately equal to 10% of its original dry weight after 84 days and 90% of its organic
carbon must have been converted to CO2 within 180 days, among many other criteria [35].
In addition, the rate of biodegradation is also dependent on the thickness of the product as
biobased plastics, like their conventional alternatives such as fossil-based plastics, are avail-
able in many grades with a wide variety of properties [36].
20.3 General Mechanism of Plastic Biodegradation
During plastic degradation, microplastics (less than 5 mm) are produced, which are toxic to
the ecosystem [7]. In addition, the degradation of bulk plastic materials also leads to the pro-
duction of inhalable fibrous microplastics and additives such as plasticisers and dyes, which
are allergenic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic [37]. Hence, elaborating the underlying mecha-
nisms involved in the microbial-plastic association could contribute immensely to initiating,
maintaining, and enhancing the complete environmental degradation of plastics [38].
Generally, four mechanisms are associated with plastic breakdown: hydrolytic degrada-
tion, photo (light)-degradation, thermo-oxidative degradation, and biodegradation [39].
Moreover, the plastic polymer degradation rate can be achieved and/or enhanced by mois-
ture as well as by photodegrading and thermo-oxidant agents. However, microorganisms are
perceived to be more effective and more environmentally sustainable with regards to plastic
polymers breakdown as they have been reported to achieve further degradation of plastic
beyond carbonyl compounds’ generation, to partial or complete plastic monomers that
could be bioassimilated and could also lead to end products that can be recycled into various
geochemical cycles [38]. The microbial biodegradative pathway is majorly dependent on the
enzymatic machinery, especially extracellular enzymes that catalyze the breakdown of the
bulk plastic materials to lower molecular weight and reduced chain-length compounds. In
summary, microbial biodegradation occurs through different stages of biodeterioration,
biofragmentation, bioassimilation, and mineralization [40], as depicted in Figure 20.1.
c20.indd 424 05/26/2023 19:17:34

20.3 General Mechanism of Plastic Biodegradatio 425
• Acetic acid
• CO2
Extracellular enzymes and free radicals

• Lipids
Active and passive transportation

Chemical and physical
Biofragm Assim Minera

entation ilation lizatio
n
Biodeterio
ration
Plastic w
aste
Figure 20.1 Steps involved in plastic biodegradation. Source: Amobonye et al. [6] / with
permission of Elsevier.
At the initial stage of biodegradation, biodeterioration occurs and it is typically a super-

ficial activity that translates into significant mechanochemical changes in the structure of
the polymer. During biodeterioration, microorganisms alongside other biotic factors or
agents deteriorate plastic polymers via physicochemical reactions resulting in peripheral
changes in polymer properties [6]. Microbes attach to and colonize plastic surfaces, thus
reducing the plastic’s resistance and durability. These structural changes are also enhanced
by the exposure of the materials to abiotic factors, such as chemicals in the environment,
light, and temperature [41].
Biofragmentation is the second stage and it involves a loss of stability in the long carbon
chains that were initially impacted by microbial enzymes but may also be enhanced by abi-
otic factors. This is the major depolymerization step that is based on the enzymatic depolym-
erization of biodeteriorated polymers into lower molecular weight units, and the process is
enhanced by microbe-derived reactive species [42]. Biofragmentation targets polymer weight
reduction and oxidation of derived less weighted compounds, both of which facilitated by
enzymes cleavage [43]. The degrading enzymes carry out hydrolytic and nucleophilic attacks
c20.indd 425 05/26/2023 19:17:34

on the carbonyl carbon bonds and groups, that is, the peptide, ester, and glycosidic bonds in
the polymer structure. While the exo-hydrolytic attacks result in monomeric or oligomeric
compounds like terephthalic acid that are assimilated by microbes, endo-attacks result in
products that still need to undergo further degradation before microbial assimilation [44].
Bioassimilation involves the intake of shorter chained carbon molecules into the cell
across the cell membrane as starter substrates in catabolism for the generation of biomass
and energy [45]. Plastics bioassimilation is posited to involve both active and passive trans-
portation across the membrane of microbial cells [6]. Furthermore, different microbes
have been demonstrated to assimilate via facilitated passive or active transport systems [46].
In this regard, the genes for different transporters have been observed to be upregulated in
microbes while assimilating plastic biodegradation intermediates, especially those of the
ATP binding cassette protein family [47].
The final stage, mineralization, ensures that end products of the plastic degradation pro-
cess are inorganic molecules, and this occurs after the successful transportation of the poly-
mer derivatives into the cells [38]. The assimilated compounds further undergo a stepwise
reaction involving enzymes resulting in the total breakdown to oxidized metabolites,
including water, CH4, N2, and CO2 [48]. Mineralization takes place both anaerobically or
aerobically and it requires synergy among participating enzymes such as peroxidase, cuti-
nases, lipases, esterases, and laccases [49]. The utilization of Strum’s method of quantifying
released CO2 and isotope tracing has been useful in demonstrating this final stage of plastic
polymer biodegradation [50]. Also, intermediate products at the final stage could be useful
as substrates in other microbial metabolic reactions. For example, in Ideonella sakaiensis,
the internalized terephthalic acid is transformed into the molecule protocatechuic acid by
the action of terephthalate 1,2-dioxygenase. Protocatechuic acid undergoes further cataly-
sis into compounds (oxaloacetate and pyruvate) that feed the citric Kreb’s cycle and are
eventually mineralized to water and carbon (IV) oxide [51].
20.4 Microbial Sources of Plastic-Degrading Enzymes
Despite the various forms and chemical properties of plastic materials, microbial plastic
degraders seem to continually evolve to tackle plastic wastes and other emerging environ-
mental contaminants, albeit slowly and over prolonged exposure [38]. In this regard, vari-
ous microbial plastic degraders have been isolated from diverse environments, primarily
bacteria, algae, actinomycetes, and fungi [52, 53]. Some of the microbial sources of plastic-
degrading enzymes are discussed in detail in this section.
20.4.1 Actinomycetes
Though actinomycetes are mainly credited with the secretion of secondary metabolites
with antibiotic properties, some of their bioproducts have also been linked to plastic depo-
lymerization. The polymer-degrading Thermoactinomyces (a thermophile), Actinomadura
spp., Rhodococcus ruber, and Streptomyces spp. are some of the most studied members of
the actinomycete group [54]. Earlier studies by Adhi et al. [55] showed that extracellular
enzymes that degraded plastics were secreted during the submerged cultivation of
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20.4 Microbial Sources of Plastic-Degrading Enzyme 427
Streptomyces setoni and Streptomyces badicus. Furthermore, actinomycetes have been

noted to degrade different conventional plastics, for example, PP film treated with UV and
nitric acid was degraded by Actinomycetes sp. [56], while polyesters were degraded by
Micromonospora and Streptomyces species [57, 58]. In addition, a highly stable 25-kDa
suberinase, sourced from Streptomyces scabies, was demonstrated to possess a significant
ability to degrade PET to terephthalic acid (TCA) [59].
This group of microbes has also been shown to break down biobased plastics; for exam-
ple, polyhydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate (PHBV) was degraded by Streptoverticillium
kashmirense AF1 with the aid of its extracellular PHBV depolymerase [60]. The filamen-
tous Streptomyces lydicus MM10 secreted PHB depolymerase during its breakdown of
PHB [61]. Moritella sp., Shewanella sp., and Psychrobacter sp. have also been demonstrated
to breakdown PCL [62, 63], while the significant degradation of PCL, PHB, and polyethyl-
ene succinate (PES) by the heat-loving Streptomyces, Microbispora, Thermoactinomyces,
and Actinomadura species have also been reported [64].
20.4.2 Algae
It has been established that algae are able to utilize plastic polymers as carbon sources,
which can be measured in terms of enhanced growth and cellular metabolism [65]. Plastic
biodegradation by algal organisms has been recorded to be mediated by their ligninolytic
enzymes together with exopolysaccharide [22]. Algae break down plastic polymer through
fouling, corrosion, hydrolysis, penetration, leached components breakdown, and pigment
diffusion into the polymers [22]. Oscillatoria subbrevis and Phormidium lucidum, both fast
growing, freshwater algae, have been shown to efficiently attack and break down PE/LDPE
(low-density polyethylene) [22, 65]. More recently, Uronema africanum, isolated from waste
plastic bags, was also shown to degrade LDPE film within a month of incubation [66].
Although not much has been achieved in the isolation and characterization of plastic-
degrading enzymes from algae, significant research has been made using this class of
organisms as hosts for plastic-degrading enzymes [67, 68]. This progress has been remark-
able as algae do not require organic carbon sources under photoautotrophic conditions, are
easy to cultivate, are capable of fast growth, and typically do not produce endotoxins [69].
For example, Phaeodactylum tricornutum, a diatom was demonstrated as an efficient host
of an engineered version of PETase [68]. The Chlamydomonas reinhardtii green alga was
also demonstrated to express the PETase enzyme [67].
20.4.3 Bacteria
The bacteria group make up a significant part of the world’s nutrient cycles, ensuring the
liberation of simple molecules from complex ones and their natural recycling. Furthermore,
bacteria possess immense potential as plastic degraders, utilizing a cohort of enzymes and
forming bioactive biofilms [41]. Studies have shown that bacterial plastic degraders can be
found in various ecosystems and niches like insect gut [70], cold marine environments [23],
landfill, and dumpsites [71]. In addition, thermophilic bacteria including Hydrogenobacter,
Aquifex, Rhodothermus, Thermus, Thermotoga, Anoxybacillus, Geobacillus, and Brevibacillus
have been noted with plastic-degrading potentials [19]. Similarly, psychrophiles have also
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been reported in plastic degradation, including Arthrobacter, Psychrobacter, Pseudomonas,

Colwellia, Pseudoalteromonas, among others [19].
Bacteria’s ability to break down long-chained fatty acids (LCFA) is closely associated
with their capacity to cleave plastic polymers. The Pseudomonas genus is mostly investi-
gated in relation plastics and LCFA biodegradation [72]. For example, Pseudomonas sp. E4
expresses an alkane hydroxylase which had significant activity in PE breakdown; further-
more, the gene of the enzyme has also been successfully cloned into Escherichia coli and
its activity confirmed [73]. Furthermore, Pseudomonas aeruginosa also showed the expres-
sion of alkane hydroxylase, rubredoxin, and rubredoxin reductase [74]. In addition, poly-
merases from Pseudomonas as well as Bacillus species are linked to PS breakdown [75].
However, various bacterial genera have also demonstrated enzyme machineries that are
able to degrade an array of plastic polymers. These include Micrococcus, Streptococcus,
Pseudomonas, and Staphylococcus. [76]. In addition, other plastic-degrading bacteria
have also been shown to include Ideonella, Comamonas, Escherichia, Flavobacterium,
Nocardia, Azotobacter, Rhodococcus, Streptomyces, Mycobacterium, Thermoactinomycetes,
Micromonospora, and Alcaligenes species [77, 78]. It has been reported that some of these
plastic-degrading bacteria sequester up to 90% of plastic polymer within their cells [78].
The enzyme, PETase, is a well investigated polyesterase expressed in I. sakaiensis that can
take up PET and transform it to mono(2-hydroxyethyl) terephthalate (MHET). MHET is
further broken down to ethylene glycol (EG) and TPA using the MHETase accessory
enzyme [79]. In another study, the Gram-negative Klebsiella pneumoniae secreted lipase,
tyrosinase, peroxidase, and laccase, which were all associated with PE degradation [38].
20.4.4 Fungi
Fungi, a microbial class made up of yeasts and moulds, are also revered for their key roles
in nature’s nutrient cycles and are also capable of breaking down plastic polymers. Hence,
different fungal species have been identified to be able to cleave various polymers and use
them and/or their products as carbon sources. It is noteworthy, that these fungi come from
a wide variety of habitats and belong to different classes and forms. For example, popular
industrial fungi such as Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Fusarium isolated from agricultural
soils have been shown to utilize LDPE as a nutrient source [80]. Similarly, Aspergillus niger
and Aspergillus japonicus were demonstrated to break down LDPE and PE following incu-
bation for a month [81]. In another study, Aspergillus nomius RH06 and Trichoderma viride
RH03 degraded LDPE films up to 6% after 45 days of incubation, with a decreased film
tensile strength of 40% and 58%, respectively [82]. Fusarium sp. was also shown to depo-
lymerize PE following pretreatment with UV and/or heat [83]. The high-density polyethyl-
ene (HDPE) and LDPE plastic films were also cleaved by Penicillium species, viz., P. oxalicum
and P. chrysogenum to about 56% and 34%, respectively, following a three-month incuba-
tion [84]. Similarly, Mucor circinilloides and Aspergillus flavus isolated from landfills dem-
onstrated potential for LDPE degradation [85].
Interestingly, fungal depolymerases in particular are among the most studied fungal
enzymes because they have a broad spectrum of activity that includes polymers break-
down [86]. For example, Thermobifida fusca hydrolases were described to be responsible
for the enzymatic hydrolysis of PET polymers [87]. In another study, laccases were also
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20.5 Biotechnological Strategies for Identifying/Improving Microbial Enzymes 429
expressed in Pleurotus ostreatus mushroom [88] and were implicated in the significant
degradation of PE. Earlier, lignin-degrading manganese peroxidase expressed in Trametes
versicolor and Phanerochaete chrysosporium was associated with PE cleavage [89]. Similarly,
the Lentinus tigrinus mushroom esterase was demonstrated to break down PS [90]. Like
bacteria, certain fungi also produce polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) depolymerase [91] and
PHB-decarboxylase [92]. The former breaks PHB into mono(3-hydroxybutyrate) and short-
chained oligomers that are further cleaved and bioassimilated to H2O and CO2 [91].
20.5 Biotechnological Strategies for Identifying/

Improving Microbial Enzymes and Their Sources
for Plastic Biodegradation
In the quest for a greener planet, the past five decades have witnessed increased application
of biocatalysts in various industrial processes, replacing a wide range of chemically based
processes. Despite the challenges faced in identifying specific enzymes for the metabolism
of various anthropogenic materials, significant progress has been made in this regard. The
major tools continually being explored in this field are the conventional culturing approach,
the application of metagenomic techniques, recombinant technology, and protein engi-
neering. Scientists worldwide are fully relying on the full complements of these tools to
identify novel microbial strains as well as their enzymes and other bioproducts, with the
sole aim of improving plastic biodegradation.
20.5.1 Conventional Culturing Approach

The conventional method of obtaining novel industrially important microbes, enzymes,
and metabolites by culturing and screening of pure microbial strains is probably the oldest
and still the most widely used procedure. However, microorganisms that can be tradition-
ally cultured are only an insignificant proportion of the total genomic diversity in any
specific environment, and thus, focusing solely on these would restrict the potential of
discovering a variety of new bioproducts necessary for different industrial bioprocesses [93].
Specifically, the culture-dependent approaches are limited in the scope of finding novel
enzymes since only 1% of the total microorganisms on the Earth can be cultured [94].
Despite this being a very efficient and less expensive method of sourcing plastic-degrading
enzymes, this approach is very laborious when there is the need to screen a large number
of microorganisms, thus failing to leverage microbial diversity and versatility. However,
numerous microbes including bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, and algae with varying
degrees of plastic-degrading abilities have been identified in various environments based
on the conventional approach [95]. Many of these organisms have been isolated from both
extreme and moderate environments and in a consortium of different microbes [6]. The
strategy to maximize the chances of isolating microbes with adaptation to metabolize plas-
tic polymers is to collect samples from different environmental habitats rich in plastic
waste. Worthy of note is I. sakaiensis, which was isolated following an extensive screening
by microbiologists at the Keio University and Kyoto Institute of Technology. The PET-
degrading bacteria were identified from a consortium of microorganisms derived from
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environmental samples (activated sludge, wastewater, soil, and sediments) from a PET
recycling site located in Sakai, Japan [51]. The consortia were recorded to achieve depolym-
erization of approximately 75% and the eventual mineralization of the PET degradation
products into water and carbon (IV) oxide [51]. The use of enriched media that consists of
basal salt media and the specific plastic polymer, as the sole or main carbon source, has also
been identified as another effective approach. In a recent study by Dey et al. [96], both
LDPE beads and films were utilized as the carbon sources for the isolation of PE-degrading
Stenotrophomonas sp. and Achromobacter sp. Similarly, Bacillus sp., Brevibacterium sp.,
while Pseudomonas sp. with PS-degrading ability were isolated using Styrofoam-enriched
liquid carbon-free basal medium [97].
20.5.2 Metagenomics
Metagenomics has appeared as a feasible alternative technique to the traditional microbial
screening approach for enzyme discovery. This innovative approach has accelerated the
exploration of unique and important microbial genes by directly cloning the metagenome
(environmental DNA) from diverse environmental sources in surrogate hosts [94]. This
has resulted into the emergence of various new enzymes with unique activities and/or
sequences including many genes encoding proteins with the capability of depolymerizing
various plastic polymers [98]. Furthermore, this approach is independent of the culturabil-
ity of the source organisms as metagenome screening is mainly carried out based on the
sequence or the activity (function) [99].
Sequence-based screening leverages the comparison of similar sequences and annota-
tion of the functional gene through the relevant database searches. This approach has
found a lot of applications in the discovery of various plastic metabolizing biocatalysts as it
is relatively less time consuming and more cost-effective [98]. For example, using the well-
researched PETase enzyme from I. sakaiensis as the template, 27 putative PETases from 24
environmental metagenomics samples were identified in the JGI Integrated Microbial
Genomes and Microbiomes database [100]. Similarly, many genes responsible for estab-
lished enzymes, putative enzymes, and metabolic pathways involved in the biodegradation
of polyurethane and other xenobiotic additives were identified in a landfill microbial
community via the proximity ligation-based metagenomic approach [101]. However, it is
important to note that the sequence-based approach is limited by the content and gene anno-
tation quality of currently available databases of plastic-degrading enzymes. Furthermore,
the approach does not guarantee plastic-degrading activity, and hence, subsequent biochemi-
cal characterization and validation of enzyme functionality are required [102].
Function-based screening or functional metagenomics on the other hand makes use of
activity screening to narrow down to the appropriate phenotypes from metagenomic librar-
ies. Furthermore, it has the added advantage of efficiently mining unique enzymes with
sequences that are more divergent from existing homologous ones [103]. Thus, it can also
serve as an efficient complement to sequence-based metagenomics. It is usually achieved
via traditional plate-based assays and/or the construction of a comprehensive gene expres-
sion library using a heterologous expression system. These expression systems could
include E. coli, which is most widely used, as well as Pichia pastoris, Saccharomyces cerevi-
siae, cosmids, and phages [104]. In this regard, novel polyesterases with activity on PLA,
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20.5 Biotechnological Strategies for Identifying/Improving Microbial Enzymes 431
PCL, and PBS were identified using function-based plate assays from environmental
metagenomes [105]. It is believed that the comparative metagenomic evaluation of different
“plastisphere” of diverse ecology will go a long way in identifying the “core” microbial
population that is predominant in “plastispheres” across various geographical regions.
20.5.3 Recombinant Technology

Typically, recombinant DNA technology involves manipulating and isolating DNA seg-
ments of interest to obtain improved and desired characteristics in the organism or their
bioproducts. It is based on the insertion of DNA fragments from various sources, having a
desirable gene sequence via the appropriate vector. Thus, several genes encoding various
biocatalysts have been successfully cloned and expressed in host systems to attain levels
that are multiple times higher than the wild organism. For example, more than half of the
enzymes used in the food, detergent, and starch industry are heterologous proteins [106].
In addition, the production of heterologous enzymes cuts costs in the long run as it removes
the need for expensive protein purification and environmental conditioning of pure
enzymes [107]. Furthermore, genetic engineering tools have been very useful in manipu-
lating microbial genetics to enhance their ability toward the biodegradation of plastic
polymers [108, 109].
The well-studied MHETase gene from I. sakaensis was recently constructed in pUCIDT
plasmids with its original signal peptide and a constitutive promoter and subsequently
expressed in E. coli BL21-DE3 [108]. Similarly, Pseudozyma antarctica esterase, with the
ability to degrade different bioplastics including PBS, was cloned using pUC19 plasmid for
the construction of a gene expression cassette in another P. antarctica strain, and the
production level of the recombinant strain was approximately 10 times that of the native
strain [110]. More recently, cutinase from a phytopathogen, Moniliophthora roreri, was
overexpressed in E. coli with significantly improved specific activity; in addition, the heter-
ologous enzyme was also discovered to function without induction, unlike the native
enzyme [106]. Furthermore, the cutinase was demonstrated to efficiently degrade plastic
films made from aliphatic polyesters such as PES and polycaprolactone as well as aromatic
polyesters such as PET [109].
Significant progress has also been made using higher organisms such as algae as hosts for
plastic-degrading enzymes [67, 68]. In this regard, the diatom P. tricornutum was found
efficient as a host of an engineered version of PETase [68]. The same enzyme was also
demonstrated to be expressed in a green alga, C. reinhardtii [67].
20.5.4 Protein Engineering

Despite the significant progress achieved in enzyme catalysis with the emergence of recom-
binant DNA technology, the issues of producing enzymes with the desired biocatalytic
properties such as thermostability, extreme pH stability, robustness, and stability in organic
solvents remain a huge challenge [111]. In more recent times, protein engineering has
offered many researchers the option of establishing the catalytic pathways for the synthesis
of compounds that are highly competitive with organic synthesis. Protein engineering is
basically the design of novel enzymes or proteins with desirable characteristics by
c20.indd 431 05/26/2023 19:17:35

modifying the natural protein sequence through deletion, substitution, or insertion of the
nucleotides in the encoding gene. This approach to enzyme modification is achieved via
two strategies: directed evolution and rational design [112].
While rational design involves the use of structural and systematized data, as well as
molecular modeling for the prediction of modifications in the structure of proteins with
the aim of altering or inducing the desired characteristics, directed evolution involves the
creation of mutant libraries via random changes, the screening of the library for the desired
property [113]. However, the dearth of efficient high-throughput screening techniques has
been identified as a major limitation against the application of directed evolution to engi-
neer plastic-degrading enzymes [114]. For example, the major attempt at applying direct
evolution in the engineering of Ralstonia pickettii PHB depolymerase did not achieve the
desired result as the mutants produced had no improved activity [115]. As a result, most
attempts to engineer plastic-degrading enzymes have been conducted using the rational
design approach.
Thermostability is believed to be one of the most desirable biochemical characteristics of
industrial enzymes, particularly as plastic polymers possess high glass transition tempera-
ture. In this regard, mutations at two different positions of the calcium binding site of an
esterase from T. fusca introduced a new disulfide bond into the protein, which remarkably
increased its thermostability and plastic-degrading ability [116]. Furthermore, the substi-
tution of threonine for proline at the 235 amino acid residue of a cutinase from Thermobifida
alba was also observed to increase the melting temperature of the enzyme significantly as
well as its plastic hydrolytic activity [117]. Similar results were also shown by Son
et al. [118].
Significant results were also recorded by tailoring the surface properties of a plastic-
degrading enzyme, in one instance, rendering the surface of Thermobifida cellulosilytica
cutinase neutral [119]. This consequently reduced the existing electrostatic repulsion of the
enzyme to its corresponding plastic substrate, thus improving the binding and efficiency of
PET degradation [119]. Furthermore, efforts at increasing the hydrolytic capabilities of vari-
ous plastic-degrading enzymes have also been attempted by reducing product inhibition
effects, creating multifunctional biocatalysts, and/or enabling the enzyme catalytic promis-
cuity [94, 120]. Recently, a mutation in the substrate-binding site of T. fusca esterase caused
a ~500% decrease in the binding constant for mono(2-hydroxyethyl) terephthalate (MHET),
its inhibitory hydrolysis product, consequently enhancing its PET-degrading activity [94].
Furthermore, in the study by Biundo et al. [120], plastic-degrading polyesterases were modi-
fied to develop enhanced amidase activity toward depolymerizing artificial polyamides.
20.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
This chapter has highlighted that microbes, especially bacteria and fungi, have great poten-
tial for ameliorating the damaging impacts of plastic pollution due to their robust enzy-
matic system that possesses the capacity for pollutant detoxification, their diverse substrate
specificity, and their ability to colonize solid substrates. Although some progress has been
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20.6 Conclusion and Future Perspective 433
made in the scientific investigation of microbes as bioresources for plastic-degrading

enzymes, the same cannot be said about their real-life technological applications and envi-
ronmental effects. However, the future looks promising based on the vast amount of
untapped resources at our disposal. It has been acknowledged by many scientists that the
diversity of known microbes and enzymes involved in plastic degradation is still limited. It
is believed that the full deployment of metagenomics and the other -omic tools – genomics,
metabolomics, proteomics, and transcriptomics – will greatly enhance our knowledge of
the complex biological interactions happening between genes, metabolites, proteins, tran-
scripts, as well as external environmental conditions during the initial colonization and the
subsequent biodegradation of plastic materials. This in turn will facilitate the application
and usefulness of the different microorganisms, with the complement of their enzymes, in
the biodegradation of plastic materials. For example, the development of more advanced
algorithms for mining metagenome data sets will be a promising direction to follow.
Furthermore, the application of various microorganisms in consortiums, thus exploring
their synergistic effect, is expected to result in heightened efficiency in plastic biodegrada-
tion as it is the true picture in nature. Likewise, the discovery of efficient function-based
assays for the identification of plastic-active biocatalysts is as important. It was observed
that some of the current microbial screening and enzyme assays are designed in such a way
that they lead to false positives. As a result, the different methodologies applied in the
analysis of microbial plastic biodegradation should be further optimized and standardized
to high-throughput screening methods.
Genome editing has been demonstrated to be a very effective technology in a wide diver-
sity of applications, and hence, the utilization of its most promising approach, viz., CRISPR/
Cas9 technology, should be investigated for the optimized engineering of plastic polymer
biodegradation in microbes. Furthermore, a deeper knowledge of the biochemical and
structural characteristics of plastic-degrading enzymes is key to further unravelling the
mechanism of recalcitrant plastic biodegradation. If attained, all these will ultimately lead
to the scalable production and more efficient deployment of plastic-degrading biocatalysts
in real-time industrial plastic processing.
In the short term, other areas that could be explored include the application of synthetic
biology in discovering microbes with the ability to produce high-value compounds from
various plastic wastes, thus, contributing to the efficient circular use of plastic polymers. In
this regard, the monomeric and oligomeric derivatives produced after the biodegradation
process would be used to synthesize value-added products for various industries as well as
biodegradable polymers. More regulatory efforts must also be placed on replacing the more
popular inert plastic polymers with the relatively more readily biodegradable plastics spe-
cifically tailored for improved biodegradability. Furthermore, a drastic reduction in the
indiscriminate use, disposal, and contamination of the planet with conventional and bio-
degradable plastic polymers will remarkably lead to reduced plastic loads and the resultant
environmental burden. This can be achieved by the effective implementation of regulatory
measures that could include statutory bans and monetary incentives, as well as increased
awareness and educational campaigns on the ecological impacts of increasing plastic waste
in the environment.
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443
21
Strategies, Trends, and Technological Advancements

in Microbial Bioreactor System for Probiotic Products
Soubhagya Tripathy1, Ami R. Patel2, Deepak Kumar Verma1, Smita Singh3,
Gemilang Lara Utama4,5, Mamta Thakur6, Alaa Kareem Niamah7, Nihir Shah2,
Shayma Thyab Gddoa Al-Sahlany7, Prem Prakash Srivastav1,
Mónica L. Chávez-González8, and Cristobal Noe Aguilar 8
1
2
Division of Dairy Microbiology, Mansinhbhai Institute of Dairy and Food Technology-MIDFT, Dudhsagar Dairy Campus, Mehsana,
Gujarat, India
3
4
5
6
7
8
Bioprocesses and Bioproducts Research Group, Food Research Department, School of Chemistry, Autonomous University
of Coahuila, Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico
21.1 Introduction
Recently, there has been a lot of buzz about adding probiotic microbes to all sorts of foods.
As a result, our understandings of the gut microbiota and the mechanisms that modulate
it have improved. By definition, a probiotic is a “living microbe” or a “product containing
viable microbial cells in sufficient quantities to affect the microflora,” both of which, when
provided at adequate levels, impart a health benefit to the host [1, 2]. Large numbers of
people take probiotics from the bacterial families Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, and
Bacillus, as well as a small number of yeasts. Considered to be advantageous to human
health, lactic acid bacteria (LAB) may be found in both naturally fermented foods and
dietary supplements [2, 3, 4, 5]. However, a major breakthrough has been the introduction
of fortified foods containing a combination of probiotics and prebiotics that, when ingested
as part of a regular diet, increase beneficial bacteria in the gut [2, 6–9].
Humans have a diverse array of microorganisms in their gastrointestinal (GI) tracts, with
estimates placing the number of microbial cells there at roughly 1013 [10]. Beneficial microbes
improve the host’s immune system and metabolic capacity, alter gene expression, and increase
the body’s use of prebiotics (non-digestible oligosaccharides) [9, 11–16]. Dysbiosis, a microbial
imbalance between the host and the population of gut microflora, likely results from any

0005549984.INDD 443 05-27-2023 11:17:30

444 21 Strategies, Trends, and Technological Advancements in Microbial Bioreactor System for Probiotic Products
change in the abundance or composition of the gut microbes’ community due to external
influences [10]. In the treatment of several GI illnesses, including antibiotic-associated diar-
rhea, Helicobacter pylori infection, and viral infections, probiotics have been recommended in
the literature as a potential alternative to antibiotics [2, 17]. The effectiveness of probiotics in
combating multiple sclerosis and in enhancing a wide range of mental health indicators has
also been suggested by a recent study by Rahimlou and colleagues [18]. Despite these findings,
it is yet unknown whether commercially available probiotics are useful in treating severe GI
problems [19]. It is directly tied to the total number of living cells (colony forming unit per mL)
present in the labeled product, which in turn is related to claims made about the efficacy of
probiotic microbial strains. Further reduction in viable cells may occur during transit through
the GI tract as a result of the complicated GI environment (such as acidic conditions) probiot-
ics must endure before they reach the colon [20].
Because of the prevalence of the various issues, the vast majority of companies that pro-
duce probiotics have switched their attention away from products that include a single
probiotic strain and instead are concentrating on developing multi-strain solutions [2, 7, 9].
Products or preparations that contain multiple strains of probiotics are thought to be supe-
rior to single-culture probiotics in terms of their ability to alleviate the symptoms of gastric
disorders. Additionally, multi-strain probiotics are thought to be more effective at coloniz-
ing the intricate ecosystem that exists within the human gut [21, 22]. Encapsulating probi-
otics into a specific carrier material is one of the potential ways that may be used to boost
the probiotics’ survival [2, 23].
This chapter covers the most recent advancements that have been made in bioreactor
systems for the production of probiotics, as well as prospective novel methods for boosting
the performance of probiotics while they are being fermented and processed further down
the production chain. In this regard, methods that incorporate applications of sublethal
stress during the synthesis of probiotics and innovative bioreactor technologies such as
immobilized cell fermentations are techniques that show promise as potential solutions.
21.2 Bioreactors and Production of Probiotics
The process of fermentation is an essential part of bioengineering and has enormous rami-
fications for human civilization [1, 7, 13, 14, 24, 25–27]. The bioreactor or fermenter is the
production unit that is utilized most frequently for this method of operation [24, 27–29].
The simplicity of its construction is the primary benefit it offers. It is beneficial for bioreac-
tors to be outfitted with a control system since proper management of the fermentation
process may considerably raise both the product’s quality and the overall efficiency of the
production process [24, 27, 28, 30–32].
One way to think of the human digestive tract is as a fermenter, as it is responsible for
producing and maintaining complex ecosystems of both aerobic and anaerobic bacte-
ria [33]. Fermentation is the most typical approach used in the manufacturing of commer-
cial probiotics. Fermented dairy products are where we will find the most frequent kinds of
probiotics in their natural state [2, 9, 24]. In addition, fermented foods such as kimchi,
kombucha, sourdough, pickles, and sauerkraut have been utilized by humans for a signifi-
cant amount of time as a source of probiotics [2, 7, 13, 14, 34, 35–39]. Living bacteria are
0005549984.INDD 444 05-27-2023 11:17:30

21.2 Bioreactors and Production of Probiotic 445
known as probiotics, and it is thought that they have a health-promoting action in addition
to having biofunctional impacts on humans. The types of bacteria belonging to the genera
Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus are the ones that have received the most attention and
research out of all the other probiotic bacteria [9, 40, 41, 42]. They are used rather regularly
to increase the quantity of desirable and helpful bacteria in the colon as well as to rebuild
the intestinal flora, for example following treatments with antibiotics. Because of its thera-
peutic significance in the treatment of a variety of GI illnesses, the value of the probiotics
market, as well as the market for probiotic nutritional supplements, has significantly
expanded. Because of their potential use in health care, Lactobacillus species have been the
subject of a significant amount of research as starter cultures for the fermentation of dairy
products or probiotics [9, 24, 42].
Numerous LABs from various genera are found in commercially marketed probiotics.
These include Limosilactobacillus reuteri, Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus, Lacticaseibacillus
casei, Lactobacillus acidophilus group, bifidobacteria, and Bacillus coagulans. However,
commercially manufactured probiotics include LAB from the genera Propionibacterium,
Pediococcus, Lactococcus, Streptococcus, Leuconostoc, Enterococcus (especially specific ente-
rococci like Enterococcus faecium SF68), and the yeast Saccharomyces boulardii [3, 40, 43].
Table 21.1 summarizes the strains of commercially available probiotics that have been the
subject of at least one thorough randomized control experiment to assess their safety
and efficacy in GI circumstances. However, a new generation of probiotic bacteria is
now being produced with the use of -omics technology. Recent advances in -omics
Table 21.1 Commercialized probiotic strains effective against specific gastrointestinal disorders
with their relevant dosage.
Use against Dosage value

Probiotic strain gastrointestinal disorder (in CFU) Reference
Akkermansia muciniphila ATCC Inflammatory bowel 2 × 108 [44]

BAA-835 disease
Bacillus subtilis PXN 21 Immunity 2 × 109 [45]
9
Saccharomyces boulardii CNCM Diarrhea 5 × 10 [46]
I-745
Bifidobacterium animalis Eradication of 1 × 109 [47]
Helicobacter pylori
Streptococcus thermophilus KCTC Constipation 2.5 × 108 [48]
11870BP
Pediococcus acidilactici CECT 7483 Irritable bowel syndrome 3–6 × 109 [49]
Bifidobacterium bifidum MIMBb75 Irritable bowel syndrome 1 × 109 [50]
10
Lacticaseibacillus paracasei Acute diarrhea 1 × 10 [51]
B21060 and L. rhamnosus GG
Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 Inflammatory bowel 5 × 1010 [52]
disease, ulcerative colitis
Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. Irritable bowel syndrome 4 × 109 [52]
bulgaricus LBY-27
0005549984.INDD 445 05-27-2023 11:17:30

technologies have not allowed for a full characterization of the microbial population in the
gut. In spite of this, computer studies have been conducted to try to figure out which micro-
bial communities are actually present in the gut and what function each strain plays [53].
However, it is vital to recognize that our complete understanding of the gut microflora is far
from complete and that new bacteria are continuously being discovered and defined.
Recent years have seen a rise in interest in the use of probiotic blends containing both
aerobic and anaerobic strains for nutritional supplementation and medical purposes. The
number of live cells present in the GI system is one factor that determines how effective
probiotic combinations are. Probiotics are traditionally manufactured in separate bioreac-
tors and then enhanced with various prebiotics and carrier agents. This procedure is done
in order to maximize its effectiveness [33]. An illustration of some important bioreactors
used for probiotic production has been indicated in Figure 21.1. For the purpose of the
efficient and cost-effective industrial production of probiotic biomass, it is important to
develop a novel medium that has a low operating cost. The agricultural and food sectors
generate a lot of waste, which might be turned into useful components for low-cost medium
development. Furthermore, industrial wastes such as cheese or paneer whey and corn
steep liquor are exceptional examples of dependable nitrogen (N2) sources for the develop-
ment of probiotic biomass [54].
Fermentation, media composition, cell harvesting process, cell drying methods (spray-
drying or freeze-drying, depicted in Figure 21.2), and conditions during storage like humid-
ity, temperature, and pH are some of a wider array of manufacturing parameters that can
affect the growth, viability, and ultimately survival of probiotic strains. The quality of the
1 2
Conventional batch Co-culture fermenter

fermenter
1 Culture-1
2 Culture-2
Membrane
filter
Permeate
Concentrated cell suspension
Membrane bioreactor
Figure 21.1 Diagrammatic presentation of the numerous bioreactors that are utilized in the
production of probiotics. Source: Adapted from Hathi et al. [33].
0005549984.INDD 446 05-27-2023 11:17:31

Solid Sterile
media water
Acid/base/anti
N2,
foam
CO2,
Inoculation pH probe
H2
Foam pO2 probe
probe
Filter
Spray drier Freeze drier
Blender UHT
sterilizer
Fermentation at Permeate
37 °C
Heating/cooling
Pump jacket
Filter
Figure 21.2 A schematic depiction of the production process for probiotics, employing either
spray-drying or freeze-drying. Source: Hathi et al. [33] / with permission from Elsevier.
final probiotic preparation is primarily dependent on the procedures that are followed
during the manufacturing process [55].
21.2.1 Conventional Batch Bioreactor System

Traditional fermentation methods for single-strain probiotics are shown in Figure 21.1. To
prevent the bacteria from sinking to the bottom of the bioreactor, continual stirring is used
to grow single-strain probiotics in a particular liquid broth within a huge pH-controlled
fermenter tank. It is important to note that throughout the process of producing anaerobic
probiotics, dissolved gases such as N2, hydrogen (H2), and carbon dioxide (CO2) are fre-
quently subjected to stringent regulation and circulation. Figure 21.3 is a representation of
the aseptic process, which consists of combining a solid growth medium with sterile water
in a mixing tank, filtering the mixture to remove any leftover particles, and then pumping
the mixture into a fermenter vessel that has been sanitized.
When it comes to inoculating with single-strain probiotics, there are two typical ways
that are utilized [56]. The preparation of cultures on a smaller scale that may later be
increased in size is made possible through the use of freeze-dried stocks. An alternate tech-
nique in which a significant number of frozen, concentrated cells are delivered to the fer-
menter is called direct vat inoculation/direct vat set (DIV/DVS). When employing the first
method, there is a possibility of genetic drift occurring due to the multiple generations of
bacteria that are produced while raising the culture volume; however, using DVI/DVS
removes the possibility of this happening [56].
In the fed-batch fermentation approach, which is one of the older methods, the utiliza-
tion of concentrated whey and waste from the processing of mussels was emphasized as a
means of achieving high-volume production of the probiotic strain Lactococcus lactis
CECT 539. This was done as a means to achieve high-quality production of the strain. The
following are the circumstances that were present during the batch fermentation: 2% inoc-
ulum (v/v), 30 °C temperature, and agitation at 200 revolutions per minute (rpm).
According to the findings, the amount of biomass was raised to 5.49 g/L, and a greater
0005549984.INDD 447 05-27-2023 11:17:31

A D
E F G
H R
Q
B O
I
J
C S
K U
P
N
M T V
L
Figure 21.3 Schematic representation of various components of bioreactor systems for the
production of probiotics. (A) Water and solid media mix; (B) sterilizer; (C) fermenter; (D) nutrient
media containing vessel; (E) inoculation port; (F) gas exhaust port; (G) oxygen probe; (H) pH probe;
(I) steam valve; (J) sampling port; (K) air inlet; (L) centrifuge/filtration unit; (M) supernatant;
(N) filtrate; (O) cryo/lyo-protectant vessel; (P) cryo/lyo-protectant and cell concentrate mix tank;
(Q) pelletizer; (R) liquid N2 bath; (S) spray drier; (T) spray-dried powder; (U) freeze drier; (V) freeze-
dried powder.
number of viable cells (2.33 × 1010 CFU/mL) were achieved [57]. The study effectively
proposes a technique to utilize the culture medium made by effluents of the food industry
using a fed-batch method for better production of probiotic bacteria, which is one of the
most important contributions that can be taken away from the study [57]. In a study that
was quite similar to this one, researchers evaluated many different types of dietary strate-
gies that may modulate the gut microbiota in the circumstance of dysbiosis. Researchers
in this work employed batch fermentation to learn how different Bifidobacterium strains
symbiotically exploited prebiotics (inulin and short-chain fructo-oligosaccharides) as a
carbon source. The researchers were interested in how inulin and short-chain fructo-
oligosaccharides were utilized by the Bifidobacterium strains. In particular, the research-
ers were interested in the manner in which the Bifidobacterium strains metabolized inulin
and short-chain fructo-oligosaccharides. The use of short-chain fructo-oligosaccharides
by strains of Bifidobacterium longum was shown to be much more successful than the
utilization of inulin, as evidenced by the findings of Malvido and coworkers [57]. In
addition, the use of short-chain fructo-oligosaccharides as a source of carbon was found
to modify the synthesis of metabolites [58]. Both the studies that were described earlier
in this section came to the conclusion that batch fermentation techniques may be
employed effectively for increased probiotic production when the appropriate carbon
source is utilized.
In a recent investigation on the gut probiotic Prevotella copri DSM18205T, done by Huang
and coworkers [59], the researchers reported effective batch cultivations using stirred tank
bioreactors. The primary objective of the research was to conduct a comparative growth
analysis between two distinct kinds of peptone yeast medium, each of which could either
employ glucose or xylose as its source of carbon. In addition, this paper included a more
in-depth investigation into the technique by which succinic acid is produced throughout
0005549984.INDD 448 05-27-2023 11:17:32

the fermentation process. Fermentation took place in a 1.4 L bioreactor with a pH of

7.2 maintained by adding 1 M NaOH to the medium. The reactor was heated to 37 °C and
agitated at a rate of 80 rpm. According to the findings, the organism exhibited a rather con-
sistent cell dry weight of more than 2 g/L when the pH was measured at 7.2 [59].
Nevertheless, the organism that produces succinic acid preferred conditions containing
xylose since it resulted in 0.8 g of succinic acid being formed for every gram of xylose that
was used. This was a significantly greater amount in comparison to the 0.6 g of succinic
acid that Huang and coworkers found to be created per gram of glucose [59]. It is possible
to monitor the growth of probiotics in the fermenter through the use of cell density meas-
urements, and both optical and fluorescence microscopes are utilized in order to examine
the surrounding environment for any indications of contamination. The temperature that
is typically maintained during fermentation is 37 °C; however, this temperature may change
depending on the probiotic strain being used.
Following the completion of the batch fermentation process, a filtered and concen-
trated suspension of cells is either spray-dried or freeze-dried to generate a dry powder
probiotic. This powder may then be combined with a variety of food products or mar-
keted in capsule form. For the fermentation process to be profitable on a commercial
scale, it must have a high cell density in addition to its viability. In order to avoid the loss
of bacterial viability, cryoprotectants and lyoprotectants are often introduced just before
to the freeze-drying and spray-drying processes, respectively. It has been found that
freeze-dried probiotic bacteria have a greater survival rate than spray-dried bacteria
because of the lower temperatures involved in the freeze-drying method [60]. Freeze-
drying in the presence of lactulose as a cryoprotectant was shown to be an effective
method for the preservation of the probiotic strain Enterococcus durans in a study that
was carried out by Estilarte and colleagues [61]. The cell pellets were centrifuged and
then resuspended in 0.15 mL of a 0.85% (w/v) NaCl solution, followed by 0.15 mL of a
solution containing either 200 mg/L of sucrose, lactulose, or maltodextrin. After being
frozen (at −80 °C for 24 hours), the cell suspension was freeze-dried for 48 hours at
−50 °C and 0.006 mbar correspondingly. However, a number of studies that focused on
the administration of probiotics show that the spray drying technique is just as successful
as other ways because it provides a barrier of protection for cells against the harsh condi-
tions of the intestinal environment and storage methods [62, 63]. On the basis of the
molecular weight of the constituent components, cryoprotectants may be divided into
two distinct categories [64], and they are as follows: (i) low-molecular weight (LMW)
cryoprotectants and (ii) high-molecular weight (HMW) cryoprotectants. Sugars such as
trehalose, lactose, glucose, lactose, sorbitol, and mannose are examples of LMW cryopro-
tectants that are utilized often. Sugars are assumed to prevent cellular damage by react-
ing with phospholipids that are already present in the cell wall during LMW
cryopreservation, despite the fact that this process is not completely understood.
Cryoprotectants with an HMW, such as polysaccharides and polypeptides (such as whey
proteins, casein, alginate, gelatin, maltodextrin, etc.), coat the surface of the microorgan-
isms with a thick, viscous film that is impermeable to ice crystals [64]. Moreover, it has
been found that the probiotic cells are able to maintain higher viability rates (greater
than 4 log CFU/mL) when the encapsulation conditions are adequate and sufficient
lyoprotectants are used [65].
0005549984.INDD 449 05-27-2023 11:17:32

21.2.2 Membrane Bioreactor System

The use of cross-flow membrane ultra/microfiltration into the batch fermentation vessel is
one method that may be utilized to boost the output rate (Figures 21.1 and 21.3). When the
required cell density has been attained, the broth is passed through the membrane unit of
the filtration system to get rid of any potentially dangerous metabolites and excess acids,
and then the retentate is transferred back into the fermenter vessel. After then, the new
medium is continually fed into the fermenter, and the flow rates are adjusted as necessary
in order to keep the overall volume from fluctuating. After that, the concentrated cell sus-
pension can be removed either in batches or in a continuous fashion. When grown in mem-
brane bioreactors, probiotics have been shown in studies to provide a higher cell output
and overall productivity than when produced in conventional bioreactors [1, 26, 56]. When
compared to traditional batch fermentation, the research conducted by Anandharaj and
coworkers [26] found that the amount of biomass produced by continuous fermentation
was 7–10 times higher than that of batch fermentation. High cell yield and a 15-fold
increase in volumetric productivity were reported by Corre and coworkers [66] for
Bifidobacterium bifidum in liquid culture. This was in comparison to previous findings that
there was a high cell yield. On the other hand, it has been noted that membrane fouling and
a greater cost input are associated with membrane-based bioreactors in comparison to con-
ventional batch fermentation (Table 21.2). In spite of this, Fan and colleagues who concen-
trated their research on the problem of membrane fouling found that employing a
combination of fed-batch fermentation technology and B. coagulans boosts the final con-
centration as well as the purity of the target product [71]. In this particular instance, fructo-
oligosaccharides are the product of interest. These fructo-oligosaccharides are produced by
enzymes known as fructosyltransferases or levansucrases [72]. In the beginning, a semi-
continuous manufacturing method using a membrane bioreactor was established. This
method was then followed by fermentation using B. coagulans. Studies involving fermenta-
tion were conducted in a 3 L bioreactor at 40 °C and pH 6.8 with 1 vvm aeration. After the
fermentation had progressed to the point where it had reached the stationary phase, the
mode of operation was changed to fed-batch, and the fructo-oligosaccharide solution was
constantly diluted so as to avoid substrate inhibition. According to the findings of Fan and
colleagues [71], the most significant contributor to membrane fouling is the aggregation of
proteins, which might be responsible for more than 50% of the resistance encountered dur-
ing the filtering process. During the fermentation process, the fructo-oligosaccharide solu-
tion was appropriately diluted with water so as to avoid substrate inhibition. This was done
in order to prevent substrate inhibition. After the elimination of all inhibitory metabolites,
the final product was the fructo-oligosaccharide, which had a very high purity of 96.6% [71].
Immobilized cell fermentation is an additional method that may be utilized to increase
the production rates of probiotic bacteria (Figure 21.3). The development of novel fermen-
tation technologies has resulted in a rise in the level of attention that is being paid to the
use of novel nanoparticles, polymers, and compounds that are derived from plants in cur-
rent research. For immobilized cell fermentation, the biopolymers that can most effectively
operate as an immobilization matrix are chosen. This helps to enhance the overall growth
rate, maintains cell viability, and makes it possible to more easily collect the value-added
product. Because of this, there is a possibility that the probiotic strains’ activity can be
enhanced to a greater degree [73]. In immobilized cell culture, the cells are initially
0005549984.INDD 450 05-27-2023 11:17:32

Table 21.2 Different fermentation systems employed for producing probiotic cultures with specific pros and cons.
Type of Fed-batch Membrane Immobilized culture

fermentation Batch fermentation fermentation Continuous system bioreactor system system
Probiotic Lactococcus lactis, Lactococcus lactis Bifidobacterium Bifidobacterium Bifidobacterium longum,

strain(s) studied Bifidobacterium longum, CECT 539 longum longum Lactococcus lactis,
Bifidobacterium bifidum Bacillus coagulans Lactobacillus delbrueckii
PS5 ssp. bulgaricus
Advantages ●● Simple control and easy ●● High viability of ●● Under controlled ●● Improves ●● Cost-effective approach
to sterilize probiotic strains conditions, a higher productivity ●● Greater viability of the
●● Low chance of ●● Higher yield growth rate is ●● Diminishes probiotic culture
contamination noticed effects of ●● Continuous and
●● Low operating cost ●● Usually used in inhibitory controlled delivery of
adaptation and metabolites on probiotics to the gut
evolution studies probiotic strains
produced during
the growth
Drawbacks ●● New seed culture is ●● A build-up of ●● A constant supply of ●● High-cost ●● Biocompatibility of
necessitated for every batch inhibitory nutrients is an approach some immobilizing
●● Fresh carbon source is metabolites obligation ●● Membrane agents restricts their
required for each batch including toxins ●● Aggregation of fouling is the use
●● Hard to culture anaerobic may occur microbial cells can biggest issue ●● Production processes
strains limit optimal growth are very complex
Reference(s) [58, 67] [57] [68, 69] [26, 27, 70] [30, 68]
0005549984.INDD 451 05-27-2023 11:17:32

immobilized in polysaccharide hydrogels. This allows the cells to be cultured more

effectively. The immobilized bacterium gels are then placed inside of a normal fermenter
vessel, where they are subjected to routine medium additions and periodic cell harvesting
in order to guarantee that the required concentration of bacteria is always present.
Maximum productivity and long-term survival may be achieved by careful regulation of
metabolic activity, gene expression, and growth rate during immobilized cell fermentation.
There has not been much research done on B. longum, but the ones that have been done
have found that strains created through immobilized cell fermentation had higher produc-
tivity, improved transcriptional rates, and superior long-term stability [74, 75]. The phase of
the production process in which bacterial cells are collected is primarily responsible for the
observed increase in metabolic activity and stability of the probiotic strains that are pro-
duced. When bacterial cells are collected, it is either during the exponential phase of growth
or the early stationary phase. This helps to ensure that the cells will maintain a higher level
of viability throughout storage and subsequent operations. Making probiotic bacterial
strains that can be used in commercial food products costs a lot of money, takes a long time,
and presents a big problem when it comes to making sure they can be used for a long time.
As a result, it is challenging to obtain the bare minimum required number of viable cells
after the fermentation process [26].
Immobilized cell fermentation had been associated with conventional batch fermenta-
tion in the method that Desmond and colleagues developed [76]. The goal of this method
was to increase survival rates and tolerance toward a variety of stress-producing factors that
were the result of nutritional, environmental, and physicochemical limitations [76].
However, further research is required to determine whether the implementation of these
methodologies could have an effect on the capability of downstream processing to include
carrier agents and compounds. It is possible that in the decades to come, producers of pro-
biotics may utilize a combination of these tactics in order to establish a system that is both
easy and economical for the manufacturing of probiotics.
21.2.3 Co-culture Fermentation

Combinations of several probiotic strains can be found in a number of commercially mar-
keted probiotic supplements. At the moment, practically all commercial multi-strain probi-
otic solutions are made by fermenting and drying the bacteria in separate batches, and then
combining the bacteria in different proportions or mixes in order to achieve the desired
result [28]. In the past few years, there has been a significant increase in interest in the appli-
cation of multi-strain fermentation techniques for the production of probiotic bacteria on a
large scale. A successful co-culture strategy (Figure 21.1) may produce viable microorgan-
isms in appropriate quantities, and it can also act as a cost-effective alternative to conven-
tional methods. Probiotics are expensive to produce, but a number of studies have suggested
that growing several types of bacteria in the same bioreactor might bring down manufactur-
ing costs and make treatment of severe stomach problems accessible to people in developing
nations [77]. Nevertheless, in order to establish such an approach for co-culture fermenta-
tion, one must first have an in-depth knowledge of the dynamics, synergism, and growth
rates of the probiotic strains during the initial exponential phase. This is a precondition for
constructing such a strategy. Some examples of the types of interactions that might take
0005549984.INDD 452 05-27-2023 11:17:32

+ – + +
• Parasitism • Mutualism
• Predation • Protocooperation
+ 0 0 –
• Commensalism • Amensalism
– – 0 0
• Competition • Neutralism
Types of microbial interactions in co-culture fermentation
+ Positive effect – Negative effect 0 No effect
Positive-positive effect: Both organisms are benefited.

Positive-negative effect: One is benefited and the other is affected.
Positive-no effect: One is benefited and the other is not affected.
Negative-no effect: One is unaffected and the other is inhibited.
Negative-negative effect: Both organisms are adversely affected.
No effect: No interactions
Figure 21.4 A graphical presentation of the various kinds of interactions that are related to
co-culture fermentation. Source: Hathi et al. [33]; Sarsan et al. [78].
place are indicated in Figure 21.4. Therefore, having a grasp of the interactions that might
occur between two or more bacterial strains is a vital component in the process of establish-
ing protocols for co-culture fermentation. These complexities have led to a reliance on tradi-
tional or batch procedures employing pure cultures produced from freeze-dried powder or
previously held stocks rather than co-culture fermentation, which has its benefits. However,
co-culture fermentation does have its advantages. After the cultures have been prepared
individually, they are dried and then combined in a variety of different quantities.
Nevertheless, there are a few rare instances in which two or more than two cultures can be
produced in a bioreactor at the same time inside an environment that is under regulated
conditions [25]. Batch fermentation has a number of benefits, but typical ways of producing
probiotics have a poor productivity rate. This is caused by a number of factors, including
competition for nutrients and biological space, inhibitory metabolic end products, and a
lack of synergism [79]. Cell immobilization technologies, on the other hand, have the poten-
tial to provide a viable solution to the difficulties associated with the production of multi-
strain cultures. In point of fact, new research on cell immobilization techniques has shown
that it is possible to employ them in conjunction with co-culture fermentation in order to
enhance the number of probiotic cultures produced [25, 42]. In addition, as opposed to the
batch fermentation method, the conjunction of co-culture fermentation and immobilization
approaches has resulted in enhanced cell density, productivity, and greater resistance to con-
tamination [77, 80]. This is all because of the approaches’ synergistic effect. According to the
findings of these investigations, it may be feasible to maintain stable circumstances for an
0005549984.INDD 453 05-27-2023 11:17:32

extended length of time while cultivating a diverse microbiome. The key challenges faced by
industries seeking to commercially produce probiotics are the high pace of growth and acid-
ification experienced by traditional starter cultures. In addition, it is essential to choose the
most appropriate choice of growing medium and fermentation method in order to maxi-
mize cell production and maintain its integrity during storage. Dinkçi et al. [81] and Fenster
et al. [56] contributed to the studies in which these findings were included. Notwithstanding
the benefits that these approaches offer, one of the most significant limitations of co-culture
fermentation systems is that the microorganisms that are co-cultured continue to engage in
competitive interactions with one another. In order to have a successful co-culture process,
it is essential to perfect the optimization of the culture conditions, carbon supply, and biore-
actor architecture. There can be several microorganisms that compete for resources and gen-
erate secondary metabolites that inhibit the growth of other microorganisms. This can
happen when there are two or more than two microorganisms [82]. The process of
co-culturing necessitates substantial prior screening in order to identify which microorgan-
ism species may be co-cultured in a way that is beneficial.
21.2.4 Recent Methods for Producing Multiple Probiotic Strains

In majority instances, the synthesis of probiotic cells is performed by using the strain’s own
growing medium, as this is the most common method. The most common medium for the
culture of LAB or bifidobacteria is called MRS broth, which stands for de Man Rogosa
Sharpe broth. In addition, redox-reducing chemicals such as cysteine were added to the
bifidobacteria growth medium in order to stimulate their proliferation [41]. Researchers
also employed a medium composed of whey in a few of the cases in order to boost cell
counts at the end of the fermentation process [83]. For instance, a method that was devel-
oped not too long ago demonstrated that starchy acid hydrolysates, particularly those that
were obtained from byproducts of agro-industrial processes, are effective substrates for the
production of yeast biomass (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and other derivative products at a
low cost [83]. In addition to this, it may be able to contribute to the environmentally respon-
sible development of biorefinery technologies.
The human digestive tract is a highly effective bioreactor that receives food as its input,
digests that food, absorbs nutrients from that food, and then expels surplus biomass. The
intestinal tract is capable of maintaining pH and oxygen gradients in the stomach and the
rectum, which provides habitats that are conducive to the growth of both aerobic and anaer-
obic microorganisms in appropriate sites [84]. It is feasible to utilize bioreactors to cultivate
several aerobic and anaerobic gut microorganism strains at the same time by simulating the
human digestive tract by varying the pH and oxygen levels in the bioreactors in the same
way that the human gut does. For instance, one approach of immobilization based on hydro-
gel may be utilized to bring about the desired spatial gradients. There is evidence that
cellulose-based hydrogels are appropriate alternatives for the immobilization of probiotics.
These hydrogels are both biocompatible and biodegradable, and they have already been uti-
lized in a variety of bioengineering procedures [33, 41, 77]. In addition, it has been demon-
strated that cellulose hydrogels exhibit a considerable degree of bio-elasticity. This property
has the potential to be studied as a technique to produce pH and oxygen gradients and to
replicate the ecology of the intestinal tract. However, the development of such a bioreactor
0005549984.INDD 454 05-27-2023 11:17:33

21.3 Strategies Employed for Harvesting and Drying Probiotic Cell 455
is difficult from a technological standpoint [77]. Despite recent advancements in hydrogel-

based nano- and micro-structured materials, comprehensive multidisciplinary research is
necessary to confirm the effectiveness of bioreactors that mimic the human digestive tract.
Producing probiotic biotherapeutics and nutraceuticals might be accomplished with the use
of a bioreactor that mimics the digestive tract and allows for the simultaneous production of
a variety of aerobic and anaerobic bacteria [77]. Furthermore, in order to bring these innova-
tive materials and engineering to market, it will first be necessary to conduct exhaustive
clinical studies and comprehensive lifecycle assessment evaluations of the process.
21.3 Strategies Employed for Harvesting

and Drying Probiotic Cells
The subsequent critical stage in the synthesis of probiotics is cell harvesting, and this step
is essential regardless of the bioreactors technology that was employed. Centrifugation and
filtering are two typical procedures that are used for harvesting produced cells from the
liquid medium. These methods are comparable to cross-flow filtration or membrane tech-
nology. The effectiveness of a multi-strain probiotic product that is commercially useful is
greatly reliant on the kind of strains that are utilized in combination and the amount of
viable bacterial cells that are produced once the product is made. As a result, it is of utmost
importance to determine whether the strains being utilized have a high level of production,
a high concentration of spores, and are simple to recover during the harvesting proce-
dure [85]. In addition, the processes that are utilized in order to harvest the spores for the
multi-strain probiotics need to be productive enough to ensure that greater than 80% of the
viable spores are obtained [85]. A spore count of more than 1 × 1010 spores per dose is con-
sidered optimal for all. This is essential in order to make up for the reduction in the number
of viable cells that occurs during the subsequent processes and product development [86].
At this time, the most common method of harvesting is centrifugation performed at a cool
temperature (about 4 °C). It is generally agreed upon that this approach yields the best
results when it comes to concentrating probiotic cells. An investigation was carried out
with the purpose of evaluating the effect that different centrifugation conditions, such as
speed, pH, temperature, and time, had on starting cultures [87]. In this study, the impacts
on the acidification activity of probiotic cells were analyzed. According to the findings, the
particular acidification activity that took place during the phase of cell concentration was
not significantly affected by the conditions in which the cells were harvested. This was
demonstrated by the absence of a substantial impact. However, the cells’ capacity to toler-
ate cold storage was altered both by the length of time that was spent centrifuging the cells
and by the speed at which the process was carried out. In addition, when centrifugation
was performed at temperatures ranging from 4 to 15 °C, there was not a discernible differ-
ence in the results. When the proper centrifugation circumstances were paired with the
acidification of the cells in the fermented broth, a relative increase in the cells’ ability to
withstand freezing temperatures was seen [87]. According to the findings of another study,
which focused on Propionibacterium freudenreichii and L. casei, microbial cells in high
solid (20–30%) containing medium have a better growth rate, greater viability, and greater
ability to retain nutrients [88]. The increased tolerance that is produced as a result of the
0005549984.INDD 455 05-27-2023 11:17:33

high osmolality that is present in a medium that contains more than 20% of total solid
content is responsible for enhanced cell survival [88]. In addition, the cells should be har-
vested during the stationary phase, and the pH should be neutralized since these are the
ideal techniques for increasing the vitality of the probiotic cells [88, 89].
Physically separating bacterial cells from the growing medium using membrane filtra-
tion increases expenses and resource usage [56, 90]. The retention and processing of the
growing media for spray drying of cells is recommended for most large-scale manufactur-
ing plants. When cells are harvested immediately and then spray-dried, valuable metabo-
lites including short-chain fatty acids, vitamins, and bacteriocin are preserved. The recovery
process has been improved by the use of state-of-the-art techniques such as vacuum filtra-
tion, microfiltration, and ultracentrifugation to isolate cells from fermented liquor [91].
After the cells have been harvested in the best way possible, they need to be mixed with
protective agents like cryo (which prevents ice crystal formation) and lyo (which stabilizes
the lipid bilayer of the cell membrane) to prevent too much damage from occurring during
subsequent steps in the process, such as drying (Figure 21.2). This cryogenically preserved
concentrate is freeze-dried utilizing a number of different methods. The process that may
be summarized as “pouring of cryoprotected concentrate into cans, closing it, then immers-
ing it in liquid N2 bath, and finally storing it” is the easiest method. A second method
involves the dripping of cryoprotected concentrate through calibrated pores in a bath of
liquid N2 in order to make pellets. The pellets that are retrieved from the bottom of the bath
are either treated to freeze-drying or packaged and kept at temperatures between −45 and
−55 °C. However, the most popular method involves filling trays with cryoprotected con-
centrate and placing them on top of temperature-controlled shelves. The shelves are then
chilled to freezing under air pressure and heat in the presence of a vacuum. The vacuum
and temperature ranges are 100–1000 mTorr and −40 to +40 °C, respectively [56]. Despite
these developments in harvesting methods, centrifugation looks to be a suitable alterna-
tive, and with further refinement in technology, this might serve as a more trustworthy
alternative when compared to the other ways for the downstream processing of probiotics.
To be both ecologically and economically sustainable, as well as straightforward and doa-
ble, a harvesting method must first and foremost aim to minimize the number of steps
required to collect the desired output. This crucial component is at the very core of manu-
facturing facilities aiming to formulate multi-strain probiotic products.
In addition to the many systems that have been addressed, it demonstrates that exposing
probiotic cells to proper environmental factors such as temperature, pH, osmotic pressure,
and so on has the potential to lead to an increase in the viability of probiotics. In addition,
probiotic bacterial strains respond to environmental conditions by producing certain
chemicals such as exopolysaccharides and proteins. These molecules assist the probiotic
strains in maintaining their viability during the subsequent processing steps as well.
21.4 Final Remarks and Possible Directions for the Future
Over the course of the past several years, there has been a significant rise in the use of pro-
biotic foods that have functional purposes. However, due to the poor survival rate of many
probiotic strains, in vitro production of these microorganisms continues to be a difficult
0005549984.INDD 456 05-27-2023 11:17:33

Reference 457
task. Nevertheless, novel fermentation methodologies, such as immobilized cell technologies,

batch methods, membrane bioreactors, and continuous fermentation, are extremely suited
and encourage the growth of probiotic strains due to the simple management of pH gradi-
ents and dispersed O2 levels. Compared to batch procedures, fed-batch and continuous
fermentation systems might be more cost-effective due to their ability to maximize lactic
acid productivity. Furthermore, the utilization of non-hazardous nano-cellulose hydrogels
that are biodegradable and recyclable in membrane fermenters has the potential to make
probiotic research substantially more successful.
Complex degrees of planning and engineering is required in order to design a method that
may successfully grow probiotics in an environment that is a close analog to their natural habi-
tat. The utilization of agricultural and/or food waste resources for the purpose of the growth of
probiotics appears to be a viable strategy with the potential to minimize the total cost of the
production process by utilizing any form of the bioreactor system. Even while large-scale cul-
ture using continuous production methodologies has been described as effective, continuous
fermentation always presents a danger of contamination and, more significantly, modifying
the features of probiotics in the process owing to genetic drift. The process has the potential to
change the characteristics of the probiotics themselves as a result of genetic drift. This is
because continuous fermentation involves the use of the same culture for an extended period
of time. The growing popularity of functional foods has redirected the attention of researchers
in this field toward determining the probiotic strains that are most effective in certain applica-
tions. The development of multi-strain probiotic products will make it possible to develop a
strategy for treating GI problems and for alleviating the symptoms of malnutrition, at least to
some extent. Unfortunately, traditional techniques are still relied on for the generation of pro-
biotic cultures in a significant majority. It should come as no surprise that many of these
approaches require a significant investment of both time and money. Cellulose hydrogels
appear to be an appropriate choice for the production of multi-strain probiotics and hold the
promise of being a cost-effective alternative that requires very minimal processing in the
downstream stages. These characteristics are essential for establishing a probiotic product in
the marketplace that is viable from a marketing standpoint moving forward.
Abbreviations
DVI direct vat inoculation

GI gastrointestinal
IBD inflammatory bowel disease
IBS irritable bowel syndrome
LAB lactic acid bacteria
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465
22
Microbial Bioproduction of Antiaging Molecules

Ankita Dua1, Aeshna Nigam1, Anjali Saxena2, Gauri Garg Dhingra3,
and Roshan Kumar4
1
Department of Zoology, Shivaji College, University of Delhi, Raja Garden, New Delhi, India
2
Department of Zoology, Bhaskaracharya College of Applied Sciences, University of Delhi, Dwarka, New Delhi, India
3
Department of Zoology, Kirori Mal College, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
4
Post-Graduate Department of Zoology, Magadh University, Bodh Gaya, Bihar, India
22.1 Introduction
Microbial community is known to produce specialized metabolites, secondary products,

pigments, toxins, etc., which are not involved in primary metabolism but are beneficial to
the organism. Some of these products are potential medical agents with therapeutic appli-
cations [1, 2]. The ever-increasing demand for pharmaceuticals from natural resources has
been largely met by microbial bioproduction and has proven to be a boon to the growing
population. In 1978, about 23,500 pigs and cattle were sacrificed to obtain one pound of
insulin (https://www.gene.com/stories/cloning-insulin). Today, microbial bioproduction
of synthetic “human” insulin has been achieved in Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cer-
evisiae on a large scale [3] and approved by FDA for therapeutical applications. Many other
natural compounds and metabolites produced by microbes and plants could be potential
drug candidates; however, they are produced in very low quantities. This problem necessi-
tates the development of microbial bioproduction of these compounds for consumption in
drug industry. For example, ergothioneine, commonly known as longevity vitamin, is a
vitamin-like antioxidant synthesized by mushrooms and a few microbes but at very low
concentrations [4]. The same compound has been reported to be produced in large scale in
E. coli with a high-cysteine production system [5].
Aging is a multifactorial process that includes both extrinsic and intrinsic factors. Three
popular research aspects on aging have been outlined as: compressed morbidity, decelerated
aging, and arrested aging. Compressed morbidity aims to prevent ailments of old age by
intervening at the molecular level to increase average human lifespan. Decelerated aging
seeks to stall the processes of aging, and arrested aging has a long-term goal of restoring
vitality and body functions [6]. Arrested aging negates the damaging effects of senescence
by controlling the aging process.

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466 22 Microbial Bioproduction of Antiaging Molecules
In recent years, economic growth, lifestyles, and health awareness has led to increased
usage of antiaging products. Calorie/dietary restriction, genetic manipulation, and antiag-
ing molecule treatments are the most effective proven methods to reverse aging and
increase the life expectancy [7, 8]. Diet is the principal source of calorie intake and contrib-
utes to many lifestyles associated diseases and aging process. Calorie Restriction Mimetics
(CRM) are the molecules that can increase longevity by altering aging-related pathways [9],
and consumption of these mimetics can even help in overcoming the challenges posed by
a calorie restriction diet. Some of these CRM include hydroxy-citric acid, inhibitors of gly-
colysis (e.g. d-allulose and d-glucosamine), and polyamines (e.g. curcumin, resveratrol,
quercetin, di-methoxychalcones, salicylic acid, trientine, and rapamycin) that are freely
available in nature [10]. These can facilitate metabolism by activating autophagy and recy-
cling of cellular components. CRM are known to act on four biological pathways namely
insulin signaling pathway, mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway, sirtuin-1
(SIRT1) pathway, and adenosine monophosphate-activated kinase (AMPK) pathway.
Understanding of these pathways is required for extending human health span [11]. There
is no alternative to calorie restriction to extend life expectancy in higher organisms except
the discovery of antiaging molecules and their mass production. A possibility to achieve
this would be to express the genes in microbial hosts such as bacteria or fungi through
biotechnological means.
Since most of these compounds are chemical based and are bound to have unknown side
effects, demand for ecofriendly, naturally safe, and harmless molecules in the market con-
tinues to grow [12]. New products being used are cosmeceuticals and nutricosmetics: for-
mer being used to define safe and active products that benefit skin maintenance and treat
dermatological conditions produced by the cosmetic industry, and the latter are products
that function as nutritional supplements for skin, hair, and nails [13].
Furthermore, using the latest advances in gut-microbial research, antiaging interven-
tions are being developed by changing dietary habits, exercising, and taking certain specific
drugs [14]. The gut microbiome tends to change with age, diet, physical activity, lifestyle,
etc. and restoring dysbiosis in the gut entails harnessing those beneficial bacteria that have
been depleted to achieve minimal damage to internal milieu [15]. Keeping in view the cur-
rent research trends in microbes, this chapter focuses on the source of antiaging com-
pounds from microbial world and their bioproduction and association with human health.
22.2 The Aging Process: An Overview
Aging can be classified into two categories: intrinsic aging (due to senescence in cells caused
by oxidative stress and reactive oxygen species [ROS]) and extrinsic aging (due to environ-
mental factors such as UV light, particulate matter, and pollution [16]). Lifestyle with diet,
stress, consumption of alcohol/drugs, disorders, and medications exert a great influence on
physical aging [17]. Byproducts of normal metabolism as well as environmental stress and
UV radiation lead to the buildup of ROS and reactive nitrogen species (RNS). The buildup of
these radicals in oxidative stress leads to pathological conditions and untimely cell death.
The phenomenon of aging is initiated at the time of conception and goes on in the entire
lifespan of an individual. Various molecular and cellular events add on to the damage in any
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22.2 The Aging Process: An Overvie 467
cell and result in aging, also causing risk of onset of diseases and ultimately death
(Figure 22.1). Multiple factors affect aging processes in the human body; for example, ROS
that includes superoxide anions (O2−), hydroxyl radicals (OH), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2),
and hypocholorous acid (HOCl) have been implicated with inflammation, aging-related
disorders, cardiovascular disorders, cancer, and atherosclerosis [18]. Particulate matter, soot
and nitrogen dioxide, that are resultants of traffic-related air pollution have been also shown
to be associated with premature aging of skin [19]. The cardiovascular system, nervous
system, and skin (the human body’s biggest defense system) are affected the most by aging-
related processes. The most prevalent factor affecting the skin is exposure to radiations,
especially ultraviolet causing damage to the dermal and epidermal layers and release of
ROS [20]. Thus, there is an increasing demand in the usage of natural products that can help
in extended vitality and rejuvenation of skin and general health. Multiple such products
have been explored from bacterial and fungal reservoirs for preparation of commercial
antiaging products for human usage [21]. Nitric oxide (NO˙) is a molecule produced in the
body by nitric oxide synthases (NOSs) (three types: neuronal NOS, endothelial NOS, and
inducible NOS) that acts as a second messenger and functions in the smooth muscle relaxa-
tion in blood vessels [22]. NO is toxic to bacteria and viruses that may invade the body but is
also detrimental to host cells and may inactivate vital enzymes resulting in cellular death.
Repeated infections in the body produce changes that lead to aging via release of high quan-
tities of NO˙. It has been reported that melatonin, vitamin C, and vitamin E are capable of
combatting the ill effects of damage caused by NO [23].
All autotrophic marine organisms such as bacteria, archaea, fungi, and algae contain
carotenoids, xanthophylls, which play roles of antioxidants that shield the skin from ROS
that are dispersed in the cell after natural oxidation induced by aging-related activities.
Examples of carotenes are lycopene and α/β carotene made of carbon and hydrogen; xan-
thophylls on the other hand contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (examples such as asta-
xanthin, flucoxanthin, and lutein) [20]. Carotenoids play a major role in defense against
these radiations, including lycopene, lutein, and α/γ/β carotenes. Studies have shown effect
ROS
NOS
UV light
Pollution
Drugs
Aging
Alcohol
Smoking
High-fat diet
Oxidative stress
Particulate matter Antioxidants
Biosurfactants
Anticancer
Cell repair
aging
Anti
Biocatalyst
Anti-UV
Skin-firming
Figure 22.1 Aging and antiaging molecules.
c22.indd 467 05/26/2023 19:17:53

R* HO
Free radial
O
RH + *O
Figure 22.2 Vitamin E quenches free radicals by donating its H-atom from the phenolic group
and thus preventing oxidative damage.
of β-carotene coupled with vitamins E and C can protect cells from toxic damage by perox-
ynitrite anion and the nitrogen dioxide radical (NO˙) [24]. Carotenoids are a group of more
than 700 pigments produced by plants, algae, and photosynthetic bacteria and are known
to counter harmful effects of ROS. Pathogenesis of atherosclerosis, diabetes mellitus,
inflammations, and many types of cancers are linked to the presence of increasing levels of
ROS. It has become imperative to look for natural products that can reduce disease burden
and aging due to the presence of oxidative stress. Detailed work has been carried out on the
green microalga Tetraselmis suecica (class Chlorophyceae) that is abundant in vitamin E,
carotenoids, chlorophyll, and tocopherols. Pigment extract of this algal species has been
implicated in strong antioxidant effects and cell repairing capabilities [25]. Imbalance
between antioxidant defense systems and free radicals circulating in our bodies results in
oxidative stress. Polyphenols obtained from plant extracts have a strong free radical-
scavenging activity and possess antiaging potential [26]. Their mechanism of action is of
scavenging free radicals by H-atom transfer (Figure 22.2) and hence reduction of toxic
effects of oxidative stress [27].
22.3 Human Health and the Aging Gut Microbiome
Physiological aging results in significant changes in the microbiome and immune system.
The immune system exhibits diminished immune responses, a state referred to as immuno-
senescence [28], while bacterial diversity and function also shifts due to the reduction in the
heterogeneity of different taxa [29]. It has been proposed that by reducing low-grade inflam-
mation and immuno-senescence, which are the two main causes of age-related dysbiosis,
human lifespan may extend with improved health [30]. A variety of factors affect the compo-
sition and function of the human gut microbiome, including host genetics, lifestyle, dietary
factors, extent of physical activity, drug use, and social environment [31]. Among the leading
causes of mortality worldwide are age-related conditions that often accompany gut dysbiosis.
The gut microbiome is dynamic to keep up with a constantly changing environment, con-
tinuously changing its species composition, abundance, and functional potential [32].
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22.4 The Antiaging Bioproducts from Microbe 469
According to studies, the human gut microbiome develops rapidly between the ages of 0 and
3 years, followed by a relatively stable microbiome for a longer period if not subjected to
dysbiosis or medication, and then slowly changes as we approach the old age [31].
Biagi et al. investigated the enrichment of age-related gut microbial taxa using four age
categories, i.e. semi-supercentenarians (105–109 years old), centenarians (99–104 years
old), elderly (65–75 years old), and adults (22–48 years old), and reported the shrinkage of
core microbial taxa in gut microbiome [33]. In each age group, three families namely
Bacteroidaceae, Lachnospiraceae, and Ruminococcaceae dominated, but showed decline in
their relative abundance with increasing age [33]. Moreover, the genera Coprococcus,
Roseburia, and Faecalibacterium, members of the family Lachnospiraceae and
Ruminococcaceae, showed a negative correlation, while Oscillospira showed positive cor-
relation with increasing age [33]. Few genera and families, such as Akkermansia,
Eggerthella, Anaerotruncus, Bilophila, Synergistaceae, and Christensenellaceae showed an
increasing trajectory, which became even more prominent in semi-supercentenarians, sug-
gesting their role in longevity [33]. Similarly, Xu et al. reported 35 bacterial genera associ-
ated with age progression in human subjects [34]. The genera that showed increasing
pattern include Odoribacter, Butyricimonas, Desulfovibrio, Bilophila, Corynebacterium,
Parvimonas, etc. Few of the genera that showed random pattern include Lactobacillus,
Oscillospira, Oxalobacter, Butyrivibrio, etc. With age, these beneficial species increased in
number, but sharply decreased in elderly subjects [34]. A shift in the composition of the
human microbiome characterized by enrichment of Proteobacteria and the loss of
Clostridiales and Bifidobacterium along with an increase in pathobionts, i.e. potentially
pathogenic microbes such as Enterobacteriaceae, is indicative of microbial aging [34]. The
healthier gastrointestinal microbiome has been associated with lower levels of low-density
lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol and increased levels of vitamin D and many other useful
metabolites circulating in the blood, which are known to reduce inflammation and thereby
suggestive of extended lifespan. These studies indicate that the presence of beneficial
microbial species contributes largely toward disease-free health and good metabolism.
22.4 The Antiaging Bioproducts from Microbes
Numerous microbial products have been widely used in cosmetic industries for their
antiaging properties, biocompatibility, simplified extraction, and usage (Figures 22.3
and 22.4). In subsequent paragraphs, each section covers a specific microbe and its ability
to produce antiaging molecules.
22.4.1 Bacteria
Dextran, an exopolysaccharide obtained from Leuconostoc mesenteriodes and Streptococcus
mutans, has found extensive use as a skin care agent. It also shows anti-inflammatory
properties and helps in brightening and smoothening of the skin [21]. Microbial
biosurfactants, surface-active molecules produced by bacteria and yeast, have the
advantages of being ecofriendly and biocompatible and are generously used for cosmetic
applications [35]. Glycolipid microbial biosurfactants are extensively used in the cosmetic
industry, such as mannosylerythritol lipids produced by yeast. Biosurfactants have a
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Exopolysaccharide (Dextran) Antioxidant-Ectoine

Biosurfactants Anti-inflammation Glycoin
Glycolipid (mannosylerythritol) Skin-firming properties:
Bacteria Extremophilic Mycosporine-like
Lipopeptide bacteria & Archaea amino acids (MAAs),
Pseudomonas bacterioruberin
Leuconostoc Halophilic phototropic Anti-UV properties-
mesenteriodes eubacterium Carotenoids
Streptococcus mutans Halophiles cyanobacteria
Mycobacterium
Rhodococcus
Bacillus
Fungi Algae
Candida spp. Seaweeds-
Mushrooms- Sargassum tenerrimum
Portabellas Laminaria japonica
Criminis Fucus vesiculosusp
Cerrena unicolor Costaria costata
Ascophyllum nodosum
Brown algae-
Biosurfactants (Glycolipid) Eisenia bicyclis
Antioxidant (l-ergothioneine) Ecklonia cava Antioxidant (Fucoidan)
Biocatalyst (laccase(ex-LAC)) Blue green algae Phlorotannins
Antioxidant polysaccharides (c-EPL) Spirulina Anticancer
Antioxidant metabolite (ex-LMS) (Phycocyanin)
Figure 22.3 Microbes and their antiaging compounds.
HO OH
Lydia Sarfati. Denis/Adobe Stock O O
OH O
HO N
NH H HN
OH
HO O
OH O NH
sommai/Adobe Stock HO OHOH NH H HN
Lydia Sarfati. N O
O OH
O
OH O
HO OH
Surfactin C Murad LLC
Phlorotannins (tetrafucol A)
Eisenia Bacillus
bicyclis subtilis
Macrocystis Dunaliella
pyrifera salina
O OH OH
OH HN O
HO O O HO
O O
O O OH
HO HO O
β-Carotene
HN
HO O HO OH
O
Credit: NY bae Hyaluronic acid Credit:

Biotrex Nutraceuticals
Figure 22.4 Examples of microbial products used in cosmetic industry.
potential in being active ingredients of cosmetic formulations as they exhibit a prebiotic

character and are biodegradable in nature [36, 37]. Examples of glycolipids from bacteria
include rhamnolipids (mono- and di-rhamnolipids) of Pseudomonas spp., sophorolipids
(lactonic and acidic) and mannosylerythritol lipids (MELs) (MELs A-C) of Candida spp.,
and trehalose lipids of Mycobacterium and Rhodococcus spp.
Many studies have delineated bacterial species that constitute major population of
microbes on the skin. Using the 16S rRNA sequencing technique, many workers deter-
mined that the maximum population belongs to the phyla: Actinobacteria, Firmicutes,
Proteobacteria, and Bacteroides [38]. Staphylococci spp. and Corynebacteria spp. were
predominantly found in sebaceous and moist skin environments. Several of these biosur-
factants have also been implied in protecting the skin microbiome against harmful bacteria
as well as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, and
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22.4 The Antiaging Bioproducts from Microbe 471
Cutibacterium acnes [39]. Biosurfactants have been implied in moisturization of dry skin,
hair care as well as repair, and antioxidant functions. Bacillus spp. are major producers of
lipopeptides, and many of these biosurfactants have anti-wrinkle, moisturizing, and cleans-
ing properties. Their low toxicity and improved efficacy make them efficient candidates to
be used instead of chemical surfactants in current cosmetic and personal skincare pharma-
ceutical formulations. Rincón-Fontán et al. formulated a sunscreen solution based on mica
powder and a lipopeptide microbial extract from corn steep liquor, and it was concluded
that they provided protection against the harmful effects of sun [40].
22.4.2 Fungi
One of the best studied model organisms for the process of aging is yeast. Yeast cells are easily
manipulatable due to their short lifespan, their clearly defined cell structure, and the vast
amount of information on their evolutionary conserved genes and signaling pathways.
Lifespan of a yeast cell is calculated as chronological lifespan (CLS; duration for which the
nondividing cells are viable) and replicative lifespan (RLS; counting the number of divisions
a mother cell can undergo to produce new daughter cells) [41]. Budding yeast, S. cerevisiae,
has been a favorite to quantify longevity and identification of various factors associated with
it. Several compounds have been investigated in detail that have been implicated in increas-
ing longevity such as plant-derived chemicals, phenols, and flavonoids. Their major function
is to act as an antioxidant that prevents buildup of ROS and loss of mitochondrial activity.
As a source of antiaging molecules, fungi have proven to be a valuable resource. As for
example, the antioxidant l-ergothioneine has been isolated from mushrooms namely
Portabellas and Criminis. It is implicated in protecting the skin from oxidative and DNA dam-
age. It is frequently used in antiaging creams for the same benefit [42]. Similarly, white rot
fungus Cerrena unicolor (Polyporaceae family) has been implicated in production of three bio-
active molecules: extracellular laccase (ex-LAC), intracellular nonpurified polysaccharides
(c-EPL), and a low molecular weight subfraction of extracellular metabolites (ex-LMS) [43].
Cerrena unicolor has already been known to produce the enzyme laccase that functions as an
efficient biocatalyst. The molecules mentioned above have been suggested to be a source of
antioxidative molecules and hence can be of potential use in antiaging therapies.
22.4.3 Algae
Marine algae have also been proposed as abundant sources of products beneficial for
human health. Seaweeds have been postulated to be the richest sources of biologically
active ingredients and harbor a large number of proteins, carbohydrates, fatty acids, and
amino acids and hence find varied applications in pharmaceutical and cosmeceutical
industries as the demand for natural products is increasing by the day versus the synthetic
alternatives in the market [44]. These species offer skin beneficial activities that delay aging
and display anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anticancer properties.
Fucoidan, a sulfated polysaccharide of long branched chain of sugars with high content
of fucose, has been shown to have high antioxidant capacity. It has been isolated from vari-
ous species of algae such as brown seaweed Sargassum tenerrimum [45], Laminaria japonica
[46], and Fucus vesiculosusp [47] and shown positive results of superoxide radical scaveng-
ing and antioxidant assays. Costaria costata produce fucoidan that showed antiaging activ-
ity in human foreskin fibroblast HS68 cells and from Ascophyllum nodosum demonstrated
c22.indd 471 05/26/2023 19:17:54

antiaging potential in human skin by preventing the degradation of elastic fiber and
leukocyte elastase activity [48]. Species of brown algae Eisenia bicyclis and Ecklonia cava
are known to produce phlorotannins that play a role in reduction of elastase activity.
Elastin fibers along with collagen help in maintaining skin texture intact and slowing down
aging [49]. Brown seaweed extracts from A. nodosum are rich in phlorotannins and are
being explored for their inhibitory activity against oxidative stress, inflammation, and
advanced aging effects [50].
Blue green algae, Spirulina, has also many antioxidant properties, and phycocyanin
isolated from it has been shown as an immunity enhancer and shows cancer resistance; its
superoxide dismutase inactivates free radicals that slow down aging of cells as well [51].
22.5 The Impact of Microbial Bioproducts on Gut Diversity
Streptomyces hygroscopicus produces rapamycin and is well known for its antiaging
potential [52]. It not only suppresses senescence and delays the onset of aging-related
disorders but also impacts the gut microbial diversity. In case of Drosophila, it has been
reported to reduce the CFU count significantly for the members of family Enterobacteriaceae,
Lactobacillae, and Acetobacteriaceae [53], suggesting that it can delay the microbial expan-
sion in the aging guts. On the contrary, in case of mice, rapamycin regimen has induced
significant changes in the gut microbial diversity and to be precise, it has shown to increase
the prevalence of Candidatus arthromitus sp., a segmented filamentous bacterium, which
is generally absent in aging mice [54]. This bacterium is known to induce the postnatal
maturation of homeostatic innate and adaptive immune responses [55]. Acarbose is
another microbial product produced by members of the Actinoplanes genus, a family of
Micromonosporaceae [56]. This molecule has proven antiaging effects in geriatric subjects
(https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02865499). Following treatment, members of the
order Clostridiale significantly increased while the Ruminococcaceae and Lachnospiraceae
decreased. Acarbose is known to modulate the gut microbiota to enhance the short chain
fatty acid (SCFA) production and fermentation [57]. Similarly, spermidine is known to
increase the Lachnospiraceae, a well-known family of SCFA-producing bacteria [58].
These compounds have considerable gut modulating potential, and as a result in the
upcoming years, their use will be explored in even more depth.
22.6 Microbial Bioproduction of Extremolytes
Extremolytes are small organic molecules with low molecular weight present in extremo-
philic bacteria and archaea. Extremophilic organisms are present in virtually inhabitable
extreme environments such as hot springs, polar ice, and volcanic areas. Studies have shown
the presence of accumulated extremolytes (either synthetized de novo or taken up from the
environment) inside extremophilic bacteria and archaea that play crucial role in their sur-
vival and protect cells from harsh conditions [59]. They mostly consist of sugars, amino acids,
polyols, heterosides, and their derivatives [60, 61]. These molecules stabilize membranes,
proteins, or nucleic acids and protect the extremophiles against multiple stress as they can act
as multifunctional agents, a notable property [59]. Ectoine, hydroxyectoine, proline,
mannitol, and glycine-betaine, all of which are often present in halophiles, are notable
examples. Glucosyl-glycerol (GG, glycoin), glucosyl-glycerate (GGA), mannosyl-glycerate
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22.7 The Role of Antiaging and Antioxidant Molecule 473
(MG, firoin), and mannosyl-glyceramide (MG) are all heterosides found in hyperthermo-
philic microorganisms [59, 61]. Furthermore, complex molecular UV light-scavenging sub-
stances such as scytonemin, carotenoids, mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs),
bacterioruberin, and melanin have been identified from radiation-resistant bacteria [59–61].
Many extremolytes build and stabilize protective water layers surrounding extremophile
macromolecules and cell structures to shield them from their harsh environments.
There are some instances of use of extremolytes as active antiaging ingredients in the
cosmetic industry. Ectoine, produced by halophilic phototropic eubacterium, is one of the
most important molecules being used. Its cosmotropic properties make it a desired ingredi-
ent in skin and hair care products [59]. Owing to its immense water binding capacity, appli-
cation of ectoine prevents skin dehydration and skin aging [62]. Studies have shown that
ectoine also protects skin from UV-induced damage by suppressing the expression of UV-
induced secondary messenger release, AP2 transcription factor, and ICAM1 expression and
by preventing mutation in mitochondria [63].
The 2-O-alpha-d-glucopyranosylglycerin (glycoin) found in halophilic cyanobacteria
and in desert resurrection plant Myrothamnus flabellifolia is a potent antiaging agent.
Studies have shown that glycoin protects cell membrane from stress and increases cell vital-
ity and renewal by stimulating ATP production in aged cells. Further, it induces antioxidant
properties in aged skin cells by increasing the production of superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1).
Additionally, glycoin is known for increasing elasticity and recovery of skin by inducing the
expression of transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF β) and fibroblast growth factor 7
(FGF7) [64]. Certain microbes have started producing extremolytes (natural sunscreen) due
to exposure to extensive radiations (chemical scavengers). Mycosporine-like amino acids
(MAA) are prominent examples with antiaging effects comprising antioxidant, anti-
inflammation, and skin-firming properties [65]. They are also known to be more efficient
than currently existing sunscreens with inorganic (zinc/titanium oxide) and organic filters
(aminobenzoic acid, avobenzone, etc.) [66]. Studies have shown that MAAs are extremely
stable at high temperature and pH. They are produced in response to UV radiation that
causes sunburn, premature aging, and skin cancer. MAAs provide proper protection against
UVA radiation [67] while providing comparatively less protection against UVB radia-
tion [66], and hence primarily is used as a natural bioactive ingredient in antiaging cosmetic
products [67]. Carotenoids too have anti-UV properties and are natural antioxidants that
help in reducing the skin’s photodamage by reducing the production of free radicals in
cells [68]. The health industry has hailed extremolytes as “untapped gold mines” with enor-
mous potential in the beauty, medicinal, and food industries. Thus, protection of these deli-
cate biomolecules and biostructures is critical to the success of these industries.
22.7 The Role of Antiaging and Antioxidant Molecules
The microbial diversity on the Earth is a reservoir of biomolecules that have antiaging potential
through their antioxidant properties. Natural antioxidants have been largely reported from
plants and our kitchen spices [69], but microbial products remain largely unexplored [70]. Some
biomolecules like hyaluronic acid [71], phlorotannins [21], porphyra-334 [72], and surfactin
C [73] are being used in the cosmetic industry. Flavonoids like kaempferol [74] and querce-
tin [26] reduce oxidative damage. Though these flavonoids are produced by plants, their
upscale production is carried out in genetically engineered microbes [75]. Table 22.1 and
Figures 22.3 and 22.4 list a few of these microbial biomolecules with antioxidant potential.
c22.indd 473 05/26/2023 19:17:54

Table 22.1 Microbial compounds with antioxidant potential.
Antiaging Function studied/mechanism

S. no. compound Microbial source of action Structure
1 Astaxanthin Agrobacterium aurantiacum, Acts as an antioxidant because O

Paracoccus carotinifaciens of its enhanced capacity to
OH
capture free radicals and ROS
released as a byproduct of
metabolism in biological
systems [76]
HO
O
2 β-Carotene Mucor circinelloides Antioxidant [77]
3 Canthaxanthin Bradyrhizobium sp., Lactobacillus Alters the pro-oxidation and O

pluvalis antioxidation balance and
suppresses oxidative stress
induced by cholesterol via
modulation of antioxidant
system and cholesterol
metabolism in rats [78]
O
4 Chaetopyranin Chaetomium globosum Acts as an antioxidant by O
scavenging 1, 1-diphenyl-2-
picrylhydrazyl radical [79] HO
OH
O
c22.indd 474 05/26/2023 19:17:55

)
5 Citric acid Aspergillus niger Prevents the oxidation of O OH
biomolecules by scavenging
O O
ROS that are produced as a
result of metabolism [80] HO OH
OH
6 Curcumin Curcuma longa L. The It increases the lifespan of O O
introduction of curcumin Drosophila melanogaster by
O O
synthase genes in engineered 25.8% by upregulation of
strain of E. coli resulted in Mn-SOD and CuZn-SOD
upscale production of genes and the downregulation HO OH
curcuminoids [81] of dInR, ATTD, Def, CecB,
and DptB genes [82]
7 Dimethyl Main metabolite of marine algae Promotes methionine sulfoxide S
sulfide (DMS) reductase A activity and was
found to increase the longevity
in Caenorhabditis elegans and
Drosophila [83]
8 Flavipin Aspergillus flavipes Can scavenge five free radicals H O
H
Aspergillus terrus at a time via three phenolic
hydroxyl and two aldehyde O OH
groups [84]
HO OH
9 Hyaluronic Streptococcus spp. It binds and retains water

O OH OH
acid Bacillus spp. molecules in skin and
OH HN O
protects it from aging [71]
HO O O HO
O O
O O OH
HO HO O
HN
HO O OH
O
(Continued
c22.indd 475 05/26/2023 19:17:57


10 Isopestacin Pestalotiopsis microspora Antioxidant activity [85]

HO
OH
O
OH O
11 Kaempferol Broccoli and tea Reduces oxidative cell OH

Microbial synthesis of kaempferol damage induced by glucose
by introducing F3H and FLS into and dysfunction in HIT-T15
a naringenin-producing S. pancreatic β cells [74] HO O
cerevisiae strain Y-22, which
rendered the recombinant strain OH
the ability to generate kaempferol
at titer level 86 mg/L [86]
OH O
12 Lutein Chlorella sorokiniana Protects skin from OH

UV-induced damage [87]
HO
13 Lycopene Fusarium sporotrichioides Potent antioxidant and a O2
quencher [88]
14 Melanin Saccharomyces, Streptomyces spp. The unpaired electrons in H

melanin can scavenge free O N
radicals making it a potent
antioxidant [89] O
O
HN
O
c22.indd 476 05/26/2023 19:17:59

)
15 Phlorotannins Eisenia bicyclis Reduces elastase activity HO OH
Ecklonia cava of the skin [21] OH
OH
HO
OH
HO OH
OH
OH
HO OH
16 Porphyra-334 Porphyra rosengurttii The topical application of O O OH
H
(P-334) P-334 protected against
UV-induced skin damage by N N
preventing sunburn cell
formation in mice and helped O OH
in maintaining the antioxidant OH
defense system of the skin as HO
well as expression of Hsp70
protein [72]
17 Quercetin Flavonoid found in plant extracts. Stress resistance, reduction in OH
An artificial pathway in the levels of reactive oxygen
actinomycete containing the TAL species (ROS) in
from Rhodobacter capsulatus, 4CL Saccharomyces cerevisiae [26] HO O
from Streptomyces coelicolor, CHS
and CHI from Glycine max,
naringenin 3-dioxygenase from OH
Pichia crispum, and FLS and OH O
F3′H from Arabidopsis thaliana
was constructed and introduced
into Streptomyces albus and S.
coelicolor. The recombinant S.
albus produced the higher
quercetin titer of 0.1 mg/L [75]
(Continued
c22.indd 477 05/26/2023 19:18:00


18 Resveratrol Non-flavonoid natural phenol Shown to counteract aging OH

found in small quantities in grape factors in fish, nematodes,
skin, berries, peanuts, and red flies, mice, and human cells; HO
wine. A study showed that DJ526 increases RLS in yeast [91]
rice seeds when treated with yeast
extract greatly enhanced the
production and antioxidant OH
property of resveratrol [90]
19 Riboflavin Ashbya gossypi Increases the lifespan and HO
strengthened reproduction in
Drosophila by enhancing the HO
activity of antioxidant OH
enzymes [86, 92] HO
N N O
NH
N
O
20 Surfactin C Bacillus subtilis Antiaging function for skin
(https://patents.google.com/ O O
patent/US9364413B2/en) O
HO N
NH H HN
O
O NH
NH H HN
N O
O OH
O
O
c22.indd 478 05/26/2023 19:18:00

21 Scytonemin Cyanobacteria Has the ability to absorb
UV-radians (UV-C, UV-B,
and UV-A) and prevent skin O
N
aging [93]
N
O
OH
22 Tyrosol Diaporthe helianthin, Glomerella Prevents lipid OH
cingulata peroxidation [94]
OH
23 Valine Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus Increases the lifespan of O
licheniformis, Corynebacterium C. elegans [96]
glutamicum [95] OH
NH2
24 Vitamin E In nature synthesized exclusively by Acts as an antioxidant

photosynthetic organisms. An (Figure 22.2) HO
attempt has been made for
large-scale production in S. cerevisiae O
via fermentation by introducing
artificially created pathway in it and
subjecting it to cold-shock-triggered
temperature control to produce a
titer level of 4.1 mg/L [97]
25 Zeaxanthin Flavobacterium sp. Inhibits lipid OH
peroxidation [97]
HO
c22.indd 479 05/26/2023 19:18:02

22.8 Conclusions
Research in the field of “biogerontology,” i.e. study of the biological basis of aging and age-
related diseases, is promising. It offers opportunities for development of technologies, for-
mulations, and preparations for maintaining and improving metabolism and health and
also ways to retard degenerative processes in living organisms. Environment friendly natu-
ral products are in great demand today, and microbes are the source of untapped reservoirs
that can be used in abundance for production of antiaging compounds on an industrial
scale. Moreover, extremophiles subjected to extreme environmental stress produce extrem-
olytes with exceptional and unexplored properties that make them good candidates for
health promoting and therapeutic properties. The opportunities thus presented by natural
products owing to their novelty, diversity of structures, and being amenable to genetic
modifications to create useful hybrids holds great promise in the future of medicine and
global personal care markets.
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92 Suwannasom, N., Kao, I., Pruß, A. et al. (2020). Riboflavin: the health benefits of a
forgotten natural vitamin. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 21 (3): 950.
93 Rastogi, R.P., Sinha, R.P., Moh, S.H. et al. (2014). Ultraviolet radiation and cyanobacteria. J
Photochem Photobiol B 141: 154–169.
94 Covas, M.I., Miró-Casas, E., Fitó, M. et al. (2003). Bioavailability of tyrosol, an antioxidant
phenolic compound present in wine and olive oil, in humans. Drugs Exp. Clin. Res.
29 (5–6): 203–206.
95 Gao, H., Tuyishime, P., Zhang, X. et al. (2021). Engineering of microbial cells for L-valine
production: challenges and opportunities. Microb. Cell Factories 20 (1): 172.
96 Edwards, C., Canfield, J., Copes, N. et al. (2015). Mechanisms of amino acid-mediated
lifespan extension in Caenorhabditis elegans. BMC Genet. 16: 8.
97 Prabhu, S., Rekha, P.D., Young, C.C. et al. (2013). Zeaxanthin production by novel marine
isolates from coastal sand of India and its antioxidant properties. Appl. Biochem.
Biotechnol. 171 (4): 817–831.
c22.indd 485 05/26/2023 19:18:02

c22.indd 486 05/26/2023 19:18:02
487
Index
a Anti‐arrhythmic 269 Bioassimilated 429

Abdominal 326 Antidiarrheal 4 Bioattenuation 402
Acarbose 472 Antigen 359 Bioaugmentation 403
Acetate 191 Antihypertension 222 Biobased 424
Acidification 455 Antioxidant 218 Biocompatibility 132
Acidogenesis 338 Antithrombotic 237 Biocompatible 376
Acidulant 39 Antituberculastic 306 Biodegradation 397
Acrylamide 81 Antitumor 365 Biodeterioration 424
Acrylaway 93 Antiviral 270 Biodiesel 196
Acrylic 305 L‐arabinose 216 Biodigester 345
Adipose 220 Arachidonic 268 Bioeconomy 345
Adsorptive 89 Arctic 406 Bioethanol 194
Aeration 276 Artichokes 107 Biofilm 283
Affinity 252 Aryl 170 Biogas 198
Agglomerates 119 Arylacetonitrilases 306 Biohythane 200
Agglomeration 119 Automotive 197 Bioink 377
Agitation 45, 382 Autotrophs 138 Biopile 407
Aglycones 318 Bioplastics 2
Agro‐industrial 285 b Biorefinery 42
Air‐lift 282 Barophilicity 24 Bioremediation 397
Alfalfa 42 Bedding 334 Bioreporter 404
Alginate 3 Bentonite 337 Biosludge 342
Allogeneic 359 Benzopyrene 27 Biosurfactant 288
Allolactose 317 β‐caseins 326 Blends 189
D‐Allose 222 β‐cyanoalanine 5 Bloating 326
D‐Allulose 212 β‐defensin 250 Bran 113
α‐proteobacteria 164 β,d‐mannuronic Acid 375 Burgeoning 271
Alzheimer’s 63 β‐galactosidase 6 Butanol 197
Amaranth 245 β‐galactosides 316
Amide 302 β‐glucan 362 c
Amylosucrases 220 β‐ketothiolase 136 Cancer 355
Anka 286 β‐lactoglobulin 241 Caprolactam 300
Anthocyanins 333 β‐oxidation 135 Carbohydrates 41
Antiaging 1 Bioactive peptides 1 Carbonization 193

bindex.indd 487 05/26/2023 19:15:11

488 Index
Carcinoembryonic 364 Emulsification 67 Guluronate 388

Carcinogen 92 Enantioselectivity 299 α‐L‐Guluronic 376
Cardiovascular 356 Encapsulating 444 Gums 341
Carotenoids 281 Encapsulation 56 Gundruk 57
Casoplatein 249 Endopeptidase 92, 238
Catabolic 86 Enniatin 250 h
Cellulosic 144 L‐ergothioneine 471 Hay 338
Centenarians 469 Ergothioneine 465 Hazelnut 117
Cervical 358 Erythrocyte 270 Herbicides 302
Chemoselectivity 24 Estrogens 26 Heterofermentative 40
Chemotherapy 1 Ethanol 189 Heterologous 302
Chemotrypsin 58 e‐Waste 282 Hexanol 197
Cheonggukjang 244 Exercising 466 Homeopathic 306
Chitosan 195 Exogenous 82 Homofermentative 40
Chlorinated 399 Exponential 87 Honeycomb 120
Chromatographic 89 Husk 336
Compostability 132 f Hydrogels 47
Consortium 429 Fed‐batch 43 Hydrogen 199
Containment 192 Feedstock 194 Hydrophobic 262
Cordyheptapeptide C 246 Fermentation 40 Hydrophobins 29
Core 431 Feruloyl 170 1‐Hydroxybenzotriazole 25
Cosmeceuticals 1 Fishy burps 270 Hypersensitivity 92
CRISPR‐Cas9 2 Fluidized 66 Hyperthermia 217
Cryogenically 456 Fluorene 27 Hypocholesterolemic 287
Crystallinity 28 Fossil 131 Hypocholorous 467
Cyanolipids 3 Fouling 427
3‐Cyanopyridine 305 Friable 134 i
Cyclohexanone 145 Frozen 447 Immune 59
Fructo‐oligosaccharide 450 Immunoglobulin 58
d Fructosyltransferases 450 Immuno‐senescence 468
Deprivation 90 Fucoidan 471 Immunotherapy 355
Dermatological 68 Functional 211 Impellers 278
Detergent 431 Inexhaustible 199
Deterioration 404 g Inoculum 49
Detoxification 400 Galactan 104 Insulin 465
Dextran 469 Galactooligosaccharide 317 Inulin 61
Diazotrophic 385 γ‐proteobacteria 164 Invading 55
Diguanylate 380 Gastrointestinal 57 Isobutyric acid 303
Dioxins 422 Glioblastoma 363 Isocitrate 264
Discernible 455 Glucoamylase 46 Isomaltulose 222
Dough 93 Glutaminase 83 Iturin 280
Dysbiosis 443, 448 Glutaronitrile 300 Izumoring 223
Glycemic 213
e Glycerin 265 k
Echinoderms 422 Glycoin 473 Kaempferol 473
Ecofriendly 400 Glycolic 297 Karanja 196
Electrosynthesis 346 Glycosyl 325 Kefir 243
Elicit 365 Greenhouse 132 Koji 280
bindex.indd 488 05/26/2023 19:15:12

Index 489
l Monosaccharides 23 Permeabilized 321

Laccases 25 Mouflon 339 Peroxidase 411
Lactase 316 Mustainability 265 PET 427
Lactate 40 Mutation 381 Petroleum 133
Lactic acid 42 Mycoremediation 28 Pharmaceutical 39
Lactonic 470 Phenolphthalein 299
Lactulose 324 n Phenylacetic 307
Leukemia 81, 362 Nano‐cellulose 457 Phlorotannins 472
Levansucrases 450 Nanogels 377 Phosphomannomutase 378
Ligninases 167 Neoantigens 360 Phosphomolybdenum 239
Lignocellulosic 162 Nephropathy 242 Phosphorus 405
Lignolytic 161 Neurological 357 Photobioreactor 196
Lipases 411 Neuroprotective 212 Phytopathogenicity 104
Lipopeptides 471 Neutraceutical 3 Phytoremediation 401
Litter 132 Nicotinic 305 Pigments 275
Luchki 340 Nitrilase 297, 298 Plastic 131
Lutein 467 Nitrile 4 Plasticizers 410
Lyoprotectants 449 Nitrosamines 61 Plastisphere 431
Nonhalogenated 145 Pneumatically 191
Non‐hazardous 457 Poisonous 401
m Nutricosmetics 4 Polycaprolactone 423
Macrophage 365 Polygalacturonases 105
Malate 264 o Polyhydroxyalkanoates 421
Malpighian 165 Obesity 56 Polyhydroxyalkanoic 266
Maltodextrin 449 Oleaginous 262 Polylactic acid 39
Mandelic 307 Oligogalactosyllactose 324 Polymannuronic 378
Mandelonitrile 298 Oligogalacturanates 106 Polymethylgalacturonases 106
Mangroves 26 Oligolactose 324 Polyurethane 413
Mannoproteins 239 Oligomeric 104 Postprandial 56
Mannuronan 379 Olsalazyne 26 Pouring 456
Mannuronate 388 Oncolytic 361 Powerhouses 315
Marine 23 Operability 277 Prebiotics 4
Melanoma 360 Opioid 237 Preservative 39
Metabolites 275 Organosolv 342 Pretreatment 335
Metagenomics 166 Oscillating 387 Probiotika 4
Meta‐omics 345 Osmotolerant 23 Prolonged 93
Methane 334 Osteoporosis 59 Protocatechuic 426
Methylamines 335 Oxidative 264 Pyranose‐2‐oxidase 171
Microalgae 41 Oxoferryl 176 Pyrophorylase 378
Microbiota 55 Pyruvate 319
Microorganisms 3 p
Microspheres 133 Paraptosis 247
Mineralization 426 Payback 146 q
Mjolksyra 2 Pectic 106 Quinone 171
Moisturizing 471 Pectinases 103
Molecular‐farming 355 Pectinesterase 104 r
Mombin 112 Pectins 104 Rapamycin 466
Monera 20 Peptone 86 Rare 211
bindex.indd 489 05/26/2023 19:15:12

490 Index
Recalcitrant 169 Symbiotically 448 v

Recompilation 384 Synbiotics 4 Vaccination 360
Reductases 135 Synergism 452 Vaccines 5
Regioselectivity 18 Vanillin 165
Remazol 25 t Vascular 161
Remedied 398 D‐Tagatose 215
Vasoconstrictor 240
Respirometry 287 Tallow 263
Veratryl 168
Resveratrol 478 D‐Talose 224
Viability 446
Retinopathy 242 Telbivudine 224
Violuric acid 176
Reusability 191 Tempeh 71
Viscosifying 375
Rhamnogalacturonase 105 Terephthalic 423
Viscosity 279
Rhamnolipids 288 Terpenes 278
Volatile 139
Rhizopus 40 Thermolysin 241
Rubredoxin 428 Thermostability 24 w
Thermostable 167 Wettability 104
s Threonine 83 Whey 271
Scaffold 379 Thrombin 248
Seaweed 140 Transcriptomics 433 x
Sensing 379 Transeliminase 106 Xenobiotic 430
Sepharose 89 Transesterification 265 Xylobiose 343
Serum 92 Transgalactosylation 325 Xylose 322
Signals 323 Tray 286
Silage 42 Trehalose 217 y
Sinapyl 175 Trehalulose 221 Yoghurt 326
Slurry 409 Triacylglycerols 261
Soidon 57 Tryptophanyl 169 z
Solubilization 145 Turanose 220 Zeolite 337
Spermidine 472 Tyrosinase 428
Squalene 266
Starchy 454 u
Sterol 267 Ulcerative 445
Stroke 356 Ultrasonication 88
Sweeteners 325 Urogenital 57
bindex.indd 490 05/26/2023 19:15:12

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0005549961.

INDD 2 05-29-2023 14:24:23

0005549961.INDD 1 05-29-2023 14:24:23

Santosh Kumar Upadhyay

0005549961.INDD 3 05-29-2023 14:24:24

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty

Library of Congress Cataloging-­in-­Publication Data

Cover Design: Wiley

Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Straive, Pondicherry, India

0005549961.INDD 4 05-29-2023 14:24:24

1 Microbial Bioreactors: An Introduction 1

2 Microbial Bioresource for the Production of Marine Enzymes 17

0005549962.INDD 5 05-26-2023 19:17:06

3 Lactic Acid Production Using Microbial Bioreactors 39

4 Advancement in the Research and Development of Synbiotic Products 55

5 Microbial Asparaginase and Its Bioprocessing Significance 81

0005549962.INDD 6 05-26-2023 19:17:06

5.3.3 Downstream Bioprocessing 87

6 Bioreactor-­Scale Strategy for Pectinase Production 103

7 Microbes as a Bio-­Factory for Polyhydroxyalkanoate Biopolymer

0005549962.INDD 7 05-26-2023 19:17:07

8 Microbial Production of Critical Enzymes of Lignolytic Functions 161

9 Microbial Bioreactors for Biofuels 189

0005549962.INDD 8 05-26-2023 19:17:07

9.6.6 Biohythane 200

10 Potential Microbial Bioresources for Functional Sugar Molecules 211

11 Microbial Production of Bioactive Peptides 237

0005549962.INDD 9 05-26-2023 19:17:07

12.5 ­ onclusion 271

13 Microbial Bioreactors for Secondary Metabolite Production 275

14 Microbial Cell Factories for Nitrilase Production

0005549962.INDD 10 05-26-2023 19:17:07

15 Chemistry and Sources of Lactase Enzyme with an Emphasis on Microbial

16 Microbial Biogas Production: Challenges and Opportunities 333

17 Molecular Farming and Anticancer Vaccine: Current Opportunities

0005549962.INDD 11 05-26-2023 19:17:07

17.4 ­ ypes of Cancer Vaccine 359

18 Microbial Bioreactors at Different Scales for the Alginate Production by

19 Environment-­Friendly Microbial Bioremediation 397

0005549962.INDD 12 05-26-2023 19:17:07

19.4.2.4 Site Characterization and Selection 406

20 Microbial Bioresource for Plastic-­Degrading Enzymes 421

0005549962.INDD 13 05-26-2023 19:17:07

21 Strategies, Trends, and Technological Advancements in Microbial Bioreactor

22 Microbial Bioproduction of Antiaging Molecules 465

0005549962.INDD 14 05-26-2023 19:17:07

K. Abraham Peele Christiana Eleojo Aruwa

Pedro Aguilar-­Zárate Victor Emmanuel Balderas-­Hernández

Shayma Thyab Gddoa Al-­Sahlany Deepika Baranwal

Ayodeji Amobonye Shashi Kant Bhatia

fbetw.indd 15 05/26/2023 19:18:04

Susana Calderón-­Toledo Michele Greque de Morais

fbetw.indd 16 05/26/2023 19:18:04

Genesis Escobedo-­Morales Nida Khaliq

Javier Ulises Hernández-­Beltrán

Nazim Hussain Liliana Londoño

fbetw.indd 17 05/26/2023 19:18:04

Marciane Magnani Diana B. Muñiz-­Márquez

Arundhati Mehta Aeshna Nigam

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

6 Bioreactor-Scale Strategy for Pectinase Production 103

7 Microbes as a Bio-Factory for Polyhydroxyalkanoate Biopolymer

12.5 onclusion 271

17.4 ypes of Cancer Vaccine 359

19 Environment-Friendly Microbial Bioremediation 397

20 Microbial Bioresource for Plastic-Degrading Enzymes 421

Pedro Aguilar-Zárate Victor Emmanuel Balderas-Hernández

Shayma Thyab Gddoa Al-Sahlany Deepika Baranwal

Susana Calderón-Toledo Michele Greque de Morais

Genesis Escobedo-Morales Nida Khaliq

Javier Ulises Hernández-Beltrán

Marciane Magnani Diana B. Muñiz-Márquez

Alejandro Mendez-Zavala Graziela Barbosa Paludo

Lourdes Morales-Oyervides Ami R. Patel

Ruth Pedroza-Islas Belén Ponce

1.2 Microbial Bioresources for the Production of Enzymes

1.3 Microbial Bioresources for Therapeutic Application

1.4 Microbial Bioresources for Biogenesis

1.5 Microbial Fermentation

1.6 Microbial Biodegradation

1.7 Microbioresources for High-Value Metabolites

Another important example of hydrolases is l-asparaginase, which is an enzyme capable of

α-Amylase Aureobasidium pullulans, Cryptococcus Food, pharmacy, [47, 49,

2.4.2 Enzymes from Marine-Derived Fungi