Teacher Record - Teacher Free TEFL
Teacher Record - Teacher Free TEFL
Teacher Record - Teacher Free TEFL
In this Unit, we will explore two very important elements. Knowledge and
Overview: Module 1 understanding of these elements will serve you well on your TEFL journey.
The first of these elements relates to some specific characteristics of the
As an English as a Foreign Language Teacher, you, and only you, are in English language.
charge of what goes on in the classroom. The success of a lesson and what
has been learnt is pretty much up to you. 1. Some Specific Characteristics of the English Language
Why would you want to learn about some specific characteristics of the
You are responsible for many things such as setting up the classroom, English language? Well, we imagine it’s quite helpful and interesting but there
setting up tasks, giving instructions, correcting students, and to a certain are other reasons.
extent, the group dynamics of a class.
You may be sitting in the staffroom one day when, say, a native-Chinese
In a nutshell your primary role is to “create the conditions in which learning teacher colleague asks you this: What is special about the English
can take place” (Scrivener 2009). language? How will you feel if you cannot answer this?
Your colleagues-to-be in many countries will view you as an expert and will
believe you know everything about the English language. Again, this question
If you have ever learnt a language in a traditional classroom setting, you will may come up in an advanced class.
understand how difficult it can be. If you haven’t learnt another language, it This has happened to us and it could easily happen to you. So, absorb this
might be a good idea to start! and it will serve two purposes: it will provide help and interest for you, and
it will get you out of a tricky situation.
This will provide you with the ability to view the learning experience from a
student’s perspective. You’ll realise how challenging it can be. But there is also another critical reason. You need to be fully aware that
there will be key differences in language structures, grammar, vocabulary
You might be worried about making a mistake in class; you may not usage etc. in the native/first language of the learners you will be teaching,
understand what the teacher wants you to do. You might not understand compared to your native English language.
what has been written on the board or how to pronounce words put in You’ll have grasped the importance of this already if you have studied a
front of you. foreign language at school or university, or if you are a seasoned traveller
who likes to pick up a bit of the native language of the country you are
An otherwise confident person, in this setting may feel incredibly shy and visiting.
self conscious and the whole experience could, perhaps be rather stressful.
Specific Characteristics
A number of authors have discussed such stresses in the classroom or Here are some specific characteristics of the English Language:
“affective filters” (Krashen 1985) and their detrimental effect on the learning Fairly easy to learn
process and, in our case, language acquisition.
English is one of the simplest and easiest natural languages in the world.
You progress through the course by taking the test at the end of Of course, the concept of easiness is relative, and it depends on which
each module. These tests are not there to try to catch you language a learner knows already. However, the concept of simple is
out. On the contrary, it has been proven that assessment aids undeniable. English is a fairly easy language to learn, understand and speak
learning so we will only ask you questions that are based on key when compared to very complex languages such as Arabic, Cantonese,
information given in the modules. Mandarin, Korean and Japanese.
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Latin alphabet This means that the Subject comes before the Verb, which comes before
The English language uses the Latin alphabet, the most universal, simple and the Object. Examples:
short alphabet (only the Greek alphabet is shorter and simpler). In addition, ▪ I (S) bought (V) a new computer (O).
in English, the Latin alphabet presents its most clean form as a true alphabet
▪ She (S) doesn't like (V) dogs (O).
with only 26 basic letters.
▪ Why did you (S) do (V) that (O)?
Its simple inflection
There are other word orders in English but this is by far the most used,
Inflection is the name for the extra letter or letters added to nouns, verbs
making it easy for learners to grasp.
and adjectives in their different grammatical forms, e.g. cat, cats; eat, eats; big,
bigger. No markings on letters
English is considered a weakly inflected language when compared to, say, There are no diacritics (a mark that is placed over, under, or through a
French or Russian. Its nouns have only traces of inflection (plurals, the letter in some languages to show that the letter should be pronounced in a
pronouns), and its regular verbs have only four forms, e.g. look, looks, looked, particular way) such as happens, for example, in Spanish:
looking. ▪ exámenes
Even for irregular verbs, there is almost no variation in person (except the ▪ muñón
3rd person singular in the present tense, e.g. I eat, you eat, she eats). The
▪ muñones
English language can indicate the relationship of words in a sentence with
only the minimum of change in their structure. There are other languages ▪ canción
which do this but this is a strong characteristic of English. The exception is words imported from other languages, e.g. rôle
Its receptiveness and naïve from French.
A major characteristic of English language is its receptiveness to accepting Pronunciation
and adopting words from other languages. Here are a few examples from The pronunciation of English words such as this, thin, clothes, thirteenth,
Spanish: months inevitably causes problems for learners who do not need to use the
▪ alligator from el lagarto meaning the lizard tip of the tongue to produce words in their own language.
▪ barbecue from the Chibcha word barbacoa, meaning a wooden Continuous tense
framework for sleeping on, or for storing meat or fish to be dried Many languages do not have a continuous tense form, so English learners
▪ cargo from the verb cargar, meaning to load may make mistakes such as: I had a bath when the phone rang; instead of I
was having a bath when the phone rang.
This is regarded as an extraordinary feature of the language. It has accepted
and adopted words from Asian, European, African, Indian, Japanese, Chinese Articles (a, an, the)
and other languages. And English has kept an open-door policy of accepting The article system is another feature of English grammar that causes some
words from classical languages like Latin, Greek and Sanskrit. students enormous difficulties; particularly, of course, those whose native
Its (generally) fixed word order language does not use articles.
Another strong characteristic of English language is its (generally) fixed word
order. Most English sentences (clauses) conform to the SVO word order.
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Phrasal verbs ▪ Words that look exactly the same but must be pronounced
A phrasal verb is an idiomatic phrase consisting of a verb and another differently: read (present tense), read (past tense); present (a
element, typically either an adverb, as in break down, or a preposition, for gift), present (to give to); close (near); close (to shut)
example see to, or a combination of both, such as look down on. Let’s explore the second element which covers how important it is for you
These phrasal verbs are a VERY significant feature of the English language to recognise some key differences in some languages compared to English.
and can cause severe difficulties for learners. Sentences such as I put it down 2. Examples of key differences in some languages compared to
to the weather, or I made it up with my sister, are usually gobbledegook to English
beginner non-native speakers. It’s important to be aware that there will be key differences in language
Unfortunately for the English language learner, phrasal verbs are extremely structures, grammar, vocabulary etc. in the native/first language of the
common in colloquial English language. learners you will be teaching.
Non-tonal Never assume that your students’ native language will be structured or
English is a non-tonal language. pronounced in the same way as English. If you do, this may lead to confusion
in your classroom.
In tone languages, e.g. Chinese and Vietnamese, pitch (the degree of
highness or lowness of a tone) is used to distinguish word meaning. So, a Note that this is simply an awareness session, to emphasise this point. So,
word said with high pitch may have a different meaning from the same word you don’t need to ‘learn’ the materials in this section if you aren’t teaching
said with a low pitch. either Spanish or Chinese students.
In English, changes in pitch are used to emphasise or express emotion, not The key learning point is that all languages are different and it’s wise to learn
to give a different word meaning to the sound. It is not surprising that native a bit about your students’ native language to ensure you choose the right
speakers of tone languages often have strong accents when speaking English. strategy when teaching them specific elements of the English language.
Sound and spelling You don’t need to be able to speak or write your students’ native
language; it’s just so helpful when you know some of the key differences
A final feature of English that is enormously problematic for non-native between their native language and the English language.
learners and some native-speakers is the unpredictable correspondence
between word sound and word spelling. Let’s have a quick look at this in practice. Imagine you are teaching a group
of either Spanish or Chinese students. What are some of the key differences
It is often impossible for learners of English to predict the spelling of an you need to keep in mind from day 1?
English word they first encounter in speech, or the pronunciation of an
English word they first encounter in writing. Remember! Note that the points below are generalisations based on our
TEFL experiences; individual students may differ.
In fact, the majority of English words do conform to spelling patterns. The
difficulty for the learner, however, is that the words which don't conform Here are some general observations:
are some of the most common words in the language, and thus the ones Spanish EFL Students
that learners encounter first. For example:
1. Gender and articles: In Spanish, all nouns have gender, whereas we
▪ Words containing ough: thought, although, rough, just use a, an, and the no matter the gender:
▪ Words which have the same sound but different spellings: ate, eight; ▪ a boy: un niño; a girl: una niña
hear, here; their, there
▪ the boy: el niño; the girl: la niña
▪ Words with silent letters, not pronounced: know, could, hour
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Also, there is no equivalent in Spanish for it that we use for inanimate extra syllable when tackling these, e.g. ad-vance-ed. In addition, sometimes
objects. they ‘swallow’ sounds when faced with a cluster, e.g. next becomes nes.
Note that there are situations where we do not insert articles but these will Remember: A syllable is a part of a word that is pronounced with one
usually be inserted in Spanish. Their article for the is underlined in these uninterrupted sound.
examples: 7. Syllable-timed and stress-timed languages: Spanish is a syllable-
▪ Cars are a hassle: Los coches son una molestia. timed language, where an equal amount of time is given for each syllable
when syllables are expressed. On the other hand, English is a stress-timed
▪ Mr. Smith is here: El Sr. Smith está aquí.
language where stresses tend to occur at regular intervals and unstressed
2. Relationship between sound and spelling: In Spanish, words are syllables are squashed in between the stresses to maintain the regular beat
spelled as they sound and vice versa. In English, there is little correlation of the stress.
between sound and spelling.
So, what does this mean? It means that many Spanish learners have difficulty
3. Vowel sounds: Spanish has fewer vowel sounds than English. The length in mirroring the combination of stress, pitch and rhythm required to project
of the vowel sound in Spanish is not so important when distinguishing the exact meaning of their utterance in English. That is, their flattened,
between words; there is little distinction between short and long vowel slightly robotic-like and evened-out syllable-timed speech in English makes it
sounds. In English, however, there are many more vowel sounds and the difficult for native English speakers/listeners to grasp the important words in
length of the vowel sound is very important. the sentence.
Thus, Spanish learners have a lot of difficulty in first distinguishing A popular example used to demonstrate this difference in TEFL classes is:
differences in vowel sounds and then producing them. This results in
▪ The Beatles were bigger than Elvis: English, stress –timed, stress
confusion when hearing and pronouncing many groups of words, for
bolded
example:
▪ The / Beat / les / were / big / ger / than / El / vis: Spanish, syllable-
▪ ship/sheep
timed, each syllable in each slash pronounced in an equal timing
▪ fool/full
Overcoming this flat-sounding intonation is very important, particularly in
▪ cat/cut formal and important situations in English, where clarity and stressing a
▪ beat/bit point are paramount.
4. Consonant sounds: Spanish-native speakers frequently confuse the 8. Pronouns often omitted: When speaking Spanish, native speakers of
consonants v and b in English, and the first sounds in words beginning Spanish will often drop the pronoun subject unless they're stressing it to
with y as in yacht and j as in jeep with ch as in cheap. Some speakers also avoid ambiguity, because whom they're referring to, e.g. you/they/he is
have difficulty with sounds at the end of words such as thing/think. normally clear from the Spanish verb conjugation.
5. The s sound: Spanish words do not start with an s sound. As a result, So, this can transfer across to English. You may find Spanish speakers making
they often add an e sound to English words beginning with the s sound, expressions such as:
resulting in utterances such as I come from Espainand I went to eschool in ▪ Came with me to the train station, when they mean He/She came with
Barcelona. me to the train station.
6. Consonant clusters: These are groups of consonants which have ▪ Is Carlos here? Yes. Is here.
no intervening vowel, e.g. split. These are much more common in
English than in Spanish. Sometimes they may add in a vowel sound or an
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9. Word order: In English, the word order in everyday statements is 1. Different writing systems: A major difference is that the Chinese
generally: subject, verb, object. In Spanish, though, more variations are languages use a logographic system, whereas English uses an alphabetic
allowed: system. Some Chinese learners may be fully au fait with pinyin, a system of
Here are three variations of the same meaning: Carlos wrote the letter. writing Mandarin Chinese which uses the Latin alphabet. However, pinyin is
a phonetic system and so the sound to letter correspondence differs in
▪ Carlos escribió la carta. (subject, verb, object; very common in various areas.
Spanish and the same order as in English)
2. Lack of cognates: Lack of cognates is a second major difference.
▪ Escribió Carlos la carta. (verb, subject, object; very common in Cognates are words which share an historical origin, which makes the
Spanish but not used in everyday English) learning of some words in a new language easier to grasp.
▪ La carta la escribió Carlos (object, object pronoun, verb, subject; not Although we majored above on the differences for a Spanish native learning
as common as the two above but it is used.) English, one of the great advantages is that there are many cognates Spanish
The opportunities for making errors in the word order of everyday natives can lean on to help them guess the meaning of English words. But
statements in English, due to the influence of their native language, are self- Chinese learners do not have this advantage.
evident. In addition, there are very few borrowed words from English in the Chinese
10. Prepositions: English has many prepositions, much more than many lexicon (vocabulary).
other languages. Most English prepositions have multiple meanings. In 3. Syllable-timed and stress-timed languages: The third major
addition, many are monosyllabic and are thus difficult to pick up in rapid difference is that, similar to Spanish, Mandarin is a syllable-timed language
speech. whereas English is a stress-timed language. Thus, Chinese learners also have
Also, non-native speakers cannot depend on prepositional knowledge from difficulty in mirroring the combination of stress, pitch and rhythm required
their first language. For example, the Spanish por could be expressed in to project the exact meaning of their utterance in English.
English by the prepositions by, for, during and through. You can see the 4. Uninflected language: Although we have said earlier that English is,
potential for error when they are attempting to use English prepositions. generally, a weakly inflected language compared to some other languages, it
does convey much meaning by using auxiliary words (often called ‘helping
11. Adjectives: In English, an adjective generally comes before a noun but
verbs’) and verb inflections (changes to the verb structure): is/are/were,
in Spanish it generally comes after the noun. But there are Spanish adjectives
which come before the noun. And note that Spanish adjectives have gender eat/eats/ate/eaten, etc.
and also have plural forms with plural nouns. In contrast to this, Chinese is an uninflected language which conveys
12. Possessive apostrophe: In English, we express possession in one of meaning via its word order, context and adverbials.
two ways. We use the possessive apostrophe: the boy’s book, or 5. Consonant sounds: In Mandarin, there are only three consonant
the of construction: The wellbeing of the refugees is paramount. Spanish uses sounds which can be used at the end of a syllable. Chinese speakers thus
only the of construction. have great difficulty with the pronunciation of any English words that end
with any sound outside of the three they are familiar with and, as a result,
The possessive apostrophe is probably the greatest challenge for all native-
the final consonant is often omitted.
English writers, so you can imagine how difficult this will be for Spanish
learners. 6. Some other common difficulties:
Chinese EFL Students ▪ Distinguishing the difference between l and r, and so they may
mispronounce rake and rice as lake and lice.
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▪ Getting to grips with unfamiliar sounds, e.g. v, so that very may Some years ago, we were teaching older learners (a wide range of ages 12
become wery to 20+) in the heart of Africa. The only resources we had were chalk, a
blackboard and old printed workbooks with passages and exercises for
▪ Pronouncing each syllable in an English word too clearly (because
students.
Chinese is a monosyllabic language where each character has only
one syllable) There were no printing or copying facilities or internet facilities, so the
workbooks had to be used.
▪ Placing adverbial phrases of time and place at the end of a sentence
as these are never placed at the end of a sentence in Chinese The workbooks were generally OK, except that they had clearly been
written by someone who had never been in our situation. One of the
▪ Confusing personal pronouns, e.g. he and she, because these words
passages was based on a plane getting into difficulty and having to land on an
have the same pronunciation in Chinese
aircraft carrier.
▪ Omitting the verb to be before an adjective, e.g. He sad, and
The passage was important for other language and continuity reasons, so it
omitting articles as these don’t exist in Chinese
needed to be used.
Now, all of these learners had seen a single small plane flying over the game
parks. In this land-locked country, they had certainly never seen a big ship.
Unit 2: L1 and L2 They had seen small canoe-type boats on the river. It was impossible for
them to grasp the complex concept that a plane like the one they had seen
You may or may not have heard the terms ‘L1’ and ‘L2’. No matter which, could land on a canoe.
this Unit will tell you all you need to know.
Thus, an explanation was clearly necessary. And this explanation had to be
1. What do we mean by L1 and L2 learning? made in their L1; otherwise, they would have endured a long, long period of
L1 is the label given to a person’s first language (the student’s native confusion as we attempted to explain this complex concept in English.
language). When this person learns a second or foreign language, this For over a century there has been a continuous debate amongst theorists
additional language is labelled the person’s L2 language. and practitioners about the use of the L1 language in the L2 classroom.
So, all the students you will be teaching will have a non-English language, e.g. For most of that time, the pendulum swung in favour of those who were
Spanish, as their native/first language (L1) and you will be teaching them against using the students’ native language in the English classroom.
English which will be a second or foreign language for them, known as L2. The anti-L1 usage lobby often propounded (amongst other things) that non-
Another teacher may ask you: Do you occasionally allow L1 in your usage of the L1 resulted in maximum classroom time for studying the
classroom? She is asking if you allow your students to drop back into their L2. Use English only was a commonly heard exclamation.
native/first language (L1) in your classroom now and again or do you always During this period, the use of the students’ LI within the classroom was
ensure they can only speak English (L2) at all times within your classroom. forbidden in many schools and programmes.
Let’s just hit this on the head right now as it’s a critical factor in EFL and In recent years, though, the pendulum has been swinging back gradually and
EYL (English for Young Learners) teaching. a number of educationalists see value in using the students’ L1 in specific
2. Should learners use their L1 in class? circumstances.
Have a look at this: Based on our lengthy experiences, we would view the L1 as another
Example: True story demonstrating the need to use the L1 classroom resource and would use the student’s native language judiciously
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to achieve certain goals. We suggest that you also consider the L1 as You can easily work out for yourself the key points relating to L1 learning as
another classroom resource. you have been an L1 learner. But here some points to get you reflecting.
Here are some good and practical reasons for using the L1 in L1 learner
class: ▪ Generally immersed in the English language at all times from birth
1. To clarify meaning, where a word or idea in English is complex and it’s ▪ Wants, needs and is motivated to communicate by signs or baby
easier and more time-efficient to use a similar word in the L1 to get to the words, with meaning, e.g. I want some food!
meaning quicker.
▪ Adults often praise and encourage the child’s use of language,
2. To clarify anticipated problems. A short reference to the L1 will help to spurring her on to greater linguistic achievements
demonstrate the potential problem. For example, some languages, e.g. Thai,
do not have definite articles. ▪ Gets a lot of attention to aid the learning
Instead of students making mistakes later in the lesson, it seems sensible to ▪ Learns by playing and experimenting with new language, and has lots
pre-empt these mistakes and show the differences between the two of time to do so
languages a bit earlier via L1 examples. ▪ Not often corrected
3. To demonstrate that languages often have more similarities than Let’s now consider the L2 learner’s learning situation
differences. By helping them to understand the similarities using L1
examples, the linguistic challenge may seem less daunting for the learners.
4. To save time, now and again, e.g. explaining instructions for an activity. L2 learner
We have often observed teachers taking longer to put over their ▪ Not intensively exposed to the L2
instructions than the time it took the learners to do the activity. This seems
▪ Most often exposed by being taught the English language; often
a bit silly to us.
limited exposure outside the classroom
Translation is a time-efficient means of conveying meaning, compared to,
▪ May not be motivated; but could be, though
say, demonstration, explanation, or working out meaning from context. But
use it only on specific occasions. ▪ Often only learns through interaction with you and her classmates;
may not be motivated to try out functions outside of the classroom
5. To carry out any disciplinary measures. Using the L1 makes them sit up
and really listen and will demonstrate to them that what you are saying is ▪ Often learns by using language in a controlled setting with you and
real and not a pretend statement. other students and often with lots of controlled practice activities
6. To tell a student how well she has done, in her own language, adds ▪ Teachers vary in the amount they praise or encourage L2 learners.
import to the feedback. Some teachers may not do this effectively, certainly not as
effectively as a mother/ father/guardian would do in an L1 situation.
7. To show that we care. We have made an effort to learn a bit of their
When you see good, specific examples of positive behaviour, praise
language, probably in a short time, to make their learning even better. They
your students.
will really appreciate this. Remember this!
▪ The learner typically receives limited attention from the teacher.
3. Key differences between acquiring a first language (L1) and
learning a foreign/second language (L2) ▪ Many teachers regularly correct learners for accuracy; this can be
demotivating for some learners.
There’s no doubt that L1 learners learn differently from L2 learners. It’s
important for you to reflect on the key differences.
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So, there are some big differences in L1 and L2 learning. Remember these Learners may bring to class their expectations regarding teacher
and another piece will be in place in your ‘Good Teacher Jigsaw’. relationships, teacher behaviour and teacher approaches to learning that
4. Influences on L2 learning prevailed in their home countries, especially if they had extensive schooling
there.
Why do some L2 learners learn faster and better than others? Here are
Thus, learners from more traditional educational systems may expect you to
some important points for you to remember and reflect on regularly when
behave in a more formal and authoritarian fashion during classes and may be
you are on the job. They are not in any specific order.
displeased, puzzled, or offended if you use an informal instructional style,
1. Degree of intellect: Some learners are just brighter than others. such as using first names in class or allowing learners to move freely around
2. Learning style: if the teaching is not carried out in line with the the room. This will affect their learning.
student’s preferred learning style, e.g. lots of visuals or lots of audio or lots When teaching students, it’s imperative that you try to find out how they
of discussions and exercises etc., learning may very well be curtailed. We’ll have learned previously and how they prefer to learn now. The learners
explore learning styles in-depth in Module 7. may welcome a change in method, but they may want to learn in the same
3. Motivation: Whether this be intrinsic (learning for its own sake) or way as they learned before. Simply put, you need to ask them.
extrinsic (for some goal or reward, e.g. getting a new job), every student has 6. Pattern of classroom activity
varying degrees of motivation. It’s also a challenge to keep students
Some learners may also want you to maintain a clearly ordered pattern of
motivated all the time.
classroom activity and, perhaps, engage in extensive correction of
Remember this! The whole person comes to school, be it your students or grammatical form or pronunciation during all activities rather than at
you. Students have their ups and downs. They come with all their personal irregular points in a lesson or not at all.
baggage, e.g. worrying about a sick parent/child, or upset due to a Failure to conform to these ideals may give some learners the impression of
breakdown in some personal relationship. So, the motivated person lazy or inadequate class preparation on your part.
yesterday may not be the motivated person today. Help and show empathy
wherever you can. 7. Your behaviour
And the same applies to you. You, similarly, bring to the classroom your own expectations regarding
teacher behaviour. This includes your views on appropriate behaviour
You may feel a little bit down due to some personal issue. Or you may have
within society in general, as well as in the classroom.
had just one too many social events the nights before. You’ll need to make a
supreme effort not to let this happen. Your learners need you to be If, for example, you come from a culture of self-reliance, are at ease in
constant, i.e. positive, welcoming and full of life all the time. expressing and defending personal opinions, and are interested in personal
advancement, you will likely provide instruction that addresses these goals
We’ll explore motivation in-depth in Module 3.
and may unconsciously attribute these same goals to your students.
4. Language proficiency in L1: There’s no doubt whatsoever that a The potential for conflicting expectations and evaluations of behaviour
learner who is proficient in her L1 language (grammar, structure, mood etc.) between you and your learners is evident.
and understands all of this, has a great head start on others.
8. Gender
These were pretty easy for you! Let’s ramp it up a bit. Now, let’s
look at some trickier additional issues that we have come across You need to find out whether learners have ever experienced mixed
in our years of teaching EFL: educational groupings, whether they expect male and female teachers to
behave differently, and how different classroom activities, e.g. role plays or
5. Prior learning
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dialogue practice, might affect learners differently because of their native ▪ Directness means there is honesty and respect for the other person
cultural constraints. ▪ Avoiding ambiguity
Failure on your part to take this into account may affect student learning. Here are the key indicators of an indirect style of communication presented
by the teacher and, perhaps, some students in the classroom
9. Female participation Indirect style
In encouraging women students to speak up and take an active role in class, ▪ Meaning conveyed by subtle means, stories, implication – not getting
you may sometimes encounter reluctance from both men and women from to the point
cultures in which women have historically been constrained by social roles
▪ Indirectness means politeness and respect for the other person
that do not promote active participation in mixed-sex settings.
▪ Frequent use of implication – not directness
It’s critical that you reflect on this point continuously.
2. Idea-focused style v person-focused styles
10. Appropriate topics for learning
Idea-focused
Cultural expectations regarding the nature of education and what is
appropriate to talk about may also affect the kinds of topics students are ▪ Ideas and person are separate
willing to pursue in class and their motivation to learn. Cultural as well as ▪ Open disagreement is acceptable
personal sensitivity is vital in knowing if, when, and how to introduce topics
or lessons that may be inappropriate or difficult. ▪ Disagreement with person’s ideas is not seen as personal attack
11. Participation Person-focused
Verbally expressing ideas and asking questions during class can prove ▪ Ideas and person are not separate
difficult for students unaccustomed to this form of active participation. In ▪ Feelings are important
addition, some students’ perceptions of their classroom participation may
▪ Disagreement is handled very carefully
not concur with your perception.
▪ Disagreement is attack on the person
12. Communication styles
So, here we have two conflicting ways of looking at communication. This is
There are patterns of expression and rules of interaction that reflect the
a potential boiling pot. Learning will be affected and your critical task will be
norms and values of a culture.
to find a balance. It’s not your role to try and change people’s
A lack of understanding of these communication styles could lead to cultural ways of working. It is your role to find a solution to this.
confusion, anxiety and conflict – and a reduction in learning. Let’s consider
just two of these styles. So, in summary, there are lots of ways a student’s L2 learning can be
influenced.
1. Direct Style v Indirect Style
5. Some effective L2 learning strategies
Direct style
Language learning strategies are the conscious steps or behaviours used by
Here are the key indicators of a direct style of communication presented by language learners to enhance the acquisition, storage, retention, recall, and
the teacher and, perhaps, some students in the classroom: use of new information.
▪ Straightforward talking
▪ No beating about the bush – straight and to the point
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▪ adheres to a Code of Practice for Teachers – at all times ▪ refraining from any abuse of a position of authority or relationships
with students, parents, carers or colleagues for financial, political or
▪ demonstrates the necessary knowledge, abilities, skills and
personal gain
habits – at all times.
▪ acting according to the law
Dignity and Diversity
1. Adheres to a Code of Practice for Teachers at all times
▪ valuing diversity and treating students, parents, carers and
You’ll find on your travels that many schools do not have a Code of Practice
colleagues equitably and fairly and with care and compassion while
that you are asked to follow. Don’t worry about this – it’s just the way
respecting the uniqueness of family and socio-economic
things are. It doesn’t stop you from following YOUR Code of Practice.
backgrounds, cultures, races, religions and beliefs
So, where do you get this? Don’t worry; we have one already made up for
▪ valuing the learning needs, effort, and potential, and acknowledging
you. YOUR Code of Practice has been developed by ACCREDITAT
the uniqueness, of each student
(www.accreditat.com), who are our accrediting body. It’s based on their
experiences and the experiences of thousands of teachers in EFL. Here it is: ▪ improving the wellbeing and progress of those students with special
needs
ACCREDITAT Code of Practice for Teachers
▪ fostering the valuing of diversity and encouraging the development
At the heart of the ACCREDITAT Code of Practice for Teachers is: of international, multicultural, gender, and indigenous and other
▪ a conviction that excellence is achieved via competence perspectives
▪ a belief in the worth, individuality and dignity of each person ▪ allowing, reasonably, the students’ access to varying points of view
▪ a commitment to truth, excellence and democratic principles Respect and Trust
▪ an allegiance to freedom to learn and teach ▪ acknowledging that relationships with students and their families
▪ a dedication to the principle of equal opportunity for all must be based on mutual respect, trust and confidentiality of
personal information, unless disclosure of any information serves a
Members of the TEFL/TESOL teaching profession are committed to compelling professional purpose or is required by law
demonstrating the following values and ideals which underpin the
profession: ▪ acknowledging the contribution that mutual respect, trust and
confidentiality make to students’ wellbeing and learning
Honesty and Integrity
▪ acknowledging the desires and hopes of the students’ families and
▪ creating and maintaining appropriate professional relationships in carers
the classroom, school and in public
▪ acting with educational colleagues and the wider community in ways
▪ acting with impartiality, truthfulness and honesty which enhance the profession
▪ displaying consistently high standards of personal and professional ▪ acknowledging the status, responsibilities and authority of colleagues
behaviour
▪ remaining open to constructive criticism from peers and showing
▪ refraining from disclosing information about colleagues in the course respect and consideration for different viewpoints
of professional service unless disclosure serves a compelling
professional purpose or is required by law Responsibility and Accountability
12
▪ giving priority to the education and welfare of all students in our ▪ being committed to the wellbeing of individuals and the community
care and to the common good
▪ guiding and encouraging students to achieve their potential, ensuring ▪ resolving competing claims or problems arising from different
all students have an equal opportunity to achieve their potential ethical principles and different interest groups through reflective
▪ creating interactive learning environments, rather than professional discussion
environments in which the students are merely passive recipients of Adhere to this and you won’t go wrong. Print this off and keep it
information with you always. Reflect on it frequently. It will serve you well.
▪ regarding themselves as learners and engaging in continuous 2. Demonstrates the necessary knowledge, abilities, skills and
professional development, and improving teaching and learning habits – at all times.
strategies for themselves and colleagues
Here are the key areas of knowledge, abilities, skills and habits you should
▪ working collaboratively, co-operatively and enthusiastically with aim to nurture and demonstrate in your day-to-day teaching.
colleagues and other educational bodies in the best interests of the
1. Demonstrate that you are warm, caring and approachable
education and welfare of the students
▪ taking precautions to distinguish between their personal views and You can demonstrate this in many ways, e.g. being approachable at all times,
those of the local school district or governing body being a person that students can go to with any concerns or to share an
amusing story, being an active listener, trying very hard to be consistent
▪ promoting the ongoing development of teaching as a profession even although you may feel under the weather etc.
▪ upholding school policies, procedures and practices 2. Establish good rapport and relationships with all learners at all
▪ modelling the behaviour, attitudes and positive values which are times
widely accepted in society and encouraging students to apply them This doesn’t mean that you strive to be humorous at all times. Some older
and critically appreciate their significance students may not take to this. They may feel that too much fun is eating up
Care and Protection their valuable time. Or some students may come from a culture where
humour in the classroom is not the accepted thing.
▪ having empathy and respect for, and rapport with, students and
their families and carers, colleagues and communities Rapport exists when people develop a feeling of harmony, well-being and
security. The same processes are involved whether we’re applying them to
▪ committing to students’ wellbeing and learning through the practice learners or anyone else in the school.
of positive influence, professional judgment and empathy in practice
3. Foster a constructive learning experience
▪ adhering to the school’s student protection policies and procedures
For example:
▪ making reasonable effort to protect the student from conditions
harmful to learning or to health and safety ▪ everything is planned
▪ refraining from any racial, gender, political, verbal, physical or ▪ there are good class routines
emotional abuse, embarrassment or harassment ▪ standards of behaviour are agreed
▪ being generous with praise and giving positive inputs and feedback ▪ an inclusive environment is created where all learners are treated
Fairness and Justice fairly and equally
▪ being fair and reasonable at all times 4. Create a sense of community and belonging in the classroom
13
A classroom community is one where: Be prepared to make your own supplementary materials. These are often
▪ everyone feels accepted and supported as a vital part of the much better and more relevant than materials in course books.
community 11. Work successfully with learners at different levels
▪ there is a sense of belonging Yes, this can be daunting at first but with good planning and good materials
▪ collaboration to achieve the goal is at the centre everything will work seamlessly.
▪ positive social skills are promoted 12. Enable learners to feel a sense of progress
▪ students know they can depend not only on the teacher but also on 13. Assess fairly and frequently, and plan on the basis of
the whole class assessment
Creating a classroom community spirit is critical to the success of you and 14. Recognise and understand the range of backgrounds and
your students. This promotes learning, engagement, and retention. The experiences within the learner group
more students feel comfortable, the more they will participate, engage, learn 15. Employ a range of teaching styles and approaches at different
and retain the learning. stages and in different contexts
5. Set high, yet achievable, expectations for your students 16. Understand the broad range of learner needs including the
The expectations that you propound for your students will influence their needs of learners with learning difficulties
achievement levels. If you set low achievement expectations, then it’s likely 17. Reduce your teacher talking time (TTT) and maximise
you’ll get low achievement levels. Generally, students give their teacher as student talking time (STT)
much or as little that is expected of them by the teacher. So, set high, yet
achievable, expectations. Teachers just talk far too much.
6. Plan and work flexibly 18. Reflect and self-appraise continuously
Although you will have planned well, things don’t always go to plan. So, Of course, things don’t always go according to plan. Even NASA sometimes
reflect on what might not go to plan. Based on continuous monitoring, you’ll has to change plans at the last moment! By making reflection and self-
be ready to change tack a bit or find a new way to present the material appraisal a daily habit, you will reduce the occasions where things don’t
seamlessly, without anyone else being aware of these necessary changes. exactly go to plan.
7. Adjust your own level of English to suit the class 19. Facilitate language learning and acquisition both inside and
outside the classroom
There are no prizes for any teacher who uses fancy or complex language.
Never view your classroom as an island.
8. Always give clear, precise instructions
In addition to bringing bits of the real world into the classroom (e.g.
9. Choose appropriate moments for correcting the learners’ newspapers, CDs and videos), you can, if allowed by the school authorities,
language take your students out into the world during class time, effectively using it
When students are in full flow and are communicating, it’s often wise to let as an extension of the classroom.
it run even if there are mistakes. After they have finished, you can then pick Learners need to use and understand language outside the classroom, so
up on the mistakes. that they can progress. Become a user of inside and outside activities and
10. Understand the need to use a range of relevant and suitable you will observe remarkable progress in your students as they put into
materials and resources practice what has been learned in the classroom.
14
In summary, the end goal for you should be a mix of these traits whole. Another alternative would be to line up all the chairs in two
and characteristics. In essence, the end goal you are aiming for is rows in the centre of the classroom.
an ‘effective and competent teacher cocktail’. ▪ Student-led lesson: Much like the horseshoe style, students in the
circular layout can make eye-contact and interact together easily. In
Unit 4: Setting the stage this arrangement, however, the teacher is positioned in the circle
with the students, putting them on an equal level and encouraging
Seating the students to lead the class themselves.
One of the best ways of making sure you engage your students and
maximise on communication in the classroom can be as simple as arranging
your classroom so that its layout encourages interaction. Unless you are
Classroom rules
particularly unlucky, most classrooms, even in the most modest of schools, Whether you’re teaching a class of forty Chinese five-year-olds or twelve
will have moveable chairs and/or tables. Arabic men, you will need to enforce some rules in the classroom in order
to establish control.
Your previous learning experience probably involved sitting at rows of static
desks. Human nature also normally means that on each return visit to the One option is to hand out a copy of the rules on the very first lesson and
classroom, you’ll sit in the same position in the classroom. One of our roles get students to sign it like a contract.
as an EFL teacher is to maximise student interaction and increase It may seem patronising but, the success of your lesson lies in not only
confidence in the ability to communicate in English. building rapport, but in getting all students involved and engaged in tasks.
A very simple method of achieving this is by thinking about the layout of the There is nothing more frustrating than effectively setting up a task, all your
classroom. It’s important to experiment with different seating and standing students understanding and ready to start, then a couple of late students
arrangements to find out what works best for different tasks such as group wander in and the whole equilibrium is ruined.
activities, pair work and opposing team games.
Hence, a rule about punctuality is important. Having said that, people will
▪ Whole class discussion: In a horseshoe layout students are able to always be late. A good way to deal with is to ask the rest of the class to
interact more naturally because they can see each other. It also explain what has happened and what they are about to do.
ensures that the same students aren’t always dominating at the
front of the class. This further clarifies understanding for the class, encourages communication
and means that not all the language and explanation come through you. We
▪ Small group work: When students are placed in ‘islands’ they are want to maximise on student participation after all!
able to collaborate effectively, feeling part of a team but are close
enough to work with neighbouring groups if necessary. Another technique for establishing classroom rules is to engineer a
discussion of how the students are going to learn, and for them to
▪ Pair work: A traditional seating plan which allows students to work brainstorm their own classroom rules.
together in twos with the added advantage that the teacher is able
to monitor from the front of the class or by moving between rows. You can then suggest a few key areas such as only speaking in English in the
classroom. This approach engages students and stands a better chance of
▪ Opposing teams: Each team has its own corner which gets students working if they are responsible for the creation of the rules.
really excited at the prospect of winning against the ‘enemy’ side;
great for getting students participating wholeheartedly in the task! Below is a guideline for some effective rules that are suited to an EFL
classroom:
▪ A/B role-play: For role-play activities it’s best to have students facing
each other rather than sat side-by-side, this way they focus on their Effective rules guide
own part of the task rather than trying to work on the activity as a ▪ Only speak English in the classroom.
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▪ Switch off your mobile phone and never answer it in class. going to practise all the vocabulary and grammar that we’ve learnt this
▪ Be on time for class and come back from breaks on time. week. Right then. So, you’re in pairs. If you wouldn’t mind, could you all sit
in two lines parallel to each other. The one on the right is the tourist and
▪ If another student is speaking, show interest and listen. the one on the left is the tour guide. You’re on a coach, and the tour guide
Below is a list of some ineffective rules that would not encourage is going to point out what you can see out of the window. The tourist
communication in the EFL classroom: should ask as many questions as they can. Next, we’re going to swap and
take turns. OK then. So get yourselves into the two rows and off we go.
Ineffective rules Let’s start.”
▪ Silence in the classroom. Scenario 2
▪ Don’t ask questions.
▪ Before class, set up the classroom chairs in two rows.
▪ Only sit next to the students that you already know.
▪ Instruct each student (by name) where to sit and appoint them A’s
▪ It’s OK to say small sentences in your language e.g. “Can I borrow a and B’s
pen?”
▪ “A’s you are the tour guide. B’s you are the tourist”
That’s why it’s essential to keep your instructions clear and ▪ “B: TOUR GUIDE give a tour of the city.”
concise. ▪ “Speak.” (gesture to mouth). “10 minutes.”
An untrained or inexperienced teacher might think it useful to constantly Check understanding of the task by asking the following:
repeat words and instructions or speak more loudly to help students 1. Who is student A?
understand what they want them to do but this isn’t really the case.
2. What do they do?
Compare the following examples of instruction giving and decide which one
would be easier to understand. 3. Who is student B?
Scenario 1 4. What do they do?
“Right then. What we’re going to do is to put you in pairs. One half of the 5. How much time?
class will be A and the remaining half will be B. Both of you will be given a
role card that will contain all the information that you’ll need. So, to clarify, Unit 5: Icebreakers
half of you will be A’s and half of you will be B’s. I’m going to tell you who
you’ll be working with, alright? So, we’re going to do a role play where one Think about the type of task you’re going to be teaching and try to use a
of you is a tourist and the other student will be a tour guide, then we’re variety of ice breakers to introduce the topic.
16
Look at the next unit to see some examples. (most third person verbs in the present end in ‘–s’ e.g. I live (1st
person), he lives (3rd person).
Introduce your partner Equally, having to memorise the information to present to the class allows
them to really interact with their partner rather than just going through the
INTRODUCE YOUR motions and immediately forgetting their partner’s responses!
▪ An Almost; do you want to try again? to a student who may not have good! may be pleasant or upsetting to hear, but they don't give enough detail
provided a correct or full answer to an exercise to be useful sources of learning.
Feedback can focus on learners' language or skills, the ideas in their work, Try to pin-point what the student did that led you to use the label
their behaviour, their attitude towards learning, or their progress. of brilliant or not so good:
Sometimes we give feedback to the whole class, while at other times we Brilliant: The way you introduced your point just at that moment was really
give feedback to small groups or individual learners.
helpful and enabled us to resolve that issue more quickly.
2. Importance of constructive feedback
Not so good: By responding in that way you seemed to want to impose your
It’s critical that your feedback is constructive and not destructive. opinions on the rest of the class.
Specific feedback gives more opportunity for learning.
Remember these key points: Refer to behaviour that can be changed
▪ Feedback is a way of students learning more about themselves and It is not likely to be helpful to give a student feedback about something over
the effect their behaviour has on others. which they have no choice or control; in fact, it may be frustrating and even
▪ Constructive feedback increases self-awareness, offers guidance and de-motivating.
encourages development, so it is important to learn how to give it. Seek/offer alternatives
Constructive feedback does not mean only giving positive feedback
If you do give negative feedback then try to turn it into a learning
(praise). Negative or critical feedback given constructively and
opportunity by asking the student what they could have done differently, or
skilfully can be very important and useful.
will do differently next time. It is always more powerful to get ideas coming
▪ Destructive feedback, which is negative feedback given in an from the student.
unskilled way, generally leaves the recipient feeling bad with
However, if they are struggling to think what they could have done
seemingly nothing on which to build and no useful information to
differently, offer some suggestions.
use for learning.
Here’s how to give constructive feedback to achieve a positive
outcome: Be descriptive rather than evaluative
Start with the positive This is expanding on 'be specific'. Describing what you saw or heard and/or
the effect it had on you is much more powerful than just giving a judgement
Students need encouragement, to be told when they are doing something
i.e. the way you kept calm, quiet and focussed during that situation helped
well. When offering feedback, it can really help the student to hear first
everyone cope rather than you handled that situation well.
what they have done well. It is often common for the giver of feedback to
emphasise the negative, therefore the focus is likely to be on mistakes more Own the feedback
often than successes. It’s easy to say to the student You are…, suggesting that you are offering a
In a rush to criticise, we may overlook the things we liked. If the positive is universally agreed opinion about her rather than an individual one. It is
registered first, any negative is more likely to be listened to and acted upon. important that you take responsibility for the feedback you offer.
Be specific Begin with I think … or I feel that...to avoid being the giver of a general
Try to avoid general comments which are not useful when it comes to opinion which you don't own.
developing skills. Statements such as You were brilliant! or It was not so Leave the recipient with a choice
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Feedback which demands change or is imposed on the student may invite When we talk about feedback we don’t just mean writing ‘well done’ at the
resistance, and is not consistent with a belief in each of us being personally end of a student’s written homework.
autonomous. Skilled feedback offers students information about themselves; Although written feedback is essential, oral feedback can be equally
it leaves them with a choice about whether to act or how to act. constructive.
It can help to examine the consequences of any decision to change or not to We as teachers need to comment (in a variety of ways) on the students’
change, but does not involve prescribing change. work, their language skills, their progress and their attitude not only in
3. Different types of feedback order to help them understand their weaker areas and give them the tools
Key points: to improve but also to praise good work/behaviour and give them the
motivation to continue in that vein.
▪ We can give feedback to individual learners or groups of learners.
Giving useful feedback is an essential part of how you manage a
▪ Feedback can be oral or written. class and allows the students to know that their individual learning
▪ Feedback can be linked to formal or informal assessment and can be is being monitored whilst being encouraged by gaining an
given to learners in the classroom or during individual meetings. understanding of how they can constantly develop.
▪ You can also write regular feedback in the form of comments, As far as the option of not giving feedback at all is concerned, what is the
grades or marks on a learner's record sheet. You can use this difference between this and the teacher leaving the classroom for the
feedback when you make your end-of-course assessment. duration of the activity?
▪ When learners give feedback to one another, this is called peer Learners expect the teacher to listen to them and the vast majority will
feedback. welcome feedback and error correction, if such correction is constructive
▪ Peer feedback is useful for all learners. The learners who give the and comes at an appropriate point in the lesson. They expect their written
feedback reflect on the work of their classmates. The learners who work to be corrected so why not their spoken language?
receive feedback are given information on how they can improve. Feedback, whether written or oral, should aim to be balanced and useful.
The learners are often guided by a feedback observation sheet. This can be by praising an achievement and identifying an area of
▪ Peer feedback can have a positive effect on classroom dynamics and weakness (with specific information on how to get better) or by praising
can help to train learners in skills they need to become current efforts compared to past errors.
autonomous. The comments given should also concentrate on one or two specific fields
▪ Young learners, though, are not able to give very detailed peer to give the learner direction and avoid confusing them. This could include
feedback because they are not yet able to think about their any of the following:
classmates' work very carefully. ▪ Language
▪ Learners can also give you feedback about the lessons, activities and ▪ Content
materials. They can tell you when they like what they are doing and ▪ Progress
when they are not so interested in the materials or activities, or
when they are having problems with the language. They can also ▪ Effort
make suggestions for materials and activities to use. Be open to this. ▪ Behaviour
Summary and some examples ▪ Achievement
A few examples…
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Oral: “I’m not sure all of you have fully understood today’s grammar point, students into classes named after the exams they are preparing for,
let’s go over it again together on the board.” particularly in the case of the Cambridge ESOL examinations. These are:
Written: “Well done, excellent use of prepositions in your work, now just ▪ KET – Key English Test
focus on using the past simple and past perfect correctly. Have another look
at the last chapter in the textbook and make sure you know when to use ▪ PET – Preliminary English Test
each.” ▪ FCE – First Certificate in English
▪ CAE – Certificate in Advanced English
▪ CPE – Certificate of Proficiency in English
Overview: Module 2 There are additionally two Cambridge exams for young learners (ESOL
YLE) known as Starters, Movers and Flyers.
English learners are generally grouped into the following six levels: More about the CEFR
▪ Beginner The CEFR is very important, so it’s crucial that we explore this further.
▪ Elementary You may teach in a school where their approach and syllabus is fully built on
▪ Pre-intermediate the CEFR classifications and terminology; thus, it’s paramount that you have
a solid grasp of it. It’s not difficult.
▪ Intermediate
Background
▪ Upper intermediate
Different terminology is used in EFL when describing a student’s
▪ Advanced
proficiency/competency in language as compared to mainstream English
However, in some schools/institutions you may find different classifications. classes in, for example, the USA or the UK.
The Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) is widely
▪ As you’ll already know, measuring a student’s proficiency in language
accepted in European countries, as well as increasingly on an international
is not an exact science.
scale, and aims to standardise language learning, teaching and assessment.
There are three general categories (A-Basic User, B-Independent User, C- ▪ No universal system of rating exists.
Proficient User) which are further broken down into two levels. ▪ The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages
▪ Basic User (CEFR or CEF) is, perhaps, our best guide. There are other guides.
A1 – Breakthrough or Beginner ▪ Many organisations adapt the CEFR levels to suit their particular
A2 – Waystage or Elementary levels.
▪ Independent User Fortunately, nearly all good coursebooks will identify which level the
materials are intended for and schools will have similar class labelling to
B1 – Threshold or Intermediate indicate what level the students are studying. So, there’s no need to worry!
B2 – Vantage or Upper Intermediate
1. The Common European Framework of Reference for
▪ Proficient User Languages (CEFR; sometimes called the CEF): What is it?
C1 – Effective Operational Proficiency or Advanced C2 – The CEFR is a standard, international scale of levels for language learning. It
Mastery or Proficiency Another method commonly used is grouping has 6 levels in ascending order from A1 to C2.
21
The CEFR gives you a detailed description of learner level by skill, in a It concerns not only the range and quality of knowledge (for example, the
language-neutral format. Because it is language-neutral, it can actually be range and precision of lexical knowledge) but also involves cognitive
used for any language in the world. organisation and the way this knowledge is stored in memory (for example,
It is a useful reference document for school directors, syllabus designers, the question of how a lexical item fits into the networks of associations the
teachers, teacher trainers and proficient learners. speaker has available) and the accessibility (for example, how an item can be
recalled, activated and its availability for use).
Language testers and examination boards are increasingly using the CEFR as
their scale of levels, though some give each level their own name. Socio-linguistic competence
The table we will explore in a moment shows the 3 bands (A-C) with each Socio-linguistic competence refers to the knowledge and skills involved in
of those bands divided into two, giving us six main levels. It also describes using language functionally in a social context.
(provides descriptors) which represent what a student should be able to do Since language is a social phenomenon, its use requires sensitivity to social
at each level. norms and customs which affect to an important degree all linguistic
You may have heard of other student level terminology in EFL, i.e. Beginner, communication between representatives of different cultures, even if the
Intermediate and Advanced. Very loosely, you can see the CEFR levels as participants are frequently unaware of them.
similar to Beginner, Intermediate and Advanced – though the CEFR levels These social norms affect, amongst other factors, rules of address, greetings
are more precise than these terms (and calls them Basic, Independent, and and politeness, the way in which relations between generations, sexes,
Proficient). people of different social status, social groupings are expressed through
2. The CEFR’s approach: Communicative language competence special language markers, linguistically codified rituals, differences in register,
dialect and accent, through vocal rhythms, for example.
The CEFR’s approach is based on the notion of communicative language
competence– the increasing ability to communicate and operate effectively Linguistic competence leads us to consider social and intercultural
in the target language parameters and the way in which they influence language use.
It will be useful for you if we expand a bit on the CEFR’s view of Pragmatic competence
communicative language competence. Pragmatic competence involves the functional uses of linguistic resources
Communicative language competence has a number of component (carrying out language functions, speech acts) using scenarios or
parts: it includes linguistic, socio-linguistic and pragmatic competences. predetermined scripts of interactional exchanges. It also involves mastery of
Each of these competences is made up of knowledge, aptitudes and skills. discourse, cohesion and coherence, the recognition of text types and
genres, using irony or parody. Even more than in the case of this factor than
Linguistic competence for linguistic competence, the development of pragmatic skills is strongly
Linguistic competence comprises the knowledge and skills related to: influenced by interactive experience and by the cultural environment.
▪ lexis (generally, words and phrases) Let’s have a look at these CEFR Bands and Level Descriptors at a
Global Level
▪ phonology (generally, relationships among the speech sounds)
You will find the Global Scale is a useful starting point. Study this well. It’s
▪ syntax (generally, the arrangement of words and phrases to create
not difficult. It’s an excellent guide, an aide-memoire, which will keep you on
well-formed sentences in a language)
track when you start on your TEFL journey.
▪ and other features of language systems, considered independently of
the sociolinguistic impact of variations in use and of the pragmatic
functions of the utterances produced.
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CEFR Bands and Level Descriptors - Global Level travelling in an area where the language is
spoken. Can produce simple connected text on
Level Level Descriptors topics which are familiar or of personal interest.
Can describe experiences and events, dreams,
Can understand with ease virtually everything hopes & ambitions and briefly give reasons and
heard or read. Can summarise information from explanations for opinions and plans.
different spoken and written sources,
reconstructing arguments and accounts in a Can understand sentences and frequently used
C2
coherent presentation. Can express him/herself expressions related to areas of most immediate
spontaneously, very fluently and precisely, relevance (e.g. very basic personal and family
differentiating finer shades of meaning even in information, shopping, local geography,
the most complex situations. employment). Can communicate in simple and
A2
Proficient routine tasks requiring a simple and direct
Can understand a wide range of demanding, exchange of information on familiar and routine
User
longer texts, and recognise implicit meaning. Can matters. Can describe in simple terms aspects of
express him/herself fluently and spontaneously his/her background, immediate environment and
without much obvious searching for expressions. matters in areas of immediate need.
Can use language flexibly and effectively for Basic User
C1
social, academic and professional purposes. Can Can understand and use familiar everyday
produce clear, well-structured, detailed text on expressions and very basic phrases aimed at the
complex subjects, showing controlled use of satisfaction of needs of a concrete type. Can
organisational patterns, connectors and cohesive introduce him/herself and others and can ask and
devices. A1 answer questions about personal details such as
where he/she lives, people he/she knows and
Can understand the main ideas of complex text things he/she has. Can interact in a simple way
on both concrete and abstract topics, including provided the other person talks slowly and
technical discussions in his/her field of clearly and is prepared to help.
specialisation. Can interact with a degree of
fluency and spontaneity that makes regular We can also use the ‘+’ to indicate the top half of a level. For example,
B2 interaction with native speakers quite possible ‘B1+’ means the top half of the B1 range. You will find this convention
without strain for either party. Can produce followed in various course books.
Independent clear, detailed text on a wide range of subjects
User 3. Why do we need the CEFR?
and explain a viewpoint on a topical issue giving
the advantages and disadvantages of various Even among teachers of the same language in similar contexts there can be a
options. lot of variety in what is meant by terms like ‘beginner’, ‘intermediate’ or
‘advanced’. This variability increases significantly across different languages,
Can understand the main points of clear in different countries, with different age ranges of learners, etc. The CEFR
B1 standard input on familiar matters regularly makes it easier for all of us to talk about language levels reliably and with
encountered in work, school, leisure, etc. Can shared understanding.
deal with most situations likely to arise whilst 4. What is it used for?
23
The CEFR is used for many different practical purposes: Can understand enough to follow extended speech on abstract and complex topics
▪ Developing syllabuses beyond his/her own field, though he/she may need to confirm occasional details,
especially if the accent is unfamiliar.[C1, Listening]
▪ Creating texts/exams
Can understand a wide range of long and complex texts, appreciating subtle
▪ Marking exams distinctions of style and implicit as well as explicit meaning. [C2, Reading]
▪ Evaluating language learning needs Can write personal letters and notes asking for or conveying simple information of
▪ Designing courses immediate relevance, getting across the point he/she feels to be important.[B1,
▪ Developing learning materials Written interaction]
▪ Continuous assessment of others, or self-assessment Can use stock phrases (e.g. “That’s a difficult question to answer”) to gain time
and keep the turn whilst formulating what to say. [B2, Turn taking]
▪ Teacher training programmes
You can view a list of Can Do statements
5. Is it just about levels? at https://rm.coe.int/CoERMPublicCommonSearchServices/DisplayDCTMCo
The CEFR has been very significant in language learning and teaching ntent?documentId=090000168045b15e
because its impact goes beyond merely describing learner levels. It has
6. What’s in it for you? How can the CEFR be useful for teachers?
underpinned a particular approach to language learning as the one most
commonly recommended or expected in language teaching today. This is Understanding language levels better
the Communicative Approach we explored earlier. The CEFR helps you to understand a standardised terminology for
It not just about levels. The descriptions of levels in the CEFR are skills- describing language levels. National, local and school policies are increasingly
based and take the form of Can Do statements, as in the examples being described in CEFR levels – and so it’s important to understand what
below. These descriptions of ability focus on communicative purpose and they mean.
make for a very practical approach, which looks at what people can do Seeing more clearly what learners need to work on
– rather than on specific linguistic knowledge.
The CEFR describes what learners need to be able to do to reach the next
The CEFR is particularly useful because it applies the same set of levels to all level. You will find it particularly useful in showing how different component
the various sub-skills and areas of competence: skills are described at each level. You have an idea of what a B2 student is
▪ the basic four skills (speaking, reading, writing and listening) like, but what should they be able to do in terms of listening to
lectures/speeches, or writing correspondence, or spoken fluency? The CEFR
▪ communicative language (e.g. turn-taking, asking for clarification) helps you see what is needed for different aspects of learning English.
▪ types of interaction (e.g. obtaining goods and services, interviewing) Curriculum plan
▪ and more linguistic skills (e.g. vocabulary range, phonological
If a teacher responsible for working out what is going to be taught in a class
control) – just her own or for the whole school – it is very helpful to use the CEFR
It allows you link up skills in each of these areas with the student’s overall as a broad framework. Look carefully at the descriptors for the levels you
level. need – not just the Global Scale, but component scales as well where
Examples of ‘can do’ statements from the CEFR relevant.
Can describe in simple terms aspects of his/her background, immediate What do you want your students to achieve in each course on their path to
the target level? This can be further elaborated by looking at the
environment and matters in areas of immediate need. [A2, Global Scale]
information coming from English Profile, which we’ll come to in a moment.
24
mustn’t…) Inversion for emphasis (little did he know that the dog
‘Used to’ had escaped)
‘so/neither’ + auxiliaries (so do I, neither has he…) Linkers (although, nonetheless, whilst…)
Mixed conditionals (If her eyesight was better
Present perfect vs continuous she would have seen the squirrel)
Past simple vs past continuous vs past perfect Cleft sentences (the reason why I’ve come is…, the
Future forms: ‘going to’ vs present continuous vs thing that annoys me most is…)
‘will/shall’ Compound nouns
Usually vs used to Advanced ‘So’ and ‘such’
Reported speech (“I’m going to the park” > he said he Gerunds and infinitives
was going to the park) Phrasal verbs (go up, go in, go out, go on, go for…)
Passives (the church was painted by Michelangelo) Unreal uses of past tenses (it’s time we left, suppose
Intermediate
Relative clauses (the girl who is sat over there…) we opened our own shop…)
Modals of obligation and deduction (must, may, might, Uses of the verb ‘get’
can’t…) Participle phrases (the horse, trotting up to the fence,
Can, could, be able to (ability) hopes you have a carrot)
First conditional and future time clauses (If I pass the Passive and active voice
exam, I’ll celebrate)
Second conditional ((If I was famous I’d give money to Although this may look a bit overwhelming, you will never be left without
charity)) resources to work from and many teacher’s books even give a step-by-step
guide of how to teach all the grammar listed above. Today we’re going to
The...the… + comparatives (the more you look together at an example from each level so that you have an idea of
learn the more you know…) how to teach appropriately at every stage.
Using adjectives as nouns (rich people are privileged
> the rich are privileged)
Adjective order
Beginner Level
Narrative tenses When teaching absolute beginners it is crucial to ‘grade’ your language as
Adverbs and adverbial phrases much as possible because even some of the simplest sentences may confuse
Passive structures (it is said that…, he is believed to…) your students. At this level you really need to be animated and reduce the
Upper complexity of anything you say.
Future perfect and continuous (the ice caps will have
Intermediate
melted, we will be using solar powered cars) If, for example, you start your lesson with, “Okay guys, today we’re going to
Reporting verbs (recommend, threaten, advise…) cover subject pronouns” you will probably be greeted by a sea of blank
Third conditional (if I had known, I would have stares. Instead, it is essential to use visuals, for example, “Look (point to
come) eyes) at the board (point to board)” before clearly writing the title ‘subject
Past modals, ‘would rather’ and ‘had better’ pronouns’.
Gerunds and infinitives
This is a technique called ‘modelling’ and is really necessary at this
Used to, be used to, get used to
level.
Structures after wish Quantifiers
26
▪
subject pronouns.
Get the students to repeat after you and drill pronunciation.
Intermediate Level
▪ At this point there are a variety of activities you could do from Relative clauses are used to give additional information about something
matching activities to sentence completion but remember not to without starting a new sentence. They combine sentences in a way that is
ignore the visual aspect: any handout should include clear pictures natural and avoids repetition. Without relative clauses, speech and writing
that the students can relate the pronouns to. can sound heavy and strange, for example:
Mark is talking to a girl. Do you know the girl?
27
Advanced Level
Here we have two very short sentences, repeating the word ‘girl’. Instead
we could join the two together using the relative pronoun ‘who’
Do you know the girl who Mark is talking to? As an example of advanced level content we’re going to look at active and
There are five different relative pronouns (who, which, whom, passive sentences. An active sentence is one which follows the usual formula
that and whose) and three relative adverbs (where, when, why) of subject + verb + object/complement:
which can be used to link sentences together. ▪ He built the stadium in 1998
A typical exercise used to present relative clauses is to give students a A passive sentence, however, inverts this order, placing the object at the
number of sentences that they have to link together using an appropriate beginning.
relative clause. At intermediate level the essential ones are who, which, that,
▪ The stadium was built (by him) in 1998
where and when. Whom, whose and why can be taught at higher levels.
We use passive sentences to place emphasis on the object, rather than the
Upper-Intermediate level subject of the sentence, or when the subject is unknown or unimportant.
In passive sentences, we call the subject the ‘agent’ and stating the agent is
At upper-intermediate level your students should be comfortable writing optional, as in the above example.
and conversing in English but will most likely continue to make small
mistakes particularly with verb patterns. To form a passive sentence we always use the verb ‘be’ (in the same tense
as the verb from the active sentence) + past participle. If we look at the
An important feature of any upper-intermediate course should be the previous example, the verb is ‘built’ which is the past simple form of the
distinction between gerunds and infinitives. verb ‘build’.
In sentences where more than one verb is used, the first verb determines Therefore, in the passive sentence, it is the verb ‘be’ which must change to
the form of the second. the past simple form ‘was’ + the past participle which in this case is ‘built’.
Native English speakers do this automatically, without thinking, but for EFL To recap how to form passive sentences with your class you could give
students it’s not so obvious. You would know instinctively, for example, that them a list of active sentences and ask them to re-write them in the passive.
it is incorrect to say ‘I enjoy listen music’. This is because the first verb
‘enjoy’ is always followed by the gerund (the -ing form of the verb).
Likewise, the sentence ‘I’ve decided going to university’ doesn’t sound right
at all (although we do understand the meaning of the sentence). Here we
need the infinitive form of the verb (the verb in its original state) with ‘to’ Example Grammar Practice
: ‘I’ve decided to go to university’. Whilst most of your students should feel comfortable forming passive
A good way to introduce upper-intermediate students to this topic is to sentences in a controlled exercise, they may still make mistakes in their
first off give them a variety of sentences and use their instinct to tick the writing by using the passive form in an active sentence or vice versa.
correct verb form. This is because at this level they will already have been It can therefore be useful to find a text which uses a variety of active or
exposed to a lot of English and will feel satisfied to know that their passive sentences, erase all the verb forms and have students write the
subconsciouses have absorbed some valuable information! correct active or passive verb in the blank spaces.
Look at the following example which you are free to use with your own
lessons.
28
Student instruction "Fill the gaps with the active or passive form Here we’re going to focus on the nine parts of speech (adjectives, adverbs,
of the verbs in brackets" conjunctions, determiners, exclamations, nouns, prepositions, pronouns and
verbs) and look at them in a bit more detail than the typical “a verb is a
Reuters 'News Agency
doing word” approach we all learned at school.
Martin Webb_________(work) for the Reuters News Agency for ten
years. He describes the company. "Reuters is one of the world's biggest Part Of
Function Examples A Few Subcategories
news agencies. It__________(supply) news and stock market price to Speech
media and financial institutions all over the world__________ (start) by
Paul Reuters in 1849 - with pigeons. to describe a
Reuter________(be) born in 1816 in Germany. During the 1840's he noun, a comparative (taller)
tall
Adjective pronoun or superlative (most
_________(employ) as a bank clerk in Berlin. German bankers intelligent
_________(need) to know the price on the Paris stock exchange, but the part of a intelligent)…
French telegraph system only went as far as Belgium. From there the sentence
information______________(send) to Germany by train. The
to describe a
journey________(take) nine hours. The same information_______ carry
verb, adjective
by Paul Reuter's pigeons in only two hours!"
or another frequency (sometimes),
"Reuters _________(change) a lot since those days. Over the past fifty adverb by quickly time (yesterday), manner
years, we _________(open) offices in many different countries and we giving more finally (angrily), degree
_______still_______(expand). Now, news and stock market Adverb
information sometimes (completely), quantity
prices__________(send) all over the world within seconds." about how, yesterday (few), attitude markers
*text taken from www.busyteacher.org when (apparently)…
something
Again there are variety of resources available to teach the various grammar happens
points but the important thing to remember is how to teach appropriately
at each level! addition (and), condition
to connect a (since), contrast (yet),
Unit 2: Key grammatical Conjunctions
clause,
but
and
purpose (so that), reason
sentence or (because), result
terms and their functions word
so
(therefore), time
(before)..
Many novice EFL teachers are afraid of teaching grammar because, although
they can intuitively sense if a sentence is correct or incorrect, they often articles (the),
don’t know how to explain why because they themselves are unfamiliar with to clarify which this demonstrative adjectives
all the jargon. Determiners noun is being my (that), possessive
If you struggle recognising your nouns from your pronouns, your adjectives referred to both adjectives (his), quantifiers
from your adverbs then you’re not alone. But grasping these key concepts is (both)…
essential to EFL teaching.
29
Transitive verbs
to express
strong feeling ouch A transitive verb takes a direct object; that is, the verb transmits action to
doubt (erm), pain an object.
Exclamations (informal, wow
(ouch)…
spoken oh no He sent the letter. ( letter = direct object of sent)
language)
She gave the lecture. ( lecture = direct object of gave)
abstract (hope), countable In these sentences, something is being done to an object.
to name things, milk (people), uncountable
A transitive verb can also have an indirect object that precedes the direct
Nouns people, places, parents (sugar), proper
object. The indirect object tells to or for whom the action is done, although
concepts beauty (Liverpool), collective
the words to and for are not used. In the following examples, notice the
(army)…
difference between the direct and indirect objects.
cause/effect (due to), The direct object ( letter) receives the action ( sent). The indirect object (
to link a
contrast (unlike), Robert) is the person to whom the letter is sent.
noun/noun at
dependent (wait for), He sent Robert the letter.
Prepositions phrase/pronoun until
movement (towards),
to another throughout The direct object ( lecture) receives the action ( gave). The indirect object (
place (under), time
word or phrase class) is the group to whom the lecture is given.
(during)…
She gave her class the lecture.
personal (subject
Learn to recognise words that are direct and indirect objects of verbs.
I pronouns he, object
to replace/refer When these words are pronouns, they must be in the objective case.
him pronouns them…),
Pronouns to a noun or Intransitive verbs
ours possessive (mine),
noun phrase
herself reflexive (himself), An intransitive verb does not take an object.
relative…
She sleeps too much.
walk He complains frequently.
to show an
Verbs believe Transitive, intransitive…
action or state In these sentences, nothing receives the action of the verbs sleep and
try
complain.
Many verbs can be either transitive or intransitive.
She sings every day. (no object = intransitive)
Further grammatical terms She sings rock 'n' roll tunes. ( rock 'n' roll tunes receives the action of sings
= transitive)
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs Gerunds
A transitive verb, used with a direct object, transmits action to an object Gerunds are words that are formed from verbs but act as nouns.
and may also have an indirect object, which indicates to or for whom the You can spot them because they will be verb+ing acting as a noun.
action is done. In contrast, an intransitive verb never takes an object.
30
E.g. I love shopping! A simple sentence consists of one clause that has a subject and a verb. A
The word ‘shop’ is a verb. Shopping is a verb with an –ing ending acting as a simple sentence puts across one simple idea or thought. It’s a sense unit – a
noun. complete unit of meaning.
It is the subject of this sentence. Here are some examples of simple sentences:
▪ Carlos smiled. (Carlos is the subject; smiled is the verb)
Root words ▪ The dog barked. (The dog is the subject; barked is the verb)
Word ‘trees’ or ‘maps’ can also be useful for identifying different parts of ▪ The boys are playing soccer. (The boys is the subject; are playing is the
speech and helping students increase their vocabulary. You essentially start verb)
with a ‘root’ word, then try to find as many different variations on that ▪ Will you help me? (you is the subject; will help is the verb)
word by adding prefixes (e.g. un-, mis-), suffixes (e.g. –ly, -ful) or by adapting
different parts of the word. Take a look at the example below using the There is no minimum number of words a sentence must contain in order to
root word ‘believe’ be a sentence. Again the only pre-requisite is a main subject and a main
verb. For example, He phoned is as much of a sentence as is Atlético Madrid is
one of the best teams in Europe.
Note: A simple sentence is a complete unit of meaning which contains a
subject and a verb. It may have other words which help to make up the
meaning.
But look at this group of words:
Made in France.
This is correct English but it is not a sentence. It doesn’t have a subject. To
make it into a complete sentence with a subject and verb, we would need
to change it to something like:
Before clicking onto the next page, and using a pen and paper, see how
My fridge was made in France.
many words you can write down from the root ‘understand’.
So, that’s simple sentences done. But there are other types of sentences
Root words continued too.
You will hopefully have written some of the below: Compound sentences
Understanding
Another main type of sentence that speakers and writers use is called
Understandable
a compound sentence. This is a sentence of two or more main clauses
Understandably
joined by a coordinating conjunction (also called a connective).
Misunderstand
Misunderstanding Compound sentences contain two or more pieces of information and the
Pre-understood pieces are linked by connectives. Coordinating conjunctions are connectives
which link text together, such as:
Simple sentences ▪ but
31
▪ and The main clause is the mighty lion roared because it has a subject and a verb
▪ or and makes sense by itself.
Two simple sentences can be joined together with a connective to make a The subordinate clause is when the noisy vehicle passed. Although it is a
compound sentence. For example: clause with a subject and a verb, it doesn't make sense on its own. It needs
to be attached to a main clause for it to make sense.
I do not like eating strawberries is a simple sentence.
We can add more subordinate clauses to make a more complex sentence.
I love eating carrots is also a simple sentence. In the following examples the main clause is in bold and the two subordinate
If we join them together we have a compound sentence: clauses are underlined.
I do not like eating strawberries but I love eating carrots. When the vehicle passedthe mighty lion roaredbecause it was annoyed.
Note: but is the connective We can even split the main clause with a minor clause and still have a
complex sentence.
Here are other examples of compound sentences with the connectives
written in bold: When the vehicle passed, the mighty lionwhich was annoyedroared.
▪ The boys walked down the road and they met their friends at the bus Another example
stop. In a complex sentence there is one main idea and one or more subordinate
▪ The postman came to the door so the dog barked loudly. ideas. We can take the main idea out of a complex sentence so that the idea
stands on its own. Let’s consider this sentence:
One advantage of compound sentences is that a writer can build more
variety into her writing. However, one problem is that some writers can get The alarm was raised as soon as the fire was spotted.
carried away and write long rambling sentences: We can cut out the main idea (the main clause) and it will stand on its
We went the park and we met some friends and then we went into town which own as a meaningful unit:
was not too far but I was quite tired when I got there so I sat down. The alarm was raised (main idea/main clause because it is meaningful on its
Writers and speakers need to take care with connectives. Two in a own, has a subject and a verb)
sentence is usually adequate, and they don't need to be used in every What we are left with is:
sentence.
as soon as the fire was spotted (even although it has a subject and verb, this
There is one other main sentence type – complex sentences. clause cannot stand on its own; it’s not a meaningful unit as it stands and
is therefore regarded as subordinate to the main clause, i.e. it is
Complex sentences a subordinate clause.
A complex sentence is used to put across more detailed ideas. A Note:
complex sentence contains one main clause that can make sense on its own The main clause in the example above is also called an independent clause. It
and one or more minor or subordinate clauses that are linked to it. We’ll contains both a subject and a verb and can stand alone as a sentence.
call these minor clauses subordinate clauses from now on. It just sounds
The subordinate clause in the example above is called a dependent clause. It
better.
contains a subject and verb but cannot stand alone as a sentence. It’s
When the noisy vehicle passed, the mighty lion roared. dependent on the main clause for it to make sense.
32
tenses? Why can’t we say “I’ve been to Brazil in 2006”? This is where your
‘Analyse’ and ‘Identify context’ steps come in.
Whilst there are obviously overlaps, especially with many of the Present continuous/ Present progressive: happening now or around
European languages, other cultures may have entirely different now
concepts of the relationship between time and tense. ▪ Form: am/is/are + verb + -ing
Rosemary Aitken suggests an approach known as CASSIAL (Choose, ▪ e.g. ‘John is working today’
Analyse, Sequence, Select, Identify context, Auxiliary materials, Learner
error).
Past
Although this acronym may seem a tad long-winded, her approach is
relatively self-explanatory: you need to think about the tense you’ve chosen Past simple: completed, finished actions with a specific time reference
to teach (what’s its purpose? When do we use it? Are there any ▪ Form: use the past tense of the verb
exceptions).
▪ e.g. ‘I wrote 10 letters yesterday’
Make sure you have enough material to illustrate your point and pre-empt
any problems your students may have with grasping the nuances of that Past continuous/ Past progressive: actions in progress at a particular
particular tense. time in the past, actions interrupted in the past, two actions happening
simultaneously in the past
A deeper understanding of tenses will develop as you become more and
more familiar with teaching them and the contrast between each but here ▪ Form: was/were + verb + -ing
we will see an overview of the various English tenses for you to get to grips ▪ e.g. ‘What were you doing at 10.00 last night?’, ‘I was writing letters’
with.
Look back at the two example sentences given in the first paragraph of this
unit.
Future Tense
Future
The first “I went to Brazil in 2006” is an example of a past simple sentence,
it’s the verb ‘go’ in its past form. Present continuous: fixed future plans/arrangements with a specific time
The second, “I’ve been to Brazil” is the present perfect tense. We form reference
the present perfect by using the have/has + the ‘past participle’ of the verb. ▪ Form: am/is/are + verb + -ing
In this case the past participle of the verb ‘go’ is ‘been’. Don’t get confused ▪ e.g. ‘He’s seeing Jim on Sunday afternoon’
with the name ‘present perfect’ though, we’re still referring to the past. But
if we’re talking about the past in both cases, why do we need two different ‘going to’ + infinitive verb: future intentions and predictions
33
▪ e.g. ‘She’s going to have a baby!’ Future Perfect (simple): an action that will have already happened
‘will/won’t/shall’ + infinitive verb: predictions, instant decisions, before a specific point in the future
promises, suggestions and offers ▪ Form: will + have + past participle
▪ e.g. ‘I think it will rain tomorrow’, ‘I promise I’ll do my homework ▪ e.g. ‘I’ll have already left by the time you arrive’
later’
Future Perfect Continuous: an action that will continue up until a
Future Continuous/ Future Progressive: an action in progress at a certain future point
particular time in the future
▪ Form: will + have + been + verb + -ing
▪ Form: will + be + verb + -ing ▪ e.g. ‘I’ll have been working here for 10 years when I retire’
▪ e.g. ‘In 2050 we will all be driving electric cars’
FULL Tense Table:
Perfect Aspect
Present Perfect (simple): general past experiences with no specific time
Introduction
reference, past actions that have importance in the present, in expressions You will already have a reasonably good grasp of tenses from the
with yet, since, for, already, just, actions which started in the past and introductory materials above. But it’s wise go a bit deeper into this.
continue now (non-action verbs only)
So, we have provided you with a FULL Tense Table which you should
▪ Form: have/has + past participle always keep by your side, just in case you are asked a question and your
▪ e.g. ‘I’ve worked here for 3 years’, ‘a car has crashed into a house’, mind goes blank for a moment. It happens to us all!
‘I’ve known her since I was at school’ The table covers the 3 main verb structures for each tense:
Present Perfect Continuous: actions which started in the past and ▪ Positive: You like Edinburgh.
continue now (action verbs), recent continuous actions ▪ Question: Do you like Edinburgh?
▪ Form: have/has + been + verb + -ing ▪ Negative: You do not like Edinburgh.
▪ e.g. ‘I’ve been learning English for 4 years’, ‘You’re all red, what have
This is useful when you decide to cover, say, the positive form and the
you been doing?’ – ‘I’ve been sunbathing in the garden’
negative form one after the other. The table will keep you right.
Past Perfect (simple): when we’re already talking about the past but Also, you may get an off-the-wall question from an advanced student: What’s
want to refer to an earlier past time the difference between the two forms of the Future Continuous (Progressive)
▪ Form: had + past participle Tense: will be or be going to?
▪ e.g. ‘I couldn’t get in because I had forgotten my keys’ Again, your mind may go blank for a moment, particularly when you’re deep
Past Perfect Continuous: an action in progress in the past leading up to into another tense. You have your table to keep you right.
another past moment In this scenario, you could give the student a copy of the relevant pages for
her to read later and she can ask you questions later if she’s still not sure.
▪ Form: had + been + verb + -ing
Just for interest, there’s little difference between the two forms!
▪ e.g. ‘He had been cleaning the car for an hour before he stopped
because of the rain’
34
In addition, the table has been constructed so that you can copy a page for a Tense 1: Present Simple Tense (also called the Simple Present
specific tense and give this out to your class. This will save you time Tense)
rummaging around and making up your own table for that particular tense.
In regular verbs, this tense is formed by using the verb stem, adding -s in the
Here is the tense table. Study it well and keep it by your side. It’s not third person singular (he, she, it).
difficult; it just takes a bit of time if you’re a little bit rusty.
Subject Verb Stem
FULL Tense Table: Twelve tenses in modern English
A. There are three simple tenses: I like
1. Present Simple: showing whether an action or condition occurs
you (singular) like
2. Past Simple: showing whether an action or condition occurred
3. Future Simple: showing whether an action or condition will occur he/she/it likes
B. There are three perfect tenses
we like
4. Present Perfect: showing whether an action or condition has
occurred relative to the present you (plural) like
5. Past Perfect: showing whether an action or condition had occurred relative
to the past they like
6. Future Perfect: showing whether an action or condition will have Positive: You like Edinburgh.
occurred relative to the future. Question: Do you like Edinburgh?
C. There are six continuous (also called progressive) tenses: Negative: You do not like Edinburgh.
7. Present Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition is Tense 2: Past Simple Tense (sometimes called the Simple Past
occurring in the present Tense)
8. Past Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition was This tense refers to actions in the past. In regular verbs, it is formed by
occurring in the past adding –ed to the verb stem (or -d if the verb stem already ends in e):
9. Future Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or Subject Verb Stem (adding –ed) Verb stem (adding -d)
condition will be occurring in the future
I requested liked
10. Present Perfect Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or
condition has been occurring relative to the present you (singular) requested liked
11. Past Perfect Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or he/she/it requested liked
condition had been occurring relative to the past
we requested liked
12. Future Perfect Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or
condition will have been occurring relative to the future. you (plural) requested liked
Positive: You played tennis. Negative: You won’t see her on Sunday.
Question: Did you play tennis? With shall:
Negative: You didn’t play tennis. Positive: We shall see her on Sunday.
Note: In irregular verbs, there is a variety of past tense forms: become → Question: Shall we see her on Sunday?
became, blow → blew, catch → caught. These just have to be learned. Negative: We shan’t see her on Sunday.
Note: The past simple can also be formed with the verb be. The past of be, Tense 3 continued: Future Simple Tense (also called the Simple
i.e. was and were, is used:
Future Tense) Form 2
Positive: I was annoyed because the show was cancelled at the last moment.
Question: Were you annoyed because the show was cancelled at the last Often called the goingto future, this form is a combination of be + going to +
moment? verb stem.
Negative: I wasn’t annoyed because the show was cancelled at the last
moment. Subject am/is/are going to Verb Stem
Tense 3: Future Simple Tense (also called the Simple Future I am; ‘m going to object.
Tense) Form 1
For this tense, we use will or shall, followed by the verb stem: you (singular) are; ‘re going to object.
Note that we often use contractions when using will and shall, Past Participle
Present Tense of
e.g. I’ll and We shan’t. Shall is much more common in British English than in Subject of the Main
the verb have
American English. Verb
With will:
Positive: You will see her on Sunday I have washed the dishes.
Question: Will you see her on Sunday?
36
you (singular) had failed again! Positive: Dad will have cooked dinner by the time we get back.
Question: Will Dad have cooked dinner by the time we get back?
he/she/it had failed again!
Negative: Dad won’t have cooked dinner by the time we get back.
we had failed again! Sometimes, the going to format is used (am/is/are + going to have + past
participle]:
you (plural) had failed again! Positive: Dad is going to have cooked dinner by the time we get back.
they had failed again! Question: Is Dad going to have cooked dinner by the time we get
back?
Note that we often use contractions when using had, e.g. I hadn’t Negative: Dad is not going to have cooked dinner by the time we get back.
Positive: You had studied Spanish before you went to Madrid. Either form can usually be used.
Question: Had you studied Spanish before you went to Madrid? Tense 7: Present Continuous Tense (also called the Present
Negative: You hadn’t studied Spanish before you went to Madrid. Progressive Tense)
Tense 6: Future Perfect Tense
37
This tense is formed by using the present tense of the verb be and the
they were drinking Coke.
present participle of the main verb.
Positive: You were sleeping when she phoned.
Present Participle of the Main
Subject am/is/are
Verb Question: Were you sleeping when she phoned?
Negative: You were not sleeping when she phoned.
I am drinking Coke.
Tense 9: Future Continuous Tense (also called the Future
you (singular) are drinking Coke. Progressive Tense) Form 1
There are two forms. Form 1: This tense is formed by will be followed by
he/she/it is drinking Coke. the present participle.
we are drinking Coke. Subject will be Present Participle of the Main Verb
you (plural) are going to be jogging to work. Positive: You have been standing here for two hours.
Question: Have you been standing here for two hours?
they are going to be jogging to work.
Negative: You have not been standing here for two hours.
Positive: You are going to be sleeping when she gets home. Tense 11: Past Perfect Continuous Tense (also called the Past
Question: Are you going to be sleeping when she gets home? Perfect Progressive Tense)
Negative: You are not going to be sleeping when she gets home. This tense is formed by using had been followed by the present participle.
Remember this: It is possible to use either will be or be going to in order to
Present Participle of
create the Future Continuous tense. There’s not much difference. Subject had been
the Main Verb
Tense 10: Present Perfect Continuous Tense (also called
the Present Perfect Progressive Tense) I had been waiting for four hours.
This tense is formed by combining the present perfect of the verb be with
you (singular) had been waiting for four hours.
the present participle of the main verb.
has/have Present Participle of he/she/it had been waiting for four hours.
Subject
been the Main Verb
we had been waiting for four hours.
customers for
I have been serving you (plural) had been waiting for four hours.
nine hours.
they had been waiting for four hours.
you customers for
have been serving
(singular) nine hours.
Positive: You had been sitting there for more than two hours when she finally
arrived.
customers for
he/she/it has been serving Question: Had you been sitting there for more than two hours when she finally
nine hours.
arrived?
customers for Negative: You had not been sitting there for more than two hours when she
we have been serving
nine hours. finally arrived.
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Tense 12: Future Perfect Continuous Tense NOTE: It’s possible to use either form with little or no difference in
Usual Form: This tense is formed by using will have been followed by the meaning.
present participle.
Unit 5:Teaching grammar
will have Present Participle of the
Subject Well, now you know all the requisite grammar. But how do you teach it?
been Main Verb
We’re going to show you how so that you’ll be able to handle this from Day
will have for three 1 – and get it right first time.
I studying
been hours. We’re going to cover the 3 key areas which will ensure you get it right first
time:
you will have for three
studying 1. Understanding prescriptive and descriptive grammar
(singular) been hours.
2. Different modes of presenting grammar
will have for three 3. Teaching grammar to different levels
he/she/it studying
been hours.
If you take your time with this and absorb it all, it’s unlikely you’ll
will have for three ever have to check any book or site about teaching grammar.
we studying Unless, of course, you really like reading grammar books!
been hours
you (plural)
will have
been
studying
for three
hours.
Understanding prescriptive
will have for three
and descriptive grammar
they studying 1. Understanding prescriptive and descriptive grammar
been hours.
The term grammar generally refers to the rules and conventions by which
Positive: You will have been waiting here for two hours. words are ordered and changed to form a sentence.
Question: Will you have been waiting here for two hours? Grammar can be prescriptive or descriptive.
Negative: You will not have been waiting here for two hours. Prescriptive grammar sets out rules which should be followed if you wish to
Another Form: am/is/are + going to have been + present participle. This is write ‘correct’ or ’good’ English. Sometimes, these ‘rules’ are based on
not used as much as the usual form above. observation of the way in which ‘educated’ speakers actually use the
language.
Positive: You are going to have been driving for more than six hours
by the time you get back. At other times, they are based on what the speaker was taught at school,
many years ago. For example: My teacher always said you should never start a
Question: Are you going to have been driving for more than six
sentence with And orBut. Oh, really?
hours by the time you get back?
Prescriptive grammar rules are the right rules, according to some ‘experts’,
Negative: You are not going to have been driving for more than six
e.g. Never start a sentence with And or But.
hours by the time you get back.
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Prescriptive rules make a value judgment about the correctness of an 4. Never start a sentence with And or But.
utterance. Let’s have a look at this prescriptive rule a bit further by exploring these
Descriptive grammar seeks to describe how language is actually used in the sentences:
real world. It’s a pretty smart long-term business plan but do you think those changes go far
Descriptive rules accept the patterns a speaker actually uses and try to enough?
account for them. Descriptive rules allow for different varieties of a
It’s a pretty smart long-term business plan. But do you think those changes go far
language; they don't ignore a construction simply because some prescriptive
enough?
grammarian doesn't like it.
The first sentence fits with the prescriptive rule. The second does not and
Descriptive rules describe the way grammar is actually used. Descriptive
fits with the descriptive approach. There’s no doubt in our minds that the
grammar is a reaction to the way people speak and is accepting of
second sentence creates a more forceful effect. The introductory
alternative, less nit-picking forms.
conjunction But gives more weight to the thought expressed in the sentence
Descriptive rules also tend to change since language itself is always and is more emphatic.
undergoing change.
So, again, we’ll align with the descriptive side in this particular context.
Have a look at these example sentences:
But don’t get the impression that prescriptive rules are not
1. Let’s start at the very beginning. important:
Prescriptive rules of grammar would tell us that this is wrong because the 1. When we adhere to most prescriptive rules, we are adhering to a
beginning is a specific start point and you can’t make it any more specific by standard form of a language that is accepted by most speakers of that
using very. But descriptive rules say that this type of phrase is common in language. By doing so, this allows us to be understood by the greatest
spoken English, So, we’ll align with the descriptive side and we’ll possible number of individuals.
keep very in.
2. Most prescriptive rules are critical for those who are learning a foreign
2. That’s very true, absolutely true. language. It just wouldn’t work if there were no guidelines for, say, learning
Native speakers also say very true or absolutely true. Again, prescriptive rules English.
of grammar would tell us that this is wrong because you can’t have anything 3. Most prescriptive rules allow a speaker of a non-standard dialect to learn
stronger than true. Something cannot be more true. But, again, descriptive the rules of the standard dialect and employ them in appropriate social
rules say that this type of phrase is common in spoken English. So, again circumstances – if they wish to. Unfortunately, non-standard dialects are still
we’ll align with the descriptive side and use very true and absolutely true. frowned upon and not accepted by many groups and can inhibit a person’s
3. Who do you want to speak to? progress in society, and in business.
A proponent of descriptive rules would say this sentence is fine. Here are some common prescriptive rules relating to English. If these didn’t
exist, there would be lots of confusion:
A proponent of prescriptive rules would say the sentence is incorrect; we
should never end a sentence with a preposition (i.e. to). To satisfy the The subject of a sentence must agree with the verb. We mustn’t say He go
prescriptive group we would need to change this to: To whom do you want to to school.
speak? In English, capitalise the first letter of a sentence: My computer isn’t working. It
To us, this seems a bit cumbersome and out-dated but you decide which is needs to be fixed.
best.
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Use subject pronouns after the verb be (It wasI who phoned you NOT It was representation of the passage of time. Students can see how the verb
me who phoned you.) works.
Use the definite article the before names of rivers and geographical areas We have made this simple timeline to explain the simple past tense.
but not before the names of lakes or continents (the Amazon, the Far East; Yesterday, I walked to school.
Lake Superior, Europe).
Being able to distinguish between the two types is important since you will
need to ensure that your learners are familiar with some prescriptive
grammar rules, while also alerting them to alternative or more informal
descriptive uses.
There are is no set format for making a timeline. Just make sure you explain
Both types of grammar have their supporters and their detractors, which in it first of all. You can use an X or any symbol to mark the event.
all probability suggests that both have their strengths and weaknesses.
Here’s another one to demonstrate the simple future progressive
You need to decide how you will approach the teaching of (continuous) tense:
grammar.
Next year he is climbing Kilimanjaro.
Then you can change the format – student A interviews student B and Next, draw a camera on the board. She’s going to take pictures. She’s going to
draws up a timeline for student B. Then they change roles, and after this take pictures. What is she going to do? Class repeats.
they read out the other student’s timeline to the class.
Say: I wish I was her. What other things is she going to do? Elicit answers to this.
You can also give them a short list of important historical past events that
When the correct response comes up, e.g. She’s going to walk around
have happened in their country and future events the country hopes to
Barcelona, drill this (with the whole class and some individuals). Write this
accomplish by some date in the future and get them to plot them on the
timeline. response on the board.
These dates could be mixed up on the list. Keep away from serious Follow the same format now with some additional going to questions, then
‘political’ events such as attempted coups. Or you could centre it on a writing the correct response on the board. Then check with concept
world event such as space exploration or the Olympic Games or the key questions (checking understanding) at random. So, tell me: What is Maria
successes in the development of medicine. going to do next week. Where is she going to visit?
You could also give the students a short written text and ask them to read You can then recap on the structure avoiding metalanguage (language about
it for comprehension and then they prepare a timeline based on the language, e.g. noun, verb), and move them on to practising it with different
important facts in that text. activities, e.g. a gap-fill exercise and then move them on to producing the
correct structure, say, by conversation in pairs and a writing activity.
As they progress with the verb timelines, their My Timeline can be expanded
to marking future events on their personal timeline, for example: when will By giving several different examples through a situation, or specific context,
they be going to the ‘big’ school, when they hope to accomplish something; you help the class to build up a clear idea of what the structure means and
when they think they will start working etc. how it is used. After giving a few examples, you can simply present the
situation and try to get the students to give the example.
Remember. Ensure the grammar part – relationships between verb forms
and their time reference – is integrated into, and reinforced by, the key This will verify how well the students have understood the concept, and this
skills of speaking, listening, reading and writing. also helps to get the class more involved.
Let’s imagine you are presenting the concept of going to. Draw a face on the Yet another way of showing meaning is to present the learning material
board with a name under it. Name her Maria. Put a thought bubble above through physical demonstration.
her. Introduce Maria. Say: This is Maria and she’s thinking about something nice. Let’s just use the language item above – going to. You could also
I wonder what it is. demonstrate the concept of going to. You could tell them that you’re:
Draw an aeroplane. Say: Ah, she’s thinking of her holiday next week. Next ▪ going to open the door
week. (Using gestures of forward movement.) She’s going to fly on an ▪ going to give a prize in a few minutes to whoever is best behaved
aeroplane. She’s going to fly. Repeat this class: She’s going to fly. Class repeats.
▪ going to open to the window because it’s too hot
Say: I wonder where she is going.
▪ going to close the window because it’s too cold
Draw or show a big picture of the Sagrada Familia in Barcelona – elicit until
you get the response. Yes, she’s going to visit the Sagrada Familia. Repeat this and so on.
class: She’s going to visit the Sagrada Familia. Class repeats. Using the same format above for situations, it will be another successful way
for you to get them to grasp the grammatical concept.
Say: She’s so lucky. I wonder what she will do there.
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Teaching grammar to already be aware of some metalanguage, e.g. naming word, noun, and
adjective – from their learning in their native/first language (L1) classes.
different levels You need to find out if this is the case. If so, you can use the terms naming
word and noun etc.
3. Teaching grammar to different levels 3. Your aim is to get them to notice some forms and patterns, and then use
Presenting grammar in the EFL classroom is no different from teaching them automatically after lots of practice.
other skills, in that you need to take into account a range of factors, e.g. age, 4. The grammar you help them to notice must emerge from meaningful
level of competence, previous grammar experiences in the native language contexts and there should be some sort of meaningful communication that
and the like. leads to a focus on grammar, e.g. listening to you reading a story or singing
It would be foolhardy for anyone to say that a specific grammar structure a song such as This is the way we wash our hands.
should always be presented to a specific learner at a specific age. There are Remember this: Never teach grammar in isolation when teaching
several variables at play. younger young learners. This would be a recipe for disaster.
So, bearing this in mind, it’s best to look at grammar presentations in fairly 5. Younger young learners need to be able to see (gradually) the
general age groups. You’ll soon know it’s time to focus more on grammar relationship between form, function, meaning and use, i.e. what form is used
when learners start asking you questions, such as: Mr. Brown, why does this to express what functions and meanings, e.g. Please Miss, can I have a pencil?
word have an extra letter (dogs) but the other one hasn’t (dog)?
You should strive to balance form, meaning, function and use. Learners
Here is a pretty useful grouping: should understand not only the mechanics of the language, but also
1. Young learners: younger young learners (gradually) the how, why, and where a particular structure, word, or phrase
gets used.
2. Young learners: older young learners
6. Where grammar progress is slow, don’t think that this is all down to
3. Teenagers influences of, and differences in, the learners’ L1. Some learners have
4. Adults difficulties with grammar in their L1. In addition, some aspects of difficulty in
grammar are pretty universal.
Teaching grammar to younger 7. Developing foreign language knowledge, understanding and application
skills is a lengthy and complex process. It is not a linear process, so take
young learners your time with them.
1. Teaching grammar to younger young learners Your key role is to help them to notice grammar. Here’s an
extended example of how to go about this:
1. Key points
An extended example: Noticing grammar
Here’s what to do and what not to do:
Younger young learners need grammar to take their language learning
1. It just wouldn’t be appropriate to teach grammar formally and explicitly forward to the next step. They won’t know they are getting grammar input.
to students under the age of, say, 8-9 years old. That’s a general age Unknown to them, you will be selecting grammatical features in stories,
guide. But that doesn’t mean you won’t be involved in grammar activities! dialogues, songs, chants, rhymes etc. so that you can bring their attention to
2. You should not use any metalanguage with your younger young learners. these features in non-formal ways.
However, there is the possibility that your younger young learners may
44
At this early stage the form-focusing techniques you use will be very simple Alana: Two apple.
but very important at the same time.
T: Yes, Alana, he ate two apples. Listen everyone, he ate two apples. Again,
Imagine you are reading them a story that goes like the one below. who can tell me what Lionel ate?
Note: Camila: Two apples.
▪ The words in bold should be emphasised. T: That’s right, Camila. Two apples. Two apples. Lionel ate two apples. Let’s
▪ Take into class three real apples and hold up the requisite number say it together. Two apples.
when each number is mentioned. Piggy ate one apple. Lionel ate two apples. Let’s say it together: Piggy ate
One day, Piggy the pig ate one apple one apple. Lionel ate two apples.
Good!
Can anyone tell me what they hear? Is it the same? One apple, two apples.
Alvaro: Not same.
T: Why is it not the same, Alvaro?
One day, Lionel the lion ate two apples
Alvaro: Two apples has sss sound.
T: That’s right, Alvaro. Two appleshas a sss sound at the end.
Everyone, when we have one apple we say apple. When we have two
apples we say apples – a sss sound at the end. If we have more apples
than one, we say apples – a sss sound at the end.
One day, Ellie the elephant ate three apples.
Can anyone tell me what Ellie ate?
Daniel: Three apples.
That’s right, Daniel. He ate more than one apple. He ate three apples. So,
Piggy ate one apple. Lionel ate two apples. Ellie ate three apples.
Remember: Here our goal is form-focusing, grasping a correct structure. So, Then you could finish the story and recap with an oral exercise on the
it would go something like this: plural sound with other animals, to reinforce the plural ending –s.
T: Can anyone tell me what Piggy ate? Of course, you wouldn’t mention the word plural. And you can leave
Camila: One apple. exceptions to this plural formation till another time.
Remember this: Do your research and find out beforehand how
T: That’s right Camila. One apple. Hugo, can you tell me what Piggy ate?
the plural form is constructed in the learners’ native language
Hugo: One apple. (L1). This can help you with your planning, particularly where the
T: That’s right, Hugo. One apple. Let’s say it together – One apple. construction in the native language is much different from English.
SS: One apple. (We’re using SS to stand for all students.) You may even be able to impress them by using a bit of their language to
show differences or similarities in plural forms. They will love that.
T: Well done, class. Can anyone tell me what Lionel ate? Yes, Alana?
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In this example, your prime role is to help the learners notice this aspect Clearly, fun exercises and games will be useful tools to make the grammar
of form – the –s at the end of plural nouns. Further fun exercises based on input more enjoyable and less abstract for your younger young learners.
the topic will help to internalise this grammatical point into their internal Remember: They need to learn words and expressions in context.
grammar system in their memory bank.
2. Different practical techniques for increasing younger young
Once it is internalised, they should be able to draw on this knowledge and learners’ grammar
form later as required.
1. Classroom routines
This is an example of learning-centred grammar, taking the opportunity to
highlight and help them notice some grammar form point whilst they Younger young learners start to learn a language by picking up chunks of
are in the midst of the learning process - listening to and speaking about a language, primarily from you in the classroom, e.g. Good Morning, Mr Brown;
story. Please Miss …
So, at this very early stage of learning, we are taking an opportunity to So, the first steps have been taken in building their internal grammar.
attend to form, without them being aware of it. 2. Whole class instructions
Also, remember this: Frequently, the best way to get a learning Whole class instructions can be fairly easily grasped and again you can
point over is to make up your own material. At these early stages, introduce them to patterns and new vocabulary. Backed up with gestures
a story may only last one or two pages, with very few words. and mime from you and perhaps a game such as Simon Says, these can be
So, it’s easy to construct something that fits the bill, using only a few words transferred to their grammar memory banks:
and relevant pictures you can draw, download from the internet, or take in 1. Speak quietly, please.
as realia, particularly where you feel the class materials are not exactly what
you want. 2. Stand up, please.
We just made up the apples bit when we got to this part of the course. It 3. Sit down, please.
only took 10 minutes or so. If we had built a little story around it, we doubt 4. Choose a partner, please.
if it would have taken more than 20 minutes.
3. Chants and rhymes
As children get older, you can introduce more explicit forms of instruction
but with younger young learners it’s much too early to bog them down with Chants and rhymes also provide excellent opportunities for introducing
grammatical constructions and patterns. You can use many of the traditional
too much explicit grammar input.
songs and chants, e.g. This is the way we wash our hands or you can be more
Abstract and formal presentations of grammar with difficult words and adventurous and write your own to suit the targeted language form.
concepts such as adjective just won’t work with younger young learners.
Your song/rhyme to the same tune as This is the way we wash our
Softly, softly is the key. Your role for these learners is to help hands could easily be something like:
them notice and then try and use some grammatical forms and items as they
crop up, assuming they are ready to take these on board. This is the way we stand up quietly
In the early years, your teaching of English as a Foreign Language will centre This is the way we sit down quietly etc.
mostly on meaning, e.g. This is a dog. This makes sense. But it’s important Use your imagination and don’t hang back from singing, even if you can’t
that we do not overlook accuracy, so opportune moments should be keep a tune very well. You could always try rapping!
grasped to help the learners with the form of the language.
46
Teaching grammar to Then it’s easier to introduce some grammatical aspect by stopping the video
at one or two specific parts, to ask, for example, why the character made
two similar meaning statements but used different words for each
teenagers statement.
The sections above have focussed on young learners up to about age 12. Always do the competitive grammar activity in pairs or groups, so that
Young teenagers up to age 16 to 17 or so will continue their progress in students are not alone and may feel embarrassed if they can’t find the
grammar in the school environment, doing more of the type of study we solution. Put time limits on these types of activities to heighten the tension.
have cited for the older young learners but at a more complex level. The activity shouldn’t be complicated in any way.
Some will continue to progress during the period, so for that group there’s Using the am going to example above, it could be:
not much to add in terms of grammar input. It will be a continuation of the I’m going to give out a sheet to each group. On the sheet you’ll see the
grammar syllabus. words will and won’t several times. Put in am going to or am not going to in place
Sometimes, though, this group can be a bit challenging, often because the of will or won’t. Be careful. There may be some parts where you can’t do
learners have reached a plateau or because some of them act as if they are a this. (For example, the text may include the construction Will you come back
bit ‘too cool for school’ and they lack interest in learning grammar. tomorrow?)
Here’s what to do to make your grammar input more interesting, One person in each group must put their hand up when their group has finished
particularly with those who are struggling a bit or are a bit the exercise and checked it all over. Remember, it needs to be correct to get
disenchanted with grammar: points added for your end-of- term group prize. If it’s not fully correct, no points.
I’ll then pass it to the second group to have a go at getting points for the prize.
1. Avoid using metalanguage
Are you ready?
Instead, you could say, for example: Let’s look at another way of describing
Remember this: When doing this type of competitive activity, ensure that
things you’ll be doing tomorrow by using an –ing word (i.e. am going to)
it’s not the same group that wins all of the time. You may have to change
2. Empathise with them the groups around from time to time to achieve a better balance, but you
Tell them you also had struggles with some aspects of grammar when you wouldn’t tell them the reason for this.
were younger. But, with a bit of extra effort, you came through. And look at 5. Inspire them by giving them more autonomy
you now!
For example:
Remind them, from time to time, how useful grammar is for writing blogs
▪ Let them do the dictionary work to find synonyms they can use in a
and stories that others will admire, for passing examinations (not only in
passage.
English), for helping them in later years when they may wish to travel or
work in an English-speaking country, and so on. ▪ On occasions, ask those who have grasped a concept to help teach
those who haven’t.
3. Play to their interests as much as possible
▪ Sometimes, let them choose the video they want to watch or the
Make a huge effort to find out what they really like. It may be watching
story they want to read (say, from a choice of three). With lots of
action movies, or soccer or fashion programmes on video. Catch their
effort beforehand, you will have chosen areas of grammar in each of
interest.
the three items that you want to major on.
▪
49
6. Make it fun So, they will be motivated. This is a huge plus point. So, what remains to be
resolved is deciding on the best practices and approaches to meet their
Use lots of games to keep up their interest such as snakes and ladders
where they pick up cards you have prepared and they have to decide needs.
whether the sentence is correct or not if they are to move up the board. Here’s what you need to do:
Again, give the groups some autonomy in deciding what’s correct or not, 1. Don’t assume adults are competent in grammar.
but you need to be moving around, monitoring and listening to ensure Remember this:Do not fall into the trap of thinking that teaching young and
they’ve got it right. older adults will be easier because they will have made more progress in
grammar learning before you have met up with them. It might be the case
on some occasions; however, there is no guarantee.
Teaching grammar to adults Some may not be any more competent in grammar than a young learner.
2. Don’t worry about the level.
4. Teaching grammar to adults When you are teaching grammar to young and older adults, all of the above
In this section, we focus on the older teenager as a young adult, and adults information about young learners and teenagers is wholly relevant. The key
themselves. differences will be that there will likely be more explicit sessions on
Our key focus is not on the grammar items you will cover, because these grammar and you will be helping them to be much more autonomous,
may very much be the same as we have discussed for older young learners identifying and fixing the errors themselves where possible.
above. And with all the work you have completed during this course, you’ll be
So, what is our key focus? It’s to ensure you have the best practices and armed and dangerous, ready to handle any query about the Present Perfect
approaches in place for meeting the needs of this diverse group. Continuous or Phrasal Verbs.
This adult class will be a diverse group, diverse in educational background 3. Do a needs analysis.
(and therefore competency), age, employment history and culture. This is imperative.
They will have different goals for attending your English class. Some may be A needs analysis is a process of finding out what needs a learner has. Don’t
immigrants who need to grasp English quickly if they are to secure a job and make this into a big formal event. Do it informally. You could do it during
some may be young adults who need this learning to help them secure entry your first meeting with the class or an individual where you explain that you
to college or a vocational programme. need to find out their purpose for attending your class.
Some may be adults who need this additional learning for their job and What you’re trying to find out is:
some may be young or older adults who want to travel, work overseas or
1. What are the learner’s communicative competence needs at present?
just want to learn English as it’s good to have. There may be other goals.
Whilst chatting, think about questions such as:
The challenge is evident. How do you satisfy the grammar needs of a diverse
group with diverse goals? There is no easy answer to this. However, the ▪ How good is her use of English at present?
challenge is lessened for you due to one key characteristic of this group. ▪ What aspects of her English need to be improved to get her to the target
All of the learners in your group have a desire to succeed in learning English. situation?
Otherwise, why would they be there?
▪ What are her grammar needs?
50
2. What are the learner’s communicative needs in terms of her goal for will be able to self-correct, to a degree. Adults enjoy and get great benefit
learning English? from this technique.
Ask directly, questions such as: 1. Meaning
▪ When you go to college next year, what do you have to do in English? This seems easy. But it’s not that easy. Words can have two meanings:
▪ When you’re at work, what do you have to do in English? ▪ A literal meaning - what the word normally means in everyday
communication
Later, analyse, identify and decide what needs to done, via your teaching, to
get the learners to their desired situation in the future. ▪ A meaning for the context it’s being used in
4. Help them to become grammar detectives. The literal and usual meaning of wet is something like this: not dry; covered in
water or another liquid, as in:
In general, young adults and adults will be able to handle concepts much
easier than young learners. This is a key difference between adult and Examples
younger learner classes. I slipped on the wet floor.
Because of their adult ability to handle concepts, you can introduce However, in the next sentence, the meaning of wet bears no resemblance
them to some concepts directly, whilst using the appropriate metalanguage. to the meaning above:
By doing so, all of this will save time and get them faster to their goals. They
will appreciate your plan. Come on, John, don’t be such a tiresome wet.
Your aim is not just to introduce them to concepts: it is to ensure they can In the UK, wet is a disapproving term for someone who displays weak
put these into practice. character and does not express any forceful opinions. He ‘sits on the fence’
most of the time.
Let’s explore 4 concepts that are critical in the grammar classroom. They
relate to words and their positions and functions in a sentence. By So, understanding meaning is crucial. But it’s not just dictionary definitions
understanding what these are, your adult learners can quickly become which help us to know meaning. Grammar constructions help us to work
grammar detectives. out meanings by creating mental images in our mind which help us to work
out meaning.
They will better and faster understand word classes, word order and the
nature of words themselves. For example, when reading John was a tiresome… and coming to the last
part of the sentence, we expect the sentence to finish with some kind of
If you ensure that they are fully au fait with the terminology and meaning of complement, some kind of explanation as to who he was. In this case, it’s
these concepts, you’ll be off to an excellent start. These concepts are: a wet.
▪ Meaning We can then work out that the meaning of wet here is not the not-
▪ Form dry wet (adjective), but a wet (noun), some kind of person. We know that it
▪ Framework can’t be wet with the meaning not-dry, as that wouldn’t make sense after
the word a.
▪ Function
So, grammatical constructions help us to work out meaning. Grammar and
If adult learners understand these terms, it will make their grammar learning meaning are intertwined. If the adult learner understands this process, in
easier. Not only that, it will involve them in analysing a sentence and many cases she will be able to identify the meaning of a word from
working out themselves where something may have gone wrong. They grammatical analysis.
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2. Form it. So, they can work out that ugggawagga is functioning as the subject of the
Form is what a word looks like, how it is structured, e.g. boy, boy’s in this sentence and it is a noun.
sentence: 4. Setting
Example In a sentence, words form a setting into which other words can fit.
The big boy took the small boy’s ball. If we recognise the setting, we have a good idea of what type of word can
be placed in that setting.
In our analysis, we can have a good go at working out that boy is a noun, not
just because we know its meaning. We know that nearly all nouns add Examples
endings in the plural and in possession, so that’s a good clue to this being a 1. The/A/An ---------------- ate the apple.
noun.
We know that most nouns can fit after the, a, an. So, the word to complete
We can add –s to boy and it still makes sense. We know too, for example the sentence is likely to be a noun. It’s not a pronoun, verb, adjective etc.
that adjectives, adverbs, determiners etc. don’t do this – they don’t add We could work out again that the missing word is the subject due to the
plural or possessive endings. action word ate and the object word apple.
There are other ways to confirm this is a noun but these are not related to At this stage we don’t know if the noun is singular or plural. If we take
form, e.g. it immediately precedes the verb, so it’s likely to be a noun or away The, then we know it’s singular. If we take away The and A, we know
pronoun. Then we can eliminate the pronoun forms, e.g. he, she, it. Yes, it’s it’s singular and begins with a vowel. In any case, we know it’s a noun that
a noun fits this frame.
Knowing all about form can help us work out what part a word is playing in 2. The big boy ---------------the small boy’s ball.
a sentence.
If we are told that when this is completed it will be a sentence, then it’s
3. Function easy. Into the frame steps a verb. We don’t know which verb it is but we do
Function is another key element. know it is a verb because it can’t be a sentence without a verb. We also
Function is what a word does in a sentence. Earlier, you will have taught know it’s a transitive verb because there is an object.
them that nouns are primarily subjects, objects and complements in a Encourage your adult students to become grammar detectives applying
sentence. That is, the noun can function as a subject, the object or the these four tests/tools in order to work out word classes, to find what or
complement in a sentence. (It can function as other things too). who is doing what in the sentence, to find out what’s wrong, and most of all
With this bit of knowledge, students can better analyse a sentence. Have a to enable them to identify and repair errors on their own, where possible.
look at this interesting sentence: 5. Use games and drills sparingly.
Example Use games and drills sparingly with young adults and adult students. All of
The ugggawagga kicked a thnollanugga. them are there to achieve a goal within a time limit. Although you may see
great benefit in these, some of your students are unlikely to look at it the
Even if they don’t know what an ugggawagga is, they can work it out its same way. This can have a dampening effect on the class atmosphere.
function from analysis. They know that nouns commonly function as
You could use the odd game or two, so long as you carefully explain the
subjects, so this is likely to be a noun. It can’t be a pronoun, as there
end goal.
is The before it.
Plus, the verb functions as a doing word and the shape of the verb tells us
that the ugggawagga is doing something, i.e., something is not being done to
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Many adults see drilling as a childish activity. You can often see a disgruntled The way you plan an EFL lesson depends largely on the type of skill you are
look on some of the faces. Why let this spoil the good atmosphere you have focusing on (language, pronunciation, reading etc.) on that particular day.
built up? There are certain recognised procedures for the preparation of each and in
You’ll need to play this by ear. If you feel it’s right to introduce these this module we are going to look at the three most common:
techniques now and again, then we’re sure it will work out fine. ▪ Presentation Practice Production (P.P.P.)
▪ Test Teach Test (T.T.T.)
▪ Task-based Learning
independent language users. There are a variety of activities that can be Restricted practice e.g. Teacher hands out two cut up parts of sentences with past
used for free production: continuous and past simple actions to match up. (Teacher monitors students while they do
this task to see which students need further help).
▪ Role-plays Report back e.g. Teacher asks students with correct answers to feedback to the rest of the
▪ Debates class.
Freer practice e.g. In groups, students are given some pictures e.g. a train, a wet floor, a
▪ Quizzes/games
horse, an aeroplane and a puddle and are instructed to create a dramatic story to use the
▪ Descriptions target language. (Teacher monitors and takes notes for further work). Students perform/tell
their story to the whole class.
▪ Writing…
Consolidation and error correction e.g. Teacher highlights some common errors with this
Here you could get the students into small groups and ask them to discuss a tense on the board to help clarify the meaning and use of these two tenses (never singling
particular question e.g. ‘what would you buy if you won the lottery?’ out individual students of course).
perhaps asking them to give reasons for their choices or rank the order of
their hypothetical purchases. Unit 2:Test Teach Test
Or groups could even act out their own version of the video clip shown in Another popular method of lesson planning is known as the Test Teach
the presentation stage. Test (TTT) approach. In this method, students are immediately asked to do
Any number of activities are possible but just remember to give students an activity using the target language. This allows students to call upon their
the time they need to effectively produce the language because some may prior knowledge and lets the teacher assess whether they know the
be daunted by the prospect of playing an active role and, of course, thinking language or not and teach accordingly.
in another language always takes a bit longer! Test
Lesson plan structure The initial ‘test’ shouldn't be anything too demanding or long-winded. The
idea is that it’s diagnostic, allowing you to identify any gaps in the students’
This is the traditional structure of a lesson plan. This lesson’s aim is get students to notice knowledge. An advantage of this type of lesson planning is that it mixes
how the use of past continuous interrupted with past simple creates a dramatic story. It
could be used with a pre-intermediate to intermediate level class. Please pay attention as things up a bit for the students so they don’t get bored with the same old
you will be tested on this later! lesson format. It also means that the class feel that what you’re teaching
Build context e.g. Ask students to talk about the most frightening experience of their life. them is tailored to their needs rather than a ‘one size fits all’
approach. Even for lower-level classes this method can work as long as
Model sentence e.g. Teacher says ‘I was crossing the road when I was hit by a car!'
you sufficiently ‘grade’ the exercise, you don’t want to overwhelm the
Highlight meaning e.g. Teacher shows a past entry in their diary of the date when it happened students too much at this stage and make them feel as if they know nothing!
(fictional hopefully!). An example format for a pre-intermediate class could be:
Highlight spoken form e.g. teacher says the sentence naturally with linking sounds and
intonation. ▪ Lesson aim: Describing people and clothes
Check understanding. E.g. What was I doing just before being hit?” (Answer, crossing the ▪ Give the class a handout with an image and ask them to describe
road) This highlights what was in progress just before the interruption. the people in pairs.
Highlight written form e.g. Teacher writes on board 'I was crossing the road when I was hit
by a car!'
Summarise rule e.g. Teacher clarifies that this sentence starts with past continuous ( I was
crossing ) interrupted by past simple (when I was hit…)
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Unit 3:Task-based Learning ▪ Reporting: Results are reported orally through formal oral report
before the class or conversational engagement.
Task-based Learning is a method which focuses on learner ▪ Analysis: The teacher evaluates performance of tasks and highlights
autonomy and user fluency through students undertaking ‘real- areas of interest.
life’ or problem-solving activities. ▪ Practice: By participating in tasks that are relevant and practical a
Nunan describes it as “teaching and learning a language by using language to student’s confidence and proficiency in learning a new language
accomplish open ended tasks". grows.
Learners are given a problem or objective to accomplish but are left with Pre-task
some freedom in approaching this problem or objective.” The teacher announces the material and informs the students what they will
Usually this involves an introduction to the theme before setting a quite have to do. During the task stage the teacher may prompt the students to
open task such as ‘plan a birthday party’ or a ‘murder mystery’ style activity. remember applicable language that will help them for the task. It can also be
helpful to play a recording of other students who have completed this task
Afterwards, learners feedback via a report or reviewing the language used
so that the students know exactly what they need to do. You can offer the
for the task.
students time to prepare for the task and make notes.
Some tips to keep in mind come from the Asian ESL journal:
Task
▪ The purpose of the task must be clearly stated
The teacher can guide the students and praise them as they work through
▪ The task must be suitable for the level of the students the set task, applying the language skills they have acquired.
▪ Tasks must be interesting and motivating to the students Planning
▪ The language that the task will produce must be predicted As a group, create lists of everyday problems and the people, places, things
▪ Tasks should have variety and flexibility and actions related to these problems. Prepare a written report based on
the lists for each group member to use in delivering an oral report.
Task Based Learning ideas Report
A Task-based approach Students report back to the class with teacher advising on the order of
reports to be presented and possibly also giving some feedback. Teacher
As pioneered by N. Prabhu. Task -based learning offers an alternative for may compare other students’ interpretation of the same task to provide
language teachers. In a task-based lesson the teacher doesn't pre-determine some contrast.
what language will be studied, the lesson is based around the completion of
a central task and the language studied is determined by what happens as Analysis
the students complete it. The lesson follows certain stages. Next the teacher highlights relevant parts from the main text of the
For TBL activities examples given, make note of the following stages for the recording which students should analyse. The teacher may ask students to
activity: identify remarkable features within the text. The teacher can also
demonstrate the language that the students used during the report phase
▪ Assignment: Resources and instruction are given to students. for further study and analysis.
▪ Planning: Students use the resources to complete their
assignment.
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Teacher instruction “I’d now like you to write a short text on what you did For further reading on this area see 'A Framework for Task-Based Learning'
in class”. by Jane Wills, Longman; 'Doing Task-Based Teaching' by Dave and Jane
Willis, OUP 2007.
Summary Although in this module we’ve looked at the most commonly-used methods
for planning an EFL lesson there are many more styles which can be used, all
Present Practice Produce (PPP) with their own advantages and disadvantages.
Although many teachers may have been trained to use a Present Practise As long as your aims are well thought-out and you have a clear plan of what
Produce (PPP) method, the task based approach has been proven to be you intend to do in each lesson then you’re already more than half way
more effective specifically when teaching a new language. there.
A standard PPP lesson Play around with the different styles to see what suits you best
▪ Teacher presents an item of language in context to convey its and, most of all, keep you and your students engaged and
meaning. There are several ways to do this: through a text, a responsive!
situation or a conversation as an example.
▪ Students are then requested to complete a controlled practice
stage. Here, they may have to repeat target language through choral
or individual drilling, fill gaps or match sentences. The emphasis is
very much on students using the language correctly and helping Unit 4: Motivation
them become more comfortable with it Motivation
▪ The final stage is the production stage, also known as the 'free We’ve mentioned the word ‘motivation’ several times during this Module.
practice' stage. Students undertake a communication task such as a Motivation is so important that it deserves a whole Unit to itself.
role play and are expected to produce the target language whilst
also using any other language that they have already acquired which Motivation is important in everything you say and do with your learners, and
is deemed suitable and relevant to the task. not only in lesson planning.
We would be taking up a big chunk of your valuable time if we went deeply
Students will often produce the language but the form sounds unnatural as
into theories of motivation which, although sometimes interesting, are
they completely overuse the target structure.
unlikely to add much to your learning at this stage. You can delve into these
Additionally, they may not produce the target language during the practice if you wish.
stage because they will fall back on existing language that they already know
You know what motivation is and you know that at times you are highly
to complete the task.
enthused and driven, whilst at other times, you don’t quite feel the same
Although the logic and structure of a PPP method has its appeal, students drive or you’re bereft of any drive at all. Of course, your students are no
respond better to TBL. TBL has also proven to deliver a better quality of different.
learning.
When you are motivated, there’s some kind of inspiration and eagerness to
Producing structured language results through the PPP method does not succeed in what you are doing, no matter what this is. If you apply this
create the results students need outside the classroom. For more natural, awareness to your students, you can identify the motivated learner; this is a
organic speech, TBL is much more effective. learner who is willing and eager to invest great effort and substantial time in
With activities that are interesting and engaging, it also produces those language learning, and is driven to make progress and do better.
results in a shorter period of time.
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Learner motivation, then, makes learning, as well as teaching, immeasurably when you feel lacking in vitality or conviction and find it difficult to
easier and more pleasant, not to mention more productive. overcome a temporary lacklustre feeling.
What is more enlightening – instead of digging into the numerous theories – Tough though this is, you will need to get out of it or your students will
is how motivation occurs and how knowledge of this may be of practical use quickly become deflated.
in your role. Everyone can be motivated in some way or another
1. Two types of motivation There may be the odd student who appears to be demotivated. There may
Generally, there are two types of learner motivation: be many reasons for this – perhaps there are cultural considerations, e.g. he
Intrinsic motivation doesn’t like you taking up his learning time when you get your students
involved in fun activities. Or he may be finding the work too hard. Or,
This is the urge to engage in a learning activity for its own sake, for the perhaps, he’s not convinced by the whole communicative approach.
enjoyment it provides, or the feelings of accomplishment it evokes. This
type of learner is driven by personal achievement. Therefore, you need to find out as much as possible about your students
from Day 1. What are their likes and dislikes? How have they previously
Extrinsic motivation been taught? Did they communicate with you during the lesson or were
This is derived from external incentives and reward and success, e.g. a your lessons wholly teacher-centred?
qualification, need for a high proficiency score (e.g. to gain entry to an And if you can’t identify a reason for the drop in drive, make up some
English-speaking university), or the desire for higher pay (where language reason for meeting with the student for a few minutes after class (away
proficiency offers that). from his classmates) to try and identify the reason for the drop in
Whether one type of motivated learner is more motivated than another is motivation. It’s amazing how a little chat can help.
up for grabs. There is not enough conclusive research. What is more Once you trace the reason why, you can work out ways to help build up his
important for you is to give thought to this when meeting up with your new motivation.
class, particularly adults.
Motivation should be multi-directional
Asking them why they have decided to take your course (and noting the
reasons) will be of great benefit to you when you are teaching them or When you take up your teaching role, remember that motivation should be
when you happen to mingle with them during some other school activity. multi-directional. Don’t just think that your role is only to motivate
learners. You can also help to motivate a colleague when he is feeling down.
By being informed, you can empathise with them, foster the necessary You will reap rewards from this in the future, when he will help you when
attitudes, and directly encourage their drive, be it personal achievement or you are a bit lacklustre.
reward. You will contribute to their motivation and will be able to kick start
any drop in this if there is a lapse. Motivation doesn’t last
Unfortunately, a motivated learner’s motivational levels can drop, as we’ll Motivation doesn’t last. You need to keep at it all of the time. Motivating
see in the next section. others is a strenuous activity but it’s also rewarding. You cannot give up
when you, your students or any of your peers are feeling down. Dig into
2. In general, some key elements of motivation your reserves and help as much as you can.
Here are some key elements of motivation, drawn from our experience: Remember this! We have mentioned this before and we mention it again.
You need to be motivated to motivate them The whole person comes to school, be it students or teachers. They come
with all their personal baggage, e.g. worrying about a sick parent/carer, or
You have to be motivated before you can motivate your learners. Don’t upset due to a breakdown in some personal relationship.
expect your students to be motivated if you are not. There may be times
59
So the motivated person yesterday may not be the motivated person today. ▪ The learner is very aware of the goals of learning, or of specific
Help and show empathy wherever you can. learning activities, and directs her efforts towards achieving them.
3. Relationship between motivation and language learning ▪ The learner consistently invests a high level of effort in learning, and
As research has shown, and as your own personal learning and any teaching is not discouraged by setbacks or apparent lack of progress.
experiences probably confirm, motivation is very strongly related to ▪ The learner is not bothered or frustrated by situations involving a
achievement in language learning. You will be in a position to strongly temporary lack of understanding or confusion; she can live with
influence your students’ motivation to learn their new language. these patiently, confident that understanding will come later.
To this end, you will need to ensure that your lessons have clear objectives 5. How you can influence and drive learner motivation
and goals, that your activities are varied and personalised for students, and Always focus on practical ways in which you can influence and drive
that you give feedback and assess on an ongoing basis. motivation.
By doing so, you will be able to foster, stimulate, or even rekindle your
Here’s what to do:
learners’ motivation to learn.
Make them aware of their own success
If you are able to accomplish this, learning will happen regardless of whether
your students’ motivation is extrinsic or intrinsic. A very simple yet effective way you can motivate your students is to make
sure that they are aware of their own success. This message can be
There’s little doubt about it.
conveyed by a nod, a tick, or a smile. But a sense of pride and satisfaction
4. Recognising a motivated learner may, of course, be enhanced by explicit praise or approval, or by a comment
What do you think are the characteristics of learner motivation? How will in the learner’s answer book.
you recognise a motivated learner? Set clear objectives and goals
Think of motivated students you have observed in the past. You may have Learners should be aware of the objectives of the task – both language-
thought: She’s always on the go, wanting to learn. How does she do it? What learning and content. Tell them. For example, a guessing-game may have the
traits and qualities did she have? language-learning goal of practising questions, and the content goal of
Or, perhaps, you have always been a motivated learner. What traits and guessing answers.
qualities do you have in relation to learner motivation? Reflect on this. Remember! Some learners, particularly adult learners, may get annoyed by
Research has shown that the motivated learner will typically display most or too many fun activities. If you tell them the purpose of the game before you
all of the following characteristics: start, then they will be more accepting of the fun element.
▪ The learner is willing to tackle tasks and challenges, and has Explain purpose and usefulness
confidence in her success. It may seem obvious, but learners sometimes need to know why they have
▪ The learner finds it important to succeed in learning in order to to learn something. For example, students may wonder why they have to
maintain and promote her own positive self-image. learn prepositions.
▪ The learner has a need to achieve, to overcome difficulties and If you explain to them that preposition errors are the most common form
succeed in what she sets out to do. of mistake in student writing, your learners may be more motivated to pay
closer attention to the material. At the very least, they won’t think that they
▪ The learner is ambitious, goes for demanding challenges, high are wasting their time learning something they think they don’t need.
proficiency, and top grades.
Vary classroom topics and tasks
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Topics and tasks should be selected carefully to be as interesting as possible. magasines, strips, soccer cards with their favourite player’s picture on the
However, there are very few single types of activities that interest front and key details about him on the back, etc.
everyone, so you should use a wide range of different ones over time. Even There was no need to motivate them when a lesson was built round, for
within a lesson, we can organise a series of tasks that have students doing example: What are the 3 questions you would ask David Beckham if you met
different things to keep them engaged.
him? OR Draw your own football strip and tell your group why you chose the
For example, you can get your students to listen to a dialogue about ‘School colours and the shape of the badge.
Routines’; then have them complete a worksheet; then get them to
Create open-ended exercises
compare their answers with a partner; then have students partner up to
create an original dialogue on the same topic. Variety is a major key to A cue which invites a number of possible responses is usually much more
success. stimulating than one with only one right answer. By aiming for this, the
participants' contributions become more unpredictable. They are also more
Generate tension and challenge
likely to be interesting, original, or even humorous. For example, If I won
Game-like activities provide pleasurable tension and challenge through the 100,000 euros, I would...
process of attaining some 'fun' goal while limited by rules. The introduction
of such rules (an arbitrary time limit, for example) can add excitement to Give students a sense of autonomy
almost any goal-oriented task. An example of autonomy would be to have students pick from a list of
Create a fun atmosphere topics to debate. Or you can let students choose partners with whom they
would like to team up with to take part in a specific activity or game.
Entertainment produces enjoyment, which in turn adds motivation.
Entertainment can be teacher-produced, such as jokes, stories, mimes, Assess students
songs, or even dramatic presentations. It can be in recorded format, such as Whether or not a learner admits it, regular and formal assessment is a very
movies, video clips, or television documentaries. powerful motivator. The motivating power of tests/quizzes, in particular,
Other activities such as a role play and simulations that use the imagination appears clear: learners who know they are going to be tested on specific
and put learners in other situations can be very motivating. material next week will normally be more motivated to study it carefully
than if they had simply been told to learn it.
It is important to note, however, that some students are inhibited and may
find such activities intimidating at first. As such, you especially want to try to Assessment is a very useful and needed incentive, provided there is not too
avoid running students up to the front of the class to ‘perform’ much stress attached, and provided it is not overused or given without
spontaneously. purpose.
Personalise learning
Students are more likely to be interested in tasks that relate to themselves
Overview: Module 4
or their interests. For example, getting students to use their own or each
other's opinions, tastes, experiences, and suggestions as material can be So, now that you know the different approaches to lesson planning, it's time
very motivating since they’re relating the learning material to their own life to go about actually creating your plan!
experience and context.
There are a number of factors to consider when planning, and a variety of
We have taught boys-only classes in the Far East where the English Premier materials, resources and aids you can use to make the best lesson possible
Soccer League was king, as was David Beckham at the time. Every single boy for your students.
in the class was mad on football and anything to do with football, e.g.
61
In this module we’re going to look at lesson aims, components of a lesson holiday Phonology: to focus on intonation. whiteboard.
plan, planning an individual lesson and how to choose assessment tasks, arrangements. Speaking: to give controlled practice To give
course books, reference materials, supplementary resources and teaching Example: clearer
aids. ‘Could you give examples.
Much of what is covered corresponds to what is examined in part of the me
Teacher Knowledge Test (the TKT); a qualification teachers can take to some information
show their knowledge of language and EFL teaching. about hotels?’
Unit 1: Lesson Aims In order to fulfil your lesson objectives, you will have to work out a
Every lesson must have some sort of purpose or end goal, otherwise what’s procedure to do so. For example, if your aim is to ‘consolidate vocabulary
the point?! This doesn’t necessarily mean that every lesson will have the final for travel’, the procedure could be ‘give students a crossword of
aim of learners understanding a particular grammar point though. The goal travel/transport vocabulary’.
could be anything from developing listening skills to practising language for
some kind of ‘real-life’ situation like booking a hotel. Unit 1: Lesson Aims
Although it may seem quite formal to ‘identify the aim’ of every lesson, it Every lesson must have some sort of purpose or end goal, otherwise what’s
really can help you concentrate on delivering a successful lesson as well as the point?! This doesn’t necessarily mean that every lesson will have the final
naturally leading you to materials which will best fulfill this aim. aim of learners understanding a particular grammar point though. The goal
However, aims aren’t all necessarily direct learning objectives. They could could be anything from developing listening skills to practising language for
be aims for yourself, for example, limiting your Teacher Talk Time as much some kind of ‘real-life’ situation like booking a hotel.
as possible, or even aims focused on a particular student to make sure Although it may seem quite formal to ‘identify the aim’ of every lesson, it
they’re keeping up. As well as overall aims, therefore, you will also have a really can help you concentrate on delivering a successful lesson as well as
number of secondary or personal goals. naturally leading you to materials which will best fulfill this aim.
Look at the following table taken from The Teacher Knowledge Test However, aims aren’t all necessarily direct learning objectives. They could
Course focusing on different types of aims: be aims for yourself, for example, limiting your Teacher Talk Time as much
1. Subsidiary Aims as possible, or even aims focused on a particular student to make sure
they’re keeping up. As well as overall aims, therefore, you will also have a
2. Main Aim number of secondary or personal goals.
3. Personal Aims Look at the following table taken from The Teacher Knowledge Test
Personal Course focusing on different types of aims:
Main Aim Subsidiary Aims
Aims 1. Subsidiary Aims
2. Main Aim
To practise To improve
Grammar: to revise modal auxiliary verbs. 3. Personal Aims
making my
Functional example: Could/Would you…?
polite requests in organisation
Vocabulary: to consolidate lexis for travel, Personal
the of Main Aim Subsidiary Aims
accommodation. Aims
context of making the
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To practise making Grammar: to revise modal Procedures What are the activities for each stage?
To improve
polite requests in auxiliary verbs.
my
the Functional example: Will the students be working in pairs? Groups? Will
organisation they feedback to the teacher or will the teacher
context of making Could/Would you…? Interaction
of present to the class?
holiday Vocabulary: to consolidate lexis
the
arrangements. for travel, accommodation.
whiteboard. Stage aims What’s the goal of each stage in the lesson?
Example: Phonology: to focus on
To give
‘Could you give me intonation.
clearer Timing How long will each stage take?
some information Speaking: to give controlled
examples.
about hotels?’ practice
Anticipated What might go wrong? What might the students find
problems difficult?
In order to fulfil your lesson objectives, you will have to work out a
procedure to do so. For example, if your aim is to ‘consolidate vocabulary Potential solutions How can I deal with any problems?
for travel’, the procedure could be ‘give students a crossword of
travel/transport vocabulary’. What will I do if students complete tasks ahead of
Reserve tasks
schedule?
In what ways can I develop or improve upon my When planning a lesson, therefore, we should think about a number of
Personal aims
own teaching? things.
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Once the format of the lesson has been chosen, the individual components To ensure students
need putting together. What are the desired learning outcomes? Are the 3. Elicit forms from text used for
5 mins understand
students already a little bit familiar with the topic? Is there anything I want comparison
the meaning of the TL
to work on personally during this class?
When these more general considerations have been addressed, you can get 4. Students work out rules for
To check students'
down to planning each individual procedure as a step-by-step guide to lead 7 mins using
understanding of the TL
you through the lesson. Analysing the aims of each stage will ensure that the comparatives
activities are appropriate to the learners’ level and work to fulfill the main
objective. You also need to see whether the stages follow a logical order 5. Gap-fill exercise using correct To give students
10
and if they flow well into one another. form of controlled
mins
comparative adjectives practice of the TL
Anticipating potential problems at each stage and having back-ups prepared
if necessary will help to reduce any anxiety you may be feeling as a new 15 6. Speaking activity contrasting new To encourage freer use of
teacher. mins pictures (in pairs) the TL
Timing can be important too, your lesson may run over or be too short and
if you think about these possibilities ahead of time and what to do in each
Procedure Stage Aim
eventuality you won’t be caught off-guard. Formal lesson planning such as Time
this is usually a requirement for teacher training courses to help you
understand how to prepare a lesson and to analyse how well you’ve grasped 10 1. Ask students some lead-in To introduce and generate
the key concepts. mins questions about topic interest in the topic
However, in the real world you may not always do such detailed written
7 To focus on useful language
preparation. You may even see some teachers write their plan as a 2. Pre-teach essential vocabulary
mins in preparation for the task
numbered list on a scrap of paper, but this isn’t to say that they haven’t
thought about the elements listed above, it may just come as second nature 3. Students read quickly for gist
to them to incorporate the necessary factors. To develop students’ ability
5 and feedback answers to some
to skim/scan for essential
mins general questions (what is the text
Lesson procedures about?...)
information
This is a big ask, as they say. But we couldn’t ignore this. It’s our role to Match the following activity types below with their purpose shown in the
help our students whenever we can. table:
Remember this: You have learned enough so far to ensure you can plan a a. summary writing
b. sentence transformation
good lesson.
c. cloze test
You decide! d. re-ordering jumbled sentences
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Informal assessment really can be any activity done in class or at home for
Activity Example Purpose
which you keep a note of marks/progress but without giving students an
Complete the sentence so actual grade. You could also ask your students to build up a portfolio which
To test knowledge of provides continuous assessment and allows them to evaluate their own
that it means exactly the
grammatical work. This lets you track the ongoing progress of your students regularly so
same:
1 structures and that you are able to adapt your teaching according to their needs.
'My brother lent me a pen'
relationships
'I borrowed a pen Both performance-based assessment and portfolio assessment can
between language
from my brother' be used to measure progress and ensure objectives are met and
can be monitored by teacher observation and student self-
To test grammatical assessment.
to want go Do the you park to? knowledge,
2
Do you want to go to the park? cohesion and
collocation.
Unit 5: Course books and
Test reading reference materials
Read the novel extract and comprehension, When choosing a course book for your class (if the school hasn’t already
3 write a synopsis for a writing ability and a assigned one) there are a number of factors to consider.
young audience range of
language knowledge You need to think about who your students are and what they need. So,
what should you consider?
Using a text with blanked out The basics such as age group and level are obvious, but it’s also important
To test knowledge of
words, complete using to think about why that particular class are studying English. Is it for work?
grammar
only one word in each As a hobby? Are they children being sent for extra lessons by their parents?
4 and lexis as well as
space. The missing words may And if so is this because they struggle with English or because they want to
reading
or may not be provided in a word get ahead? Are they planning to travel or move to an English-speaking
comprehension
bank. country? All of the above will influence what type of course book you
choose – it’s not just a ‘one-size-fits-all’ thing.
Assessment Another element to consider is whether your students will be taking a test
at the end of the course or not. Course books which prepare students for
However, assessment needn’t always be in the form of a test or formal the IELTS exam are very different to those aimed at students taking the
examination. FCE, for example. Or is there simply an internal test to see if they can move
Informal assessment is equally as important and can come in the form of up to the next level. Are all of the students taking the exam or just a
homework tasks or class activities. Formal assessment doesn’t always reflect handful?
your students’ true language abilities – perhaps they are nervous or misread If the course does aim to get students ready for a particular exam
instructions – but informal assessments can often provide a better overview then the likelihood is that a general English course book will not
of students’ all-round skills. They also help you to understand how be sufficient, you need material which helps students not only get
successful your teaching has been and plan future lessons with the students’ up to the right level for the exam but one which also trains them
constant development in mind. in the techniques required for that particular test.
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Depending on how confident you are in your own ability to plan a lesson
Books and Articles independently will therefore also affect which course book and matching
teacher’s book you will choose.
Grammar books
Lots of newer teacher’s books contain supplementary worksheets, end of
Many teachers who are new to EFL teaching are quite unsure about unit tests, progress tests or extra photocopiable activities too. They can
grammar. You will know whether your students’ language is correct or not even give detailed explanations about the answers given and procedures to
instinctively but may not know why. You may also be hesitant about follow if students have difficulty with a particular exercise. For most they
teaching all the nitty gritty rules and exceptions. Although we’ve done an are a valuable resource!
overview of some key grammar points and how to teach them in Module 2,
it’s still important to increase your grammar knowledge if you still don’t EFL articles for teachers
know exactly what it’s all about. Many articles in EFL magazines can shed light on learners’ difficulties with
You may actually want to start with a grammar book intended for non- language. Often this is due to interference from the students’ mother
native speakers of English because the grammar contained in these kinds of tongue because many don’t understand why it’s not possible just to
books is much more simplified such as Murphy’s “Grammar in Use”. It also ‘translate’ everything they would say in their own language into English.
gives you a good idea of what exactly your students need to know at each Unfortunately, that is not how it works because different languages have
level. developed over thousands of years and certain tenses or vocabulary don’t
When teaching the present continuous to a pre-intermediate group, for necessarily match up from one language to another. When teaching
example, there’s no point going into detail about the fact that we can also overseas to students who all have the same mother tongue, it will become
use the present continuous for future arrangements – it will probably just easier to spot the difficulties those leaners face, but if teaching to a mixed
confuse them. These kinds of books can equally help ease you in to a more class of Mexicans and Chinese, for example, those groups of learners may
thorough grammar knowledge without being overwhelming. have different problems and you may want to read up on how to get the
best from them. (see learner English)
Once you’re a bit more experienced, however, and are teaching higher
levels, you may need to consult grammar books intended for EFL teachers Keeping up with research into new approaches to EFL teaching can also help
though. liven up your lessons and keep students engaged.
These contain detailed explanations and will enable you to really understand You may want to try out a new planning method or a more informal way of
the nuances in English grammar that students at advanced level really need presenting a grammar point, or just gain some new ideas. A couple of
to know. popular ones are English Teaching Professional, Modern English
Teacher and Asian EFL Journal.
If you’re a visual learner you might want to try newer grammar books which
have corresponding interactive activities online, or ones which contain Dictionaries
exercises to put yourself in your students’ shoes! Bilingual dictionaries provide individual words translated to and from English
Teacher’s books into another language. They can be very useful for quickly checking a word
the student doesn’t know but in certain contexts can lead to mistranslation.
Teacher’s books are available with any course book but some are better
than others. The idea is that they provide suggestions as to the best way to This is because many words have several meanings and these aren’t always
use the material in the course book. Some give a detailed, step-by-step listed, especially in a pocket dictionary.
guide for the teacher while others just give correct answers and ideas for A student may not understand the word ‘bow’ (as in bow and arrow), look
extension activities. it up in a bilingual dictionary and find a translation in their own language
which corresponds to ‘taking a bow’.
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We also don’t really get much information about the word itself, for There are many words in English which are spelt differently but sound the
example if it’s a verb with an irregular past form or how to use it correctly same, e.g. ‘meet’ and ‘meat’. Here both the ‘ee’ and ‘ea’ spellings
in a sentence. correspond to the phonetic alphabet letter ‘i:’. But in other words ‘ea’ can
That’s why it’s usually best to refer students to a monolingual English be pronounced ‘ɜ:’ as in ‘earn’. There are also plenty of words with similar
dictionary (what most of us would think of as a ‘normal’ dictionary). spellings which are pronounced entirely differently e.g. ‘though’ and
‘enough’. This phonemic chart from the British Council is interactive and
These contain the words, their meaning and examples all in English so allows you to hear the sound by clicking on it, whilst this one from the
students can really get to grips with how to use the word properly. course book series New English File makes each letter of the phonetic
They can also be great as a reference material for you to ensure you give alphabet into a picture which can be especially useful for young learners:
clear definitions of words and useful examples.
Learner dictionaries are similar to monolingual dictionaries but are probably Colleagues
even more valuable as they provide definitions appropriate to different
levels. Don’t forget that more experienced EFL teachers can often be the best
source of reference material. Chances are that they’ve taught the same level
They can also give detailed information about collocations, whether the
or same language before and can give you some good advice. They may have
word should be used in formal or informal situations and even notes which
even encountered certain difficulties that they can warn you about or give
warn students about common mistakes associated with its usage.
suggestions on how to overcome them. Every teacher has their own
Some also provide synonyms (words which mean the same) and antonyms methods though, so don’t worry if what they advise doesn’t suit you, but
(words which mean the opposite) just like a thesaurus. any guidance can at least make you consider your own planning more
Thesauruses are particularly useful for when you teach more advanced carefully.
students because they can help to expand the learners’ vocabulary.
Sometimes giving synonyms to help your class understand a new vocabulary
item is more effective than a definition. For example, it’s very difficult to
explain the word ‘furthermore’.
You could say “furthermore is an adverb used to introduce a fresh
consideration in an argument” (Oxford English Dictionary), or you could
simply list a number of synonyms such as ‘additionally’, ‘moreover’ etc. to Unit 6: Supplementary tasks &
materials
get across the meaning.
One of best approaches however, is to give students example
sentences or within the context of a text. For example “English is Supplementary materials can be anything from extra worksheets to DVDs,
an international language. Furthermore, it is now considered basically anything we can use in addition to the course book.
essential for a successful career”. As mentioned in the previous unit, some course books come with
supplementary materials in the teacher’s book which complement each
Phonemic Chart lesson, but you may also wish to use other sources to add a bit of variety.
It’s all too easy just to follow the course book exactly, but this can be quite
A phonemic chart shows the different sounds which make up the English
unimaginative and may not always suit your students’ needs.
language using the phonetic alphabet. These are very useful for helping your
students with correct pronunciation of English words.
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You may also have a mixed ability class, so providing learners with slightly The board is an essential part of any classroom which allows you to write
different activities linked to the same language/theme/skill can make sure grammatical structures and explanations as well as elicited vocabulary in a
you provide the right material for different students. place that all students can see easily. You can also build up ideas into
They can also be useful as back-ups for students who complete the assigned diagrams as they crop up and for team competitions (most students secretly
tasks more quickly than others. love being given the opportunity to write on the board, even adults!). Try to
use different colours to highlight rules or parts of speech and it can be an
Can you think of any other reasons for using supplementary materials? idea to divide the board into different sections e.g. a space for grammar
rules and model sentences and one for vocabulary.
Unit 7:Teaching Aids Overhead projector
Teaching aids are the equipment and tools we use in the classroom. They An overhead projector can be really useful for showing a worksheet to the
can be used to illustrate a point, reinforce a skill, relieve anxiety or class rather than holding up a book or piece of paper and pointing to the
boredom or help learners memorise information. There are many different sections you want them to work on. If you prepare a completed handout
teaching aids available to us as EFL teachers and these include, but are not with the correct answers written this can also be a quick way of going
limited to, through an exercise or piece of homework. If you want students to only
▪ CD players focus on one specific exercise, you can even cover up sections and gradually
uncover them as the lesson progresses. Aside from this, the overhead
▪ DVD players projector also provides a great resource for groups to present their work
▪ Puppets to the class.
▪ Interactive white boards CD and DVD player
▪ Boards Obviously CD players are essential for any listening exercise where
▪ Computers students listen to a dialogue and complete comprehension tasks. They can
also be used to model pronunciation though and even to listen for pleasure
▪ Visual aids such as flash cards as a ‘Friday afternoon’ activity. DVD players add a visual element and can
▪ Games therefore really help those learners with visual memories. You can also do a
variety of activities such as pausing the DVD and predicting what happens
▪ ‘Real-life’ materials such as menus
next, watching without sound and getting the students to guess what’s being
▪ Language laboratories where students can listen and record said and even for playing a recording of the students themselves in action.
themselves speaking
Computer
There are many different ways to use all of the teaching aids available to you
Computers can be really useful for accessing the web and the various
but you must think about the best ones to fulfil your specific objectives and
resources available online. There are millions of interactive EFL exercises
suit your students. For example, using puppets is a fantastic resource for
out there and so you can easily find extra practice to add to any lesson,
teaching children but may seem patronising to an adult class of business
getting the students involved by asking them to click on the correct answers
English learners – unless used ironically perhaps!
themselves. The students can also join English language forums and find an
Try to prepare any aids in advance and always check to make sure English-speaking penfriend to e-mail or chat with. You can set projects for
equipment works before the lesson; there’s nothing worse than planning a your students too, either at home or if you have a few computers available
listening skills lesson only to find that the CD player is faulty. in class. And you don’t necessarily need an Internet connection; it can be as
Board simple as typing a group story or making a poster.
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Language Laboratory Our key focus in this section will be to consider two particular situations:
Many schools have a language laboratory or self-access area where there ▪ where you are teaching with minimal resources and cannot depend
are books, computers, CDs etc. for students to use and where they can on pre-made supplementary materials being readily available
study by themselves. This encourages autonomous learning and allows ▪ where you find that the coursebook, if you have one, lacks the types
learners to choose the activities they want to do. Language labs have of materials you wish to have
listening and recording equipment that students can use to practise speaking
and pronunciation and assess their own performance by listening back, In these situations, you must resolve this yourself and make them.
promoting self-evaluation. You can also get them to record speaking tasks Your supplementary materials are worksheets and other materials you can
done in class or for homework so that you can monitor their performance make and use in addition to the classroom text, if there is one. They include
and give individual feedback. skills development materials, grammar, vocabulary and phonology practice
Flash cards materials, collections of communicative activities and the like.
Flashcards can be used to present vocabulary along with a matching image Of course, supplementary materials may also come from authentic sources.
so that students are better able to remember it. They can also be useful for Examples of these authentic materials are newspaper and magasine articles,
drilling pronunciation or even grammatical structures. The idea is that they pictures, and videos.
are ‘flashed’ up quickly to elicit a quick response. For learning new You can use your supplementary materials to:
vocabulary, the word is usually displayed with the picture but you can then
erase the word and only show the picture (or have the word written on the ▪ overcome the lack of materials when you are teaching with minimal
back) to test what the students know. resources
▪ replace unsuitable material in the classroom text, if there is one
When teaching abroad it’s always a good idea to take some authentic ▪ provide appropriate material for learners' particular needs and
material with you from home. This could be newspaper articles, menus, interests
maps, tourist information about your home town or even bus/train ▪ give learners extra language or skills practice
timetables. These are known as ‘realia’ and can make the learning ▪ add variety to your teaching
experience much more authentic and memorable for our students. It
doesn’t necessarily need to be things from your home though, when Making your own supplementary materials may seem daunting at first but
teaching food vocabulary you could take in different fruits and vegetables to it’s not if you know what to do. Teacher-made materials can be very
stimulate all the students’ senses and add an element of fun to the lesson. effective, assuming that they are relevant and personalised and answer the
Realia can even be used to tell a story, as part of a game or to form a needs of the learners in a way no other materials can.
dialogue. They offer some very important benefits.
young learners lists of vocabulary to rote learn even though these may be school administration so that you can use the resource at a planned time.
learned out of context with the classroom learning at that time. Book these well in advance.
Always ensure the materials link with what the learners already know; 5. Consider copyright
otherwise the materials will not meet the intended objective without a Ensure you consider copyright. Yes, you must-not just for your sake but
whole lot of additional input. also for the sake of the Academy. Unless an artist, writer or producer
Where you do feel that something must be included but is not linked to clearly states that the material can be freely used within your classroom,
their knowledge or experience, ensure you clarify the inclusion before they then you need to take care.
start working with the materials. If you use copyrighted material without permission in your class, which then
2. Fit your materials with the syllabus and curriculum goes down so well it is included in the school brochure or on the school
Ensure the materials fit with the goals and objectives of the syllabus and website, this could cause a problem for the school.
curriculum, if these are in place. Make sure you are au fait with the If, say, a writer or producer says you can use their material in class, that’s
complete syllabus and curriculum. fine. If, say, they say you need to ask permission to do so, then you should
3. Consider your skill base follow this up and seek permission. If, say, a writer or producer says you
cannot use the material, then steer clear of it.
Consider whether or not you have the skills to do a reasonably professional
job. Designing materials from scratch needs a bit experience to draw on, In general, an idea cannot be copyrighted, so you may see something that
creativity, competent artistic skills and a sound understanding of materials sparks your interest and make up your own material based on that idea.
design and construction. However, the simple lifting of photos and text as they were originally
produced is not generally allowed.
Absorb all of this section and, when in situ, ask others for help where you
need to. Do not hold back on this. Re pictures and images, there are numerous sites that offer these
without any copyright, but at a price, e.g. www.shutterstock.com
That being said, it’s not that difficult. There are plenty internet sites that can
guide you in drawing. 6. Work out your time
4. Ensure you search for resources Ensure you have adequate time to see this through. Experienced teachers
will share one indisputable fact with you, based on their experiences: it
Ensure you have the required resources. Don’t spend time on planning the always takes longer than you think it will.
creation or adaptation of materials if you do not have the ready resources
to enable you to do a good job. 7. Stimulate interaction within cultural ‘rules’
Some teachers will propound that it’s necessary to be able to access Ensure you materials stimulate interaction and provide a communicative
computers and the internet, a good colour photocopier, a laminator, CD purpose. There’s little point spending lots of time on the production of
player etc. Well, we know teachers who survived nicely for years in the materials if those materials are not going to stimulate interaction in the
heart of Africa without any of these in the school. classroom. Such interaction should be in line with the types of interaction
they will come across in the outside world.
But they made friends inside and outside of the school and soon had access
to some of these tools. You’ll never get if you don’t ask. If you don’t have The materials don’t need to be complex. A simple information gap activity
these, it’s not the end of the world. worksheet will fit the bill nicely.
We mentioned access. Schools are busy places and often other teachers However, good spoken communication does not just rely on the words
have planned to use a particular resource. Ensure you plan well with the spoken.
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There are other factors such as turn-taking (me then you then me then time, if any, on ensuring that issues of form and structure etc. are
you), and recognition of personal space (proxemics) that you need to take addressed.
into account when designing interactive activities for a communicative Or it could be the inexperienced teacher is unsure of some elements of
purpose. form which often come under the heading of grammar.
8. Stretch your learners Nevertheless, you owe it to your learners to help them notice and
Ensure your materials provide a necessary ‘stretch’. It’s critical that you understand the forms of language so that they don’t just use speaking and
produce materials that stretch your learners’ knowledge, understanding and writing to communicate but also understand that knowing the form of the
application skills. language will help them speak and write correctly at the same time.
This is necessary for ongoing development of the learners’ language What this means is that you should also include exercises and activities that
competence. will encourage learners to analyse the language and form and test their own
To do this your materials should build on what they already know but hypotheses as to how the English language works, depending on their level,
should include new items (e.g. new vocabulary or a new structure) which of course.
will stretch them to generate new language, e.g. by guessing, predicting, 11. Integrate all the language skills
hypothesising, noticing links etc. A lot of language materials focus mainly on speaking and writing. And, in the
9. Develop their ‘how to learn’ skills TEFL classroom you often see the same focus-speaking and writing. But
Ensure your materials ‘push’ learners to develop language learning skills and listening and reading are also important.
strategies. This phenomenon is peculiar, particularly with listening skills. When
You need to teach your learners how to learn, e.g. understanding learning communicating, your listeners will not only speak. In turn, they will listen.
strategies that can help them whenever they have difficulties in Listening is an important skill and plays a critical part in the overall
communicating. communication. But it is not focussed on to the same extent as speaking is.
Some examples of learning strategies are re-wording (trying their So, don’t fall into the speaking and writing trap. Create materials that give
communicative piece in a different way, saying it differently) and the use of the learners opportunities to integrate all the language skills.
good body language (facial expressions, nodding etc.) which can help their 12. Ensure authenticity
communication move forward. It is paramount that your learners are exposed to authentic materials. In
Also, through time, young learners can be taught how to self-evaluate their essence, authentic materials are materials which are unscripted and not
work. developed specifically for language learning purposes. They haven’t been
10. Focus on form too fabricated for a language learning purpose.
Ensure your materials focus on form as well as communicative function. In This applies not only to written texts (e.g. newspapers, magasines, original
the modern communicative classroom, the emphasis is often on letters etc.) but also to spoken and visual texts. Ensure the recording of the
independent and creative expression with less emphasis on the form of the spoken voices is real and not fabricated for a learning purpose. Ensure too
language. that any video you use hasn’t been performed for a language purpose.
Some teachers may take their learners through a lengthy period of learning If you record your own materials, ensure that they consist of people saying
without focussing on any aspects of language form. and doing things in normal situations, unaffected by the microphone or
camera and making no effort to change their communication to suit a
For inexperienced teachers, in particular, this may be because their TEFL
course of learning focussed entirely on communicating (at all costs) and little
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language purpose, so that your learners have access to truly authentic well they helped you and your learners to achieve the language
language. goal. Go for it!
13. Link materials
Ensure your learning materials connect. If you lose sight of your objectives Effective teacher-made
and the need for steady progression in language learning to achieve goals,
you may end up with a pile of unconnected materials which may confuse materials
your learners. 3. Effective teacher-made materials
So, keep a close eye on coherence throughout your development process.
Four effective forms of teacher-made materials/aids are worksheets,
Ensure one piece links with another in steady progression towards the
workcards, flashcards and your own realia.
language learning goal.
They can be used for oral practice in pairs or groups, or for listening,
14. Impress reading and writing practice, with students working with other students or
Ensure you make a good impression. Ensure your materials look as good as on their own.
they can, with consistency in the layout. Remember this: Many of the examples of worksheets on the internet are
In addition, ensure you don’t cause anxiety or confusion for the learner. For pretty boring to look at. Usually, there is just a list of questions with spaces
example, when designing an information gap or cloze activity ensure there is for the answer. Try and make your materials a bit different and add in a
adequate room for the learners to write their answer. picture or some colouring.
Ensure they know whether the hatched lines in the gap represent the 1. Your worksheets
number of letters or not. Ensure they know whether to write or print their
▪ A worksheet is typically a Letter/A4 sized page (or two) of tasks.
answer.
▪ It is given out to individuals, pairs or groups, depending on the
Also, it’s always wise to consider whether or not you will be using these
approach required.
materials again. If they are materials which will be used frequently, get them
laminated (where possible) so that they still look fresh when used again and ▪ Learners give their answers/responses on the worksheet.
again. ▪ You circulate during the completion.
15. Ensure clear instructions ▪ You typically check the answers/responses with the whole class.
Following on from the example above, clear and precise instructions are ▪ Sometimes they are disposed of, sometimes the learners can keep
critical. If you need to start the exercise again because the instructions are them, sometimes you’ll take them in to study progress, e.g.
weak or unclear, this doesn’t look good and is unfair to your learners. It will handwriting, or to include them in the learners’ portfolios.
be frustrating for you and them.
▪ Information gaps are
In addition, the language in instructions needs to be appropriate to their See http://bogglesworldesl.com/information_gap.htm for examples
level and in simple words. There are no prizes for you for using complex of a typical worksheet activity where learners work out missing and
words. different information that each have on their worksheet.
Follow these guidelines and you won’t go wrong. Here are three simple worksheets we have created for you, to
One of the most rewarding experiences in teaching is designing demonstrate that it doesn’t take long to construct them. We’ve
and developing your own materials and reflecting later on how used ready-made pictures but you could just as easily draw or
74
Mouse: It’s terribly kind of you, Fox, but No. I’m going to have
___
lunch with a gruffalo.
Fox: Where are you going to, little brown mouse? Come and
___
have lunch in my underground house?
What are they? Fill in the spaces.
Mouse: He has terrible tusks, and terrible claws, and terrible
___
teeth in his terrible jaws.
1. Clue: it eats mice C__
Story teller: A mouse took a walk through the deep dark
2. Clue: water comes from this T__ 1
wood. A fox saw the mouse and the mouse looked good.
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Workcards
2. Your workcards
▪ You would typically create these yourself for all kinds of tasks and
situations.
▪ These are typically small laminated cards, about the size of an index
card. You would laminate them so they can be used repeatedly with
different learners. But if there’s no laminator, just keep them in
plastic files.
▪ The learners complete their activity on a separate blank sheet or in
their notebooks, not on the workcard.
2. This type could be used for relaxation and perhaps a little prize could be
▪ They are typically for short tasks – individual, pair or group. given to the winning group. You could encourage them to do some
▪ Different learners may be working with different workcards at the dictionary work for any difficult words, where dictionaries are available.
same time. Remember this: Don’t use examples of animals or things which don’t exist
in their culture.
▪ Depending on your choice you can colour them, and put little
pictures on them.
They are excellent for:
▪ Recycling activities where, for example, some individuals need more
practice with some specific element
▪ Giving out to more able learners who have finished ahead of the
others who are still completing the whole class activity you set
▪ Giving the class a break from learning after they have all been
working hard. Quizzes, small puzzles and riddles can all be entered
on these cards for these relaxing moments.
The workcards are then handed back to you.
Here are some examples which should be self-explanatory: It is, of course, the Iberian Wolf. Depending on student levels, you could
increase or decrease the level of difficulty.
1. These could be used for a discussion between pairs or groups, for a short
written piece, or for a student presentation to the whole class: Some practical ideas for workcards
1. Stamps
Put different postage stamps on a card. Ask the pairs to identify what
countries the stamps are from. A word bank can be supplied. Higher
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performing students can be asked to add the capital of the country, name of It’s a good idea to colour your flashcards from the start, if you can, e.g.
language spoken, etc. nouns in pink, adjectives in blue, verbs in green etc. You would typically
2. Read and draw start with nouns. Of course, you won’t use the metalanguage with them.
You would just call it a thing or animal etc.
Read and draw. You could write a description of a place, a person or an
unusual animal (e.g. an armadillo) on the workcard. The students have to When you move on to say, adjectives, you’d point out that this card is not
draw a picture from the description and compare their efforts. in pink like the other card (nouns) and this will help them a bit to
understand categories and differences through time.
Then you can let them see a real photo/picture of the place, person or
animal. This can be good fun. Some may go right off track as they have With ‘showing’ activities like holding up flashcards, always plan to do some
misunderstood an important part of the instructions. Remember, though, other activity after this to consolidate the learning. For example, once they
that this is not a drawing task per se. It’s a reading and comprehension have learned some simple words, they can practise in pairs, reading words
activity. to their partners.
3. Things in common Remember! Become familiar with what supplementary materials are
available in your school.
Give a list of 3-4 words. The students write what the words have in
When you arrive, draw up a needs analysis checklist at the beginning of the
common. For example, beginners could get dog, cat, bear: animals. Older
course to find out what you will want to add to the classroom text, if there
learners could be challenged with pint, silver, width. They may take some
is one, when you are planning your lessons. Plan ahead!
time to work out that no other English words rhyme with these words.
4. Your realia
4. Matching
We’ve already mentioned realia in a previous section.
You make up two lists, one of countries and the other of capitals. The
students match the country with its capital city. We mention it again to demonstrate that you should consider using your
realia and not just stuff that’s already in the classroom or in a teachers’
5. Words that sound the same
cupboard.
You make up two lists of words that sound the same but have different
With a bit of good reflection, you can come up with your new and fresh
meanings, e.g. right, write. The students have to match the words that sound
idea.
alike. This can also be done with opposite words and words that rhyme.
For example, all you have to do is bring in 3 glasses and a jug from your
Flashcards and Realia apartment. Then fill the jug with water.
This simple realia aid can be used for several activities:
3. Your flashcards
▪ Vocabulary: degrees such as full, half-full, empty, half-empty
A flashcard is a laminated picture of, say, a house with the
word house below it or on the back of the picture that you can hold up for ▪ Comparatives and superlatives: big, bigger, biggest amounts of water
all to see. ▪ Colours: showing colours or different degrees of colour, e.g. pink,
You could make these Letter/A4 size. You could also make smaller versions by adding some cake colouring. To really capture their interest with
so that, say, each pair can have their own to look at. Gradually, through this, take a few bottles of baking/icing colouring with you in your
time, you’ll be able to miss out the picture and just show the word. suitcase. Put a hidden drop or two of a different colour in the
bottom of each glass, before the class begins.
It’s good to intersperse showing the word with also writing it on the board,
to get their minds thinking further that spoken words can be written down.
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Let it dry. They won’t notice this. Then, as if by magic, your blue, red and
green colours will appear as you pour in the water. They’ll think you are a
magician!
▪ The concept of weight and the vocabulary arising from this
▪ Overview: Module 5
▪ Over the last thirty years or so, attitudes to language learning
have changed dramatically. In the past, the focus was on
grammatical accuracy and the minimisation of errors. This
meant that lessons were largely focused on learning grammar
mechanically through repetition of a rule. Drilling was also a
technique used repeatedly by most teachers and practice of
the target language was very controlled; learners were
expected to memorise dialogues in order to reduce mistakes
as much as possible.
▪ Students, therefore, often had a very good understanding of
the building blocks of a language but couldn’t put them
together themselves in real time. But in today’s society, the
need for people to be able to communicate effectively in
English, whether for work or travel, has altered the way we
think about teaching. This has meant that the role of teacher
and student has almost reversed – the learners are now
expected to be active participants in the lesson and can
increasingly shape their own learning. The teacher has become
a facilitator for learning rather than a regulator.
▪ Compare the two lesson plans. What are the features which
characterise each?
▪
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look at what CLT actually is, the tasks and activities used in a
communicative classroom and error-correction techniques which
are effective and don’t discourage communication.
▪ Unit 1: Communicative
Approach
▪ The communicative approach emerged during the 70s and 80s as
teaching began to move away from audio-lingual methods (basically
drilling grammar) and the focus was on more meaningful and
authentic language.
▪ Most EFL teachers today would probably like to think that their
classes are "communicative" in the widest sense of the word. Their
lessons probably contain activities where learners communicate and
where tasks are completed by means of interaction with other
learners. To this end there will probably be extensive use of pair,
group work and mingling activities, with the emphasis on completing
the task successfully through communication with others rather
than on the accurate use of grammatical form. During these
activities the teacher’s role is to facilitate and then to monitor,
usually without interruption, and then to provide feedback on the
success or otherwise of the communication and maybe also on the
linguistic performance of the learners.
▪ As for how the lesson is organised, Presentation Practice
Production is giving way more and more to Task-based Learning
or Test Teach Test in communicative approach lessons. Even the
way you teach grammar can change: instead of presenting the verb
‘be’ via the grammar rule you could use basic introductions,
requests and questions (I am English, are you French?...) to enable
learners to begin speaking in English right from the start.
▪ Which of the following do you think characterise CLT? Choose all
that apply.*
▪ ▪ A. Grammar is not important
▪ Which style do you think is an example of CLT? [2] All this has led ▪ B. People learn a language best when using it to do things rather
to new approaches to EFL teaching, one of the most popular than through studying how language works and practicing rules.
modern methods being Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) ▪ C. People learn a language through communicating in it.
or the Communicative Approach. In this module we’re going to ▪ D. Errors are not important when speaking a language.
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▪ E. CLT is only concerned with teaching speaking. the communicative approach is all about reflecting real-life situations which
▪ F. Classroom activities should be meaningful and involve real language-learners may be faced with if they ever genuinely need to converse
communication in English.
▪ G. Dialogues should not be used. The reason that describing a picture to someone who can see it in front of
▪ H. Both accuracy and fluency are goals in CLT. them is not a communicative activity but describing a picture to someone
▪ Check answer who can’t see it is, is because, here, information is changing hands. In the
second scenario, the students are interacting for a specific purpose and one
▪ * adapted from Richards, J. Communicative Language Teaching
which could reflect reality if they had to describe something over the phone
Today (Cambridge University Press 2006) say. There are many different types of communicative activities but they
▪ The idea behind CLT is maximising ‘communicative competence’ must include some kind of information exchange and either reflect a real-life
(i.e. knowing how to maintain communication despite limitations situation or reflect language that could be exploited in a real-life situation.
and being able to produce appropriate language for a range of Some commonly-used ones are a variety of gap-fill style tasks, spot the
purposes). This is done through minimising Teacher Talking Time difference, problem-based discussions, board games and instruction giving.
and making the lesson learner-centred. Interaction is generally
The reason that describing a picture to someone who can see it in front of
student-student where the teacher takes a step back and acts more
them is not a communicative activity but describing a picture to someone
as a resource and a facilitator than somebody who inputs all the
who can’t see it is, is because, here, information is changing hands. In the
language.
second scenario, the students are interacting for a specific purpose and one
▪ However, there is a danger of going too far, being so obsessed with which could reflect reality if they had to describe something over the phone
reducing teacher talking time that the lesson has, or seems to have, say. There are many different types of communicative activities but they
no direction and is just a series of speaking activities. That’s why must include some kind of information exchange and either reflect a real-life
Scrivener distinguishes between ‘strong CLT’ where the role of situation or reflect language that could be exploited in a real-life situation.
explicit teaching is very limited and the students learn by doing Some commonly-used ones are a variety of gap-fill style tasks, spot the
communication tasks, and ‘weak CLT’ where there is a variety of difference, problem-based discussions, board games and instruction giving.
teaching and activities but with a bias towards speaking/listening.
Perhaps this weaker approach is more balanced because there are
opportunities for structural input but still with an emphasis on
Spot the difference
communication in authentic contexts. Otherwise you may hear your A great task for practising detailed descriptions is a picture difference task
students complaining “Why do I have to talk all the time to my (done by communication, not looking, of course!). In this activity, pairs are
fellow students. I can do this in the pub”! given the same image with a few slight differences, or big ones depending on
the level of your class, and they have to find them. Imagine you are a
Unit 2: Communicative student, how would you describe image A to your partner?
Activities
Communicative Activities aren’t just speaking tasks which give oral practice.
For real communication we need interaction and an exchange of
information, otherwise the speech is meaningless. The only time you would
ever describe a picture to someone already looking at that picture, for
example, would be in a classroom. So that’s not particularly authentic. But
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What to correct
When deciding what exactly you should and shouldn’t correct, you need to
think about your lesson aims. Is the objective to work on a particular
Problem-based discussions grammar point or is it a skills lesson? If it’s the former, then yes, it can be
constructive to correct your students because you’re working on producing
Problem-based discussions can be anything from ‘desert island scenarios’ to accuracy. However, if a student has made a few errors whilst speaking, it’s
ranking the importance of certain statements or ideas. In discussions such as not always necessary to correct every one. Instead, you should focus on
these, the teacher really just acts as a facilitator for the discussion, errors made which relate to the target language you’re studying that lesson.
introducing the problem and the language needed to work on it before Especially for lower level students who are naturally going to make several
putting students into small or larger groups. You then need to go around errors, you don’t want to overwhelm them, certainly if those errors relate
the class observing and supporting, occasionally joining a group to stimulate to something they haven’t even studied yet! Otherwise your correction isn’t
discussion if necessary. It’s important not to dictate though, as you want particularly constructive.
students to address the problem for themselves. For skills lessons (which focus on developing reading, writing, listening and
speaking proficiency), however, correction may not always be necessary. If
the aim of the lesson is to encourage fluency, then you jumping in to correct
all the errors can really hinder this and will actually work to obstruct your
Unit 3: Error Correction main goal of fluid spoken language. Sometimes students just need to shake
off their fear of speaking a foreign language and a good way to do this can be
Sometimes it’s easy to think that because your students make errors that to say, “okay for this exercise I just want you to speak as naturally as
they’ve not understood, or even that you’re a bad teacher. But this isn’t possible, don’t worry about making mistakes, that’s not important today, the
necessarily the case at all. Error can actually often be a good thing because it aim is just to develop your fluency.” A lot of learners respond really well to
shows that students are willing to experiment with the language as they find this, others may be a bit sceptical, but the important thing is to let students
out what works and what doesn’t. know that exercises like these can be very useful (and that there’s a reason
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why you’re not correcting them, not that their language was absolutely expressions; raised eyebrows, a frown, a look of surprise perhaps to show
perfect and they don’t need to improve at all!). the students that something is not quite right. If they need more prompting
you can repeat the sentence up to the error, for example ‘you were waiting
for a…?’ or perhaps a more direct question such as ‘tense?’ or
‘pronunciation?’
When to correct Other methods include repeating the sentence but placing stress on the
problem word, such as ‘last week you go to the cinema?’ or even saying
As we’ve mentioned, for fluency exercises it can be really inappropriate to directly ‘there’s an error in that sentence’. Finger correction is also a useful
interrupt students while they’re speaking by jumping in with corrections. technique which involves holding up one hand and pointing to each finger
There are ways of correcting discreetly during conversation with the other as you say each word of the phrase. You can then hold on to
classes/exercises but we’ll look at those in more detail in the next section. the problem finger/word or skip a finger to indicate a missing word.
For speaking tasks, we can therefore decide to correct at the end of the
task, later on in the lesson or not at all (as in the example above). If you If the student is unable to self-correct, though, we can use different types of
decide to correct later then it’s important to use your listening skills to note reformulating/recasting. This can be when we repeat a sentence but without
down any errors you overhear to discuss at a later stage or plan future drawing the student’s attention to it directly, for example:
tasks. ▪ Teacher “What did you do at the weekend?”
Choose an appropriate point to correct once the activity is over. With ▪ Student “I go to the cinema with my friends”
delayed correction, though, you may want to make it anonymous so that
▪ Teacher “Ah you went to the cinema, that’s nice. What did you
students don’t feel embarrassed in front of their classmates. There’s
see?”
something about being singled out directly in this way that is never pleasant!
Aside from which, all students can always benefit from more generalised We use this technique when we don’t want to interrupt the flow of
error correction: just because it wasn’t them that particular time isn’t to say conversation or discourage the student from continuing to speak. To make
that they never make that error. it slightly clearer that an error has been made, however, you can recast the
sentence more obviously, for instance,
For accuracy activities you may also want to correct afterwards or possibly
on-the-spot. This kind of immediate correction can be a bit trickier and you ▪ Student “I’m not agree with Sara, I prefer skiing”
have to be more careful so you don’t end up jumping on the student or ▪ Teacher “Oh, so you mean you don’t agree with Sara, you disagree
slow down the pace of the lesson too much. This requires you to be an with her. Why do you prefer skiing?”
active listener and there are various techniques we can use to correct
learner errors as we go along. Barnett also suggests that by correcting in Even when using on-the-spot correction it’s a good idea to make a note of
this way we can “give learners an experience of partaking in meaningful any problems to review afterwards. Sometimes, when we correct students,
dialogue” in order to inform and motivate them. they may still make the same mistake time and again because they haven’t
really absorbed the correction. That’s why it is good if you can prompt
So once you’ve decided whether to correct or not and when exactly to do them to self-correct because if they learn for themselves they tend to
it, here are a few different ways you can do it… remember better. Yet, there are ways of drilling error correction even
when it was given by you, the teacher. Once you’ve laid the groundwork in
How to correct the initial task, you can do some drilling of the correct form afterwards:
There are several ways to correct errors as you go along but rather than ▪ Teacher “Do you remember when you said ‘I’m not agree with
saying outright what the problem is, there are plenty of ways you can Sara’? Yes? What did I say instead?”
encourage student self-correction. This can simply be through facial
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▪ prefixes/suffixes False friends are especially important in language learning. They are words
▪ collocations which look alike in the student’s native language but which have very
▪ fixed expressions different meanings. These can often be harmless, for instance ‘achèvement’
▪ idioms French does not mean achievement, it means completion.
▪ homophones Others, however, may be quite amusing or even impolite so you do need to
▪ homonyms watch out; never translate preservative into Italian as ‘preservativo’, for
▪ false friends example, as it actually means condom! If you have a class who all have the
Denotative meaning same L1 language (or mother-tongue language), you could even plan a fun
If we look again at the word ‘fountain’ we can take it to mean a man-made lesson around avoiding common false friends from and into that language.
structure which shoots out water. This is its denotative meaning; it denotes With a class of students with mixed L1 languages it’s not as simple but you
the ‘thing’. However, many words have several denotative meanings; a can still draw their attention to any false friends as they crop up.
fountain is also a spring or source of water or even the head of a stream.
Compounds
Then there are compounds (nouns made up of two or more separate Unit 2: Phonology 1 -
words), in this case there’s ‘drinking fountain’. The two words exist
separately but when put together have a particular meaning; a structure Phonological awareness
which ejects a jet of water that can be drunk without the need for a cup. The next three Units are an introduction to three concepts of phonology:
Compound nouns get their meaning specifically from being together,
although the words alone have other distinct meanings. Take ‘phonebook’, ▪ phonological awareness
for example, the words ‘phone’ and ‘book’ have their own meanings but ▪ phonemic awareness
when placed together denote something else specific; a directory containing
▪ pronunciation
an alphabetical list of people and their telephone numbers.
You may not be aware of some of these terms. You’ll soon find out, though,
Lexis continued... that they’re not difficult to grasp.
Lots of people, including some teachers, get a bit confused with these terms.
Homophones and homonyms Some teachers put all of this under the heading ‘Pronunciation’ but this is
A homophone is a word that’s pronounced the same way as another but is wrong.
spelt differently and has a different meaning. There are many homophones in So, take your time with the next 3 units and see if you can grasp the
English which can be quite confusing to language learners. Common ones differences amongst these elements. Again, they’re not that difficult.
include ‘your/you’re’, ‘see/sea’, ‘their/there/they’re’, ‘for/four’ etc.
Our focus in this Unit 2 is on phonological awareness.
Be aware that students can make spelling mistakes which can result in the
entire meaning of the sentence being changed so you may need to use your Phonological awareness
imagination occasionally when marking their written work! Although your focus in the early stages will be on helping your learners to
Homonyms have the same pronunciation and spelling but different meanings grasp the meaning of words, at the same time you need to help them
depending on their context. We can see, for example, that ‘there’s become aware of the sounds of words.
a bear in the woods’ refers to the animal, whereas ‘I bear the brunt of the Not only will they be better able to produce the right sounds for words
work’ means to have the worst of it. that they hear and become familiar with them but also this attention to the
False friends
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sounds of words will prepare them well for later success with reading and 7. Move on to onset and rime, dividing one-syllable words by their initial
writing. consonant sound and all their other sounds. A syllable can normally be
Phonological awareness is the ability to focus on the sounds of the language. divided into two parts: the onset, which consists of the initial consonant or
In essence, it’s about you making your students aware that words are made consonant blend, and the rime which consists of the vowel and any final
up of individual and different-sized sounds. consonants.
You need to help them to improve their ability in this, bit by bit. It can be a So, in the word cat, c is the onset and at is the rime. Words which share
bit challenging for some younger learners but it needs to be done. the same rime will also rhyme, but the spelling will be constant and does not
vary as it does with rhyme. So, following on from cat, you could then use m-
So how do you promote this phonological awareness? at, s-at, b-at etc.
Here is a practical route to follow. Stick to this order as best as 8. Focus on phoneme deletion and phoneme substitution of sounds in
you can: words. A phoneme is each meaningful sound in a language.
1. Do lots and lots of listening games that focus your learners’ attention on ▪ Here is an example of phoneme deletion: Now, class, let’s look at the
words. word smile. Smile. Take away the /s/ sound. What have we got? That’s
2. Move on to rhyming practice, e.g. rhymes, songs, and poems, to draw right, mile. Smile without the /s/ sound is mile.
their attention to the sounds at the end of words ▪ Here is an example of phoneme substitution: Now, class, I saw a bug.
3. Then, focus on alliteration (e.g. A big, bad bug bit the little beetle.) which Let’s look at the word bug. What sound does it end with? That’s right –
will draw their attention to the sounds at the beginning of words. Look out /g/. Now, change the /g/ sound to /n/. What’s the new word? That’s right
for stories and rhymes and songs that will help them with this. – bun.
4. Building on what they have learned in the rhyming and alliteration work, 9. Then focus on phoneme blending - blending together individual sounds.
focus on and practise the comparison and contrast of sounds at the The learners listen to a sequence of separately spoken phonemes, and then
beginning and end of words. combine the phonemes to form a word. Then they write and read the
5. Move on to sentence segmenting, helping them to be aware of, and word, e.g. /b/, /i/, /g/ to make big.
counting, the number of words in sentences. 10. Focus on phoneme segmentation, breaking down words into individual
6. Then focus on syllable segmenting and blending, clapping and counting the phonemes. Your learners break a word into its separate sounds, e.g.
syllables in words and then blending them back together into breaking down grab into /g/, /r/, /a/, /b/, saying each sound as they tap out or
words. Remember: A syllable is a part of a word that is pronounced with count it. Then they write and read the word.
one uninterrupted sound. For example: 11. Then help them to move to overall phoneme manipulation, replacing
▪ lion: li-on (two syllables); clap and count the syllables li-on, li-on, li- individual sounds in a word. When learners work with phonemes in words,
on then blend back to lion; help them with the pronunciation at the they are manipulating the phonemes.
same time Types of phoneme manipulation include blending phonemes to make words,
▪ elephant: el-e-phant (three syllables); clap and count the syllables el- segmenting words into phonemes, deleting phonemes from words, adding
e-phant, el-e-phant, el-e-phant and then blend back to elephant; help phonemes to words, or substituting one phoneme for another to make a
them with the pronunciation at the same time new word.
Strategies to promote phonological awareness When lined up outside the class, you could say: All those whose name begins
Here’s what to do and what not to do: with an ssss sound come in first. Next, those with a tttt sound. Each time you
would vary the order. You could also do this when they leave your class.
1. Ensure it is an integral part of communication
Think how you can involve parents/carers in this. In some countries, their
Learners will do well with their phonological awareness so long as it is not parents/carers may not know a single word in English. However, depending
run in isolation and you ensure it becomes an integral part of on the cost and the effort you are prepared to put into it, you could record
communication in the classroom. Don’t just suddenly bring up a word out this week’s sounds onto copies of CDs or memory sticks that the children
of thin air and start to analyse it. take home with them and the parents/carers support them in the sound
2. Do not aim for perfection activity practice.
No, the more realistic goals for you are that your learners: This won’t be too challenging for non-English speaking parents/carers.
▪ develop intelligibility (the degree to which the learner’s speech can Generally, you are best to start with phonological awareness activities and
be understood in different language situations) then move on to phonemic awareness activities. But sometimes, it will be
apt to interlink the two at the same time.
▪ increase communication ability
Now, that wasn’t difficult, was it?
▪ develop increased self-confidence in speaking the language and
listening and understanding the language
3. Plan the phonological awareness experiences
Unit 3: Phonology 2 -
Don’t just do these as they come up. You have a route to follow, as Phonemic awareness
outlined above. So, make a plan of what you’ll do when and how.
Phonemic awareness relates to the correspondences between letters or
The activities need to be fun. Always add a bit of fun to keep up their groups of letters and the sounds they represent.
motivation and participation.
If the learners do not first become phonologically aware, later instruction in
It’s so easy to promote enjoyment and fun when dealing with younger phonemic awareness and decoding (breaking up a word into
learners. For example, when guiding them through alliteration, you could sounds) will not make sense.
easily change a song they love, such as Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star into Binkle,
Binkle, Bittle Bar. They’ll find it funny but will be learning at the same time. Learners with phonemic awareness can break up words into their different
sounds. They can join sounds together to make words.
Utilise all the activities they are already familiar with. There’s no need to try
and introduce some new activity. Their focus may be more on It helps beginning readers to see the links between the spoken and written
understanding the new activity than the phonological awareness you are words. Once they grasp this, they can recognise familiar words quickly and
striving for. can have a go at figuring out new words.
So, use experiences they are familiar with, e.g. singing songs, rhyming games, Research shows that progress in learning to read depends on how much
chanting nursery rhymes, poems etc. Just adapt what’s already there. phonological and phonemic awareness they have.
Don’t just focus on games and activities. Use familiar routines to practise Remember this: Phonemic awareness aims to help learners see the
and recycle their phonological awareness. For example: correspondence between letters and sounds, so that when they see a letter
or sometimes a group of letters, they learn that these symbols (letters)
Everyone whose name begins with the llll sound, bring your books to represent speech sounds heard in words.
me. Remember this: you must emphasise the sound and not the letter name.
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When learners break up a word into sounds this is called decoding. The end Unlike native-English learners, they don’t know lots of chunks and phrases
goal is for the learner to join the individual sounds in a word and then utter which they have already picked up from songs, stories, rhymes and chat
the word as a whole. from their parents/carers and siblings.
Inexperienced teachers get confused between phonemic awareness and It will be wise to remember this.
pronunciation and often use the word pronunciation as a label for all aspects 3. Some teachers, for various reasons, often overemphasise the role of
of sound production in the classroom. This is wrong. phonemic awareness. Perhaps it’s because they and the learners enjoy this
Phonemic awareness is the teaching of sounds as part of decoding letters in type of activity. Or perhaps it’s a comfort zone for the teacher and he stays
words to decipher the individual sounds. in that zone just a bit too much.
Pronunciation is different. It refers to how a person articulates specific The problem is that where there is more emphasis on phonemic awareness
sounds. than on meaning and comprehension, the learners may lose sight that they
are reading words. The decoding is very important but it must not replace
Decoding – the deciphering of individual words – is of great importance. In
meaning and comprehension.
English, decoding can be tricky due to the exceptions there are between
sound and symbol correspondence. It differs from other languages such as Phonics teaching should enhance comprehension; it should not
Spanish, which has a straight one-to-one sound and letter correspondence. usurp the main goal of comprehension.
Learners of English can find this very tricky as there may be no indication of 4. Never ask learners to decode a word where they don’t know its
how the letter symbol should be pronounced. For example, the letter c can meaning. You need to focus on words they already know.
be: 5. Phonemic awareness instruction should be tackled briskly and relevantly.
▪ a hard sound, /k/, as in can, cake, cage It should always take place in activities which are relevant and have a
purpose. Learners should not be involved in phonics instruction which has
▪ a soft sound, /s/, as in cent, circle, city the effect of isolating letters and sounds from meaningful use in text.
Here are the key points to remember when enhancing their 6. It should emphasise chunks and patterns in words that learners will
phonemic awareness: recognise when reading other words with similar chunks and patterns.
1. Always remember that the end goal is the understanding of meaning, not Phonological and Phonemic Awareness Activities
phonemic awareness. Phonemic awareness instruction is a key objective
which needs to be met on the way to the goal of reading comprehension. It Here is a mix of phonological and phonemic awareness activities. We’ve put
is not an end goal in itself. them together as you’ll likely be doing quite a bit of interlinking of activities.
A variety of activities and lots of practice are the keys to success.
2. In some schools, a full phonemic awareness approach early in the
programme may be the norm. If this is what the school leaders have set Explore and reflect on what’s best to meet the need. And, remember, make
down, there’s not much you can do about this, at least until you have been it fun. Here are some activities:
there some time. 1. Listen and imitate: This is a technique in which learners listen to a
Or this type of approach may be followed because that’s the way it has model (you or a recording) and repeat or imitate it, e.g. breaking up a word
always been done. In this case, there may be some room for manoeuvre. into its syllable parts and noticing the change in mouth and lip movements.
The problem with a full phonemic awareness approach is that it’s unlikely to 2. Minimal pairs: Seeing if learners can distinguish between minimal pairs.
work well in the early stages of learning, where your learners have limited A minimal pair is a pair of words that differ in only one phoneme (each
meaning of words in English and lack oral proficiency. meaningful sound in a language). Examples of common minimal pairs are:
▪ ship/sheep
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▪ pin/pen 10.Listen!: Place minimal pairs in sentences so that the learners have to
▪ buy/boy listen carefully and decide on the word being used.
▪ hut/hat Notice that both words must make sense in the context, e.g. Come here and
have a look at this lock / rock; If you sit up straight you won't slip / sleep; He
3. Contextualised minimal pairs: In this technique, you establish the came to ask me about his cut / cat.
context/setting, such as a blacksmith shoeing a horse, and present key
vocabulary. Learners are then trained to respond to a sentence stem with 11. Pictures: Pictures can be very effective with learners of all ages. The
the appropriate meaningful response (a or b): learners can have pairs of pictures in front of them; e.g. ship and sheep.
When you say a word (or read out a sentence) they have to point to the
Sentence stem: appropriate picture.
The blacksmith (a. hits / b. heats) the horseshoe. Again. That wasn’t too difficult, was it?
Cued learner response:
a. with the hammer / b. in the fire.
4. Visual aids: For sound formation, it may help to use a sketch of the
mouth, or a colour wall chart, and to describe the pronunciation of a sound Unit 4: Phonology 3 -
in terms of lips, tongue, teeth, etc.
5. Tongue twisters: This is a technique from speech correction strategies
Pronunciation
for native speakers. One well-known example is: She sells seashells by the Pronunciation simply refers to how a person articulates specific sounds. You
seashore. You could make up your own twisters. Rhymes and jingles are also should not confuse this with phonological or phonemic awareness.
effective, as are chants. Pronunciation is also very important.
6. Drilling: These can include imitation drills, with repetition of sounds, 1. Teaching pronunciation
words and sentences and varied repetition of drills (varied speed, volume, The overall aim of teaching pronunciation is for the learner to develop
and mood) spoken English so that:
7. Linking: Trying to link the sound to a word that they already know. For ▪ the learner is easy to understand when speaking English
example, they may find the sound in cheese quite easy, but then find it quite
difficult when it appears in the middle of a word like purchase. Reminding ▪ it allows a positive image of himself as a speaker of English
them of the sound in the word cheese will help them to form it correctly Here’s what to do and what not to do:
in purchase.
1. Ensure it is an integral part of communication
8. Same or different : Read a short list of three words to the learners Students will do well in the pronunciation of English if the pronunciation
and ask them to tell you if you are reading the same word, or if there is a episode is not run in isolation and becomes an integral part of
different word in the list. If the words are all the same they say same, and if communication in the class.
there is a different sound, they say different.
2. Do not aim for perfection
The learners will not see the list of words of course, e.g. sit sat seat;
ship sheep ship The goal of pronunciation in the CLT class is not the attainment of 'perfect'
pronunciation. Who has this, anyway, and who says it’s ‘perfect’? And how
9. Stop me: Very similar to the example above, except that the learners
stop you when you use a different sound, e.g. ship, ship, ship, ship, ship, sheep
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can it be proved? No, the more realistic goals for you are that your different pronunciation, represented by the phoneme /ai/. Don’t get
learners: confused just because a phoneme looks like a normal letter. Here is a
▪ develop intelligibility (the degree to which the learner’s phonemic chart of the sounds used in the English language:
speech can be understood in different language situations) Phonemes are divided into vowel sounds, diphthongs and consonants
according to how we make the sound with our mouths. Vowel sounds are
▪ increase communication ability
made when the mouth is open and not blocked by the tongue, for example
▪ develop increased self-confidence in speaking the language and /e/ as in ‘men’. Diphthongs are sounds which are made when one vowel
listening and understanding the language sounds transforms into another in a single syllable, like the /ei/ sound in
3. Give lots of practice ‘say’. Consonant sounds occur when the tongue, lips or teeth partly block
the sound, like the /m/ in ‘milk’.
Remember! The more practice given, the better the pronunciation will be.
There are a few different phonemic charts. You can use ours above or you
All of the activities listed in Unit 3 under Phonological and
could use the British Council phonemic chart. Go
phonemic awareness activities can be used to enhance to: http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/activities/phonemic-chart where you
pronunciation, as can the Phonemic Chart. will see the symbols, you can hear all the sounds and you can download it to
your computer or iPad.
It may take several weeks for you to familiarise yourself with all the sounds.
But it will be worth it. In preparation for your TEFL career, you should start
to familiarise yourself with the chart and the sounds. Once you have had a
first look at it, the following information will be useful.
Having received a basic knowledge and teaching in this system and a good
quality English-English dictionary, most older learners should be able to
discover the pronunciation of unknown words without your help.
Many teachers are reluctant to introduce the phonemic chart to their
learners for several reasons:
▪ They do not feel that the time spent learning the system is justified.
▪ They feel that learners already have an uphill task dealing with
The Phonemic Chart is an alternative method of approaching the teaching English spelling without asking them to learn another alphabet.
and learning of English pronunciation. A phonemic chart provides a set of ▪ They feel unsure about the system.
symbols, each one intended to represent an individual sound of the But:
language, irrespective of the way it appears in the standard written script. ▪ Learning the phonemic alphabet is not as difficult as it first appears
and it can be made considerably easier by introducing it piece by
Phonemic symbols
piece to the class as part of your daily lesson plan.
Each phonemic symbol represents a phoneme, a single unit of sound that ▪ With a little application, you often discover that the system
either alone or combined, can confer linguistic meaning. Some of these
becomes second nature.
symbols look like letters from the English alphabet but remember that the
Note:
normal alphabet gives us the letters to use when writing a word whereas
▪ Languages across the world have unique phonemic systems. For
the phonetic alphabet of phonemic symbols tells us about how they sound.
individuals learning English as a second language, it is common for
The letter ‘I’ as pronounced in the word ‘fit’ would be spelt phonetically
the phonemic system of their first language to influence the
using the phoneme /I/, whereas the same letter in the word ‘pile’ has a
production of sounds in English.
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▪ Please remember that in an English-speaking country, dialectal Like English, there are many languages that give especially strong stress to
differences should be considered when using the phonemic charts. one syllable in a word. Other languages give equal length to all the syllables.
▪ Note there is not always a correspondence between the number of Stress can also influence how sentences and incomplete sentences are
letters and number of sounds. pronounced.
▪ Also note that most English dictionaries show where the stress of a
word is by using the mark '. We say different parts of the sentence with more or less stress, i.e., slower
Give it a go! and louder, or quicker and more softly. This is called sentence stress.
Generally, one word in the sentence will have a main stress. This is the
Pronunciation continued... word which the speaker thinks is most important to the meaning of the
sentence.
2. Pronunciation: vowels, consonants and syllables
Other words can have secondary stress. This is not as strong as main stress
When teaching pronunciation, you’ll want to have a good knowledge of and falls on words which are not as important to the meaning as the word
vowel sounds. Vowels sounds are made with the mouth open and the with main stress.
airway unobstructed, whereas with consonants the flow of air is briefly
Other words in the sentence are unstressed.
obstructed in some way.
For example, in this spoken sentence: She came home late last night, the
In speech, the exact number of vowels depends on regional accent but there
word with the main stress is the underlined one - late; the words with
are more than 20 English vowel sounds.
secondary stress would probably be came, home, last, night; and the
Diphthongs are an important element of pronunciation. A diphthong is a unstressed word is she.
vowel sound that is composed of a sequence of two vowels. The vowel in
the word so, for example, begins with the o sound of hot and then glides But remember: It is possible to stress any word in a sentence if the speaker
into the u sound of put. Other diphthongs are the vowel sounds in high and thinks it is important.
late. Whether you are focussing on word stress or sentence stress, provide the
class with some guidance about the position of the stress in one of two
When teaching pronunciation, you’ll also need to know a bit about
ways.
consonants. As mentioned above, a consonant is a sound that is made by
blocking the flow of air while speaking. Either write the word/sentence on the board and show the stress by using a
symbol or use a hand to make a gesture (perhaps a chopping movement) to
For example, the first sound in the word mark is made by closing the lips
demonstrate where to place the stress when you say the word.
briefly, while the last sound is made by pressing the blade of the tongue up
against the hard palate. There are 22 consonants in spoken English. Here is how it could look if you were using a symbol on the board:
Let’s consider some other key features of speech which you need to know
to help your learners’ pronunciation.
3. Pronunciation: word and sentence stress Word stress and sentence stress rules
Word stress is where we say part of a word with greater energy, i.e., with We’re going to stick to the simple rules here as many rules are full of
more length and sound on its vowel sound. Compare the stress in the exceptions. For example, there are many two-syllable words in English
vowel sounds in the stressed syllables and the other syllables in the which are spelt the same but their meaning changes depending on the
words pencil, photography, volunteer (stressed syllables are underlined). stress:
1. You will progress a lot with your English if you follow this rule.
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You will make a lot of progress with your English if you follow this rule. Intonation is another important part of pronunciation. It is the movement of
the level of the voice, i.e., the tune of a sentence or a group of words.
2. He rejected the plan.
We use intonation to express emotions and attitudes, and to emphasise or
This bowl was a reject, so I bought it at half price.
make less important particular things we are saying.
3. Everyone was present at the meeting.
We also use intonation to signal to others the function of what we are
I will present my ideas to the company tomorrow in a presentation. saying; that is, to show we are starting or stopping speaking, or whether we
Here are some key word stress rules: are asking a question or making a statement.
1. One word has only one stress. One word cannot have two stresses. If Practice
you hear two stresses, you hear two words. Two stresses cannot be one To hear these intonation uses, try saying School’s just finished with these
word. It is true that there can be a secondary stress in some words. But a meanings:
secondary stress is much smaller than the main (primary) stress, and is only
▪ as a statement of fact
used in long words.
▪ with surprise
2. We can only stress vowels, not consonants.
▪ with happiness
Here are some key sentence stress rules:
▪ as a question
1. Content words are stressed. Content words carry meaning, e.g. main
verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs and negative auxiliaries (don’t, can’t, aren’t) ▪ to emphasise just
2. Structure words are unstressed. Structure words are used for correct You should hear the level of your voice rising and falling in different
grammar, e.g. pronouns, prepositions, articles, conjunctions and patterns.
auxiliary/helping verbs (e.g. do, be, can, have, must). Here’s another example:
3. The time between stressed words is always the same. Think of all the different ways you could say the following sentence: ‘She
There’s the odd exception to sentence stress rules, but far fewer than word didn’t marry him because of his money’ (statement)
stress exceptions. For example, we have said that structure words are ‘She didn’t marry him because of his money’ (but his second wife did)
unstressed in a sentence. But look at the structure word she below, which ‘She didn’t marry him because of his money’ (strong denial)
the speaker is stressing for emphasis whilst confirming information: ‘She didn’t marry him because of his money’ (but that’s what first got her
Lisa didn’t do that, did she? interested)
‘She didn’t marry him because of his money’ (he doesn’t have any)
Yes, she did.
‘She didn’t marry him because of his money’ (that wasn’t the main reason
but maybe it was a factor)
‘She didn’t marry him because of his money’ (she married him for love)
‘She didn’t marry him because of his money?’ (Did she?)
Pronunciation: intonation, Think about the way your voice rises and falls when you express
uncertainty, indignation, exasperation. You may say the word more loudly,
rhythm, linking in a higher pitch or perhaps drag the word out, saying it more slowly.
Pausing at different parts of the sentence can also change meaning
4. Pronunciation: intonation dramatically in both spoken and written English.
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Compare the pairs of sentences and think about what difference in meaning To do this, we say the more slowly, and because I've more quickly. We
is conveyed (the emphasized word is in bold). change the speed of the small structure words so that the rhythm of the key
The people who left suddenlystartedrunning. content words stays the same.
6. Pronunciation: linking
1. The people who left suddenly....... started running. Students need to hear natural fast relaxed pronunciation as we speak it
2. The people who left.......suddenly started running. every day, not a carefully over-articulated overly-pronounced one-word-by-
one-word phrasing of sentences. Speaking too slowly and too emphatically is
I like Italian art and opera. a common characteristic of the inexperienced teacher.
1. I like Italian art...... and opera. Speaking unnaturally can have a detrimental effect:
▪ Your learners will imitate your speaking style and speak unnaturally
2. I like....Italian art and opera.
too
My sister who lives in Hong Kong has a penthouse. ▪ They will not recognise and understand natural rapid speech when
1. My sister ....who lives in Hong Kong.... has a penthouse. they hear it
This doesn’t mean you shouldn’t slow your speech down a bit to help your
2. My sister who lives in Hong Kong ....has a penthouse. students get some basic ideas, but it does mean that you should speak
Match the intonation with the meaning it corresponds to: naturally most of the time. It also means that you need to teach them what
natural speech sounds like.
Different intonation patterns can show many different meanings. However,
There is some evidence that says that if students don’t speak naturally, they
there is no short and simple way of describing how the patterns relate to
won’t recognise normal speech when they hear it.
meanings.
Some examples:
Intonation patterns can also be demonstrated with the use of arrows on the
board or hand gestures to show the 'musical' pattern. Wherever possible ▪ How much is it? sounds something like How muh chi zit?
try to speak in a normal manner without a distorted intonation pattern as ▪ Don’t eat apples! sounds something like Don tea tapples!
this will provide the students with a better model to follow. If you habitually speak slowly and over-enunciate, your students will listen
5. Pronunciation: rhythm for How much is it? and won’t understand when they hear the normal speech
Sentence stress is what gives English its rhythm or beat. Look at this sounds of How muh chi zit? You need to instruct your students in these
sentence: differences, how to pronounce them and how to listen for them.
Will you CLOSE the DOOR because he’s GONE to WORK? The idea of the end of one word connecting to the beginning of the next
In our sentence, the 4 key content words (close, door, gone, work) are word is called ‘linking’. Linking is a naturally occurring phenomenon in the
stressed. speech of every native speaker of English and is not the result of sloppy or
Why is this important for pronunciation? It is important because it adds defective speech.
music to the language. It is the rhythm of the English language. It changes the One major feature of linking occurs when a word ending in a consonant
speed at which we speak (and listen to) the language. The time between sound precedes a word beginning with a vowel sound – as in don’t eat
each stressed word is the same. apples.
There is 1 syllable between CLOSE and DOOR and 3 syllables between When the native English speaker says this, the consonant sound at the end
DOOR and GONE. But the time between CLOSE and DOOR and between of don’t runs into the vowel sound at the beginning of eats and the
DOOR and GONE is the same. We maintain a constant beat on the consonant sound at the end of eats runs into the vowel sound at the
stressed words. beginning of apples. Thus it sounds like don tea tapples.
Many learners of English tend to separate out the words into distinct units
and so their speech sounds ‘staccato’.
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There are other structural features that cause this, e.g. linking between one take some tablets
word that ends in a vowel sound and the second which begins with a vowel take some medicine
sound.
Before watching, think about what type of problems a low level Elementary
You should encourage your students at least to attempt to approximate
class might have with the grammar and pronunciation of the above target
these linking features of English because they are so commonly used in
language. Please also look at the teaching materials.
normal speech. This, in turn, should raise their awareness of the existence
of these features and will make the task of listening easier.
You have now finished all the phonology input in the 3 Units. Well Lesson materials
done!
as in cheap instead of /k/ or they may not realise that cough is 6. She used finger highlighting, drilling and a clear board record.
pronounced /f/. How does Jane deal with this? 7. She graded her language and kept things simple. She said things like
6. These learners might not use contractions for example ‘He’s got a ‘OK….. question?’ ‘Listen…a kind doctor says it like this’ ‘So… ask
headache’ and instead say ‘He got a headache’. How does Jane deal me’.
with this? 8. Jane had planned her board work before the lesson so that it was
7. How does Jane avoid overly long explanations and instructions? clear and useful for her students. Try to make sure yours is
something they can read, understand and benefit from a few days
8. How she manage what she writes on the board?
later.
9. Focus on the materials that Jane has prepared for this lesson. Has
9. No! In fact quite the opposite. You will hopefully have noticed that a
she used large amounts of different materials?
small amount of material can go a long way. An elementary class
10. How does Jane help the students with the pronunciation of new or will need an awful lot of recapping and recycling of new language. It’s
difficult language? also important to make sure you leave enough time for practising
You could of course, just look at the answers first then watch the video. However language in your lesson plans.
what will you learn from that? 10. Repetition! As you will have seen, this level of students want and
You wouldn't want your students to do that so.... need lots of drilling of new or difficult language.
questions 13. The four language skills are listening, reading, writing
and speaking. These skills can be broken down into
1. Jane used Realia. She simply showed them a strip of tablets and a two groups: receptive (or passive) and productive (or
bottle of medicine. active) skills.
2. She highlighted the grammatical form using her fingers. She also put 14. Listening and reading are both classed as receptive skills
a clear written record of he’s got = he has got on the board. because they require learners to receive language and
understand it.
3. She modelled and drilled the sentence and again, used her fingers to
correct the students. She also provided a clear written record on 15. Speaking and writing, on the other hand, are productive skills
the boards. which require students to produce language for themselves.
4. Jane did a lot of choral (whole class) and individual drilling. She 16. Learners often find it easier to develop their receptive skills,
elicited the stress placement from students and then followed this especially at the beginning, as they need to be exposed to the
up by marking the stress on the board. language before they can go on to produce it.
5. Again, Jane did a lot of choral and individual drilling. She 17. However, all the four skills are linked and need to be
encouraged her students to copy her lips, teeth and tongue developed more or less simultaneously. For example, if a
position. She also marked the phonemic symbols next to the student is able to pronounce a word correctly, then they are
difficult sounds.
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more likely to be able to understand it when they hear it such situations, there is likely to be usage which is appropriate and other
spoken. usage which is not.
18. Similarly, working on reading skills can help to enhance a So, especially if you are working with young people, use methodologies with
student’s writing. The four skills naturally support and care. It is wrong to apply any methodology blindly and unquestioningly, and
complement one another. wrong not to review and assess the effectiveness of methods used.
19. In the following modules we’re going to look at each of the In any case, we feel it’s important that you are aware of learning styles, no
four skills in more detail and focus on ways of developing each matter whether you end up being in favour of using them or against using
when teaching EFL. them.
20. But first, it’s critical that we explore Learning Styles. 3. Different learning styles approaches
These influence what materials and examples you will There are a many different approaches used to determine an individual’s
use, and the way you will present them, when learning style.
teaching your learners. An awareness of learning
styles is paramount when teaching the 4 skills, and We will focus on two of these.
vocabulary and grammar. 1. Kolb’s theory
The work of Kolb and others produced the classification of learners into
Unit 1: Learning Styles four groups: activists, reflectors, theorists and pragmatists.
1. So, what is a ‘learning style’? According to this approach:
A learning style is a more or less consistent way in which a person ▪ Activists like practical work such as labs, field work, observation
perceives, conceptualises, organises and recalls information. In essence, a exercises and using visual source material for information etc.
learner often has a preferred learning style. ▪ Reflectors like to learn by watching others, by taking time to
This could be a preference for learning through visual activities as opposed consider observations of their own experience etc.
to, for example, audio activity. ▪ Theorists like lectures, reading papers on topics, considering
There are other preferences, as we will see below. Proponents say that analogies etc.
learning styles are influenced by the individual’s genetic make-up, previous ▪ Pragmatists like simulations, case studies, homework etc.
learning experiences, culture and society.
Thus, the four types might approach learning a software programme in
2. Identification of learning style – useful or not? different ways:
There are different opinions and lobbies as to the relevance of the ▪ Activists might just start using it and feel their way into it.
identification and usage of learning styles in the classroom. Unfortunately,
▪ Reflectors might have a go at using it and then take time to think
many of the opinions from either side of the debate lack real or scientific
about what they have just done.
proof as learning style methodologies remain unproven.
▪ Theorists might begin by reading the manual.
However, our opinion based on our experience is that learner style
identification is useful and is pretty successful, particularly with adult ▪ Pragmatists might start using the programme, but make frequent
learners. references to the help files.
Many teachers and educators continue to find value and benefit by using
learning styles approaches in one way or another and, as often applies in
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The four types of learning can be seen as cyclical stages through which a Visual learner characteristics
learner can progress (Watch>>>Think>>>Feel>>>Do), as well as Visual learners are those who tend to learn best through seeing things. Look
categorising specific kinds of learning experience. over the characteristics below to see if they sound familiar. A visual learner:
2. The VAK approach ▪ is good at spelling but forgets names
This is our preferred approach. It’s simple and easy to administer. ▪ needs quiet study time
The VAK analysis identifies three learning styles: Visual, Auditory and ▪ has to think a while before understanding a lecture
Kinesthetic (sometimes an a is added in: kinaesthetic). Sometimes kinesthetic
is said to include tactile learning and sometimes this is added as a separate ▪ likes colours and fashion
learning style. ▪ dreams in colour
Key points underlying this approach: ▪ understands/likes charts
▪ Any individual will operate in all three modalities, but with a ▪ is good with sign language
preference for one or two. Learning suggestions for visual learners
▪ Visual learners are likely to prefer mind-maps, diagrams, picturesque
▪ Draw a map of events in history or draw scientific process
language, flow charts, use of colour, white space on the page etc.
▪ Make outlines of everything
▪ Auditory learners are likely to prefer discussion, explaining things to
others, using a tape recorder, and teaching linked to ▪ Copy what's on the board
anecdotes/jokes etc. ▪ Ask the teacher to make a diagram/sketch
▪ Kinesthetic learners are likely to prefer group work, using ▪ Take notes, make lists
models/objects in describing things, walking around while learning,
hands-on activities, books with strong plot etc. ▪ Watch videos
▪ You should be aware of your own VAK preferences. When doing a ▪ Colour code words
learning styles analysis with students, the students should be made ▪ Outline reading
aware of their individual preferences. ▪ Use flashcards
▪ Some research has shown that students can perform better on tests ▪ Use highlighters, circle words, underline
if they change their study habits to fit their own personal learning
styles. For example, visual-learning students will sometimes struggle Best test type for visual learners
during essay exams, because they can't recall test material that was Diagramming, reading maps, essays, showing a process
‘heard’ in a lecture.
Worst test type for visual learners
▪ However, if the visual learner uses a visual aid when studying, like a
colourful outline of test materials, he or she may retain more Listen and respond tests
information. For this type of learner, visual tools improve the ability Auditory learner characteristics
to recall information more completely. Auditory learners are those who tend to learn best through hearing things.
General characteristics of the visual, audio and kinaesthetic Look over these traits to see if they sound familiar to you. You may be an
learning styles based on the VAK approach auditory learner if you are someone who:
▪ likes to read to self out loud
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Reading passages and writing answers about them in a timed test ▪ What learning style preference do you have? Is it visual, audio or
kinesthetic? Or is it a mix of two or more?
Kinesthetic learner characteristics
Some people find that their learning style may be a blend of two or three
Look over these kinesthetic learner traits to see if they sound familiar to styles.
you. You may be a kinesthetic learner if you are someone who:
Naturally, it is not always practical or even possible to account for all
▪ is good at sport learning styles in a class. However, if you do identify learning styles to
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inform your classroom approach, you may find that you can gain a deeper Providing a rich mix of learning activities derived from a mix of the different
understanding of your students' learning preferences and a greater preferences will result in a lively and engaging classroom for all your
appreciation of their strengths. learners.
You may also discover that an awareness of the different kinds of learning 3. A whole person approach
styles will help you to create more creative and appealing lessons. This, in Every individual exercises all preferences to some degree or another. A
turn, promotes more student engagement, as students will be leveraging multi-faceted teaching approach that appeals to all preferences addresses
learning modes that match their particular strengths. the whole person in ways that more one-sided approaches do not.
Your students' increased engagement and success in learning may also The VAK approach helps to develop the whole person within each learner,
stimulate you to raise their expectations. This initiates a powerful which best serves the person’s language learning requirements as well.
expectation-response cycle that can lead to greater achievement levels. This
in turn leads to increased motivation for your students and you. Give it a try – preferably with older students.
You can do your own analysis of students’ learning styles through close
observation, noting what you hear and see. Unit 2: Listening
There’s also a range of materials on the internet which will give you some
ideas as to how to approach this – and you can even try out a learning styles
Although listening is a receptive skill, some students do still find it very
analysis on yourself to find out what preferred learning style you may have if
intimidating. It may seem to them that people speak too fast, they don’t
you are not aware of this already.
understand the accent or can’t tell where one word finishes and another
Please note that materials on the internet may be protected by copyright starts.
and you may be restricted to using materials for your own personal use, i.e.
Aside from this, listening isn’t just about understanding each word; students
you must not print them off and use them with a group of students if the
may need to listen for gist or for detail, they may need to infer a speaker’s
materials are under copyright. Check carefully.
attitude or comprehend the meaning behind what is said.
The best route is always to carry out your own analysis via your own
In real-life situations we always have a context when listening; we can see
approach, by observing your students closely and noting what you hear and
the speakers, know/can infer their relationship and have an idea of what
see.
they’re talking about based on previous conversations or previous
Summary – the VAK approach knowledge.
As with any learning approach, you need to decide whether this offers you When listening to a recording in a foreign language, however, we don’t have
any practical usage. The VAK learning styles approach has its proponents any of this, which makes listening even harder. It can also be difficult
and detractors but, overall, we feel it serves as a good aid/reminder for you because spoken language is generally much less well organised than written
when choosing appropriate learning activities: language.
1. Structure learning materials around the learners’ strengths There may be hesitations, incomplete sentences or a sudden change of
If you have individuals or groups who have particular interests or strengths, topic.
e.g. sport, music, and you want them to be involved and successful in their This is very challenging for students and that’s why it’s important
language learning, then structure your learning materials around these to expose them to both authentic listening material which
interests and strengths. prepares them for the challenge of real language, as well as
2. Variety brings life to the classroom ‘graded’ material to build their confidence.
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You should also consider the different types of spoken language which exist. ▪ Giving students the questions before they listen – this means
These are a few examples: that they can focus and listen out for cues in the dialogue rather
▪ Conversations than being overwhelmed trying to listen for absolutely everything
▪ Songs ▪ Predicting answers – give students time to read all the questions
and make notes on possible answers so that they’re not
▪ Speeches concentrating on reading a question when they should be
▪ Announcements concentrating on listening!
▪ Advertisements While listening, learners often have to answer a variety of questions. It’s
▪ Stories usually best to start with questions which assess the students’ understanding
of the general gist of the dialogue, such as ‘why did the girl phone her
▪ Lectures friend?’, before asking them to concentrate on more specific details i.e.
Listening involves being able to understand a range of different ‘spoken ‘what time did they arrange to meet?’. This way they are less likely to
texts’ and to take meaning from them. become overwhelmed and think, ‘I don’t understand anything at all!’.
In the classroom we can expose students to a variety of these text types via Additionally, some students may have understood what they heard but may
CDs, DVDs and, of course, our own speech. As we’ve already mentioned, be unable to vocalise it. For example, if they listen to a story which they
when listening to a recording, whether authentic or otherwise, we can’t see have understood, they might not necessarily be able to re-tell that story. It’s
the speakers and therefore can’t infer context, whereas in real life we unreasonable, therefore, to ask hugely generalised questions such as, “Okay,
usually have at least some idea of what we’re going to hear. so what did you hear?” that students may not be able to respond to.
So, when using CDs in the classroom it’s a bit unfair to expect students to Use tasks such as true/false questions or table completion to help
“listen to the recording and answer the questions” without any introduction focus students’ attention and allow you to assess accurately
at all. If we approach listening lessons like this, students are either able to whether they have understood.
understand and get the right answers or not, but if not then there’s no way After listening, the students need to feedback the answers and this can be
for them to improve. done in several ways.
Instead, there are a number of ways we can actually develop listening skills. A good one is getting students to check what they’ve written in pairs and if
The British Council gives some really fun and interesting pre-listening tasks they have wildly different responses you may need to play the recording
which can really help. They include: again. If there are still problems then you need to grade the questions or
▪ Setting the context – giving students an idea of who is speaking, activities to a more appropriate level and then build up.
where, when and an outline of the situation You can grade tasks rather than the recording so that students are exposed
▪ Warmers to generate interest – if you’re listening to a dialogue to authentic material from an early stage but aren’t asked to complete
about food, you could start off by asking students their favourite overly-complicated activities.
foods etc. Even a BBC radio interview could technically be used as a listening exercise
▪ Activating knowledge – asking students what they already know for lower levels where you ask them just to listen for who is being
about the topic to bring relevant vocabulary to the forefront of interviewed, for example. The same piece can then be used for more
their minds or giving them a short, fun quiz advanced levels as they can be asked to identify attitudes, opinions and
more specific details.
▪ Predicting content – once they know the context they can guess
what might/might not be mentioned
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Obviously some recordings are always going to be more appropriate for involve categorising information, reordering actions in the correct order,
different levels but don’t get stuck in the notion that lower levels can’t classifying events and so on.
handle realistic material – they may find it an interesting challenge! Information transfer
Effective Strategies/Activities Information transfer activities involve students translating part of the spoken
message into a new format, such as a table, chart, picture, map and so on.
Effective Strategies/Activities for Developing Students’ Listening They may then use this new format to carry out a further activity, such as
Skills working in pairs with a friend to solve a related problem.
If your students are going to be able to operate effectively, they need to be Note that information transfer activities involve any transfer of any
exposed to a wide variety of different listening strategies and activities. Your information in a text or utterance to a new format: a listening passage to a
goal is to make these listening events interesting, productive, enjoyable and table; a reading text to a dialogue; a telephone conversation to a map and so
fun (but not too much fun with adults). on.
Here are some of the most practical approaches: Using humour to develop listening skills
1. Strategies Language learning is much less painful if the students have something to
smile about from time to time, and a bit of humour can do this.
Questions and answers
Dictation
Very short exchanges can be used to provide elementary or lower
intermediate students with practice in listening and understanding. Dictation went out of fashion in language teaching for a long time, but it can
Exchanges like this can later be practised by the students themselves, and be a valuable form of listening practice and it has now returned in revised
preferably recorded. forms. The important thing is that the dictation passage should normally be
one which the students have met already.
Recording the students on tape is almost always universally enjoyed by
students even when they laughingly protest a little at the beginning because It would normally be inappropriate with English language students to give
they are shy about hearing their own voice on tape. them a dictation passage that they have never met before. This would be
tantamount to a test, which is very different from practice.
Short dialogues
Jigsaw listening
The way in which the dialogue is recorded will affect its authenticity; traffic
noise or café noise in the background adds a further degree of authenticity. This involves students listening to different parts of a passage or a
conversation (or different passages and different conversations), and then
Short passages coming together in pairs to try to complete a particular task. Each person
Unlike dialogues, it's not so easy to make the language authentic in a short has a different piece of information.
passage; however, a story with a touch of humour always appeals to The task might, for example, involve completing another dialogue or filling in
learners. A wide range of factual questions could be prepared together with a table or drawing a map. With a large class, the students can first be
one or two deductive questions. divided into two different groups so that they listen to two different tapes.
Reordering information Then they get together in pairs with one person from each group. It is
The students are given a number of items on paper, written out in the possible to prepare such materials yourself, but you will occasionally find
wrong order: actions, description, events and so on. They are also given one that jigsaw listening and reading tasks are provided in your coursebook.
or more specific tasks, and then they listen to the text. The task(s) may
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2. Some activities the passage. Students put their hands up as soon as they hear each of the
Choose passages, topics and exercises that are participative, interesting and words.
good fun. Missing word
Here are some tried and tested suggestions: You write up 5 words relating to what the students have been currently
Add on studying. You read out a short passage – incorporating 4 of the words.
After the passage has been read out, students suggest the missing word.
One student starts off with I went to the market and I bought some apples.
That’s not right
The next student adds to this: I went to the market and I bought some apples
and a spoon. This continues until the sentence is unmanageably long and the You speak out an incorrect sentence-nothing too difficult, e.g. An elephant
students start to get a bit confused. big is. Students have to decide what the correct version should be.
This could be a competitive game with teams but would be better as a co-
operative activity. It’s good fun and you can change the model sentence to
anything you like so that you can do this again and again in future classes.
Pass the message Overview: Module 8
This activity can be used to emphasise the importance of listening. One Reading, like listening, is a receptive skill because it involves responding to a
student thinks of a 'message' and writes it down. The student then whispers text instead of producing one.
this to another student, swiftly, and so on. The message can only be said
once, but it must be spoken clearly. Work through this module to find out the key concepts related to reading
skills.
Nevertheless, however clearly the message is spoken, it will almost always
be distorted in some way or other which often produces a comical You are going to watch a video of an authentic reading skills lesson. We feel
sentence. It can then be compared with the original sentence. this is a very effective way to demonstrate some practical areas of teaching
as well as helping with your lesson planning thought process.
Think of a verb
Each group writes a short passage of about 3-4 sentences. The verbs
(excluding the verb to be) are removed from the passage. One member of,
Unit 1: Reading
say, group A, then reads out the passage and the other groups suggest Reading is actually much more complicated than it seems at first glance.
appropriate verbs to fit the space. When we read in our own language, we don’t realise all of the skills we are
The final version of the newly constructed passage can then be read in full in fact using to make sense of a text. In a foreign language, though, there are
and is then compared to the original passage. This will often provide a lot of several things that come into play which we take for granted in English.
laughs. It can be done again in future classes by changing the verb to a noun You need to understand the individual letters, the words, sentences,
or adverb, i.e. linked hopefully to whatever else they are studying. connections between sentences and the type of text. You also need to bring
What’s the word? your previous knowledge of the world to make sense of the discourse.
You spell out words quickly, and the students have to shout out the word. There are many different types of text, from letters to articles to stories
and the genre of text, as well as other factors, determines how we read it.
Hands up!
We might be skimming for the overall gist or reading for detail, even
You write up 5-10 words relating to what the students have been currently reading parts to predict what the whole is all about.
studying. You then incorporate these words into a passage. You read out
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These are the different reading skills we can help our learners to develop so Deducing meaning from context
that they become active readers and get the most out of any reading In those instances where some words are unknown, it’s not always useful to
activity. go straight to a dictionary and find a definition or translation. Instead we can
encourage students to work out the meaning of a word from its context.
Skimming & scanning This involves looking at all the words around it in order to give an educated
guess as to its meaning.
We skim a text when we want to get a general impression of what it’s
about. You read it quickly, running your eyes over the words to understand Predicting
the overall meaning. There is a lot of information we can get from a text even before we read it.
We would often skim through the first couple of pages of a book before Help students tap into this useful skill by encouraging them to look at the
deciding to buy it, for instance. With EFL students, this can be a good skill other visual information on the page before reading. This could be pictures
to practice because it gets them to see the broader structure and meaning or photographs, a title or subheading, even the author’s name.
of a text without stopping at and worrying about the words they don’t
know. All of these things can help us predict the genre of a text (letter, newspaper
article, novel extract etc.) as well as possible content and even grammatical
It also avoids one of the typical complaints that reading in a foreign language structures which may be used.
is boring because it’s so slow when you think you have to look up every
single word in a dictionary! If we’re reading a letter of application, perhaps readers might expect to see
use of modal verbs such as 'could and would' to make polite requests or
Scanning is a similar technique which is also to do with ‘speed reading’. It’s some fixed expressions such as ‘enclosed is a copy of my Curriculum Vitae’.
slightly different, however, in that you scan a text to find specific pieces of
information quickly. When students predict correctly, they can feel satisfied and
reassured that even though they might not understand every
You might be looking for a phone number, a name, opening times etc. so word, they can comprehend more than they may have thought.
you don’t read the whole text, just parts of it until you find the information
you need. Inferring
A typical ‘scanning’ question could be ‘What time does the last bus leave?’ Inferring is a slightly more subtle skill.
or ‘Where is Lucy going on holiday?’ This is when we can understand the meaning behind the words to deduce
Reading for detail attitudes, opinions etc. For this, students need to be able to recognise
register(formal or informal) and style and identify words and structures that
Reading for detail is when we really focus on each individual word. This tell us how the writer is referring to something.
allows you to work out how each word in a sentence fits together to
deduce meaning and can be used to learn new vocabulary or understand This type of skill is often practised at higher levels because it takes a certain
certain aspects of grammar. amount of knowledge of the English language.
Most students are familiar with this method but be aware that often in real However, even at lower levels you can grade a task so that it is suitable for
life we don’t read like this except on certain occasions (i.e. to understand a lower level students to infer meaning.
complex set of instructions). It’s therefore important to make sure that Noticing the unknown words position in a sentence and recognising
learners are aware of different approaches to reading so that when they do whether it's a verb, noun, adjective etc. will help to deduce meaning.
encounter texts in the real world where they don’t understand every word,
As you can see, there are many different ways of reading a text for a variety
they still have strategies to cope.
of purposes depending on the skills you want your students to develop. Yet,
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it’s still necessary, as for listening, to introduce the task rather than just Question 2. Do I need to spend a long time pre-teaching language before
launching in asking your students to read and answer the questions. the students read the text?
Unit 2: Reading Skills DVD Question 3. The students have to understand the text and process it to
understand the meaning. How many tasks should I have before focusing on
the language?
Lesson Question 4. I have a scanning task but my students often end up reading
You are about to watch in intermediate level class focusing on reading. We for detail and then we get hung up on difficult language. What can I do?
have included this lesson to show you an authentic lesson using a top Question 5. Timing is going to be my problem. I only have one hour with
down approach to teaching reading. this class. How can I save time at different stages in the lesson?
The question from the previous unit focusing on a reading lesson Question 6. Do I need to concept check all the lexis (vocabulary) in the
procedure was a good example of this approach. lesson when the language has already been presented clearly?
The lesson first looks at the text from a general and wider perspective then Question 7. I don’t feel confident about dealing with grammatical form
gradually focuses on more detail. We have also included the lesson plan. and there seems to be a lot to cover. What can I do?
When you first start teaching, many questions will arise when you are Question 8. Do I need to link the language to the text?
planning.
Below are some of the typical ones that new teachers tell us about. In this Reading text lesson materials to
lesson, Celia’s language comes from a text about the comedian Lenny
Henry’s likes and dislikes. print
In a lesson where the language comes from a text, the text provides the
context but this still means that your students need to have processed the
text to understand the meaning before moving onto working with the
language.
Read through the questions that Celia asked herself before planning this
type of lesson, then:
1. Look at the lesson plan
2. Print off the questions
3. Watch the video and try to notice some solutions to these
questions.
4. Read the suggested solutions to the questions. (Yes. You could
cheat and look at the solutions before watching the video but that
probably wouldn't help you learn!)
Question 1. The text is about Lenny Henry and some of the students
don’t know him as they were not present for the previous lesson where a
film was shown about him. What should I do?
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items mean during the lead-in stage. A common problem is that pre-
Lesson materials. Board game (print) teaching takes up most the lesson so your main aims are not
achieved. Also, if you pre-teach everything then your lesson becomes too
teacher centred.
Question 3: There’s not a set number but you shouldn't need more than
two. During the first task in Celia’s lesson, students scan the text for
information about his likes and dislikes. The second task is also scanning
and this time the aim is to take out the target language to be analysed in the
next stage.
Question 4: Set students a time limit that only gives then time to scan the
text. Make sure that the task itself is one that only requires them to scan
the text. Tell them that they don’t need to understand all the vocabulary to
do the task but that you’ll look at the vocab at another stage if they still
want to.
Question 5: Some general tips are…don’t spend too long on the lead
in. Give clear instructions and have the language analysis on the board and
on a hand out so that students don’t have to waste time copying from the
Reading lesson materials (print) board.
Question 6: No. In Celia’s lesson the cline/scale was clear enough to not
need it. Visuals that are clear usually don’t need to be concept checked.
Question 7: Read up on your target language and plan carefully. Naturally
you will be a bit nervous in this area but remember; as long as you
understand the main structure of grammar you will be fine.
The main aim of any lesson is that students can use the language effectively
so the focus is never solely on grammar. It will also be on skills, meaning
and pronunciation for example. Pre-prepare exactly what you are going to
do in the lesson and maybe also a hand-out to give to students.
Unit 3: Suggested solutions Also think about whether you are trying to do too much. If that’s not the
case, then think of the most efficient way to do it – as in Celia’s lesson.
Question 1:For your lead in at the beginning, show a picture of Lenny Question 8: Yes! This is very important and often isn’t done enough. The
Henry and ask those who were there to tell those that weren't there about text that you decide on is the context for the language and will help your
him. Ask them basic questions about what they remember e.g. Who is he? students understand it so it is something you should exploit and use to help
Where is he from? Where’s his family from? What does he do? your students.
Question 2: No. Only pre-teach the absolutely key vocabulary that would Effective strategies/activities for developing students’ reading skills
stop them understanding the general message of the text. You might find
If your students are going to be able to operate effectively, they need to be
you don’t need to teach anything or that you can just tell them what a few
exposed to a wide variety of different reading strategies and activities. Your
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goal is to make these interesting, productive, enjoyable and fun (but not too ▪ Gap filling - the gaps might all be factual words from the passage;
much fun with young adults and adults). alternatively, they might be linking words that hold the sentences
Here are some of the most practical approaches: together; they could also be grammatical items
▪ Distinguishing fact from opinion
1. Strategies
▪ Drawing conclusions
▪ Guessing word meanings by using context clues
▪ Relating what they have read to their experiences or to other texts
▪ Word formation clues
▪ Noting contradictions and inconsistencies, perhaps in what
▪ Considering syntax and sentence structure by noting the
characters say and do
grammatical functions of unknown words
▪ Analysing reference words 2. Some activities
▪ Predicting text content Choose passages, topics and exercises that are participative, interesting and
good fun.
▪ Reading for specific pieces of information
These can be used both by younger and older learners. You can just adapt
▪ Learning to use the dictionary effectively. them a bit, e.g. perhaps only using separate words with younger learners but
There are many integrative activities you can use. Use your imagination! using sentences with older learners.
Here are some practical ideas:
▪ Matching/contrasting – e.g. Matching/contrasting the characteristics
of two individuals in the story
▪ Timelines – these lines will help them to understand the way a text Here are some tried and tested suggestions:
is structured with tense changes, linking words and flashbacks
Distraction
▪ Character study – depending on the content, you could make this
To liven up your reading materials, bring a learner from each group to the
much more interesting by getting the students to complete, say, a
front of the class and have them all try to finish reading the extract
doctor’s report or a police report on the character
simultaneously whilst you are trying to distract them with silly comments,
▪ Students reacting to texts by writing summaries sound effects, funny faces or any other way, without touching the learners.
▪ Writing new endings Award points for the first person to finish reading or the one who kept a
▪ Re-enacting the text straight face for the longest.
▪ Dramatising interviews based on the text DVD control buttons
▪ Carefully listening for key words or phrases from the text which are Draw a DVD player style control panel on the board i.e. a box with a series
in authentic video or audio tapes of buttons; play, pause, slow motion and fast – but not rewind. Use the
symbols that you would see on a DVD player. Have the class read out the
▪ Creating role-play situations or simulations of cultural experiences extract or story together.
based on the text
When you hit a button, they must adapt their reading style according i.e.
▪ True/false questions, factual questions and ‘why’ questions as a basis start, stop, slow down, speed up etc. Develop the game further by adding
for discussing the text (not testing)
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buttons with happy and sad faces, musical notes (indicating that they sing Note that many activities already discussed for speaking, writing and
instead of read). Be creative. The possibilities are endless. listening can also be used for intensive reading, e.g. identifying mistakes,
One student one word reordering sentences etc.
Before you start reading as a class, put your learners into teams. Go around
the room having the learners read the story or extract- one person, one
Overview: Module 9
word. When a learner says the wrong word or delays for more than 3
seconds, give the other team a point.
The two productive skills are speaking and writing because they
Encourage them to be alert and keep a good fast pace going. require students to produce language.
Read to me- circle They are sometimes also known as active skills as opposed to the passive,
Get the learners to stand in a circle with their reading books. Designate or receptive skills of listening and reading.
pairs within the circle and instruct them to read to each other Normally these skills develop after the receptive skills because students
simultaneously. When you shout ‘switch’, they turn to the person on their need to receive language before they can produce it, but ideally they should
other side and start reading to them instead. be developed simultaneously as they complement each other.
Walk and read In this unit we’ll look in more detail at speaking skills and what is required
Tell your learners to stand up and hold the reading book close to their to develop them. Please also refer back to the 'Functions' video (module
faces. Have them read the book whilst walking around in a certain direction 6) which provides you with a good example of a speaking lesson.
or in any random fashion. Tell them to hop and skip etc. to mix it up.
Upside down reading Unit 1: Speaking
Put learners into pairs. Have them hold their book upside down and race to As with reading, when we speak there’s a lot more going on than you might
read through the extract. After each round tell them to switch partners and realise.
do it again. It’s not just about using grammar and vocabulary accurately; we also use an
Banned words appropriate register (level of formality), self-correct, hesitate, use stress and
Before you start, say that words with a particular grammatical value are intonation and use different interactive strategies to ensure that we’re
banned, e.g. on, over, under, before. It could be anything: words that begin communicating effectively.
with a certain letter or a past participle verb. Read the text and when a This can be anything from asking opinions, clarifying our meaning, turn-
banned word emerges learners must replace it with a sound or a different taking and agreeing/disagreeing to keep up interaction.
word. Even native speakers aren’t actually 100% accurate when they speak because
Reading bingo of the necessity to talk in real time.
Tell learners to choose 10 random words from a reading extract and write Unlike when we write, we do not have time to properly organise our
them down. Read out sentences from the text in a random order. When thoughts, therefore we often make mistakes, interrupt, flit between topics
learners hear their words, they cross them off. The first learner to cross off and correct ourselves or clarify meaning.
all their words is the winner and becomes the reader. This lack of preparation time makes speaking in a foreign
language especially difficult.
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Already your students may not know the necessary vocabulary to speak Or for a numbers lesson you could put students in pairs and give them a
about a certain topic and then on top of that they may not have the card each with some questions on it e.g. ‘What’s the population of the UK?’
necessary skills to respond immediately to a task. or ‘How high is Mount Snowdon?’
That’s why you need to develop these skills in your students to ensure they One of the students will have half the answers the other will have the other
are able to communicate effectively. half and by asking and answering questions they can complete both sets of
Before you start any speaking skills lesson you need to decide if your main questions. In this instance, only the target language is being practised and the
aim is fluency, accuracy or both. This will affect how you conduct the lesson, responses are 100% predictable.
the kinds of activities you will do and how/whether to correct. Free Practice
Controlled Practice Freer practice, on the other hand, is more challenging.
Examples of controlled speaking practice are scripted role-plays, repetition Whilst controlled practice encourages accuracy and builds confidence, free
and drilling. practice improves fluency (the ability to speak at a natural speed without
Whilst they don’t give practice of fluency or interaction, these exercises can too many hesitations).
be very useful for working on accuracy, pronunciation and word/sentence The idea is that your students get better at speaking by speaking. In the past,
stress. learners often had a good grammatical and theoretical knowledge of the
They help build learners’ confidence too and motivate them to produce language but were unable to use it.
grammatically correct language. They can also be less overwhelming for This is more or less useless in today’s society where people from all over
shyer students so are a great way to lead into freer practice. the world must be able to communicate effectively in English.
Students often find it difficult to transfer the knowledge they have A variety of communicative activities can be used to encourage fluency (look
in their heads to what comes out of their mouths, so controlled back at Module 5 for more details) but the important thing is to maximise
practice can be a good mid-way point on the road to spontaneous the amount of time that the students themselves have to speak. It can often
communication. be difficult to take a step back from jumping into the
conversation/discussion.
Through controlled practice, learners can apply what they know passively to
active production to ensure that all that passive knowledge isn’t going to As we’ve already discussed, error correction needs to be used tentatively
waste. with fluency activities so that the flow is not interrupted too much. Give the
students the freedom and more importantly the time they need to
It can sometimes be embarrassing for students when they don’t know what
undertake the task at hand.
they’re supposed to say and fear making errors, so if they have the language
in front of them, it’s more reassuring. An appropriate lead-in can be key to getting any discussion-based task off to
a good start. This can be as simple as focusing on an image or a statement
Controlled practice confines the conversation to the target language so it’s
just to get some ideas flowing and can be a good opportunity to pre-teach
a great way to get students to practice a language point sufficiently so that it
some essential vocabulary.
sticks in their heads.
Don’t just start with, “Let’s talk about global warming. Ahmed what do you
All the instructions/prompts elicit a particular response and are fully
think?” This will catch your students completely off-guard and is not
predictable. If you are focusing on the functional language of polite requests
conducive to a lively debate. Although it’s supposed to be ‘free’ speaking,
for example, you may wish to have students act out a scripted dialogue on
that doesn’t mean there shouldn't be any structure to the activity.
the topic so that they can memorise the useful fixed expressions.
You could give the students role cards, i.e. ‘you’re a member of a green
activist group’/‘you work for the logging industry’ etc. Or set a scenario and
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give the class some information/data to read through first. Simulating real- You are helping your students to learn how to speak so that your students
life activities e.g. ‘A wind-farm is planned to be built 3 miles from your can use speaking to learn.
house, you are going to a meeting for local residents to discuss your 1. Using minimal responses
views…’ is also a great way of getting students to practice language in a
natural setting which may actually serve them in the future. Language learners who lack confidence in their ability to participate
successfully in oral interaction often listen in silence while others do the
Your role in these activities is to introduce the task and then to monitor talking. One way you can encourage such learners to begin to participate is
rather than being a full contributor. Whilst you should avoid taking part too to help them build up a stock of minimal responses that they can use in
much yourself, that’s not to say you can’t play devil’s advocate every so different types of exchanges.
often to prompt the discussion if it starts to die off.
Such responses can be especially useful for beginners.
Another method is to split students into smaller groups which switch round
to keep their interest if you feel conversation is dwindling. Hopefully, this Minimal responses are predictable phrases that conversation participants
won’t happen, but a common cause of students drying up can be if they use to indicate understanding, agreement, doubt, and other responses to
haven’t had any preparation time. what another speaker is saying; for example: Oh, I see. Is that so? That’s good.
Oh, sorry. I didn’t catch that.
As we mentioned earlier, speaking in a foreign language is a much slower
process and we need more time to think. Having a stock of such responses enables a learner to focus on what the
other participant is saying, without having to simultaneously plan a response.
If you just throw your class in at the deep end without any thinking time,
they may become too flustered to think of the words they need and so not 2. Recognising scripts
say anything at all. Many communication situations are associated with a predictable set of
Step back and give them time to process the task. spoken exchanges - a script. Greetings, apologies, compliments, invitations,
and other functions that are influenced by social and cultural norms often
follow patterns or scripts. For example:
Can I help you?
Effective Strategies/Activities Yes, please.
Effective Strategies/Activities for Developing Students’ Speaking So do the transactional exchanges involved in activities such as obtaining
Skills information and making a purchase. In these scripts, the relationship
between a speaker's turn and the one that follows it can often be
If your students are going to be able to operate effectively, they need to be
anticipated.
exposed to a wide variety of different speaking strategies and activities.
Your goal is to make these interesting, productive, enjoyable and fun (but You can help your students develop speaking ability by making them aware
not too much fun with young adults and adults). of the scripts for different situations so that they can predict what they will
hear and what they will need to say in response.
Here are some of the most practical approaches:
Through interactive activities, you can give your students practice in
1. Strategies
managing and varying the language that different scripts contain.
Help your students with speaking strategies, using strategies like minimal
3. Using clarification and comprehension responses
responses, recognising scripts, and clarification and comprehension
Language learners are often too embarrassed or shy to say anything when
responses, which they can use to help themselves expand their knowledge
they do not understand another speaker or when they realise that a
of the language and their confidence in using it.
conversation partner has not understood them.
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You can help your students overcome this reticence by assuring them that It is your job to ensure that the students are happy and relaxed in the
misunderstanding and the need for clarification can occur in any type of classroom, and are willing to practise speaking. A lot depends on the
interaction, whatever the participant’s language skill levels. You can also give activities and tasks that you ask the students to do and the way you
students strategies and phrases to use for clarification and comprehension structure the practice. There are a number of points to remember:
checks. For example: ▪ Don't make the tasks too complicated or difficult.
For clarification check: ▪ Prepare the students properly so that they know what to do.
▪ Do you mean...? ▪ Let them work in pairs or groups rather than having to perform in
▪ Could you clarify that, please? front of the class.
▪ Can you elaborate on that, please? Here are some tried and tested practical ideas:
▪ Could you be more explicit, please? A little-known fact
▪ Could you explain what you mean by...? Ask students to share their name, age, and one little known fact about
themselves. This little-known fact, e.g. I have a pet snake, can become a
▪ Could you give me an example, please?
regular conversational element in future interactions with partners in the
For comprehension check: classroom. That is, it gives the learner a reason to talk and respond: I got it
▪ Sorry, I don’t understand. for my birthday. It loves eating mice. It is three feet long. No, it doesn’t bite.
▪ Sorry, I don’t know what you mean. The hot seat
▪ Sorry, I’m not sure I’m following you. Put a chair with its back facing the board; this is the Hot Seat and a
volunteer must sit here. Then write a word on the board (for beginners, tell
▪ Sorry, I’ve missed your point. them the word category or theme – this is likely to be vocabulary they are
▪ Sorry, I don’t see what you’re getting at. presently studying). Then students try to prompt the Hot Seater into
guessing what the word is by describing it.
By encouraging students to use clarification and comprehension phrases in
class and by responding positively when they do, you can create an Interviews
authentic practice environment within the classroom itself. Ask students to get into twos. Give them a short list of things they might
As they develop control of various clarification and comprehension ask about, e.g. favourite sports, favourite food. Each person then interviews
strategies, students will gain confidence in their ability to manage the various his or her partner for a set time while paired up. When the group
communication situations that they may encounter outside the classroom. reconvenes, each person introduces their interviewee’s favourites to the
rest of the group.
2. Some activities
A few of my favourite things
Your aim is to get them to talk.
Whatever you’re talking about, ask your students to share their top three
The classroom, of course, is an artificial environment in which to be
favourite things relating to the topic at hand. If you have time, turn it
practising a language. Some students find it a rather scary place because they
around: what are their three least favourite things? This information will be
are constantly being asked to say things in the target language.
even more helpful if you ask them to explain why.
They may have little confidence in being able to say it correctly and fear
Describing a drawing/map
being laughed at.
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Time for a change Substitution drills: These kinds of drills enable students to focus on
structure while learning related vocabulary. For example, a dialogue or
Ask your students to close their eyes while you change five things about sentence structure is first taught, then students substitute different content
yourself. For example, you could take off one shoe, take off your watch, put words.
on different glasses, put on your sweater, and take off your ring.
Antonyms/synonyms: Students match items from a list of synonyms or
You then ask them to pose questions to figure out the changes you have antonyms to the word(s) in a text.
made. Students may ask: Did you take off a shoe?Did you put on a
sweater? This kind of activity can be fun and, more importantly, it engages Hangman: The classic vocabulary game where students choose letters to
students in a way that requires them to think and not just provide spell out the vocabulary item in a limited number of rounds.
mechanical responses. Odd-Man-Out:You list four words for your students to analyse. Students
Find a classmate who have to determine the relationship between the words and then explain
why one word does not belong.
In this exercise, students stand up, circulate about the room and ask
questions of other students to find those who can do different activities, e.g. Matching definitions: Students literally match words to a list of
play football, do painting etc. Students then report their findings back to definitions.
class. Gapped dictation: You read a text with some vocabulary missing, and the
students have to deduce what the vocabulary item is, based on the context.
Using dictionaries: These can be used for a number of reasons:
▪ Using the alphabet and placing words in alphabetical order
▪ Checking the pronunciation of new words
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Writing requires quite different mental processes from speaking, as we have ▪ Process writing – Students choose what they want to write but
time to prepare, organise material, take our time and check for errors or you guide them through the process
inaccuracies.
▪ Unguided writing – Students write without too much assistance
However, there are also challenges: in order to write successfully there are
Although you may prefer to set writing tasks for homework, there are ways
a number of elements to consider. We need to think about the purpose of
of usefully incorporating writing into the lesson itself. You can do this in
our writing and who we are writing for/to.
several ways from analysing sample answers, to discussing ideas, to helping
This will affect not only the content but the register, style and structure of students decide how to organise their work.
what we write. There’s a lot going on, it’s not just about producing
grammatically correct sentences! Before, During and After
Imagine you are writing a letter and match the questions you would ask
yourself with the elements of writing they correspond to: Writing
1. Why am I writing?
Before Writing
2. Who am I writing to?
Both creative and ‘real-life’ writing can develop different skills in your
3. What do I need to say? students and challenge them to use language they may not otherwise put
4. What will I talk about first, second, last etc? into practice.
a. content As with any other skills lesson, before you set a writing task, you need to
lead in appropriately. This could be through reading a text, for example an
b. register article introducing the topic or a short story, or even by doing a listening or
purpose speaking activity to spark the students’ interest.
structure You may then want to look at some sample or model answers and do a
Check answer variety of activities analysing the good and bad points of each and the key
elements in each. This could be in the form of fixed expressions, a particular
There are different writing activities we can do to work on some, or all, of structure, appropriate register etc.
the above elements. This depends on the type of exercise we do with our
students and how controlled the practice is. Some of the different task types Once you’ve done this you can get a discussion going about ideas for writing
are listed as follows: or things to include, don’t just leave learners facing a difficult task without
any inspiration!
▪ Copying – Young learners in particular, or students who use a
During writing
different alphabet from the Roman one used for English, often need
to copy characters or words in order to learn how to formulate The next stage is one that is often missed out but is actually really essential
them. for any good piece of writing: planning.
▪ Controlled exercises – Learners write single words or phrases in You should encourage your students to think about the four points we
response to questions. There is little room for error as the task is mentioned earlier (purpose, register, content and structure).
so focused. Many examinations to assess English language proficiency in fact give a large
▪ Guided writing – Using samples or models of longer texts to percentage of marks to students who write appropriately and in a clearly
demonstrate to students appropriate language and structures for structured way.
the task
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This means that even if your learners have difficulty with accuracy they can When marking your students’ work remember to not only mark it in terms
still gain high marks if the other elements are all done well. of accuracy.
Start off with the general outline and then ask students to really think about It’s all too easy just to focus on the language and forget yourself about all
exactly what they want to say in each paragraph and how they’re going to the other elements involved in the writing process. You should also award
say it. marks for how well they’ve answered the question, if the text develops
Brainstorming relevant vocabulary and expressions at the beginning can help clearly and you can identify a structure and how appropriate the register is.
too. You’re asking your students to think about all of these things so it’s only fair
After writing you do too!
Surprisingly, many students don’t actually check their work once they’ve And remember to give learners the opportunity to self-correct
written it! This is a big mistake because even mother-tongue speakers and thereby improve their writing by using different error
sometimes make mistakes when they write because they may have a change correction techniques (i.e. a ‘correction code’) as we looked at in
of idea half way through a sentence and don’t go back to adapt everything Module 5.
else accordingly.
Obviously, during exams or timed exercises, your students won’t have Unit 2: Questions to think
enough time to do a complete re-draft but you can encourage them to do
this for the other writing tasks you set them. Hopefully it will make them about while watching our
more aware of how to improve their own writing.
Don’t just get them to re-draft the language though, make sure they’re authentic writing lesson
thinking about the task as a whole and asking themselves, ‘Have I really Before watching the writing video, think about the following questions
answered the question here?’, ‘Is it too formal/informal for the audience and relating to teaching writing to a foreign student.
purpose?’, ‘Does it follow a clear and logical structure?’
1. Look at this: الكتابة بلغة أخرى مجهدةٌ في بعض األحيان
After that comes proof-reading, i.e. checking for errors/mistakes. This is
essential even for timed writing activities as the students must leave What problems would the student who wrote the above have with writing
themselves enough time to check over their work. in English?
It can sometimes be difficult to see mistakes when you’re looking at the text This is an Arabic speaker who has written ‘Writing in another language is
as a whole because there’s too much to take in. Instead, it can be useful to often stressful’. This speaker writes from right to left so would obviously
get students to look through what they’ve written several times but each have problems with the basic script of English. This is also worth bearing in
time focusing on a different element. mind when teaching anyone whose first language uses a different script. As
you can see from the Arabic writing above, letter formation is completely
For instance, they could read through once to check for verb-noun different so it is likely that, whatever level, help would be needed with
agreement (i.e. have they written ‘she go’ instead of ‘she goes’), another handwriting.
time for prepositions, a third for correct word order etc. This enables the
student to focus and be more successful at spotting mistakes. 2. In speaking, the listener/addressee is usually present (except on the
phone). Think about how this affects speaking and writing?
If there’s time, reading each line backwards so you really concentrate on
every word is another good technique to check for errors and again helps When speaking, you can stop, restart and pause if the addressee has not
learners concentrate. understood part of the conversation. For example, if you were giving
instructions on how to use a DVD player, it would be unusual not to have
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Correct order of writing Here are some of the most practical approaches, a few of which we have
mentioned above:
▪ Remind students that you were exactly the same when you were 3. Substitution tables: When the learners use substitution tables, they
learning to write in a foreign language – but you stuck at it. Share take one item from each box to create and write a new sentence. With a
with your class your own struggles in grappling with difficult topics. correctly prepared substitution table, as long as the learners select one item
▪ Give students opportunities to talk about their writing. Take five or from each box, they will always write a grammatically correct sentence.
ten minutes of class time for students to read their writing to each
other in small groups or pairs. It's important for students to hear old black coat.
man carrying
what their peers have written. The poor is a brown hat.
woman buying
▪ Emphasise to your students that good writing skills are important, tall blue walking stick.
both to their satisfactory completion of the unit and to their future
careers. 4. Matching tables: This requires the learners to think very carefully
before they match items and then write a sentence. The result will be
▪ Provide adult students with an anecdote about the implications of
incorrect in terms of grammar or meaning unless the learners select very
substandard writing or the value of good writing. For example, you
carefully. This is not just copying. It requires thinking about meaning and
may talk about a job candidate who missed selection due to his
accuracy.
poor writing.
▪ Read aloud quality writing done by a former student, and encourage boy her children day.
students to listen to its flow. visits elderly
The girl his grandparents every week.
▪ Encourage students to pay close attention to the grammar and visit young
children their friend month.
punctuation they see in textbooks and other books and articles.
▪ Provide students with poorly structured sentences from 5. Gap filling: Gap filling exercises involve the learners completing
assignments of prior years. Ask the students to improve the sentences using appropriate words, often filling the gaps with the correct
sentences, and then discuss the improvements as a class. vocabulary or tense.
2. Some activities Examples:
Choose passages, topics and exercises that are participative, interesting and In this exercise, the learners will use the verb base to form the correct
good fun. tense.
Here are some solid, tried and tested, practical suggestions: a) Thomas …… swimming in the clear, blue sea every morning. (enjoy)
1. Copying text (for beginners) b) Maria …… in the shop today. (work)
2. Grouping: For example, learners are given three headings, 6. Tables and charts: Tables and charts can be used very effectively in
say classroom, my kitchen, a fruit shop, and a separate list of words, writing exercises. The work can be designed around the learners
containing, say, teacher, fridge, tap, banana etc.... themselves in order to provide a more personal task.
They need to write the right words under the right heading. You could also For example, learners are asked to survey/ interview 5 other learners and
expand this to have a heading with a question mark, where they write silly list information in a table with the headings: name, sisters, brothers, hobby, and
words from your list that cannot be fitted under the other three headings, pets. The learners can then produce sentences about the other five orally
e.g. a blue elephant, a square football etc. and then write them.
7. Reordering words/sentences and re-writing them
correctly: Young learners could be given a sentence where a word is in
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the wrong place and they need to re-write the sentence to so that it makes ▪ Picture 6: Teacher looks apologetic
sense. For example, I like to the guitar play.
12. Dialogues: Learners could be given half of the dialogue and can use
Teenagers and adults, when they are ready, could attempt the re-ordering their own words to complete the conversation:
of sentences. For example:
A: What’s your favourite food?
They decided to walk to the top of the hill. B:
Suddenly, on reaching the door, they heard a noise coming from inside. A: I don’t like them. I like pears.
The old, rusted gate creaked as they walked towards the door. B.
When they reached the top, they saw the haunted house. A. I’ve never liked apples because they’re sometimes sour.
B.
8. Sentence completion: The learners may be provided with alternatives
to choose from or they may be required to decide how to complete the 13. Letters: Informal mostly for younger learners; older learners may be
sentences for themselves. For example: ready for a slightly more formal letter. Where possible, ask the head of
department if you can pop these in the school’s mail basket, with the school
I wonder if: providing the stamps, so you don’t have to pay the postage.
▪ they arrived tomorrow Or ask if it’s possible to take the class to the post office, if it’s not too far. If
▪ they will arrive tomorrow this all works out, get them to write a suitable letter to their parents/carers.
They will be really happy and inspired when the parents/carers thank them
▪ they have arrived tomorrow for their wonderful written letter.
9. Transformations: This involves the learners in altering an existing 14. Writing predictions: For young learners, predicting what might
passage according to specific instructions, e.g. changing it from positive to happen next in a story will usually be done orally. With older learners, this
negative or present to past etc. could be done in writing. At various times in a story, you could stop and ask
10. Dictation: Ensure learners are already familiar with the text, perhaps them to write their prediction of what happens next.
from previous readings. If you use a recording, ensure it is clear. Don’t be You could also use a suitable video for predicting, stopping it at relevant
afraid to try recordings where the speaker has an accent, so long as the parts and asking them to write their prediction as to what happens next.
words spoken are clear. Accents are a key part of the real world.
15. Projects: These are suitable for older learners. In groups, they could
11. Short essays based on pictures: For younger learners, you should perhaps collate and write down information from short interviews and
try to use an explicit, uncomplicated picture, e.g. a cat chasing a mouse. For surveys in the school; for example, they could interview some teachers
older learners, though, there could be several pictures from which the about what they like doing in their spare time.
learners deduce what has happened. For example:
You would then guide them on how to collate and group the information
▪ Picture 1: Schoolboy misses bus to school under headings, showing what the most and least popular likes are.
▪ Picture 2: Arrives late-school clock shows the time To make this even more interesting, you could ask your learners to try and
▪ Picture 3: Teacher appears to be giving him a row predict and write down what the top 3 likes might be before they carry out
the survey. The person whose prediction is closest could be given a small
▪ Picture 4: Back home, parent holds up newspaper with the title page prize.
saying: Buses late today.
Or, in groups, they could design a holiday leaflet/mini-brochure.
▪ Picture 5: Boy takes newspaper into school and shows it to the teacher
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Overview: Module 11 Phrasal verbs are a construction which consists of a verb and a
preposition or adverb, or both, e.g.
Overview Hopefully, they’ll put us up for the night.
In this Module, we will first explore the areas of grammar which are often I’ll pick up some coffee when I’m out.
deemed to be a little bit tricky. If we all chip in, we’ll finish it soon.
It’s often not the meaning of a grammar element that’s the tricky bit. It’s the These items exist in many languages in different shapes and forms although
teaching of it where some teachers feel a bit unsure. inexperienced teachers of English often give learners the impression that
So, we’ll cover these key tricky grammar areas first of all. These are in they only exist in English. That’s just wrong.
separate Units: Many languages have composite verbs with similar constructions acting like
▪ Unit 1: Phrasal verbs phrasal verbs in English.
▪ Unit 2: Prepositions English language phrasal verbs have increased significantly over the years.
They continue to increase.
▪ Unit 3: Idioms
So, why do people use them? There’s something about phrasal verbs that
▪ Unit 4: Conditional forms makes a speaker feel happier with them as they are often less formal (but
▪ Unit 5: Direct and reported/indirect speech not always) and more colloquial than previously established single words.
▪ Unit 6: Modal verbs Also, they often convey more emotion and promote images more so than
single words.
Then, we will move on to some very useful and practical Grammar DVD
A definition of a phrasal verb would be something like this: a
lessons.
phrase that consists of a verb with a preposition or adverb or both, the
With what you absorb and learn in this Module, together with what you meaning of which is different from the meaning of its separate parts,
have already learned in Module 2-Grammar Awareness, you’ll be good to go e.g. pick up, look at
and ready to handle any grammar question in any situation.
Example – the verb to come
Unit 1: Phrasal verbs This is an everyday common verb that learners will learn pretty quickly. The
main meaning they will learn is something to do with moving forwards to
Unit 1 – Phrasal verbs something or moving to a particular place:
Phrasal verbs present learners with a huge challenge as there are thousands Come here.
of phrasal verbs, all with different meanings.
She came to her house.
They are so prevalent in everyday speaking and informal writing that
Now notice that if we add a selection of tiny words to this verb, the
learners must learn them and learn how and when to use them; otherwise,
meaning we now have bears no relation whatsoever to the meanings
they will have difficulty in communicating fully.
of come above.
Phrasal verbs also present a challenge to teachers, who need to
decide how best to present these to the learners. ▪ I’ve been looking for this for ages. I’ve just come across it. (found)
▪ I hear you’ve been chosen. How did that come about? (transpire) ▪ look at - meaning to investigate or think carefully about a problem
▪ I had no idea who he was. Then it came back to me. He was my first or situation
boyfriend. (remembered) ▪ look back - meaning to think about something that happened in the
▪ He doesn’t want to play soccer. I’ll talk to him. I’m sure he’ll come past
around. (change his mind) ▪ look down on - meaning to think something or someone is inferior
▪ What a reaction. He came down on us like a ton of bricks. ▪ look for - meaning to try to find something lost or that you need
(scold/punish verbally) ▪ look forward to - meaning to feel excited and happy about something
▪ I think she’s about to come down with something. (be ill) that is going to happen
▪ The police have reported that two witnesses have come ▪ look into - meaning to examine a problem or situation
forward. (contacted willingly) There are even more than these.
▪ She comes from Edinburgh. (hails from) 2. The difficulty with phrasal verbs
There are even more variations. The learner needs to get to grips with all these subtle meanings. One
Thus, the meaning of the phrasal verb come downcannot be construed from problem is that there are few, if any, clues as to the meaning of each
joining together the meanings of its separate parts: come and down construction. Some will argue that there are but this can confuse the
learners further.
Example 2
For example, let’s imagine that we tell learners that in gives a clue to the
Let’s try another one – the verb look. This verb has several meanings; here meaning of the phrasal verb, an idea that you’re delving inside something or
are some of them: going inside somewhere, e.g. I had a look in the book, I had a look in the shop.
To direct your eyes in order to see: Look! There’s grandpa. However, look in is often used for dropping in to see someone,
To try to find something or someone: I looked everywhere but I couldn’t find often unplanned, often for a short time, to make sure the person is
her. Perhaps we’ll meet again. OK: I looked in on old Mrs Brown. This is a totally different meaning, and
To seem: You look well. You look nice in that dress. proves the point that some clues may be more of a hindrance than a help.
To show direction: The garden looks south. Another problem is that some constructions can be the same but have
different meanings:
To give a warning or strong reminder: Look where you’re going!
I looked at your drawing. It seems fine to me.
This is another example of the dilemma facing learners of English. They may
come across the verb look early in their learning, probably from their Oil prices are rising swiftly again. We need to look at that.
classroom studies: Look at Page 27. There’s nothing particularly difficult with Clearly these are different. The first gives the impression of a fairly quick
that. However, the more they explore the language, the more they will look. The second gives the impression of a longer enquiry/investigation into
come across these constructions: the effects.
▪ look after - meaning to take care of someone or something Yet another issue is that learners of English soon find that although English
has a wide and varied vocabulary, some constructions just have to be
▪ look ahead - meaning to think about and plan the future
learned:
▪ look at - meaning to read something quickly and not very
The curtain went up. The show began!
thoroughly
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Even where a curtain in a theatre is opened from the middle to the sides (as make any sense. Here are some common 3 part phrasal verbs with their
can happen in a cinema or school production), we almost always say the meaning and an example:
curtain went up. A few people may say the curtain was raised but most would get up to – What have you been getting up to since we last met? (doing)
say the curtain went up. We do use raise but this is usually before the actual
event: go in for - I don’t really go in for cooking programmes on the TV. (like)
It was time to raise the curtain. The curtain went up. The show began! come out with – Juan’s always coming out with outrageous comments.
(saying)
No wonder learners get confused!
We never think of phrasal verbs when we acquire our native language. But,
for all L2 learners, these present tough challenges. There are only a few
Phrasal verbs continued...
concrete learning strategies you can use so that they can learn these. 3. The characteristics of phrasal verbs
You need to explain these individually when they come up in the classroom Here’s what you need to know:
and encourage them to rote learn other examples as much as possible. 1. A phrasal verb is a combination of words (a verb + a preposition or verb
Phrasal verbs can be difficult to understand because they often have +adverb) that when used together, typically take on a different meaning to
meanings that are idiomatic. The meaning cannot be deduced from the that of the original verb.
elements added to the verb. 2. They are a very important aspect of everyday English. There are
They can also be difficult to use because of variations in the placement of thousands and thousands of them.
the particle. In phrasal verbs the particle is the word tagged on to the verb 3. Learners need to learn many of them if they wish to communicate
to give the specific meaning of the phrasal verb , e.g. on, back but it has little successfully.
or no meaning in itself when it is tagged on. It has a grammatical purpose
but no meaning. 4. Phrasal verbs are idiomatic, meaning that the meaning of a phrasal verb
cannot be determined by combining the meanings of the verb and
In some cases, the particle can be put in more than one position in the preposition but must be learned as a single lexical item.
sentence; in other cases the particle usually appears in only one position.
5. Learners need to think of each phrasal verb as a separate verb
Example construction with a specific meaning.
Form 1: You can say: I put my coat on. 6. When we use phrasal verbs, we use them like normal verbs in a sentence,
Form 2: You can also say: I put on my coat. regardless of whether it’s a regular or irregular verb. These are irregular
verbs:
Form 1: You can say: Shegave it back.
Lisa tore up the Valentine Day’s card and threw it in the bin.
Form 2: But you wouldn’t say:She gave back it. This is a non-standard
construction. (The fortunate thing is that the learner would likely The bus broke down.
communicate her meaning but when we focus on form we would say this is Did you deal with the complaint?
an incorrect form.)
7. Phrasal verbs are confusing. One main verb may have many combinations.
And very many phrasal verbs have three components. Such verbs are often Also, one phrasal verb may have more than one meaning.
particularly difficult to understand because the learner hears a string of
words, each of which she knows very well, but which in combination do not 8. Phrasal verbs tend to be more informal and are used more
often in spoken than written English, although they’re used frequently
in informal written communication like emails to family or friends and on
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internet blogs. But note that some will still pop up in formal A good dictionary will often tell you whether the words are
communications. separable or inseparable.
9. Some phrasal verbs can be transitive, i.e. they can be followed by an 13. Some transitive phrasal verbs can take an object in both places.
object.
Examples
Examples
I looked the number up in the phone book. I looked up the number in the
I made up an excuse.An excuse is the object. phone book.
I conjured up activities at the last moment.Activities is the object. They turned down my request. They turned my request down.
10. Some phrasal verbs are intransitive.An intransitive verb cannot be Cristina called off the blind date. Cristina called the blind date off.
followed by an object.
14. Remember this: Although many transitive phrasal verbs can take an
Examples object in both places, you must put the object between the verb and the
Her ex-husband suddenly showed up. (show upcannot take an object) preposition if the object is a pronoun. There’s no choice.
The baby woke up early this morning. (woke up cannot take an object) Example 1
Note that intransitive phrasal verbs are inseparable. You cannot separate The object is a noun:
the verb and the particle. Carlos looked the number up in the phone book. (Correct)
Example Carlos looked up the number in the phone book. (Correct)
3. After reading a random passage the students are asked to identify the So how do you teach phrasal verbs effectively?
phrasal verbs in the passage and try to work out their meaning and explain
Experience is a wonderful thing. To get it right first time, here is
them.
what you should do:
4. The teachers run brainstorming sessions where students are asked to
1. Start right from the beginning.
create lists of phrasal verbs to share with one another.
Teach plenty of phrasal verbs at elementary level, in the context of general
5. They run sessions focused on a particular verb and all the phrasal verb
vocabulary teaching. Don’t suddenly try to start teaching hundreds of them
combinations that emanate from the verb, e.g. the list of the verb come uses
all together at higher levels.
and meanings we explored above.
2. Don’t isolate phrasal verbs
Let’s stop at that. There are other traps but these are the key
ones. Let’s run through these: Don’t isolate phrasal verbs from other types of vocabulary. Encourage
learners to look for differences of meaning in very small sets of vocabulary
1. We’ve said before and we say again that the learning of random items is
items like these for younger students:
not conducive to learning. Learners need to use meaningful language in
context to ensure that they can draw on the specific meaning from their ▪ get up
memory bank at a later time. ▪ get ready
Again, we cannot just dismiss dictionary work out of hand. Learning phrasal ▪ get dressed
verbs out of the dictionary can help, but students really need to read and
hear phrasal verbs in context for them to be able to truly understand the Or these, for more competent students:
correct usage of phrasal verbs. ▪ turn down: He turned down the light. He turned down the offer.
2. Learners are unlikely to choose meaningful words on their own unless ▪ turn up: He turned up the light. He turned up at the meeting.
they are shown how these are regularly used by native speakers in context.
▪ turn out: They turned out in big numbers. It turned out pretty well in the
3. A random passage will include phrasal verbs that the students may not end.
use again, if ever, in communicative contexts. We need to ensure that what
they do learn can be used. Thus, passages need to be selected carefully or 3. Vary your approach
written bespoke by you to ensure learning can take place in a meaningful Cartoons, for example, are an excellent way to illustrate and reinforce
context. phrasal verbs visually. For example:
4. Brainstorming is a useful tool in the classroom. However, proper Come down with could be illustrated by the character being upright and
brainstorming is an uncontrolled event. The result may be a list of obscure active, compared to being physically down and in bed with spots/a rash.
or uncommon phrasal verbs which the students cannot use on a day-to-day
basis. Come up with something could be illustrated by a group sitting and puzzling
over some paper drawings and then one of the characters
5. Running sessions focused on a particular verb and all the phrasal verb jumps up, physically demonstrating he has found a solution and has it in his
combinations that emanate from the verb has inherent flaws. In addition to hand.
confusing the students with a host of different meanings at the same time,
again there will be phrasal verbs that they are unlikely to use or may never 4. Compare with their native language
use in everyday communicative English. If possible, use examples of similar verbs from the students' first languages
Of course, some of these approaches may have some merit if used wisely to help clarify what a phrasal verb is.
and in context.
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For example, other Germanic languages like German and Dutch have verbs ▪ peel off (fruit or vegetable skin)
similar to English phrasal verbs in the form of separable prefix verbs.
▪ fry up (breakfast or vegetables)
Foster an awareness of any similarities between English and the learners’ L1.
▪ slice off (meat from bone)
5. Focus on everyday communicative language
▪ cut up (into slices)
Identifying phrasal verbs from a discussion about the moon may be
▪ cut off (fat)
interesting. However, focus on an everyday context and the phrasal verbs
arising in that context, so that the students are ready to use them in ▪ chop up (into small pieces or cubes)
their everyday communicative events – speaking or writing. ▪ boil away (the water boiling in the pan for a set time)
All of the above are very useful, but here is the key: ▪ boil over (the water boiling over because there’s too much heat)
6. The key: Think of an everyday context and topic that applies to You would explain these, get them to repeat the sound, write what’s
all of them. necessary on the board and handle any queries. The students could role play
Ask yourself: what do all of my students do to some degree? a simple scenario of making a sandwich explaining to each other what they
are doing and who should do what next. You could also reinforce these
Choose a relevant and meaningful topic to bring out a tranche
later by, say, a gap-fill exercise or a short written piece on ‘How to make
of related phrasal verbs. For example:
the Perfect Sandwich’.
▪ All of your students need to eat, be it at home or in a Then, perhaps, you could bring in some dictionary work which would add to
café/restaurant. They may either buy the food or make the food, or the phrasal verbs which they can use in this context.
watch their parents or friends making food.
And you could encourage them to use these phrasal verbs at home; and you
▪ All of your students are likely to use a phone, to different degrees. could ask their parents or carers to encourage the students to do the
▪ All of your students need to shop. It doesn’t matter what type of activity whilst explaining to the parents or carers what they are doing.
shop it is. Most of the communicative functions are the same, This is how to do it, focusing on meaningful language they can use
e.g. Do you have ...?; I would like a thing that ...; Can you show me a
frequently in familiar everyday contexts.
selection ...? All of these will include relevant and appropriate phrasal
verbs in common use. Example 2
▪ All of your students need to travel from school to home, be it on Or you may choose to focus on the topic: ‘Using a Phone’. Whilst working
foot, by bus etc. Again, all of these events will include relevant and on phrasal verbs associated with this topic, mix them in with other useful
appropriate phrasal verbs in common use. relevant vocabulary:
Example 1 Phrasal verbs
Let’s choose ‘Making a Sandwich’ as the topic. All students will have had ▪ to ring somebody up
some experience of this, either making a sandwich themselves or watching ▪ to get through
their parents or siblings doing this in the kitchen.
▪ to hang on
You could use your teacher table as the kitchen top and use plastic
vegetables for your demonstration. ▪ to hang up
Here are some of the phrasal verbs that you could plan to bring out: Other useful phone vocabulary
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▪ It’s a problem I just have to live with. ▪ I heard Brad Pitt on the radio.
2. All combinations of prepositions come before the noun ▪ I saw David Beckham on the plane.
There are prepositions which contain more than one word, e.g. according to, There’s no idea here about something or somebody on top of a surface.
on behalf of This highlights the danger of categories. Sometimes there can be
No matter how many words make up the preposition, these prepositions many exceptions that the learner needs to get to grips with.
also come before the noun: That being said, here is a brief list of common categories which teachers
▪ according to the BBC often build topics around, when teaching prepositions:
▪ on behalf of the company 1. Some prepositions show the position or location of something
These are called complex prepositions. One word prepositions are called Examples
simple prepositions. ▪ Her bag was under the chair.
3. Prepositions do not change their form ▪ His flat was over the shop.
They do not take any inflections. An inflection is a change in the form of a ▪ The plate is on the table.
word (usually the ending) to express a grammatical function such as:
▪ Lisa is in the garden.
▪ happy changing to happierand happiestin the comparative and
superlative forms ▪ The picture is on the wall.
▪ verb ending of the verb like changing to likes in the third person ▪ The disease had spread throughout the village.
singular: I like, you like, she likes ▪ Dad always keeps his wallet in the drawer.
The preposition in, for example, remains the same, no matter the gender, ▪ The school is near the cinema.
quantity etc. of the noun following it:
2. Some indicate the time and date when something happens or will happen:
▪ in the box
▪ Their parents arrived on Sunday.
▪ in the boxes
▪ The course starts at 9 am.
▪ in her purse
▪ Shortly after their engagement, they broke up.
2. Using and categorising prepositions
▪ I haven’t seen him since last week.
Prepositions are used in many different situations and for many different
purposes. They are difficult to categorise concisely and definitively. ▪ He will continue working until the official retirement date.
For example, let’s take the preposition on. It seems fair to say that on is ▪ We usually get together on the first Friday of the month.
generally used to describe somebody or something on top of a surface of ▪ My birthday is on 24th December.
some kind, e.g. on the first floor,on the table, on the floor, on the wall, on her
3. Some explain the way some action is done
arm etc.
▪ We arrived by boat
But look at these:
▪ We came by train.
▪ We saw Taylor Swift on TV.
▪ They stared at each other without speaking.
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▪ France is famous for wine. I hear he’s been invited to meet the Princess. He’s gone up in the
world. (entered a ‘higher’ social circle than before, in the eyes of the
▪ I’m concerned about the new proposals. speaker)
▪ Rosa is proud of her achievements. Depending on the way this is said, there could be some degree of envy in
3. Teaching prepositions the expression or some implied meaning that he has left his old group of
friends behind in favour of a fancier social circle. It all depends how it is said.
Our advice is to build prepositions into a topic you are covering, which will
help to make the learning of some prepositions less random. So, idioms use figurative language and we use them to imply another
meaning. The words used together have a meaning that is different from the
In points 1-4 immediately above, there is something to build on. A topic will dictionary definitions of the individual words.
help students to grasp the meaning. But the examples in point 5 will just
have to be learned as they come up Many EFL students have huge difficulties with idioms. For example:
▪ I’m at a loose end.
Unit 3: Idioms ▪ She’s at the end of her tether.
Idioms are a series of fixed lexical items (words and phrases) that have their ▪ He did a runner.
own figurative meaning different from their literal component elements.
▪ I’m sure he’ll get a fair crack of the whip.
Let’s just expand this a bit further in case the difference between literal and
▪ You’re flogging a dead horse.
figurative language is not so clear.
Remember this: Some inexperienced TEFL teachers seem to
Literal language is when we say what we mean. There is no other
think that idioms are something special to the English language.
meaning intended when you say something like this: I’m leaving early
That’s just not true. All languages have their own idioms.
tomorrow. I have lots to do. These words say it as it is. If I were to report
back your words to someone else it would be exactly the same Unfortunately, the form and structure and content words of the idioms in
message: She says she’s leaving early tomorrow because she has lots to their native language will bear little or no resemblance at all to idioms in
do. There’s no ambiguity, no hidden meaning. English, even although there might be great similarities in the end meaning
intended.
Figurative language is different. When we use figurative language, we say
or write a group of words that do not mean what we say: they imply Example
something else. To make a mistake
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English idiom: To put your foot in it the original source of all words in English is still seeking ‘real’ evidence of
how, why, where and where this expression was used in the past.
French idiom: Se mettre le doigt dans l'œil: To put your finger in your eye.
2. Always introduce idioms in context.
2. Teaching idioms
Idioms must be introduced in context. It’s a waste of time to introduce an
We are often asked for tips on how to teach idioms. Remembering that
idiom in isolation unless, of course, learners ask you to give them an
there are thousands of idioms, and that you need to be selective, here’s
example. A French native may ask you if there is a similar expression in
what you need to do:
English for the French idiom about ‘putting your finger in your eye’. Then
1. Ensure they know what idioms are you can introduce her and the class to:
First and foremost, you need to ensure that they know what idioms are and She put her foot in it.
how they are used. They are mostly used in spoken language, in everyday
Apart from that, random introduction of idioms just won’t work. There’s no
informal conversation. and in novels where conversation takes place. They
point in asking them to go away and learn a list of 5 random idioms from a
are also used in popular journalism.
dictionary. That’s just silly and wholly ineffective. But some teachers do this!
They are widely used on the internet, in blogs etc., with some used
correctly and some that are just pretty poor due to the writer’s lack of The learning of any random items of language is hardly conducive to
competence in English or real understanding of idioms. learning. Learners need to use meaningful language in context to ensure that
they can draw on the specific meaning from their memory bank at a later
Inexperienced teachers often say that idioms are not used in formal writing time – helped by the memory of the context it was used in at the time of
or formal speaking events such as presentations and lectures. This just isn’t learning.
true. For example:
3. Some action-centred dictionary work may be useful
It’s hoped that our findings will open the door to further research in this
We’re not saying, of course, that dictionary work on idioms should be ruled
area. (could be found in an academic piece)
out. But we need to be more inventive than just asking them to look up an
It’s hoped that our new investment account will open the door for us in the Far idiom in a dictionary.
East. (could be found in a business report or heard at a business
For example, it would be much more beneficial if they are asked to come up
presentation or lecture)
with some suggestions as to how an idiom may have come about, based on
We noted above that all languages have idioms in all shapes and forms. the words it contains. We used an idiom above: He’s as daft as a brush. Why
Depending on the level you are teaching, invite them to give examples from is it brush and not mop or a totally different word like spider?
their own language.
What are the definitions of the word brush? Is there a clue as to how one of
At this first stage, you wouldn’t use the term ‘idiom’. Just ask them what the meanings is now included in this idiom? This is much more action-
they or others may say in their language about a friend who just says the centred and conducive to learning than just searching like an automaton
wrong thing at the wrong time. This may then lead you to introducing the through a dictionary for a definition of an idiom.
idiom in English:
4. Group everyday idioms related to the topic
She put her foot in it.
When you’re about to cover a topic, e.g. time, animals, parts of the body, it
Don’t get hung-up about trying to explain the derivation of idioms: should automatically spring to mind that this may be an excellent
He’s as daft as a brush. opportunity to introduce everyday idioms, just one or two at a time, that
can be practised and used during the topic. In this way, the meaning and
We have used this one intentionally because there are several suggestions usage will be better embedded in their memory banks.
as to its derivation. Even the Oxford English Dictionary which tries to find
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A random passage will include idioms that the students may not use again, if songs in particular. This will emphasise that these are current expressions in
ever, in communicative contexts. We need to ensure that what they do everyday use, used by real people.
learn can be used. Thus, texts need to be selected carefully or written
bespoke by you to ensure learning can take place in a meaningful context. Unit 4: Conditional forms
For example, if part of the animals’ topic includes dogs, you could introduce
Unit 4: Conditional forms
an idiom such as:
Let’s first set out again a short definition for the word clause: A clause is a
My friend was as sick as a dog after eating cheese.
part of a sentence that typically has its own subject and verb.
Or, if the main thrust of their learning at a particular time is fruit, there may
be an opportunity, depending on their level and age, to introduce the ‘apple A definition of a conditional clause would be something like this: This is
of my eye’ idiom or one or two other idioms centred on fruit: clause which describes something that is possible or probable, depending on
something else happening.
I went bananas.
Such clauses usually begin with if or unless. In the classroom, we often call
Don’t upset the apple cart. these if clauses. They all focus on what may or may not happen and what
He’s a bad apple. might have happened but didn’t happen. They express different degrees of
reality.
She’s got a plum job
There are set constructions for these, which learners need to grasp.
And so on.
Examples
By adding these in context, they will be better embedded in the students’
memory banks. Note that we can put the if or unless clause before or behind the main
clause.
Ensure you identify and present everyday idioms in simple conversations
and in texts. If it snows, we won’t get the car out.
5. The goal is to get them to use them If we go now, we’ll arrive on time.
It’s all very well that students learn what an idiom means. That’s only part of I’m not going shopping unless Jane comes too.
the journey. The other part is learning how to use it effectively. So, they We’ll never succeed if we don’t study hard.
need to practise usage. Get them working in pairs, writing short
conversations with the idiom(s) included. Then they can practise the Note: If we put the condition before the main clause, we use a comma.
conversation in their pairs. If they are keen, get them to act this out in front Here’s what you need to know:
of the class.
1. Conditions can be categorised as real and unreal
But they’ll need more than this. Language needs to be recycled (used
again and again) for it to be fully embedded. So, follow this up at later times Real conditions
through other activities, e.g. filling in blanks, crosswords, conversational With real conditions, we do not know if the condition is, will be or was
activities etc. which will further increase their use of the idioms they have true. Here are some examples:
met previously. If it rains tomorrow, I'll stay in.
6. Use authentic materials If Lisa is coming to the party, you can tell her the news.
Show them that idioms are used in everyday authentic materials, particularly
I’m sure she'll come if Carlos has remembered to tell her.
materials they enjoy. These could be sport or music magasines, videos, and
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Note: We cannot use will for future time in a condition: ▪ The Zero Conditional
We say If it rains tomorrow Not If it will rain. ▪ The First Conditional
We say If she's coming Not If she will be coming. ▪ The Second Conditional
We sometimes use unless at the beginning of a condition: ▪ The Third Conditional
Unless it rains tomorrow, I'll go to the beach. 1. The Zero Conditional (certainty)
Unless she's in England, I'm sure she'll come. Form
Unreal conditions if + present simple tense (for the condition) and verb stem in the present
simple tense in the main clause (for the result).
With unreal conditions for present and future time the condition is not, or
probably will not be, true. We use a simple or continuous verb formation. Examples
If Maria was coming, you could tell her the news. (But she isn't coming; you If people don’t eat (condition), they get hungry (result).
can't tell her.) If you heat ice (condition), it melts (result).
I would have more money if I didn't smoke. (But I do smoke; I have less Babies cry (result), if they are hungry (condition).
money.)
Remember this: It doesn’t matter if the if clause is placed at the start of the
I'd phone him if only I could find his number. (But I can't find it; I can't phone sentence or in the middle of the sentence.
him.)
Note that it’s possible to replace if with when in a zero conditional.
If I found a lot of money in the road, I'd give it to the police. (I don't expect to
find any; I'm imagining.) Use
Note this construction: Would you mind if I left early? We use this conditional form when the result is always true for
this type of condition.
Would + mind + unreal condition is a polite way to ask for permission.
The result is certain. It’s a fact.
For past time (the condition was not true), we use a perfect verb formation
in the condition: There is no thought given to the future or past.
If Maria had come, you could have told her the news. (But she didn't come; you 2. First Conditional (real possibility)
couldn't tell her.) Form
I'd have phoned him if only I could have found his number. (But I couldn't find it; if + present simple (for the condition) and will + verb stem in the main
I didn't phone.) clause (for the result)
If I had found that money, I would have given it to the police. (I didn't find it; I'm Examples
just imagining.)
If I see Valeria tomorrow, I'll tell her about the party.
I'm sure Maria would've come if John hadn't forgotten to tell her. (But John
forgot; she didn't come.) If it rains, I won’t go shopping.
2. There are different types of conditional constructions If I study hard, I’ll pass my exams.
There are four types: I’ll walk to work if the bus is late.
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Will you walk to work if the bus is late? if + past perfect (for the condition) and would + have + past participle in
Will you go shopping if it rains? the main clause (for the result)
Use Examples
Here there is a good possibility that the condition will happen at a If I had seen Alejandro, I would have asked him. (but I didn’t see him at all so I
future time. I may not see Valeria tomorrow but I might. There is a wasn’t able to talk to him)
possibility that the condition will happen. If he had not passed, he wouldn’t have gained entry into university. (but he did
3. Second Conditional (unreal possibility) pass)
Form If we had grabbed a taxi, we wouldn’t have missed the train. (but we didn’t grab
a taxi and therefore we did miss the train)
if + past simple (for the condition) and would + verb stem in the main
If it had rained yesterday, I would have stayed at home. (but it didn’t rain
clause (for the result)
yesterday and so I went out)
If I married Taylor Swift, I’d be the happiest person on earth.
Use
If I won the lottery, I would quit my job.
Here the focus is on the past. We talk about a condition in the past that
I would be happy if I married Camila. didn’t happen. We use it to describe a situation or event that didn’t happen
Would Camila be happy if she married you? and we imagine the result of the situation.
Would you quit your job, if you won the El Gordo? There is no possibility for this condition, and therefore no
possibility of the result happening. Not then and not now.
Use
3. Teaching conditional forms
Here we are talking about a particular condition in the future (although we
use the past tense in the condition) but there is not a real possibility Conditional forms are tricky for learners. Usually, the key problem lies with
that this condition will ever happen. It’s all a bit of a dream, an unreal an inexperienced teacher who attempts to take the learners too far too
possibility that this condition will ever happen. quickly. Students’ ages and levels will be the key factors in deciding whether
they are ready for a particular conditional construction.
Note that we sometimes use the second conditional, with the same
structure, to talk about certain situations in the present.These are when Then you can wait your time, see how well the learning is embedded in
the condition is pretty impossible and far from a true situation their memory banks and then decide to try another type of construction.
and therefore the result won’t come to fruition. Take it softly, softly.
Examples Here’s what to do:
If I knew where he was, I’d contact him. (but you have no idea where he is and 1. Awareness in context
so you cannot contact him at all) When they are ready, start by raising their awareness of conditionals. Get
If I were you, I wouldn’t get involved. (but I’m not you and never will be) them to notice the use of conditionals in written pieces/activities you are
using in class. Make up your own pieces containing the odd conditional, for
4. Third Conditional (no possibility)
whichever conditional form you plan to teach.
Form
130
Fred said, ”I’ m going to tell Fred told me (that) he was going to
you a secret.” tell me a secret
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Note first that there are several differences between a sentence with direct ▪ She added that it would be the most suitable course to take.
speech and a sentence with reported speech: ▪ She explained why the deduction had been made.
▪ We don’t use quotation marks in reported speech. ▪ He replied that it was not down to him.
▪ We introduce what someone says/said by using a reporting verb,
▪ She mentioned that it could be a solution.
e.g. said or told
▪ He claimed that he had never been in Madrid.
▪ We often change the tense of the verb in reported speech.
▪ He alleged that it was his brother who had been there.
▪ We change the pronouns and determiners, e.g. me → her, this →
that ▪ The customer complained that the goods were faulty.
Note that in indirect speech people often leave out the conjunction that. ▪ Our lawyer warned us the contract might be invalid.
1. Reporting verbs Again, the conjunction that can be omitted if the speaker/writer wishes to
do so.
The most common reporting verbs are say and tell.
2. Reported speech with no change in verb tense
Say
We said above that we often change the tense of the verb in reported
Say is never followed by an indirect object (e.g. her, us, them, my brother): speech. Sometimes we don’t. Here are two important examples:
John said (that) he was ready. NOT: John said me (that) he was ready. 1. When we are using reported speech to report a statement that is still
We follow say with a that clause (e.g. that he was ready) or a clause true:
beginning with a question word (e.g. Marie didn’t say who was there) John said, “My foot hurts.” → John said his foot hurts.
Tell “I live in Miami,” Marie said. → Marie said she lives in Miami.
We must use an indirect object after tell: “Madrid is a wonderful place to visit,” he added. → He added that Madrid is a
John told me (that) he was ready. wonderful place to visit.
The tell + indirect object structure is followed by a variety of clause types 2. When we wish to convey exactly what a person said, perhaps where the
and with a noun phrase: exact words are very important (in a legal case) or for dramatic effect.
John told me that he was ready(that) He said, “Watch your back.”
My friend told me a secret.(noun phrase) He told me, “Pull up your socks or you’ll be fired.”
My boss told me to stay. (infinitive) Then she claimed, ”You have been cheating customers for years.”
The interviewer told me where to sit. (question word + infinitive) 3. Reported speech: questions
Marie told me where she was going. (question word) The verb ask is usually used to report questions.
But we also use some other reporting verbs, depending on the context, Mike asked, “Where is my wallet?” → Mike asked where his wallet was.
function, attitude, opinion, interpretation, and to avoid repetition in a longer
Mum asked, “Have you finished your dinner?” → Mum asked if we had finished
piece of reported speech.
our dinner.
▪ He asked if he we had seen the accident.
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Note that once we report the question to someone else, it’s no longer a “Would you mind giving me a hand?” → He asked me to help (him).
question, no longer in question form. So we need to change the grammar to
“Could you pass the magazine, please?” → She asked me to pass the magazine.
a normal positive sentence.
“Please don’t shout.” → She asked me not to shout. (insert not in a negative
So, to report a question, put the subject before the verb or helping verb
request)
(we had finished). Remember that the subject comes after the helping verb
when you ask a question (Have you finished?). Here are some examples. 5. Reported speech: commands/orders
Examples When someone gives an order or a command in direct speech and instructs
you very directly to do something, we use verbs like tell, order, and warn to
“Where are they heading?” → I asked where they were heading.
report these. The construction is similar to reported requests: to +
“Can Lucy count to ten?” → I asked if Lucy could count to ten. verbOR not to + verb.
“Did your teacher give the drawing back?” → I asked if the teacher had given the The teacher shouted, “Be quiet!” → The teacher ordered us to be quiet.
drawings back.
“Go into your groups, children,” said Mr. Brown. → Mr. Brown told us to go into
“Has she gone to town?” → I asked if she had gone to town. our groups.
Note that when you are reporting on questions which would result Carlos told Alejandro, “Don’t be late ever
in yes or no, we use if after the reporting verb. Sometimes we randomly again.” → Carlos warned Alejandro not to be late again.
use whether:
6. Reported speech - typical changes in tenses and common
I asked whether she had gone to town. expressions
So, the reported question structure is much the same as the structure for A few of these are not set in stone. Some tenses can depend on when we
reported statements. The tense changes are the same, and we keep the heard the direct speech and when we report the speech. That said, here is
question word. a useful guide - it’s all pretty solid.
Direct
speech continued... Tense
Speech
Reported Speech
“I was searching for Juan.” → He said he had been searching for Juan. now then / at that time
3. The auxiliary verbs in the future forms change from present to past.
today that day
“I’ll see you on Saturday.” → He said he would see me on Saturday.
“I’m going to win tomorrow.” → He said he was going to win the next day. yesterday the day before
Modal verb changes
last night the night before, Thursday night
The following modal verbs often change: can, may, must
“I can hear them.” → She said she could hear them. last week the week before / the previous week
“We may enter the competition.” → She said they might enter the competition. tomorrow the next day
“I must stop.” → She said she had to stop.
this week that week
Some forms that don’t need to change
1. Verbs already in the past perfect this month that month
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Modal verbs are used in a variety of ways to enable the speaker to express ▪ Positive: Your room should be tidier.
feelings about, for example, the probability of an event, or the ability of a ▪ Negative: Your room shouldn't be untidy.
person to carry out a certain action or the level of an obligation – but
▪ Question: How should I organise my room?
seldom the actuality of it happening.
▪ Question tag: You should tidy it each Saturday, shouldn't you? I suppose
Other uses of modals are to express one’s attitude, politeness, or advice;
modals are also used for making requests or giving permission. I should.
The verbs in this category, although there are some different views on this, We do not use do with a modal. NOT How do I should organise my work?
are: 4. Modal verbs do not take -s in the third person.
▪ She musted travel there last year. (Incorrect) meaning, so even one native user may choose a different modal from
another native speaker.
▪ She will can travel with us. (Incorrect)
That said, the table below will serve you well.
7. We can stress a modal if we want to put emphasis on its meaning.
▪ You really must be quiet. (Meaning: It is very necessary.) Modal Example Typical Uses
8. A modal verb does not usually have a tense. It can refer to the present or
I can speak four languages.
the future. Ability
They can work out their own travel
▪ Present: We must act now. The instructions might be in my desk. Ability / Possibility
plans.
▪ Future: We must act soon. The instructions might arrive tomorrow. Can Possibility
You can make it if you try.
For the past we use had to, was able to etc. or we use a modal verb + have. Inability / Impossibility
We can’t do that.
▪ Past: We had to know then. The instructions might have arrived Asking for permission
Can I sit down?
yesterday. Request
Can you give me a hand, please?
But in some contexts, could, would, should and might are past forms of can, Opportunity
will, shall and may. We can try that when we arrive.
▪ I can't remember the password. (present) Could I open the window a little
▪ I couldn't remember the password. (past) bit?
Could you repeat that? Asking for permission.
9. A modal verb can go with the perfect, the continuous, or the passive.
Request
▪ Perfect: I may have told you this before. We could try to repair it ourselves.
Suggestion
▪ Continuous: They may be waiting at the station. The bad winter could affect next
spring’s crop. Future possibility
▪ Passive: We may be shown the figures later. Could
He had done it before so Ability in the past
▪ Perfect + continuous: You must have been sleeping.
he could do it again. Suggestion
▪ Perfect + passive: The castle must have been destroyed.
We could get the bus or phone a
10. We cannot use two modals together. NOT You will must come soon. taxi.
Conditional
2. Common uses We could go if I didn’t have to
Below is a table showing the most useful modals and their most common attend that meeting.
uses.
May I sit down? Asking for permission
This is not definitive as there are a few other constructions that some
people deem to be modals. You may play with the iPad Giving permission
May once you’ve finished.
We’ve stuck by what we think are the frequent and typical modals used on Future possibility
an everyday basis. The tricky bit with modals is that there are nuances in The rain forests may soon
disappear. Present possibility
136
Finally, here’s a visual representation of modals for giving advice; as you can
see a general suggestion escalates into urgency:
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4. Grammar lesson
materials. Barcelona text
to print
5. A.
6. My Dad’s Experience:
Authentic grammar lesson 7. ‘Home Alone in Barcelona
8. Last weekend my dad was in Barcelona. Alan and I were there for
overview the weekend with him and then we left him in our house alone for
four days. He’s 70 years old and that was the first time he’d been
You are going to watch a pre-intermediate level lesson. alone in a foreign country, so he was excited but a little nervous too
The aims of the lesson are for students to talk about things they because he doesn’t speak Spanish. We told him what he should and
should / shouldn’t have done in a past situation. what he shouldn’t do before we left, but we were also a bit nervous
because we had invited him to visit and felt responsible. Anyway,
The focus of the lesson is grammatical so it also looks at the meaning,
on his first day alone he went into the centre of Barcelona and
grammatical form and pronunciation of the target language ‘would
some girls who try to sell flowers outside the churches stole his
have’ and could have’.
wallet! I couldn't believe it because I’d warned him not to take his
You should look at the lesson materials that accompany this lesson and wallet into the centre. Men! He didn't lose much money but he
print them off to refer to whilst watching. lost all his travel passes and two credit cards.
We have included this lesson because it demonstrates many useful 9. B.
techniques in how to teach grammar. Please also print off the following
10. Now answer the questions. More than one answer is
three questions and try to answer them as you watch the video.
possible. Tick (√) the ones that can be correct.
You can of course check your answers once you have watched the video.
11. 1. What did I say to him when he phoned me to tell me:
1. How did Catherine check that students understood the target
12. a. You shouldn’t have taken your wallet with you.
language?
13. b. You could have carried just a little money in your pocket.
2. Did she explain the grammatical form to the students or did she
elicit it from them? 14. c. They would have taken your mobile if they had seen it.
3. Did her students know the grammar terminology? 15. 2. My dad then asked me:
16. a. What would you have done when the girls asked for money?
17. b. What can’t I have done when the girls asked for money?
18. c. What could I have done when the girls asked for money?
19. 3. I told him:
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20. a. I wouldn’t have given them anything. also help you deal with any questions from students.
21. b. I must have ignored them. Another tip is that if a student asks an unrelated question
whilst teaching, it’s a good idea to note it down but to tell
22. c. I might have told someone in the church. the student that you want to continue with the focus of this
23. Complete the gaps in these sentences with a phrase from the box lesson. You should then go back to the student at the end
and the best form of the verb in brackets. The first one is an of class ( or the next day once you have had the chance to
example. go and look it up if it’s a particularly tricky grammatical
question for example!)
Shouldn't have would have
Could have couldn't have Unit 7: Further lesson
Should have wouldn't
evaluation
24. 1. Oh no. I’ve lost my homework! I knew I shouldn’t have done
Look at the following questions Catherine asked in her lesson based on the
(do) it on the tube. Now Catherine won’t believe I did it!
below target language.
25. 2. Watch where you’re going! Phew! That was close! We -
They would have taken your mobile if they’d seen it
______________ (crash) into that car.
Did they see his mobile?
26. 3. The cleaning lady didn't clean my flat very well. I
Did they take his mobile?
____________________ (do) it myself and saved money.
Was my dad lucky they didn’t see his mobile?
27. 4. Why didn't you tell your friend the truth? I’m sure she Can I change this situation?
________________ (believe) you.
These are examples of good concept check questions and are used
28. 5. I did my best to catch the train but I ____________ (run) any to check that students have understood the target language (the
faster. sentence in bold).
29. 6. I had to remind Alan to buy me a ring when he asked me to So, concept question should….
marry him! I ________________ (get) one if I hadn't asked!
A. Be short and simple
1. How did Catherine check that students understood the B. Avoid using the target language
target language? She asked them concept questions using C. Not use language that is more difficult than the target language
three model sentences. The practice activities also help the D. Not check nouns that could be better checked by using pictures /
teacher see how the students are coping and what needs to drawing / props
be revised at the end of the lesson / in another lesson. 2. E. Be specific and unambiguous
Did she explain the grammatical form to the students or did F. Check the concept of the target language and not other information that
she elicit it from them? She elicited the form from the is obvious or irrelevant
students and highlighted it on the board after they had
discussed it in pairs. This is much more effective than just
explaining it. 3. Did her students know the grammar Overview: Module 12
terminology? Yes they did. It is part of good practice to Teaching children can be the most challenging and most rewarding
always familiarise yourself with the terminology before the experience of teaching.
lesson so you can use it correctly and confidently. This will
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Once you become an experienced EFL teacher, you will be able to compare During the first few weeks of lessons, the children will be getting to know
teaching different types of classes for example, adults versus children. you and will be willing to respect you, like you and do things your way.
It is true to say that children’s brains really are like sponges. Students will naturally test your limits to see how much they can get away
Adults may need to work very hard at remembering vocabulary for example with. Subconsciously or wilfully, they are trying to establish boundaries so
whereas children will surprise you in that you need to do far less to help to that they can model their behaviour accordingly.
stimulate their memory reserves. Bearing this in mind, it is then essential to be prepared for this before going
If you can engage them in tasks and maintain control, you will be responsible into the class room.
for helping a child learn a second language. The actual rules of the classroom will vary from teacher to teacher and be
As a result, this could be a life changing experience for them in terms of influenced by your upbringing, your own school experience and your own
future relationships perhaps and career possibilities. beliefs.
Other factors will also affect the class such as the age of your students, the
Unit 1: Managing behaviour in number of children and the culture of that country.
Therefore, as a basic guide for classroom management it would be
the classroom useful to think about ‘The seven R’s approach’.
Set some ground rules
When you start teaching a class of children, it is essential to establish clear
Unit 2:The Seven ‘R’s
parameters for working together. By this we mean actively seeking to create The seven ‘R’s are Relationships, Rules, Routines, Rights,
a positive relationship with the children and to set up a framework for ‘the Responsibilities, Respect and Rewards.
way we are and the way we do things in our classroom’ in which you and If you consider this combination before teaching your class, you will,
the children can work together side by side. without doubt create a dynamic and positive learning environment. Your
First and foremost, it is important that have a clear idea of how you would students will never forget you!
ideally like things to be in your classroom and then implement a consistent Relationships
and fixed approach in order to achieve this. If you don’t it won’t just happen
by chance. The relationships that you establish with the class as a whole, and with the
individuals that make up each class, lie at the heart of establishing a healthy
The best moment to start establishing parameters for working together is as and happy working environment and managing children positively.
soon as you meet a new class.
On asking a number of children over the years the question “What makes a
The early days are often referred to as a ‘honeymoon period’ and gives you good teacher?” The answers indicated the following:
the perfect chance to implement your rules and expectations going forward. “Knowing that the teacher likes me”
It is important to make the most of this time, as it is always much more “Being funny”
difficult to change things later down the line. If you appear a little strict on “Strict but never gets angry”
day one or two, then that is not bad thing. “Doesn’t make me feel stupid if I make a mistake”
They will soon get to know you and discover that you are not an ogre and “Kind, patient, helpful”
that you do in fact like them. Why on earth would you be teaching children Here are some more tips to ensure that you receive positive feedback from
otherwise?! your young learners.
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▪ Learn the children’s names as soon as you can and always use ▪ Be consistent. If you say that you or the class will do something,
them. This may sound easy however, if teaching in China for make sure it happens.
example; you could have a class of forty children! All with difficult ▪ Mark and return work promptly. Be constructive in your comments
to pronounce names so getting each child to write their name in and respond to children’s intended meanings, rather than just
English on a large piece of paper and sticking it to their desk on the language accuracy or spelling. As you develop your relationship with
first day is one suggestion. You could also make small badges different classes and children, it is a good idea to get into the habit
yourself and ask the kids to wear them for the first week to help of monitoring yourself and how things are going. Through reflection
you. and analysis of your own behaviour, you will be able to identify
▪ Avoid having favourites (or at least make sure that this doesn’t different aspects of your teaching that make your relationships work
show). better and produce a more positive response in the children.
▪ Listen to what the children have to say (if a child wants to tell you Rules
something at an inappropriate moment, postpone till later but don’t As discussed in module 1, there are a number of different approaches to
then forget, as this will give the message that you’re not really establishing rules. We discussed the idea of asking the learners which rules
interested). they think would be useful within the classroom.
▪ Challenge the children appropriately and encourage them to believe With teaching children however, they often like to know the
that they can succeed.
ground rules from the start.
▪ Be patient if you need to explain or give instructions more than
Providing clear boundaries helps children to feel secure so, when teaching a
once.
new class especially, this area needs to be a little more prescriptive.
▪ Create time for personalised moments in which you convey that
Rules may either be imposed by the institution or instigated by you. It is
you know and care about each child as an individual. This may be,
usually best to have as few rules as possible and to make sure that the rules
for example, at the start or end of lessons, before or after formal
themselves are clear to everybody
teaching begins or while children are working individually.
e.g. We must put up our hands if we want to speak – as well as the reasons for
▪ Model the behaviour that you would like the children to adopt. For
the rules – e.g. If everyone is talking at the same time, we won't be able to hear
example, be polite and courteous, use please and thank you when
what anybody is saying.
you ask them to do things, smile and greet them whether in or out
of the classroom. It is important that any rules you establish are perceived as fair by the
▪ Use praise appropriately to provide feedback and encourage children and that you can actually enforce them.
participation and effort. For example, with teaching adults, a rule which states We must always speak
▪ Use humour and show a sense of fun. English in class may be perceived as unfair by children if, for example, they
have something they desperately need to say. It may also at times be
▪ Be fair and firm about enforcing rules and acceptable classroom impossible for you to enforce. You don’t want to set yourself up for a fall
behaviour. and then lose control.
▪ Keep calm at all times if possible; try not to raise your voice or In this case, a communication rule formulated differently – e.g. We must ask
shout. if we need to speak Spanish (May I speak Spanish, please?) – might be more
▪ if you tell a child off, make it clear it's their behaviour that you don't effective.
like, not them.
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This version of the rule will not only establish English as the main language ▪ collecting in and returning homework
of communication in the classroom, but will also encourage the children to ▪ going to the toilet
think twice before giving you a signal that they need to resort to their
mother tongue. ▪ tidying up
The most effective rules are those which are expressed using inclusive ▪ ending lessons
language (our rules for our classroom) and for which the children feel Familiar routines help to make children feel secure and confident in the
ownership. classroom. They promote co-operation as, for example, when we all help
It also helps when rules can be expressed positively rather than negatively in tidy up together. They also foster a sense of community and belonging, in
order to highlight desired behaviour. the sense that we all know and share the way we work and do things
together in the classroom.
For example, in a rule such as We mustn't shout in our classroom, the
immediate association is to think of shouting, whereas if it is expressed As children become increasingly familiar with routines and what is expected
positively, e.g. We must talk quietly in our classroom, the same rule is more of them at different stages of learning, they begin to act more independently.
likely to work. This helps you to manage your classes positively. It also helps save your
Routines energy and your voice (highly important if you are teaching full time) as, in
some areas at least, once routines are established, children will only need a
Routines are established patterns of behaviour in which everyone knows prompt to know what to do.
what is expected of them and what they should do.
Rights and responsibilities
The introduction of classroom routines is instrumental in setting up working
parameters which function effectively. Rights and responsibilities are often two sides of the same coin. Here are
some examples from the children’s perspective:
It is vital that routines are established during the ‘honeymoon
period’ before patterns of behaviour are set. ▪ If you have the right to join in the lesson, then you also have the
responsibility to remember to bring your books.
In order to introduce and establish routines successfully, you need to have a
clear plan of the areas these will cover and the form they will take. For ▪ If you have the right to speak in the classroom and have others
example, you may like to think of routines for such things as: listen to you, then you also have the responsibility to listen to
others when they do the same.
▪ greeting the children
▪ If you have the right to use the classroom scissors, crayons and
▪ taking the register glue, then you also have the responsibility to share them with
▪ starting lessons others when they need to use them as well.
▪ getting into pairs or groups ▪ If you have the right to have a turn in games, then you also have the
responsibility to respect the turns of others when they play.
▪ moving from one part of the classroom to another
▪ If you have the right to see the pictures when the teacher tells a
▪ doing particular activities, e.g. those involving movement or stories
story, then you also have the responsibility not to block the view of
▪ getting the children’s attention others.
▪ starting and stopping activities ▪ If you have the right not to be mocked or laughed at, then you also
▪ giving out and collecting in materials have the responsibility not to mock or laugh at others.
▪ looking at and/or correcting children’s work
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Although it is unlikely to be appropriate to talk about rights and The most important thing about fostering an atmosphere of mutual respect
responsibilities explicitly with children, it is important to model through as part of managing children positively is to remember that respect works
your own behaviour the way you value these. two ways.
For example, with responsibilities, if a child constantly forgets their book, it If the children feel that you respect and treat them like individuals rather
may be necessary for the teacher to issue frequent reminders and than a class to control, they will also respect and respond to you as
reprimands. Reinforcement through positive interaction will help encourage individuals, rather than with a collective group mentality which is always
the child to be a more responsible student. The desire for praise and much harder to manage positively.
approval can be a strong motivator. Show that you value a student’s actions Rewards
by offering praise and specifically identifying what they have done so well.
It is usually best not to use any system of extrinsic rewards to raise
For example, many children are forgetful. Students may forget to bring motivation levels and/or ensure good behaviour, at least at the outset.
books to class. If you have a forgetful student that shows up with their
book, make sure to comment on how well they have done to remember This gives a positive message that you expect everything to go well and
their book. could also mean that you have to spend a fortune on chocolate and sweets
to get your class to do anything!
A quiet word of praise – e.g. Well done for remembering your book today,
Juan! – is much more likely to reinforce the behaviour you want than saying However, there may be times with some classes when introducing a reward
nothing, which may leave the child wondering why he bothered to bring his system can be an effective way to reinforce appropriate behaviour and/or to
book anyway or whether you even noticed or cared. add an additional, motivational and competitive feel-good factor to things
that are already going well.
Similarly with children’s rights, it is important to show through your
behaviour that you value these and are willing to protect them. If, for Reward systems can be devised in all kinds of different enjoyable ways, e.g.
example, a child mocks or laughs at another child in the class, you need to using stars, stickers, points, smiley faces, raffle tickets or marbles in a jar.
make it clear that this behaviour is completely unacceptable. If used effectively, they can help promote collaboration, appropriate
In this case, it may be also be worth explicitly discussing the reasons for this, behaviour and individual as well as class effort.
possibly in a private moment after the class, and inviting the child to However, if used without care, they may also have the opposite effect and
consider the situation from the other child’s point of view by asking how create a divisive atmosphere of ‘winners’ and ‘losers’, in which some
they would feel if the same happened to them. children become obsessed by collecting stars or points, while others adopt a
Encouraging children to reflect on their behaviour and see things strategy of opting out, which has a correspondingly negative effect on their
from someone else’s point of view means they will be more likely motivation, effort and behaviour in class.
to act towards others in a responsible way. The kinds of reward systems which generally work most
Respect effectively are ones which are designed to involve each child
working cooperatively for a prize or pay-off which will be won by
Respect is the glue which underpins and holds together all the other ‘R’s. the whole class.
Respect cannot be taught explicitly, but it can be modelled in all your For example, in the case of collecting marbles in a jar, individual children,
behaviour, such as using the children’s names, being polite, respecting pairs or groups may be awarded marbles during lessons for such things as
personal space, valuing diversity, recognizing that children contribute and working well, making an effort to speak English, helping others, completing
participate in different ways and understanding that they have feelings and their work carefully or whatever you decide.
‘off days’ just like you.
As soon as the jar is filled with marbles, the whole class gets a reward.
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This may be something as simple as watching a favourite video, having a quiz, They can learn about themselves by becoming completely engrossed in a
playing a favourite game or whatever else you and the children choose. story or by becoming a character in a very familiar, fun and safe way.
The jar for the marbles should not be too big, so that the reward is Imagine how much fun your children will have when your classroom, by the
attainable over a reasonably short period of time, for example a week or, power of some blue paper and a lot of imagination becomes an underwater
maximum, two. world for you all to act out the story of the little mermaid for example.
If it takes a whole term (a long time in the life of a child!) to fill up the jar Storytelling and drama are above all shared, communal classroom
and earn the reward, then they are likely to lose interest and enthusiasm. events which engage children’s interest, attention and imagination
Giving a reward is best done instantly as an ongoing part of your teaching, and develop their language skills in a holistic way.
so that the association between the reward and the reason for it is always They also appeal to children with different intelligences (musical, movement
fresh in the children’s mind, e.g. Great work, Daniel and Antonio. I only heard etc) and learning styles and allow us to facilitate social skills and attitudes,
English in the game. Two marbles in the jar for you! such as active listening, collaborating, turn taking and respect for others, in a
The effect of individuals collecting rewards for the benefit of the whole class positive way.
creates an atmosphere in which there is positive peer pressure to make an
effort, work well and produce appropriate behaviour. Learning through stories
A collaborative reward system like this can also be made fun by your Most children start school familiar with stories in their own language and
challenging the class, e.g. Can you fill the jar by Friday? I don’t think so. Show me quickly transfer this into a willingness to listen to and participate in stories
I’m wrong! in English.
If you do decide to use a reward system such as the one described above, it Stories provide a natural, relevant and enjoyable context for exposure to
is a good idea to vary the system you use for accumulating rewards language and an opportunity to familiarise children with the sounds, rhythm
(marbles, raffle tickets, stars, etc.) regularly, as, if you always use the same and intonation of English.
one, it is likely after a while to lose its associations of pleasant expectation,
The discovery and construction of meaning is supported through things such
surprise and fun.
as visuals, mime, gesture, voice and characterisation, and children also
It is also essential always to use reward systems in the positive way in which develop learning strategies and thinking skills, such as predicting,
they are intended, i.e. as rewards, rather than negatively or punitively, for hypothesising, guessing and inferring meaning.
example, by taking or threatening to take marbles back out of the jar once
Stories help young children to develop concentration skills and also aspects
they have been awarded.
of emotional intelligence, such as empathy and relating to other people.
To sum up, the seven ‘R’s provide an integrated framework for
Stories also provide a springboard for a wide range of activities which
thinking about ways of managing children positively and creating a
develop language, thinking skills as well as appreciation of other cultures.
happy working environment in which teaching and learning take
place in an effective and harmonious way. As children increasingly develop their ability to understand, retell, act out
and/or create their own stories in English, this also has a positive effect on
Unit 3: Storytelling their motivation, confidence and self-esteem.
Choosing stories
Storytelling and drama both lend themselves perfectly to the EFL classroom
as they allow us to play to children’s natural affinity for imagination and play. Stories can be selected from a range of sources, including graded readers,
story websites on the internet or picture books originally written for
In many ways, children learn through stories and drama. children whose first language is English.
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If you are employed to teach children, it would be advisable to buy a few It is also important to consider the seating arrangement of the class during
second hand story books to take with you as you never know what story time. You may be tempted to keep them in their seats. However, a
resources will be available to you once you arrive. semi-circle of students on the floor at your feet creates an intimacy that
Suitable material for children’s stories can be mined from a variety of captivates their attention. It also makes it easier for them to hear you
resources. It is important to ensure the material is appropriate to the clearly. When illustrations are shared, children who sit at the back of the
learners’ needs. room would have difficulty seeing them. By sitting in a semi-circle right in
front of you, they won’t feel left out.
Review the content to determine if the subject matter is relevant to a
lesson plan. Use interesting stories that will appeal to the background of You may want to set the mood before you begin reading. A reading ritual of
your students. Select stories with illustrations that will capture the attention repeating a rhyme or song is perfectly appropriate right before story time.
of students. Although it is easy to get wrapped up in the story, don’t forget to keep an
Make any adjustments necessary to ensure that a story’s vocabulary and eye on your students. Frequent eye contact serves two purposes. One, it
level is appropriate for the class / curriculum you are following. helps students stay attentive on you and the story. Secondly, it helps
maintain order in the classroom. So, remember to look up frequently as you
Provide your class with a variety of stories. Literary classics, light-hearted read the story and make eye contact with your class.
funny stories, moving dramatic accounts, delightful fantasies all move the
imaginations of children and help to captivate their attention and effectively Respond to cues and body language that can indicate if a student has a
draw them into lessons. question or may be struggling to understand. It is also appropriate if a
student simply wants to comment about the story. Encourage engagement
You could also think about using fables or stories with a moral, myths, and interaction.
legends, funny stories, rhyming stories, stories with flaps or pop-ups,
biographical stories, stories which help children understand their own When the story is over don’t just say, “The End” unceremoniously and
feelings and stories from other cultures. close the book. Hopefully, the interest of the children has been piqued with
the story. Before adjourning, give students the opportunity to respond or
Telling stories ask questions. They may have a similar experience to share. Perhaps they
It is important not to let the flow of concentration be interrupted. That is want to explore feelings a story provoked. It is an excellent opportunity for
why it is recommended to rehearse your storytelling. This also gives you an everyone to exercise new vocabulary and reinforce conversational skills
opportunity to discover points in the story where a particular word or while you, as a teacher, prompt and promote further discussion.
phrase can be enhanced with miming or actions. There may be moments Planning story-based lessons
when it is appropriate to change your tone of voice or facial expression to
convey meaning which will help facilitate learning. A pause at just the right As with other listening and reading activities, it can be helpful to plan story-
moment can create suspense or give a student the chance to pose a based lessons following the three stages of before, while and after.
question. Critical pauses are invitations for engagement. Consider using extended stories over several lessons. It is easy to pick up a
If you read a story from a book, make sure that you are not hiding behind it story where you left off the day before. This element also creates suspense,
thus making it difficult for the class to hear you. It is also important that motivating children to not miss a class or they will not be able to find out
students see your lips forming the words. Strike a position where you can what happens next.
hold the book in your hands with your face open and forward to the class. If Create lesson plans that are centered on featured chapters with activities
the book has illustrations, stop from time to time and let the class enjoy that follow story time to reinforce learning about the events that took
associating pictures with words for reinforcement of what they are learning. place. Ask open ended questions which will allow students to predict,
summarize and develop upon the narrative.
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Another way to improvise storytelling is to re-tell the story. This can be A play or performance can also be a special way to enjoy using drama as
done with activities like acting out the story. Create an illustrative activity part of the learning process. It can be highly motivational for students and
with children designing a comic book version of the story or re-writing it in encourage them to work even harder at their language development
a theatrical play version. The goal should be for students to use as much of knowing that they will be performing in front of parents or peers.
the target language from the story as possible. For everyone involved, teacher, students and audience, it is a very
The storytelling cycle can be an effective lead-in to students producing the rewarding experience. A class coalesces with a sense of identity that is
language through role-play or other forms of dramatization. (A traditional unified in a collective performance with peers relying upon one another for
top down approach to listening as discussed in modules 7 and 8 'Receptive ultimate success.
skills').
It is important for older children to be aware of how stories are created.
Managing drama activities
The emphasis should be on giving students an opportunity to create their
own stories based on what they have learned. (Ideas for this have been
covered in modules 9 and 10 'Productive skills'. It is common for children to experience anxiety and stage-fright when faced
As part of activities in the storytelling cycle, and in order to enrich with the prospect of performing in front of others. Therefore, it is
and enhance children’s learning, it is often appropriate to important to gradually build confidence before introducing drama.
integrate storytelling with drama Use stage direction cues like, “Action!” or “Freeze!” to control the students
when conducting drama activities.
Unit 4: Drama Remember that students look to a teacher as a role model. So, don’t just
Drama provides opportunities for multi-sensory, kinaesthetic direct from the side-lines!
(movement) responses to stories and engages children in ‘learning Teacher participation in the drama is also very important and serves as a
by doing’ at a number of different levels. way to model the response you expect from your students.
This also helps prevent the students from developing that uncomfortable
feeling of being watched and judged. If the teacher is also performing,
Dramatization of a story involves several skills which are useful in learning a
students will feel freer in their expressive movements.
new language. It involves, first, listening to the story. Next, students may
respond and engage by asking questions to ascertain that they understand
the meaning of all of the language. Word association with actions is a natural
part of the learning process. Memorization, usually a boring but necessary
part of learning, becomes more interesting and dynamic. Finally they are
able to demonstrate their understanding of the language with gestures,
Module Questions: Reflection
sounds, imitation and miming of the story.
A natural extension of dramatizing language skills is to re-tell a story
Time
through another medium, such as using puppets. This is an effective way to As you use the storytelling and drama activities in this section with your
recycle a story via a fresh perspective. For shy children, a puppet show is a classes, you may like to think about the following questions and use your
great option to boost their confidence because the spotlight is on the responses to evaluate how things went and plan possible improvements for
puppet rather than on themselves. next time:
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1. Interest: Did the story engage the children’s curiosity, interest and ▪ Choose a lexical set like sports.
attention? Why? / Why not? If so, how was this sustained? ▪ The student at the front of each line must run to the board and
2. Participation: Did the children participate actively? What factors write a sport beginning with A, hand the chalk to the student behind
encouraged – or discouraged – this? them and then go to the back of the line.
3. Creative thinking: How did the children respond to activities which ▪ The next student goes to the board and writes a sport beginning
invited a creative or imaginative response? Did this affect the way with B, hands the chalk to the next student and goes to the back of
they used language? If so, how? the line and this continues until students reach Z.
4. Kinaesthetic learning: How did the children respond to activities ▪ Other students in the team can help the person writing if they
involving mime and movement? In what ways did such activities cannot think of a sport. If nobody can think of one, they go on to
seem to help or detract from the children’s learning? What were the next letter in the alphabet.
the reasons for this, do you think? ▪ The winner is the team with the most sports written on the board
5. Collaboration: Did the children collaborate and work well together? by the end of the game.
What factors influenced this?
Tip: use large lexical sets for this game: food & drink, jobs, things you can
6. Enjoyment: Did the children enjoy the story and related activities? find in the house, countries, parts of the body NOT furniture or musical
Why? / Why not? What effect did this have on their motivation, instruments which are limited and will frustrate all the players!
confidence and self-esteem?
Brainstorming
Unit 1:Teaching with limited Brainstorming is a fun, creative strategy for teachers with limited textbook
resources. It involves the entire class in a creative project. Able to input
resources their own ideas, students become energized and enthusiastic. A typical
brainstorming session would go something like this:
There is nothing worse than arriving at your new school, all full of ▪ Decide upon a theme and write it on a dry erase or chalkboard for
enthusiasm and ideas for great hand-outs, only to realise that your school the entire class to see. For example, use the theme of a
does not have a photocopier! mountaintop camp-out.
This has happened to many an EFL teacher (including the writer of this ▪ Divide the class into two teams.
module!). On completion of this course, some of you will be jetting off to
▪ Instruct students to take turns making a quick dash to the board to
schools in all five continents of the globe.
write a word or phrase that could be used in a mountaintop camp-
If you are planning on teaching in a developing country, or a very small out story. Examples: backpack, climb, struggle, rope, echo, fire.
school, it would be a good idea to consider the very practical notion of
▪ Create a time limit, such as 5 minutes. Whichever team has the
teaching with limited resources.
most words or phrases at the end of the time limit wins.
To follow, are a number of practical ideas and techniques to ensure that
For an additional exercise, use the students’ work in the brainstorming race,
your students are still engaged and learning despite you only having perhaps
and have them craft their own versions of a mountaintop camp-out story.
some broken bits of chalk and a blackboard!
A–Z
A firm favourite with all my students, especially with large classes who
Advantages and disadvantages
are not used to getting up and moving around in the classroom. This is a high energy, fast-paced activity that gets the whole class involved.
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▪ Create an imaginary boundary down the middle of the classroom ▪ Pass out the labels to students and instruct them to affix the labels
with an equal number of students on either side. to the correct objects. Use tape, blue-tack or something similar.
▪ Divide the groups up into “thinkers” and “runners”. ▪ Leave labels up as long as you like as helpful reminders students can
▪ Assign the terms “advantage” to one side and “disadvantage” to the refer to, reinforcing the word meanings.
other. This task is kinaesthetic, great for beginner/elementary levels
▪ Write on a dry erase or chalkboard subjects that have advantages learners and shows your students that you like to do things
and disadvantages like: technology, zoos, canned goods, etc. differently.
▪
▪
Determine a time limit for the game.
Thinkers will come up with words to describe either the advantages
Create your own poster
or disadvantages of the subject, tell a runner the word who will Ready-made posters are expensive and not always easy to find. Involving the
then dash to the board and write the word. class in a poster project is a great language exercise. All that is needed are
large sheets of paper, even recycled paper can be used if at least one side is
▪ The team with the most ideas within the time limit wins the game.
clear of any print, images or text. Add paint or markers and a class is ready
To get further instructive use out of this game, have the students write an to create English language posters to decorate a classroom with.
essay about the advantages or disadvantages of one of the subjects.
Poster content will depend on what is age appropriate for individual
Even if you work in a classroom with furniture fixed in place, making it students. Younger students can create alphabet oriented posters. Older
difficult to accommodate games like this, there are always workarounds. children can create posters with words and pictures representing the
For example, you may take the class outside or use the space at the front of words.
the classroom. When the class has completed their posters, gather them all together and
Games that require movement and teamwork can be extremely effective so put them up on a wall as a single feature or decorate the classroom
it pays to use classroom space effectively or think up innovative ways to wherever it is appropriate to hang them. If you have resources like
help students move around while producing the material. magazines and newspapers, let students cut out pictures and stick them to a
corresponding poster for another language exercise.
Do not be discouraged by the physical limitations of your
classroom but enlist your students in trying to find solutions to these Posters related to a student’s loved ones and family are another language
problems. project that students enjoy creating.
They can draw or use cut out images or even family photos. Instruct them
to use their new language skills to write captions for the images on their
posters. Not only will students be strengthening their language skills, but
Label the room they will also be creating a project that will be a source of personal pride.
Older students can create Grammar posters. Some of my Thai teenagers
Use the classroom and everything in it as a learning resource. particularly enjoyed creating these. As students are presented with new
A labelling game may sound boring but this is an exercise that introduces items of grammar, working in groups, they create posters to explain the
practical language in convenient format. grammar in a way that is meaningful to them – it could be with sample
sentences, a ‘rule’, or an example of the target language in the context of a
▪ Cut strips of paper and label them with everything within the
sentence or short paragraph.
classroom. Example: desk, window, door, cupboard, etc.
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They can decorate these posters and use them to help remember the Whilst teaching a large class may sound a bit daunting, there are also many
grammar and how to use it. positive aspects of teaching a large group of students.
No photocopier? Large classes can be noisy, but they are also fun and exciting as long as you
In fact teachers who have unlimited access to this handy machine often have the energy to keep up! Time flies in a large class, and you will rarely
churn out worksheets unnecessarily. Rather than handing out 4 or 5 find yourself clock watching. You will probably find that you in fact planned
comprehension questions in a hand-out to students, try this. Dictate each too much work for a lesson so you can save and use in your next class.
question, but jumble up the words. For example: Another advantage of teaching a large class is that there is always someone
away Peter you do why think ran? (Why do you think Peter ran away?). who is willing to answer questions even if they are just guessing. Make sure
to take answers from a variety of students.
This adds a number of extra layers to the activity and challenges learners. A
language exercise that also involves sorting skills starts with the teacher You will also discover that you will have less need for fillers since core
reciting sentences that, when arranged in the proper order, create a story. activities and lessons take longer to complete.
The students write down the sentences as they are recited in a mixed-up
fashion. Next, pair up students. Working as a team, the students arrange the
Teaching a large class can be challenging – particularly with the needs of so
sentences in the proper order to tell the story.
many individuals to consider. Here are some tips about how to succeed
Having to teach with limited resources pushes you to be more when teaching large classes:
creative with your lesson ideas and in the long run, will make you
▪ Intimacy: Remembering students’ names can take a while. Ensure
a far better teacher. As a result, you will never feel that the success of
students remain in a set seating plan over a reasonable period of
your lesson hinges on a pile of hand-outs or a book. time to help achieve this aim.
Unit 2:Teaching Large Classes ▪ Anxiety: Some teachers feel anxious about being vastly
outnumbered by the students. Establish rules and guidelines from
Most teachers agree that teaching a small group of students is easier, more the very beginning which will help maintain discipline in the
enjoyable, and less time consuming than teaching a large group. classroom. It is also advisable to have back-up materials ready in
case you need to switch up the lesson should things not be going
Unfortunately, due to budgets, space, or lack of teachers, many EFL schools
according to plan.
offer large classes.
▪ Student needs: Meeting individual student needs can be difficult
This is more common in Asian countries, and in particular China. In some
schools, large classes may consist of up to 40 or more students. when the class size is very large. They may feel too intimidated to
raise their hand and speak up. It is important for the teacher to
While your class may look more like a University lecture hall, your job is remain accessible during the lesson. Don’t always stay behind your
not to lecture. desk, instead walk among the students to foster a more personable
Just like teaching a small class, you must come up with engaging activities atmosphere which will encourage them to express themselves
that keep all of your students interested and participating with the goal of ▪ Marking: Grading assignments and tests for a large class can be
improving their communication skills. very time consuming. Quick ways to gauge progress could be having
While there are numerous challenges when it comes to teaching large a quiz on the previous lesson at the start of class, or you could
classes, there are many coping skills and activities that you can use to make include participation as part of a student’s overall assessment. A
your job easier. daily exam where students switch papers and mark each other’s
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answers, feeding back to the group, is also another effective time- Your first step is to realise that developing rapport will take longer than
saver teaching a small class however; you can help this process by prioritising
▪ Distractions: There are more distractions for teachers in large learning everyone’s names.
classes, such as latecomers and students chatting while you are You could ask each student to write their name on a piece of paper and
teaching. Choose your battles and understand that some stick it to their desk or perhaps give then each a name badge.
distractions are inevitable. Your first lesson could start with that old chestnut of taking them out into a
▪ Preparation: Making photocopies for a large class is not always larger space and positioning everyone in a large circle.
time-efficient. Try to use visual aids and the dry erase or chalk You then model the name game by throwing a football (or large scrunched
board to display assignments to the whole class. Also, take note of up piece of paper) and throwing it at one of the students while saying
when other teachers use the photocopier and plan your own usage “David (teacher) to Ting Ting” etc.
accordingly. Hogging the photocopier in busy times is not a good
way to endear yourself to fellow faculty members! Instruct students to continue throwing the ball to different people while
stating their own name and that of the ball catcher.
▪ Noise level: Large classes can become noisy and frenetic when
students are working in pairs or groups. A lot of the time this is Continue for about ten minutes, or for as long as you feel that you have got
earnest enthusiasm for the task at hand. However, when the to grips with a good number of names.
behaviour turns rowdy and learning is impaired, it is important to ▪ Establish trust: Allow your students to see you from a different
highlight what levels of noise are acceptable. Instead of shouting at perspective by telling them some things about your interests outside
students, manage the noise level creatively – perhaps through a of the classroom. There is no need to get too casual but telling
noise meter at the front of the class where students can see they them you support a particular football team or have a favourite
are crossing the threshold of what is acceptable. When they get movie can be an effective way of establishing trust and dialogue.
back within a reasonable level of noise, find creative ways to reward
▪ Effective note-taking: Ensure you monitor pair or group learning
their behaviour. This might be the promise of a game at the end of
effectively by taking notes and feeding back common errors to the
class for example.
class as a whole once the activity is complete.
▪ Monitoring students: Teachers may find it difficult to keep
▪ Use the space: Where you are working with large groups for
students on task as they monitor pair and group work. Listen
energetic activities, take students outside or find indoor space that
carefully for any common errors students are making and feed them
is fit for purpose. It is important to let students spread out when
back to the class at an appropriate time. It is important not to single
they are preparing for a performance or project.
out individuals for correction, rather address the issue as a common
error and demonstrate how it can be effectively resolved. ▪ Encourage participation: Aggregate homework and attendance
so that it becomes part of a student’s final grade. Giving exam hints
▪ Space: There is limited space in a classroom for energetic activities
and tips daily also encourages students to attend.
such as role-playing or other movement based tasks, which may be
required from time to time. Be creative with the space you have, ▪ Competition is good: A fun, competitive classroom atmosphere
move desks to one side or even take the students outside to give is a great way to stimulate learning. Split the class into teams, award
them fresh learning impetus. points for a win and also subtract points for bad behaviour or
excessive noise.
Suggestions for Coping with Large Classes
▪ Stay calm: It is so important to start your classes in a relaxed
frame of mind. Students can pick up on teacher anxiety and will
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usually sense when lessons have not been sufficiently prepared. Activities to use in Large Classes
Avoid this by planning classes well in advance and having one or two
▪ Small group discussions: Use topics related to a theme, or ask
extra activities at the ready in case the lesson is not going well.
students to submit topic suggestions.
▪ Manage noise: From day one establish an acceptable level of noise
▪ Who Am I?: Stick the name of a famous person to the back of
and a way of getting your class to stop what they are doing and pay
each student. Students walk around the room asking questions and
attention. Be consistent in implementing this strategy and take care
trying to identify themselves. Once they guess who they are they
not to use any offensive gestures or sounds that may offend the
can place their name tag on the front and continue helping other
local population.
students identify themselves.
▪ Reduce marking and prep time: Establish the target language
▪ Team spelling contests: Each student who gets the spelling
that you are grading and design quizzes and tests which are on point
correct gets a point for their team.
and streamlined. Peer evaluations are also a good time-saver.
Encourage student confidence in writing by leaving a short comment ▪ Balderdash: Large classes can be split into teams. Teacher calls
or suggestion at the end of their paper rather than putting a red line out a word and students must write down that word and it's
through each and every mistake (see module 10 unit 2). Find out meaning. Each student to get both correct gets a point for their
when the photocopying room is quiet and use this time effectively team.
to prepare most of your photocopying for the day or week ahead. ▪ Write the question: Large class can be split into teams. The
▪ Enforce a late policy: Notify students of your late policy on the teacher gives an answer and the students must write the question.
first day and stick to it. For example, don't let students enter your (eg. "Amanda") Each student that writes the correct question gets a
classroom after a warm-up has ended or after the first 10 point. (e.g. answer: What's your middle name?")
minutes. You should also check that your employer, manager of ▪ Questionnaires: Students circulate around the room asking each
Director of Studies supports you in this in case of any students other questions. Students can create their own questions on a given
complaining. They are the paying customer after all and some topic or theme, or you can provide a questionnaire hand-out.
language schools are hesitant to enforce rules on their students. If Follow up by asking each student to report the most interesting
students miss class, make it their responsibility to catch up, not answer they received. This could then progress onto groups
yours. preparing presentation about the results and any conclusion they
▪ Share your e-mail address: In a large class, you will find yourself may have come to.
feeling drained before and after class if you let students come early ▪ Categories: The teacher calls out a category, such as fruit, and
or stay late to ask questions every day. This alone can make you each student has to name a fruit when it’s their turn. If a student
hate your job, especially if you are not paid for hours when you are hesitates for more than five seconds, they have to choose a new
not teaching. Encourage students to e-mail you with questions or category and sit out the rest of the game. The last person to get out
set up a Facebook page for that class, and answer them on your wins.
own time. If you don't like the e-mail suggestion, try finishing your
class ten minutes early once in a while and allow your students free
conversation time. Take questions on a first come basis during this
time.
Unit 3:Teacher roles
Unit 3: Teacher roles
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Why have we placed this Unit in this Module: ‘Classroom Survival Tips’? ▪ stepping back and allowing students to find their way along the
Plainly and simply, it’s because there’s more to your role than you language journey, whilst still monitoring and motivating as needs be
might think. ▪ being available and ready to act as a resource when needed
You’ve already studied what it takes to be a competent and effective Guide:
teacher – and you will be if you take all our ideas on board and marry them ▪ guiding those who are unsure of what to do
with your own ideas. And we have already discussed the key knowledge,
ability, skills and habits elements you require to deliver up a successful Manager:
lesson. ▪ ensuring all the nitty-gritty elements that underpin a successful
However, there are other skills you need to have to ensure success. It lesson are carried out, e.g. giving effective and coherent
would be very pleasant if your role simply comprised of passing on instructions, arranging the most effective seating, ensuring
information, creating an enjoyable atmosphere and other pleasant activities. instructions are carried out as planned, and ensuring that tasks are
It would be truly wonderful! However, it’s not as easy as that. completed as planned
There are other personal and supervisor- type roles and activities you will ▪ ensuring group dynamics skills are utilised to provide efficient
be responsible for and these require skill and energy. They come with the classroom routines, smooth transitions and different types of
job, as they say. groupings to encourage specific types of learning
The range of teacher roles ▪ ensuring a sense of community and belonging in the classroom
Assessor: Materials producer and collector:
▪ assessing progress ▪ producing more appropriate, more relevant and often much better
materials than a coursebook offers
▪ correcting errors
▪ ensuring a variety of material mediums – paper/image based, audio
▪ allowing students to demonstrate their mastery of the material in
and video, realia, where appropriate
different ways
▪ diagnosing what needs to be done in follow-up lessons Monitor:
▪ preparing and delivering tests and examinations and marking them, ▪ observing and analysing ongoing interactions – on a daily basis
as required ▪ monitoring what’s going well and what’s not going so well – on a
▪ communicating grades/results/progress with sensitivity and support daily basis
▪ ensuring that you too can meet any required external standards or ▪ reflecting on the evidence and deciding what needs to be done in a
inspections feedback session later
▪ motivating some of the students who may not be so keen on the If not, you should consider delving into these areas before you take up
activity or who may be tired or are thinking elsewhere, perhaps due your teaching post. Our course will help you with some of these
to the stresses and strains of life outside the classroom personal and supervisor- type skills in some areas, e.g. assessment,
▪ understanding that lessons should be interesting, meaningful and motivation, planning and you’ll likely have friends who use other skills in
stimulating and should respond to the learners’ emotional, cognitive their job and can help you.
and linguistic needs A good book on general supervisor or management skills will also be of
▪ remembering that the whole person comes to school, so even the benefit.
intrinsically motivated person yesterday may not be the motivated The majority of inexperienced TEFL teachers setting out for their first
person today teaching post have often given little thought to this. Perhaps their course did
Needs analyst: not make them aware of this. It’s then a severe shock to their system when
they realise they’re unprepared in some of these skills areas.
▪ identifying the learning needs expressed by the learners
But you won’t be unprepared!
▪ accounting for differing language ability levels and varying
▪
backgrounds, interests, and needs
Remember: Learners may have other needs that you may identify,
Unit 4: Discipline in the
e.g. behavioural or social needs, but here we use the term
‘needs analyst’ primarily in relation to learners’ learning
classroom 1-10
needs. While more movement of students and more communication amongst
students have had a positive effect in the communicative classroom, they
Planner/organiser: have also increased the potential for things to go wrong in the classroom,
▪ preparing lesson plans for the class or age group you are assigned to leading to possible problems relating to student discipline and behaviour.
▪ accounting for differing language ability levels and varying These issues of discipline and student behaviour are the most frequently
backgrounds, interests, and needs mentioned concerns of inexperienced teachers.
▪ embracing a multicultural perspective in the planning and Gradually, you will develop your own strategies and techniques for dealing
encouraging this in the learning episodes with inappropriate behaviour.
▪ accounting for maximum student interaction within the plans Often, indiscipline arises due to confusion over:
▪ ensuring that there is plentiful opportunity for authentic and ▪ weak classroom rules, or lack of them
communicative language use ▪ roles and expectations, i.e. your and your students’ roles and
▪ setting out the roadmap for the lesson and organising all the tasks expectations
and activities for all the learners In essence, inadequate classroom management is likely to be at the root of
Sometimes, many of these skills and roles are required in the one lesson. it, most of the time.
The ability to seamlessly master the skill of multi-tasking will make your 1. Teacher attitudes to discipline
lessons more fluid, more effective and more enjoyable.
Although it is a bit of a generalisation, there seems to be two main
You may have picked up some of the skills necessary for your teacher role categories of teachers with their differing attitudes to discipline.
already in another job or activity, so that experience will serve you well.
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There are those who see the learner as the recipient of information that the Here’s what to do, and what not to do:
teacher, as the fount of knowledge, has to provide. They see the learner's
1. Good planning and organisation
role as relatively passive. They control. They tend to accept the need for
minor punishments as an incentive to learning. The teachers who are most successful in maintaining discipline in class are
not those who are good at dealing with problems, but those who know how
On the other hand, there are the teachers who see learning as a process
to prevent problems from occurring in the first place.
that requires the active commitment of the students. These teachers try to
avoid punishment, relying on the students' interest in the work to keep Careful planning and organisation are the keys to preventing problems
them out of trouble. arising.
These teachers see themselves more as guides than controllers, and so they Careful planning and organising promotes a constant momentum, pace and a
seek to maintain discipline through persuasion and by tapping into the feeling of purpose which keeps the students' attention on the task at hand
students' basic good nature. and does not allow the formation of a `vacuum' which may be filled by
distracting or counter-productive activity.
Experience tells us that if you genuinely care for your students (as you will),
and communicate well with them in not only their subject content but in all An awareness that everything is planned and you know where you are going
social ways, you will bring out the best in your students. When you keep contributes a great deal to your own confidence and to your ability to win
these goals in sight, you will often get the better of even the most the trust of the students.
troublesome student. Because the bulk of your students are motivated by your quick-paced and
You’ll decide on your approach. organised momentum, the misbehaver is often ignored by the rest of the
class. He has no audience to perform to and will give up his counter-
2. Key issues that can affect student behaviour negatively
productive activity.
Here are some common issues for you to reflect on:
▪ You try to be liked instead of respected.
▪ An innate urge among some teachers to control students rather 2. English-only environment
than elicit their respect for authority
Cultivating an English-only environment as much as possible will go a long
▪ Some teachers never seem to develop effective strategies for way towards creating a classroom that does not get side-tracked with L1
dealing with unacceptable student-created problems. usage. But there may be some occasions where you will allow L1 usage.
▪ Confusion over rules, roles and expectations – on both sides 3. The skill of distraction
▪ Poor teacher-student communication
Creating a distraction is an almost guaranteed way to close the curtains on
▪ School supervision and discipline policies which are unbending, i.e. the misbehaving performer. His performance will stop abruptly.
zero tolerance
Always have some already-prepared distractions up your sleeve.
▪ A lack of school supervision and discipline policies
This can be achieved in a number of ways:
3. Strategies for preventing/minimising discipline issues
▪ Hands up those who want to see this amazing picture.
It is pretty impossible to provide a set of rules and procedures that will
▪ The first group to put these words into a proper sentence, and write it on
work in all student situations and settings. But there are many practical
the board, will get 10 points added to the best group end-of-term award.
strategies that work well.
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▪ Ah! I forgot the box. Who wants to be first to see what I’ve got in my rest of the group or to you, e.g. in relation to homework, letting others
box? speak without interruption, sticking to routines etc.
▪ Let’s try this out. I’m going to whisper something to Adriano. Then he Also, be wise and present to the class your code of behaviour too, e.g. how
must whisper the same thing to Alanza, and then Alanza to another you will behave at all times (be patient, never shout etc.). This acceptance
member of the group and so on. The last person in the group must stand by you that you too will follow a code will build their trust in, and respect
up and tell me what was whispered. Are you ready? for, you.
▪ Who wants to hear about something funny that happened to me 7. Fairness and consistency
yesterday? Be fair and consistent at all times with all of your students. The classroom
He’ll want to be a part of this new activity, like everyone else. rules for dealing with each aspect of misbehaviour need to be applied
consistently at all times, no matter if the misbehaver is normally one of your
4. Clear and succinct instructions best students.
Clear and succinct instructions are critical. Too much hesitation and mind- 8. Focus on the behaviour, not on the person
changing on your part can easily distract students.
Don’t make any comments about the person who is misbehaving. Stick to
5. Stay alert at all times – for negatives and positives commenting on the behaviour.
You need to be constantly aware of what is going on in all sectors of the 9. Encourage even your misbehaving students
classroom, keeping your eyes and ears open. Don’t fall into the trap that
some teachers fall into, using the time in class to mark previous When they are behaving well, catch them doing that. Tell them: Well done,
work. That’s a recipe for disaster. Juan. You’ve got some very good examples there.
Your role is to facilitate learning at all times in the classroom. When you’re 10. Use your body language
up and about, you will be fully alert as to what’s going on. Often, there is no need to speak. Most students will stop misbehaving when
But it’s not only negative behaviour you should be keeping an eye on. Look you:
out for positive behaviour too. When you see good, specific examples of ▪ stare at them at length
positive behaviour, praise your students.
▪ clap your hands, once
Don’t just praise them with a common phrase such as Well done, group B.
▪ shake your head, signalling No!
Tell them why you are praising them: Well done, group B. I’ve noticed that
everyone is doing a separate part of the task. That’s what group work is all about. ▪ use a tool agreed in the class rules, e.g. ringing a bell
Thank you!
And, of course, communication with parents and carers is paramount. If Discipline in the classroom 11-19
school policy allows it, find time, on a termly basis, to send a note to 11. Get them up and moving
parents/carers, telling them what the students have done well. This
will be discussed at home and will provide further motivation to your Ensure you build in movement into your lessons. The movement may be
students. part of a lesson, e.g. roleplays, or intentional movement for its own sake,
e.g. changing places, doing part of the lesson outside the classroom.
6. Set and agree a code of behaviour in the classroom
When students are sitting still, lesson after lesson, lethargy can creep in. A
This should be set with the students, where possible, so they know the lethargic environment is a ripe environment for misdemeanours.
consequences of their behaviour should it not be socially acceptable to the
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12. Keep up the pace Losing your temper in any classroom can be disastrous. This
Another ripe environment for misdemeanours is when there is a break in especially applies in cultures where showing strong negative emotion is one
the pace of your lesson. Breaks and lulls in the pace may result, for example, of the worst things you can ever do.
due to technological issues or spending too much time with an individual or Here’s what to do:
group over some issue. 1. Approach the offender and tell him he needs to stop doing what he’s
When you are planning your lessons, you need to take these possible doing.
periods of inactivity into account. Ensure you have some quick and 2. Deliver this up in a confident manner but do not shout.
meaningful activity that the class can do during these breaks and lulls.
3. Pause, whilst keeping full and confident eye contact, showing an
13. Do not ignore minor issues expectation that you expect him to stop.
Inexperienced teachers tend to ignore minor issues in the hope that the 4. Repeat this process if the offender does not stop immediately.
problems will go away by themselves. Occasionally they do, but more often
they simply escalate. Generally, it is advisable to respond immediately and This calm and confident approach will work in most cases.
actively to any potential problem you detect. 19. Dealing with more serious incidents
14. Deal with it quietly These will be few and far between, if ever. But it’s important to have a
The best action is a quiet but clear-cut response that stops the activity. strategy in case this ever happens.
15. Move students Here’s what to do:
Ensure your potentially disruptive students sit at the front of the class – 1. Always remember that the whole person comes to school. Has
close to you. something happened externally, e.g. at home and is this the underlying cause
of their misbehaviour? So, take care and take a moment to consider this.
16. Stay close to them
2. Speak loudly but don’t shout.
Move around in the proximity of the student when the behaviour is
persistent. Move towards her and ask if you can help her; then, when you 3. Don’t go down the argument track or things will get worse. Stop and go
have calmed the student, walk away with a smile and a Well done! silent. Remember you have a class to look after.
Or you could sit down close to any disruptive students and carry on the 4. Offer, with empathy, the opportunity for the misbehaver to take time out
lesson from that position. They’ll stop what they are doing when you’re up in the fresh air and then return to class.
close and personal. 5. Then get the class back on track.
17. Don't use threats Depending on the seriousness of the issue:
If you use threats, they are likely to exacerbate the problem. Sometimes, Arrange a meeting with the student later to discuss the issue, emphasising
teachers make threats which they will not implement. the focus of the meeting is not about discipline.
Some of your students will soon become aware of this and will take their See if you can get to the bottom of it all – the cause of the behaviour - and
misbehaviour to the brink, knowing that very little will happen. They work try to help the student to move on in a more positive vein. You may still
out: Nothing happened last time, so why will it happen this time? have to impose some sanction in line with the classroom rules.
18. Never lose your temper For a very serious action, e.g. threatening other students or vandalising
property, you need to alert your Head of Department/Director of Studies
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as soon as the lesson ends. Seek advice and be guided on the best route to Here’s what you need to know and reflect on to ensure you get
take. Don’t be afraid or don’t feel weak about asking for help. cultural contextualisation right first time:
Unit 5: Culture and its 1. Remember this: Communication is culture bound. The way an individual
communicates and the words and structures she uses emanate from her
culture.
implications 2. Students with different cultural norms are at risk if you have little
In this final course Unit, we will explore two key cultural aspects, both of knowledge, sensitivity or appreciation of the diversity in communication
which are important for classroom survival: styles. You may perceive differences as problems and respond to students'
diversity with negative attitudes, low expectations and culturally
▪ Appropriateness: cultural contextualisation inappropriate teaching and assessment procedures.
▪ Cross-cultural aspects in the classroom 3. Remember: Cultures vary internally and are changeable. There are usually
1. Appropriateness: cultural contextualisation many cultural differences within a single race or nationality. Avoid
stereotyping your students.
In the language arena, there are several meanings of the word
‘appropriateness’. Here our focus is on cultural contextualisation. 4. What is logical and important in your culture, e.g. always tagging
on please to a request, or taking turns to speak, may seem irrational and
A subtler aspect of meaning that often needs to be introduced to learners is
unimportant to learners in another culture.
whether a particular item is appropriate for use in a certain context.
5. In describing another culture’s language, teachers tend to stress the
Appropriateness of a speech act is measured against sociocultural
differences and overlook the similarities. Ensure you do not fall into this
norms. The norms may vary somewhat within a given group of society, but
trap.
they are generally recognised within the society as a whole.
6. Avoid some inappropriate cross cultural communication barriers:
However, the same speech act in one society's culture may not be
considered appropriate in another culture. ▪ Be aware of words, images and situations that suggest that all or
most members of a racial group are the same.
There are possible repercussions arising from a learner saying words that
would be viewed as inappropriate in another culture and society. If repeated ▪ Be aware of possible negative implications of word/colour
many times, the learner would probably be viewed negatively by the native symbolism and usage that could offend people or reinforce bias. For
speakers in that culture and society. example, terms such as black magic or black market can be offensive
in some cultures.
For this reason, you must make your learners aware of possible cross-
linguistic problems. ▪ Avoid words that have questionable racial or ethnic connotations.
For example, a phrase such as you people may have a racial
Thus, it is important that your learners know that a certain word or phrase
is very common, or relatively rare, or ‘taboo’ in, say, polite conversation. overtone.
Or, perhaps, the word tends to be used in writing but not in speech; or that ▪ Be aware that words, objects, characters and symbols may reflect
it is more suitable in formal than in informal discourse. different beliefs or values for different groups. For example, the
For example, weep is virtually synonymous in denotation with cry, but it is confederate flag and Uncle Remus stories may offend African
Americans because they reflect the culture of slavery and the Old
more formal and poetic, tends to be used in writing more than in speech,
South.
and is much less common.
But what does this mean for YOU?
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▪ Be aware of different rules for taking turns during conversations. Here are some cultural differences that can come up in class. It will all
For example, some cultures frequently perceive ‘breaking in’ to depend on where you are teaching and the cultural background and
reinforce or disagree with another's point to be perfectly educational experiences of your students.
permissible, indeed desirable. This information will serve you well, so reflect on this regularly.
▪ Cultures may use different standards for loudness, speed of delivery, Learners’ expectations
silence, attentiveness and time to respond to another's point. For
example, Far East societies place high value on contemplation and Learners from more traditional educational systems may expect you to
tend, therefore, to feel little responsibility to make immediate behave in a more formal and authoritarian fashion during classes.
responses during conversation. They may also want you to engage in extensive correction of grammatical
Understanding another culture’s language appropriateness is a continuous form or pronunciation during all activities rather than at specified points in a
process. lesson, or not at all.
2. Cross-cultural aspects in the classroom In some cultures, e.g. Brazil, Norway and Spain, students are expected to be
vocal and pro-active in the learning process; in other cultures, such as Japan
An awareness of cross-cultural aspects in your classroom is vital. and Korea, learners are expected to be silent, passive recipients of
Here are some practical guidelines to ensure you get it right: knowledge.
▪ Cross-cultural aspects play a key part in the classroom dynamics. In some cultures, silence is taken as a sign of respect and a willingness to
Handle these aspects right and the class will be on fire. Get any learn; in other cultures, it is seen as boredom and a refusal to participate.
important cross-cultural aspect wrong and the learning may well be In some cultures, asking a question is seen as disrespectful, challenging and
disrupted. inappropriate; in others, asking a question is seen as an important sign of
▪ You will need to be sensitive to cultural differences and cultural students taking responsibility for their own learning, and something to be
elements at all times, particularly as they pertain to the host culture, welcomed.
since they can influence overall student learning behaviour. Teachers’ expectations
▪ It is important that you are fully aware of the environment in which Similarly, you bring to the classroom your own expectations regarding
you are working and don’t judge the students on the basis of your teacher behaviour. This includes your views on appropriate learner
own cultural background and educational experiences. behaviour within your culture in general, as well as in the classroom.
▪ If you are not aware of cultural nuances, it can prove to be You may unconsciously attribute these same expectations to your students,
detrimental to your success. which can heighten the potential for conflicting expectations and evaluations
▪ You cannot assume that your expectations of the classroom will be of behaviour between you and your learners.
the same as the learners' expectations. Gender, age and status-related issues
Remember: The comments below are general comments – every single You need to find out whether your learners have ever experienced mixed
student from a particular culture won’t necessarily display the same educational groupings; whether they expect male and female teachers to
behaviours. behave differently; and how different classroom activities, including various
Examples of cultural differences group configurations or activity types, such as role plays, might affect
learners due to native cultural constraints. Research this before starting off.
You may encounter reluctance from both men and women from cultures in
which women have historically been constrained by social roles that do not
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promote active participation in mixed-sex settings, e.g. Afghanistan and In some cultures, such as most of the USA, children are encouraged to give
Saudi Arabia an answer to any question quickly, while in other cultures, e.g. Japan,
In some cultures, if some students think that women (especially younger or reflection is encouraged before answering.
other lower status women) are lower in the ranking, that will exaggerate Proxemics
any negative reactions they have to being interrupted, corrected, told to do Each culture has its own norms for the distance between two people
things in the classroom that are unfamiliar etc. standing and conversing, and these norms may also differ between you and
Some students might feel they cannot interrupt or correct students who are your students.
older, in a high-status job, are male etc. or may be shocked when you (or Eye contact
another student) do not pay attention to such distinctions.
In some cultures, respect is shown by avoiding eye contact, or shortening
Inappropriate topics for discussion in various countries - general the length of contact, while in others making eye contact is evidence of
▪ Religion honesty and respectfulness. One frequently misunderstood example is that
▪ Politics East Asian students often close their eyes when concentrating.
▪ Dating, sexual relations Your failure to make eye contact with students in some cultures could be
interpreted by some students as you lacking in confidence.
▪ Gender roles
Active participation
▪ Civil strife (where some students are refugees from this strife)
Verbally expressing ideas and asking questions during class can prove
▪ Immigration (where some students are in the process of this and difficult for students unaccustomed to this form of active participation.
may be unsettled by questions about their personal details)
Communication styles
▪ Freedom and democracy
You must become aware of the cultural differences in reasoning and
▪ Human rights issues communication. There are patterns of expression and rules of interaction
▪ Conflicts with other countries that reflect the norms and values of a culture. A lack of understanding of
these communication styles could lead to confusion, anxiety and conflict.
▪ Discussing opinions and beliefs
Two key communication styles are Direct v Indirect and Attached v
There are some cultures in which the reaching of a group consensus is Detached.
more highly valued than the statement of personal opinion, so discussion-
Direct: straightforward, no beating about the bush, avoiding ambiguity
type tasks should be used with care.
v Indirect: meaning conveyed by subtle means, stories, and frequent use of
The cultural make-up of your class will determine your approach; when well implication.
used, of course, these activities can be very successful.
Attached: communicating with feeling and emotion, subjectivity is valued,
Gestures sharing one’s values and feelings about issues is desirable v Detached:
The main point to note with gestures is that people do not stop finding a communication should be calm and impersonal, objectivity is valued;
gesture offensive just because they understand that it means something else emotional, expressive communication is seen as immature or biased.
in other countries. Motivation and memorisation
Impulsiveness v reflection You will already be thinking of many different ways to motivate students
which, in the main, will work. Be aware that in many schools in China and
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Taiwan, there are numerous learning strategies based entirely on 3. Handling any cultural issues in the classroom
memorisation - the greatest motivator is success in exams and is based on
If any cultural issues come up in class, then go into your memory bank and
how much students can remember. decide if it’s any of those areas mentioned above: e.g. religion, politics and
Writing democracy
In many cultures, students are not encouraged to express their opinions and If it is, it’s closing time and you need to close down the conversation or
ideas. They may have little experience with creative writing to bring from debate straight away.
their native language.
1. Do it courteously.
Interrupting 2. Empathise with the student(s) involved that their point is important,
In some cultures, several students talking over each other is normal, worrying, concerning -whatever emotion is stated by the speaker.
whereas others will wait until there is complete silence before making their 3. However, state that you need to move on. Something like this: I’m
contribution.
sorry everybody, we’ll need to move on. We’ve got lots to cover. I suggest
Volume the two of you continue the discussion outside the classroom. Right, where
Another variant is the volume at which people pitch their voices for were we?
‘normal’ conversation. This can vary widely, even among subcultures, and Of course, if it’s a general discussion about superstitions or what foods are
will also put a learner at a disadvantage if either speaking too softly or too eaten in different countries and appropriate areas like these, then you will
loudly is viewed negatively by you. let it run for a bit as real communication is taking place.
Autonomy Remember! Keep your eyes and ears open all of the time for any
You will tell your students that they should take charge of their learning, inappropriate discussion topics starting and head them off at the pass
that you are a helper and guide rather than the source of knowledge and quickly!
authority. Yet these wishes may not fit with educational traditions from
different cultures.
Movement in class
If you are accustomed to walking about the room to monitor your students’
performance and crouch down to help a student, and if you are teaching in a
culture that views this as somehow offensive, it will be your responsibility to
modify your technique to conform to the expectations of your students.
Summary
▪ Be aware of culture at all times.
▪ Increase your learning of culture in the classroom.
▪ If ever asked about any subject we have suggested as taboo, simply
reply: I’m sorry. I’m a guest here in your country and I don’t think I’m in
any position to comment.