LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE: Southeast Asia.

The purpose of this paper

is to begin the first steps in filling this gap.
HISTORY, TRAJECTORY It provides a brief history of the
AND PEDAGOGY development of the field, describes various
methodologies employed and identifies
1 some current and future research
Thom Huebner trajectories for the study of LL. It also
introduces five student papers from a
Abstract course taught at Chulalongkorn University
in the 2015 academic year. Each paper
Language as it appears in the public exemplifies issues found in the public
space, often referred to as “linguistic space. Together they begin a dialog about
landscape,” has been the object of serious the implications of language in the public
academic study for over a decade, sphere in Thailand.
resulting in several singled-authored and
edited volumes, numerous articles in Introduction
international journals, theses, dissertations,
eight international workshops on four Language in the public space is so
continents and at least one dedicated web ubiquitous that we often become
site. In Asia, studies have been conducted impervious to it. Yet as an integral part of
in Japan, China, Hong Kong, Cambodia, the larger physical landscape,
Malaysia, among other countries. A 515 environmental print helps to create and
item bibliography compiled by Chula alum convey a sense of place, community,
Robert Troyer can be found at power, contestation and negotiation.
www.zotero.org > groups > linguistic Although the study of public signage
landscape bibliography. predates the term “linguistic landscape”
(Spolsky 2009: 26-28), it was an article by
Increasingly, researchers have explored Landry and Bourhis twenty years ago that
the relationship between linguistic saw in language in the public space
landscape and education, both inside and implications for the sociolinguistics of
outside of schools. In educational settings, language planning and community
studies have explored the connection ethnolinguistic vitality. Their paper
between the linguistic landscape and introduced the term “linguistic landscape”
linguistic awareness and language to refer to the “visibility and salience of
learning input. Other intersections of languages on public and commercial signs
linguistic landscape and education are the in a given territory” (1997:23). This paper
dynamics of language and power and of reviews the development of linguistic
language and identity. Yet the full landscape (LL) as a research area, plots the
potential for using linguistic landscape as theoretical and methodological trajectories
a pedagogical tool have gone relatively of LL research over the past decade, and
unexplored in Thailand and throughout introduces the remainder of the papers in
this volume.
1
Professor Emeritus, Department of
Linguistics and Language Development, San
José State University, San José, California,
U.S.A.

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MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities, Special Issue No.22, 2016

A Brief History (From a Personal 2009 – Siena, Italy (Siena

Perspective) University for Foreigners)
2010 – Strasbourg, France (University
of Strasbourg)
The Landry and Bourhis article inspired a
2012 – Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (Addis
number of subsequent papers using the
Ababa University)
term “linguistic landscape” which began
2013 – Namur, Belgium (University of
making the conference circuit of the
Namur)
American Association for Applied
2014 – Cape Town, South Africa
Linguistics (Arlington Virginia 2003,
(University of the Western
Portland Oregon 2004) and the European
Cape)
Second Language Association (San
2015 – Berkeley, California, USA
Sebastian Spain 2004) panel presentations.
(University of California)
Four idiosyncratic papers from these
2016 – Liverpool, England (Liverpool
panels were first published in the
University)
International Journal of Multilingualism
(Vol. 3:1, 2006) and in the same year
As of this writing, plans are being made
reprinted as a monograph by Multilingual
for Linguistic Landscape Workshop 9
Matters (Gorter 2006). Whether or not the
scheduled for Luxembourg in the spring of
study of linguistic landscape represented
2017. Since the first workshop, LL has
“a new approach to multilingualism”
become the object of serious academic
(Gorter 2006) or simply an often neglected
research, resulting in several singled-
source of sociolinguistic data, these early
authored and edited volumes, numerous
papers contributed to our understanding of
articles in international journals, including
the symbolic construction of the public
its own disciplinary journal (Linguistic
space through an examination of the use of
Landscape: An International Journal,
language in multilingual signs, code-
John Benjamins Publishing Company,
switching and hybrid varieties. At the
Amsterdam and Philadelphia), MA theses,
same time these papers, including my
PhD dissertations, and at least one
own, were heavily quantitative, narrowly
dedicated web site. (See Robert Troyer’s
language-focused and struggling to define
review in this volume for a listing of some
geographic territory, units of analysis and
of the primary resources in the area.) One
relative language prominence in
can now find papers on linguistic
multilingual signs.
landscape at professional meetings and
conferences in sociolinguistics, anthropology,
As the number of conference papers and
sociology and education. A 516 item
panels on linguistic landscape grew, it
bibliography compiled by Robert Troyer
became apparent that a conference
devoted to LL studies can be found at
focusing specifically on LL was both
www.zotero.org > groups > linguistic
feasible and desirable. In 2008 the first
landscape bibliography.
“Linguistic Landscape Workshop” was
convened in Tel Aviv, resulting in a
second publication dedicated to LL
Research Trajectories
(Shohamy and Gorter 2009). Seven
With the development of an academic
subsequent linguistic landscape workshops
literature, the objects, methods and tools
have been held at a variety of international
of analysis, indeed the very notion of
sites on three continents:

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 Linguistic Landscape: History, Trajectory and Pedagogy

linguistic landscape, have expanded to building facades (Gendelman and Aiello

address different research objectives and 2011), and the physical trajectories of
to better understand the roles and impact participants as they move through the
of language in the public space. In their public space (e.g., Lou 2010, Garvin
account of the evolution of the field, Barni 2010).
and Bagna (2015: 10-11) identify three
areas of development: In the earlier studies, actors, including
authors, intended readers, and inhabitants
a. The objects and actors involved; of the area, were only indirectly implied.
b. The relationship with other Describing the state of affairs in the early
disciplines; LL research, Malinowski has pointed out
c. The choice of the most suitable
methodologies for different LL “the domain of human agency behind
research goals. the linguistic landscape remains
unnamed, with authorial intent
Objects and Actors couched between two more visible
dichotomies: (1) the semiotic reading
The range of objects in the linguistic of the dominance of one linguistic
landscape is no longer limited to “the code over another on bilingual signs,
language of public road signs, advertising and (2) the distinction between
billboards, street names, place names, government or officially authored
commercial shop signs and public signs on ‘top-down’ and private or individual
governmental buildings” identified in the ‘bottom-up’ signs.” (2009: 108)
original Landry and Bourhis article, but
rather includes such phenomena as graffiti He notes that sociologists Ben-Rafael et
(e.g., Pennycook 2009, 2010) and the al. (2006) offer three views of the forces
language of tourist post cards (Jaworski behind language choice and authorship in
2010), of science lab bulletin board notices the LL. First, they propose that the
(Hanauer 2009), of the banners and dominance of one language over another
placards at sporting events (Monaghan in a bilingual sign as indicated by size,
2016), and of cyberspace (e.g., Ivkovic & type, color and placement of font is tied to
Lotherington 2009, Jones 2011, Troyer the power relations between dominant and
2012). The objects of analysis have subordinate groups. Second, they assert
become not only the framed and static that the LL can be seen as a vehicle for the
manifestations of the ethnolinguistic presentation of self and as a community
composition of a neighborhood. The identity marker. Finally Ben-Rafael et al.
creation of meaning of a given sign results suggest that choices apparent in the LL are
not from the language alone, but rather also governed by the expected influence
from the symbiotic relationship between on its consumers. Malinowski addresses
the language of public signage and other, the issue of authorship more broadly to
non-linguistic semiotic modes in the include all actors and forces that bring
public space in which the language is meaning to bear on any item in the LL.
embedded, such as images, colors, sounds, When viewed from the perspectives of
the architecture of monuments (e.g., Judith Butler’s performativity theory and
Shohamy and Waksman 2009, of multimodality, Malinowski concludes
Abousnnouga and Machin 2011) and that authorship of signs is “a complex,

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MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities, Special Issue No.22, 2016

dispersed entity who is only somewhat in from environmental economics to explain

control of the meanings that are read of his the linguistic diversity found in the LL.
or her written ‘utterance.’” (2009: 108) Huebner (2009) provides a framework for
the analysis of the LL based on Hymes’
Disciplinary and Theoretical (1976) ethnography of communication and
Perspectives the SPEAKING pneumonic to explore the
possible linguistic dimensions that need to
With an expanded range of objects beyond be taken into account when researching the
mere signs and a more carefully articulated LL. Finally, Hult employs a nexus analysis
awareness of the complexity and framework (Scollon and Scollon 2004) to
importance of authorship, LL research has explore the language ecology of a region
been approached from multiple in southern Sweden. He concludes that “…
disciplinary and theoretical perspectives. the application of ideas from nexus
The opening section of Shohamy and analysis permits one to interpret data from
Gorter (2009) lays out six theoretical a linguistic landscape in greater depth than
perspectives. In that section, Coulmas can be extrapolated from only the
takes an archeological approach to the quantitative distribution of languages.”
study of ancient inscriptions of ancient (2009: 101)
Babylon, Egypt, Persia and elsewhere,
asking who wrote the inscriptions, where Other frameworks have also been applied
the inscriptions were located and what to the study of LL. For example,
functions they served, illustrating the point Blommaert’s in depth ethnographic study
that “a LL is a cultural scene, formed by focusses on the Oud-Berchem area of
interested agents whose motivations and Antwerp, a neighborhood where he has
intentions pertaining to information lived for about two decades. He argues
contents, language choice and symbolic that this ethnographic approach provides a
significance, to the extent they can be diachronic lens through which one can
inferred, must be reckoned with” in any witness the complexity of a layered
LL analysis. (2009: 23) From a “system of systems” (individual, peer
sociolinguistic perspective, Spolsky group, local, national, etc.) in which
proposes three relevant conditions that “change at one level also creates effects at
determine the choice of languages in a other levels.” (2013: 12) Malinowski’s
sign: 1) “write in a language you know”; (2009) study of signs on ethnic Korean
2) “write in a language which can be read businesses in Oakland, California employs
by the people you expect to read it;” and a multimodal analysis. Trumper-Hecht
3) “write a sign in your own language or in draws on Lefebvre’s triadic paradigm of
a language with which you wish to be conceived, perceived, and lived spaces to
identified.” (2009: 33) Drawing on the examine the use of Arabic in Israel’s
works of sociologists such as Erving mixed cities from the perspective of those
Goffman, Jürgen Habermas, and Pierre walking its streets.
Bourdieu, Ben-Rafael (2009:45-46) looks
at LL through four “principles of Methodologies and Themes
structuration”: presentation of self, the
good-reasons principle, collective identity The increasingly multdisciplinary nature
and power-relations. Cenos and Gorter of and varied theoretical approaches to LL
attempt to apply a market valuation model research has entailed expanded research

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 Linguistic Landscape: History, Trajectory and Pedagogy

methodologies and themes. with sign authors, shop owners and

Methodologically, early studies were consumers of the LL, but also participant
heavily quantitative, a feature that has observation, attitudinal questionnaires and
sometimes been inaccurately characterized surveys and historical documentation.
as simply counting signs and languages. Innovative technologies such as Global
Barni and Bagna explain, “studying the LL Positioning Systems, small video and
does not mean limiting oneself to counting audio recording devices, Google Earth and
the languages present in it, but involves Google Maps (see Troyer, this volume)
contextualizing the analysis, broadening it and ArcGIS, a geographic information
to encompass the actors who shape or use system (Barni and Bagna 2009) have led
the landscape and the factors which have to more efficient and exhaustive collection
contributed to its formation over time. and analysis of data. “Walking tours” of
(2015: 14) Similarly, Blackwood, in inhabitants and passers-by capture
recounting the evolution of his thinking on impressions and reactions to the LL
methodological challenges during his (Garvin 2010). For languages less
nearly decade-long investigation of commonly found in the LL (Marten (2016)
France’s regional languages in the public proposes use of a method he calls “Spot
space, recognizes the importance of a German,” which searches out and analyzes
quantitative dimension to the study of LL: the presence of or reverence to German or
any other language that is not a dominant
“In recent years, there has been a language in a specific physical or virtual
reductivist tendency to simplify space.
the quantitative approach as
merely involving the counting of The most appropriate methodologies,
signs, whereas qualitative research however, are determined by the research
is viewed more positively; it questions asked and the themes pursued.
explores issues pertaining to the Investigations in LL document the
behavior of the social actor, using relationship between language and, among
the LL as a site of inquiry. other things, power, contestation and
Clearly, this is a simplified negotiation of rights and ownership;
description of the two multilingualism and individual identity
methodologies, but in this section construction; language awareness and
we seek to outline ways by which language attitudes; local language and
the quantitative approach is a national identity; language and religion;
prerequisite for LL research which government language policy versus
seeks to describe and analyse a language practice; minority language
given space. … [W]e argue that a suppression or maintenance or revival;
symbiotic approach, where the tourism and the commodification of
quantitative and qualitative culture; etc. One area of rapidly growing
approaches feed into one another, research interest is the intersection of LL
is an ideal modus operandi. and education, in particular language
(Blackwood 2015: 39-40) teaching and learning.

The qualitative approaches and

methodologies that have emerged over the
past decade involve not just interviews

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MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities, Special Issue No.22, 2016

Linguistic Landscape and Language paradigm of conceived, perceived and

Teaching and Learning lived spaces mentioned above, Malinowski
identifies some practical roles and
The role of LL in education and applications of LL to language pedagogy.
specifically in language education has For example, “activities in ‘perceived
been discussed in both theoretical papers space’ orient language learners toward
and in research reports of specific school- meanings they can physically read, see,
based LL projects. Cenose and Gorter hear, and otherwise observe from the
(2008) explore the potential of LL from material and social environments that
the perspective of language learning input, surround them.” (2015b: 2) This might
the development of literacy skills, include participant observation and
pragmatic and literacy competence, and its documentation of the LL in the form of
symbolic function as a vehicle for photographing and counting phenomena of
addressing affective factors. Dagenais et interest such as bilingual signs, codes used
al. (2009) documents the role of LL in the and other, non-linguistic elements.
development of language awareness Conceived space activities would “orient
among elementary school students in learners toward top-down understandings
Canada. Sayer (2010) describes how he of spaces as planned, designed, legislated
engaged his language learners through a promulgated, and enforced” (ibid.) and
pilot study he conducted in Mexico. include study of maps, diagrams, policy
Bolton (2013) examines the causes and statements and demographic data. Lived
effects of globalization and the rise of space refers to “the experiential dimension
World Englishes through the prism of of linguistic landscape as imagined, felt,
English in the public space. Dressler and experienced by inhabitants.” (ibid.)
(2015) researches the degree to which Learning activities might include
signs promote bilingualism in a Canadian interviews with property owners and long-
bilingual school program whose goal of time area residents, journals and
promoting bilingualism is seen as a natural notebooks recording learners’ own self-
outcome of providing language instruction reflection as they experience the LL, and
in two languages. In another Canada-based artistic and imaginative projects such as
project, Burwell and Lenters report on a imaginative mapping, mural design and
case study “in which Grade 10 students even interpretive movement/dance.
took on the role of researchers to explore Clearly the potential of LL as a
the linguistic, visual and spatial texts of pedagogical tool is powerful. At the
their neighbourhood,” (2015: 201) the linguistic level, student explorations of
result of which combined visual analysis signs in the LL can contribute to increased
with the production of place-based awareness of lexical borrowing, syntactic
documentaries. patterning, and phonological adaptation
and rhetorical devices like assonance,
Perhaps the most thorough theoretical and alliteration, metaphor, and personification,
practical articulation of the intersection of and can generate discussion of the
LL and language teaching and learning is purposes and effects of code switching and
Malinowski’s position paper (2015a) and hybrid language. At another level, students
accompanying resource document can use the LL to explore issues of identity
(2015b). Drawing heavily on Trumper- and ethnicity. At a macro level, students
Hecht’s interpretation of Lefebvre’s can research both overt and covert

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 Linguistic Landscape: History, Trajectory and Pedagogy

language policy, discrepancies between code switching and linguistic hybridity,

them and the meanings behind those language and social stratification and
discrepancies. In her review of several social roles, language and policy, power
studies of LL and language policy and the and contestation, and language and
effects of students as action researchers, diachronic change. Yet because of the
Shohamy (2015) states, “The engagement pervasiveness and diversity of the Thai
of high school student with documentation LL, the full potential for research and
of LL in their neighborhoods was found to pedagogy remains relatively unexplored.
have a real impact on L[anguage]P[olicy] One purpose of this paper and this volume
awareness and activism.” (2015:154). is to encourage researchers and educators
to explore the range of possibilities
The Current Issue inherent in the LL.

The growing body of literature on LL The five papers in this proposal are student
comprises studies from around the world, papers from a graduate course I taught in
including Asia (e.g., Japan: Backhaus the English as an International Language
2007, Kallen and Dhonnacha 2010, (EIL) Program at Chulalongkorn
Rowland 2016; China: Wang 2013, Xia University in the 2015 academic year.
and Li 2016; Korea: Malinowski 2010; Several of the enrollees were first year
Taiwan Curtin 2009; Hong Kong: graduate students and most had little or no
Jaworski and Yeung 2010, Lai 2013). formal training in linguistics. As a course
ASEAN countries where LL studies have project, each student had to conduct a
been conducted include Singapore (Teng small study of some aspect of LL that they
2016), Cambodia (Kasanga 2012), were familiar with and curious about.
Malaysia (Manan 2015, Coluzzi and While the five short papers included here
Kitade 2015), and Indonesia (Macalister may not contain profound implications for
2012), among others. In Thailand, the on- a theory of LL or for innovative research
going Isan Culture Maintenance and methodologies, they do begin a dialog
Revitalization Project (ICMRP; Draper about the implication of language in the
2010, 2013, 2016) is an example of action public sphere and the kinds of research
research using, in part, the LL to that can be conducted at various levels of
(re)introduce the local dialect into the academic maturity. Each incorporates both
community as a part of a larger project quantitative and qualitative data. And each
addressing issues of identity and cultural offers some insight into the LL of the area
pride in the face of language shift and investigated.
ethnic discrimination. In addition to the
work of the ICMRP, several unpublished Huebner (2006) describes a phenomenon
studies have been conducted of the LL in he calls “hybridity,” the mixing of Thai
up-country provinces. A study of language and English lexicon, syntax and
of the Thai “cyberspace” (Troyer 2012) orthography. In her study of the Si Yan
was published in English Today. My own market in Bangkok, Prapobratanakul looks
study of the LL in several Bangkok into whether that kind of hybrid language
neighborhoods (Huebner 2006) introduces is found in a very Thai neighborhood, and
a number of themes that could be explored if so whether shop owners and customers
in the very dense and data-rich LL of are aware that it is a hybrid of Thai and
Bangkok: language and genre variation, English, and if aware of it, what if

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MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities, Special Issue No.22, 2016

anything do they think of it. The study of already be doing LL research to submit
the LL of Bangkok’s Chinatown their findings for publication. For those
represents a collaboration between Wu, a who may not have been familiar with
student from China who is not literate in linguistic landscape research, perhaps this
Thai, and Techasan, a Thai with close volume will provide some initial
associations to Chinatown, but who is not orientation to the field and stimulate
literate in Chinese. Together they researchers and educators to incorporate
investigate the LL of Chinatown as a the study of LL in their research and
reflection of the negotiation of identities of language teaching agendas.
second and third generation Thai-Chinese
there. Thongtong shifts the study of LL to References
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