Unit 3 Physical Chemistry

Unit 3- Physical Chemistry
1. Energetics
2. Rates of reaction
3. Reversible reactions and equilibria
1. Energetics
3.1 know that chemical reactions in which heat energy is given
out are described as exothermic, and those in which heat energy
is taken in are described as endothermic
Exothermic and Endothermic

o The changes in heat content can be determined and measured
with a thermometer.
o Law of conservation of energy: the overall amount of energy does
not change as energy is conserved in reactions.
o This means that it cannot be created or destroyed but it can be
transferred
o If energy is transferred to the surroundings during a chemical
In endothermic reactions, the

temperature of the surroundings
falls and the heat content of the
system increases
reaction, then the products formed must have less energy than
the reactants by the same amount as that transferred
oIn exothermic reactions,

The following are some examples of heat changes in reactions
the temperature of the o Neutralization reactions: these always give energy out
surroundings increases and o Displacement reaction: these can either take in or give it
the heat content of the out
system falls. o Combustion reactions: these always give energy out
3.2 describe simple calorimetry experiments for reactions such as combustion,
displacement, dissolving and neutralization
Calorimetry
o calorimetry is a technique used to measure changes in enthalpy
of chemical reactions
o there are two types of calorimetry experiments: Enthalpy
changes of reactions in solution, Enthalpy changes of
combustion
Reactions in solution:
o the principle of these calorimetry experiments is to carry out the
reaction with an excess of one reagent and measure the
temperature change over the course of a few minutes
o this technique is suitable for reactions such as dissolving,
displacement, and neutralization
o For the purpose of the calculations, some assumptions are made
about the experiment
 That the specific heat capacity of the solution is the same as pure
water. i.e. 4.18J/G/c
 That the density of the solution is the same as pure water
i.e. 1g/cm3
 The specific heat capacity of the container is ignored,
The reaction is complete, there are negligible heat
losses.
o A calorimeter can be made up of a polystyrene drinking cup. A
vacuum flask or metal can
o A fixed volume of one reagent is added to the calorimeter and the
initial temperature is taken with a thermometer
o An excess amount of the second reagent is added and the solution
is stirred continuously
o The maximum temperature is recorded and the temperature rise
calculated
Enthalpy of combustion experiments:
o The principle here is to use the heat released by a combustion
reaction to increase the heat content of water
o A typical simple calorimeter is used to measure the
temperature changes to the water

o A fixed volume of water is measured and transferred to the
copper can
o The spirit burner containing, for example, alcohol, is weighed
on a 2 d.p. balance
o The initial temperature of the water is measured and recorded
o The alcohol is ignited and the water is stirred continuously
o When the temperature has risen by about 20 degrees the
flame is extinguished and the spirit burner is re-weighed
o The final temperature of the water is recorded
Sources of error:
o Not all the heat produced by the combustion reaction is
transferred to the water some heat is lost to the surroundings,
and some heat is absorbed by the calorimeter
o To minimize the heat losses to the copper calorimeter should not
be placed too far above the flame and a lid placed over the
calorimeter
o Shielding can be used to reduce draughts
o In this experiment the main sources of error are heat loss and
incomplete combustion.
3.3 calculate the heat energy change from a measured

temperature change using the expression Q = mcΔT
Calculate Heat Energy Change
o in order to calculate heat energy changes you need to know
the mass of the substance being heated, the temperature
change, and the specific heat capacity of the substance
o The specific heat capacity, C, is the energy needed to raise the
temperature of 1g of a substance by 1 degree Celsius.
o The specific heat capacity of water is 4.18J/g/C
o The heat energy change, Q, can be calculated by:
3.4 calculate the molar enthalpy change (ΔH) from the heat energy
change, Q
3.5C Draw and explain energy level diagrams to represent exothermic
and endothermic reactions
Energy level diagrams
o Energy level diagrams are graphical representations of
the relative energies of the reactants and products in a
chemical reaction
o The energy of the reactants and products are displayed
on the y- axis and the progress of the reaction is shown
on the x-axis
o Arrows on the diagrams indicate whether the reaction is
exothermic (downwards pointing) or endothermic
(upwards pointing)
o The difference in height between the energy of reactants and products represents
the overall enthalpy change of a reaction.
o Energy is given out in exothermic reactions, the energy of
the products will be lower than the energy of the
reactants, so the change in energy is negative. This is
represented on the energy level diagram with a
downwards arrow as the energy of the products is lower
than the reactants
o Energy is taken in in endothermic reactions, the energy of
the products will be higher than the energy of the
reactants, so the change in energy is positive. This is
represented on the energy level diagram with an
upwards arrow as the energy of the products is higher
than the reactants
3.6C know that bond-breaking is an endothermic process and that

bond-making is an exothermic process
Bond energy
o Energy is needed to break bonds which is absorbed from the
reaction surroundings, so bond breaking is an endothermic
process
o Forming bonds as it releases energy back to the surroundings in
an exothermic process
o Both processes occur in the same chemical reaction, for example,
in the production of ammonia:
N2 +3H2 2NH3
o The bonds in the N-N and H-H molecules must be broken which
requires energy while the bonds in the NH3 molecule are formed
which releases energy
o Most reactions occur in a number of steps including steps that are
exothermic and steps that are endothermic
o Whether a reaction is overall endothermic or exothermic depends
on the difference between the sum of the exothermic steps and
the sum of the endothermic steps
Endothermic
o If more energy is absorbed than is released, this reaction is
endothermic
o More energy is required to break the bonds than that gained from
making the new bonds
o The change in energy is positive since the reactants have more
energy than the products
o Therefore, an endothermic reaction has a positive value.
Exothermic
o if more energy is released than is absorbed, then the reaction is
exothermic
o more energy is released when new bonds are formed than energy
required to break the bonds in the reactants
o the change in energy is negative since the reactants have less
energy than the products
o Therefore, an exothermic reaction has a negative value.
3.7C use bond energies to calculate the enthalpy change during a
chemical reaction
Bond energy calculations
o Bond energy- this is the amount of energy required to break the
bond or the amount of energy given out when the bond is formed
o This energy can be used to calculate how much heat would be
released or absorbed in a reaction
o We can calculate the total change in enthalpy for a reaction if we
know the bond energies of all the species involved
o Add together all the bond energies for all the bonds in the
reactants- this is the ‘energy in’
o Add together the bond energies for all the bonds in the products-
this is the ‘energy out’
o Calculate the enthalpy change using the equation:
Enthalpy change = energy taken in – energy given out
3.8 Practical: investigate temperature changes accompanying some of
the following types of change: • salts dissolving in water •
neutralization reactions • displacement reactions • combustion
reactions.
Practical investigating temperature changes
Aim: to perform a calorimetry study of the reaction between HCL and
NaOH
Material: dilute hydrochloric acid, dilute sodium hydroxide solution,
Styrofoam (polystyrene) calorimeter and lid, 25 cm3 measuring cylinder,
thermometer and stirrer
Method:
1. Using a measuring cylinder, place 25 cm3 of the NaOH solution
into the calorimeter
2. Measure and record the temperature of the solution
3. Add 5cm3 of the dilute HCL and stir
4. Measure and record the highest temperature reached by the
mixture
5. Repeat steps 1-4 increasing the amount of acid added by 5cm3
each time
Results:
Volume of Temperature
Acid
5cm3 18oC
10cm3 19OC
Conclusion: the larger the difference in the temperature the more
energy is absorbed or released.
2. Rates of reaction

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Unit 3- Physical Chemistry

Exothermic and Endothermic

In endothermic reactions, the

oIn exothermic reactions,

temperature changes to the water

3.3 calculate the heat energy change from a measured

3.6C know that bond-breaking is an endothermic process and that

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