Lecture notes for Applied Hydrology by Dr. M.O.

Nyadawa

HYDROLOGIC MEASUREMENTS

1) Introduction: The purpose of hydrologic measurement is to obtain data for use in

further understanding of hydrologic processes. The data are direct input into
hydrologic simulation models for design, analysis and decision making. World
Meteorological Organization provides guidelines on methods and standards guiding
hydrologic measurements. Recent advances in electronics and ICT allow data to be
measured and analyzed as events occur, for purpose of disaster management.
Hydrologic processes vary in space and time, and are random, or probabilistic, in
character, but despite this, scientists still attempt to draw various scientific
conclusions from analysis of past records.
2) Hydrologic Measurement sequence: Though hydrologic processes vary
continuously in space and time, most measurements are usually measured as point
samples. However, recent advances in technology (e.g. remote sensing) have
allowed the measurement of distributed samples of some phenomena.

3) Sequence of hydrologic measurements: Basically seven steps are all or partially

used
i. Sensing: A sensor translates the level of intensity of the phenomenon into
an observable signal. Sensors may be direct or indirect.
ii. Recording: A recorder is a device for preserving the signal produced by
the sensor. Recorders may be manual or automatic.
iii. Transmission: This the transfer of a record from a remote recording site to
a central location. It may be manual like routinely changing chart or tapes
or real time transmission.
iv. Translation: Is the conversion of a record from field instrument form into a
computerized data sequence for permanent electronic storage.
v. Editing: Is the procedure of checking the records translated into the
computer to correct any obvious errors info which has occurred during the
previous steps or redundant information.
vi. Storage: Edited data are stored in appropriate data bank or any storage
device e.g. diskettes, CDs etc.
vii. Retrieval: Recovery of the data in the form required e.g. printouts, soft
copies, on-line.

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Lecture notes for Applied Hydrology by Dr. M.O. Nyadawa

Hydrologic
Phenomeno
n e.g.
rainfall

Sensing

Recording

Transmission

Translation

Editing

Storage

Retrieval

Use of data

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Lecture notes for Applied Hydrology by Dr. M.O. Nyadawa

4) Measurement of some hydrologic elements: Selected elements are common

elements of hydrologic cycle: rainfall, evaporation, streamflow and groundwater.
Table below summarizes methodologies involved in these measurements.

Element Method of Instruments Remarks

Measurement
Rainfall Point i. Standard raingauge Daily data
ii. Storage gauges Accumulate daily
iii. Automatic gauges data
Records duration and
Areal From averaging point magnitude
measurements E.g. Simple mean,
Thiessen Polygon,
Isohyetal method etc
Radar
Directly provide
distributed samples
Evaporation Point i. Pan (e.g.USWB Daily data, also
Class A) rainfall record P is
ii. Atmometers needed to compute
E=P±∆H
∆H =0.5mmxNo.
Evapotranspiration Point a. Lysimeter cups
Areal a. Solving Water balance Used to estimate ET
equation losses in natural
Solving Energy balance ground surface.
equation
Solving aerodynamics
equation

Water stage Manual Staff gages Wooden, steel

(point) Crest gauges To capture peak flows

Automatic Pneumatic, float type etc Provide continuous

water level water stage record
recorders
(point)
Flow velocity Manual Current meter Rotor or cup type
(Point)
Automatic Flow measurement meter Use electromagnetic
sensors
Streamflow Point Velocity – Area Methods Mean section, Mid-
section methods

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Lecture notes for Applied Hydrology by Dr. M.O. Nyadawa

Dilution Method Constant injection or

integration method

Rating curve/ equation Common in remote

sites
Subsurface water Soil moisture Oven drying and
gravimetric methods

Neutron probes

Infiltration Ring infiltrometers

Groundwater Water level in observation

Level well.

Groundwater Tracer methods

velocity

5) Numerical Example:

If a dam is built at the catchments’

outfall and a statutory minimum discharge of 0.1m3/s is maintained throughout the year
in the river downstream, assess the water available for supply per year in m3. (Assume the
drainage basin is water tight and there is a total evaporation loss of 400mm per year and
rainfall measurements within the basin are as shown in Table 1.
Table 1
Raingauge 1 2 3 4 5 6
No.
Rainfall 2052 1915 1969 1723 1640 1510
(mm)
Thiessen 7.8 8.3 10.2 11.5 5.4 6.8
Polygon area
(km2)

SOLUTION
Assessment here is by subtracting outputs from inputs:

Inputs is rainfall – estimate areal mean depth = = 1798mm

Rainfall volume in a year = Area x mean depth = 89.9 x106 m3

Outputs : Minimum downstream release in a year = 0.1x60x60x24x365 = 3.1536x106 m3

Evaporation loss in a year = 0.4x50x106 = 20x106 m3
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Lecture notes for Applied Hydrology by Dr. M.O. Nyadawa

Available water for supply = 89.9 x106 m3- 3.1536x106 m3- 20x106 m3
= 66.7464x106m3

6) Determination of mean velocity in a vertical: Mean velocity can be calculated

from point readings at current meter positions in the vertical. Current meter
readings are usually in revolutions per time and is converted into velocity units
through current meter equation (e.g. V=a+bN , where N are rev/sec and a and b are
current meter constants given by manufacturers). The number of point velocities
necessary to determine mean velocity in a vertical depends on the accuracy
required. However, the following methods are used are used where position of
current meter at D is referred from water surface:

 One-point method; Vmean = V0.6D

 Two-point method:

 Three-point method:

 Five-point method:
 Graphical method: A number of equidistant point velocities are taken on a
vertical, graph of velocity against depth drawn and

7) Computation of stream discharges: Now from already computed widths every

panel(b), depths of every vertical(d) and mean velocity for every vertical, discharge
of each panel can be computed using mean section or mid section methods:
 Mean section method: Assumptions are (1) end panels have triangular shapes
(2) mid-panels have trapezoidal shapes (3) mean velocity in a panel is the
average velocity of the means of the bounding verticals.

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Lecture notes for Applied Hydrology by Dr. M.O. Nyadawa

B1 B2 B3

1 D1 D2 D3
V1 2 V2 3 V3

Above sketch is half section of a river showing three panels with measured parameters
indicated on the verticals

Qtotal= Q1+Q2+Q3+. +. Qn

Mean section Q1 = A1V1 where A1= 0.5(B1D1) and V1mean = 0.5(0+V1)

Q2= A2V2 where A2= 0.5(D1+D2).B2 and V2mean=0.5(V1+V2)
Q3= A3V3 where A3= 0.5(D2+D3).B3 and V3mean=0.5(V2+V3)

For mid section method: mid ordinates are introduced in the middle of the panels to
divide the above widths into two equal parts and panels are now redefined as bounded by
new introduced vertical ordinates. The following assumptions are now applied: (1) areas
bounded by constructed mid-ordinates are rectangular areas (2) end areas outside the
extreme ordinates are neglected (3) velocity in each new panel as bounded by newly
constructed ordinates equal to the velocity in mid vertical.
Using above sketch compute Q’total by mid-section method ?

Q’total= Q’1+Q’2+Q’3+. +. Q’n , note that panel geometry has changed

B’1 = 0.5(B1+B2), B’2= 0.5(B2+B3), B’3= 0.5(B3+B4) end areas are neglected
Mid section Q’1 = A’1V’1 where A’1= B’1D1) and V’1mean = V1
Q’2= A’2V’2 where A’2= B’2D2 and V’2mean=V2
Q’3= A’3V’3 where A’3= B’3D3 and V’3mean=V3

Numerical example

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Lecture notes for Applied Hydrology by Dr. M.O. Nyadawa

Using the following data compute the river discharge by mid and mean section method.

Distance 2 4 5 8 10 12 14 16 17 18
from
initial
point
(m)
Depth 0 0.3 0.5 1.5 1.0 2.0 1.2 0.8 0.2 0
(m)
Mean - 0.1 0.14 0.5 0.16 1.20 0.90 0.92 0.1 -
velocity
m/sec

Answers : Mid section = 10.464m3/s and mean section 9.328 m3/s

Numerical example
Compute the streamflow by mid-section method using data given in Table 2. Assume that
current meter equation is given by V=a+bN where N = Rev/sec
Table 2
Distance from Depth Meter depth Rev Time
Bank (m) (m) (m) (sec)
0.6 0.3 0.18 10 50
1.2 1.07 0.85 22 55
0.21 35 52
1.8 1.58 1.28 28 53
0.30 40 58
2.7 1.92 1.52 32 58
0.40 45 60
3.4 1.34 1.07 28 45
0.27 33 46
4.0 0.67 0.40 22 50
4.6 0.24 0.15 12 49
5.2 0

SOLUTION
i. Calculate point velocities at each location of current meter using given current
meter equation . Note that N must be in Rev/sec
ii. Determine mean velocity in each vertical using 1-point or 2-point after verifying
the position of the current meter.
iii. Sketch the river cross-section, indicating on each vertical values of depth and
mean velocities.
iv. Draw mid-ordinates in every panel bounded by verticals indicated in (iii)
v. Calculate new widths of each panel as newly defined by mid-odinates, Note that
mean velocities are now at the center of these new panels.
vi. Calculate the areas of these new panels by multiplying widths calculated in step
(v) and center depths.

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Lecture notes for Applied Hydrology by Dr. M.O. Nyadawa

vii. Calculate velocity for each panel by multiplying areas calculated in step (vi) and
mean velocities as centered in step (v).
viii. Sum all discharges in step (vii)
Problem 2 can be repeated using mean section method

i. Computation of stream discharges using stage-discharge relationship: River stage

is the elevation of the water surface of a stream relative to a datum. By plotting
discharge (Q) against corresponding river stage (H). The shape of the curve is a
function of geometry of the channel and the following relationships can be
established: (1) rating curve (2) rating table (3) rating equation Q=aHb . Rating
curve is taken as an average curve between Q-H curve during rising stage and the
same curve during falling stage. Though rating curve is a normal curve, individual
Q measurements will deviate from values read against a corresponding H due to
the following reasons:
 Change in roughness in a river
 Change in channel bed elevation due to scouring or silting
 Vegetal growth
 Variation in the backwater either from main stream or tributary
To get correct H-Q relationship it is necessary to check the cross sectional elevation in
relation to TBM and also measure H and Q and compare with Q for same H on the rating
curve. River stage is usually measured using manual staff gages or automatic level
recorders. Staff gauges can be segmental for easy installation. The following are
installation requirements:
 Zero point of staff should be low enough to measure the lowest possible flow in
the river and the highest segment, high enough to measure maximum river flow.
 Gauge plates should be mounted on stable anchor and may installed with a
known inclination angle in loose banks and readings later corrected for
verticality .
 Bench marks should be established in the vicinity to enable periodic level checks.
 Extreme stages are usually captured by automatic recorder or special manual
methods like flood marks against permanent objects, bottle gauges buried away
from banks or flood sticks coated with soluble paint.
Rating equation constants a and b are established by log-log plot of H-Q or method of
least squares.
Numerical example: Using the stage discharge values given below, establish rating
equation.
H (m) 0.5 0.8 1.2 1.32 1.4 1.56
Q(m3/s) 0.9 4 6.4 7.1 8.3 8.95

SOLUTION
Plot Q vs H on alog –log paper , a is y-intercept and b is the gradient
Or write two equations (1)logQ=log(a) +blogH and (2) multiply equation 1 by logH to
give the form logHlogQ=log(a)logH +b(log H)2 . Substitute each row of data in the two
equations and sum the results for equation 1 and 2. Then solve simultaneously for a and
b. Approximate answer Q =4.4H1.7.

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Lecture notes for Applied Hydrology by Dr. M.O. Nyadawa

8) Dilution gauging : two approaches are used (1) constant rate injection method or
(2) gulp injection or integration method. See details in attached handout.
Numerical example:
Estimate the river discharge using integration method on the basis of data given
below if 10kg was initially dumped in the stream at 0700hrs. Assume the background
concentration of tracer in the river before gauging exercise was zero.

Time(hrs) 0700 0730 0800 0830 0900 0930 1000 1030 1100 1130
Concentration at the 0 0 2.5 6.5 12.5 8.5 7.5 2.5 1.0 0
Downstream stn mg/l

Time(hrs) 1200 1230 1300 1330

Concentration at the 0 0 0 0
Downstream stn mg/l

SOLUTION
in this case Vc=0 and Vc1 =10kg, in this case ∆t
=0.5h, ∑c = 41mg/l.

kg/m3. sec = 135.5 x10-3 m3/s

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