BTEC National in Engineering Unit 2

Delivery of Engineering
Processes Safely
as a Team
2
UNIT 2
Getting to know your unit
Engineering processes, whether concerned with the manufacture of a

Assessm ent product or the delivery of an engineering service, are the cornerstones
This unit will be assesse d of all modern industrial engineering. A single individual cannot carry
by a series of assignm ents out any complex industrial function effectively – often the coordinated
set by your tutor. efforts of hundreds or even thousands of people are required to
manufacture a complex product such as a car or an aeroplane. This unit
covers a range of practical and teamworking skills that are necessary
when manufacturing a product or delivering a service safely as a team.
How you will be assessed

This unit will be assessed by a series of internally assessed tasks set by your tutor.
Throughout this unit you will find assessment practice activities to help you work
towards your assessment. Completing these activities will not mean that you
have achieved a particular grade, but you will have carried out useful research or
preparation that will be relevant when it comes to your final assignment.
In order for you to achieve the tasks in your assignment, it is important to check that
you have met all of the assessment criteria. You can do this as you work your way
through each assignment.
If you are hoping to gain a Merit or Distinction grade, you should also make sure that
you present the information in your assignments in the style that is required by the
relevant assessment criterion. For example, Merit criteria require you to analyse, and
Distinction criteria require you to evaluate.
The assignments set by your tutor will consist of a number of tasks designed to meet
the criteria in the table. They are likely to take the form of written reports, but may
also include activities such as the following:
▸▸ Reviewing and analysing case studies based on the manufacture of an engineered
product or delivery of a service in terms of the processes used and the influence of
human factors.
▸▸ Creating engineering drawings using computer-aided design (CAD) software.
▸▸ Carrying out practical engineering processes both as a team leader and as a
member of a team.
74 Delivery of Engineering Processes Safely as a Team

Getting to know your unit UNIT 2
Delivery of Engineering Processes Safely as a Team

Assessment criteria
This table shows what you must do in order to achieve a Pass, Merit or Distinction grade, and where you
can find activities to help you.
Pass Merit Distinction
Learning aim A Examine common engineering processes to create products or deliver

services safely and effectively as a team
A.P1 A.M1 A.D1
Explain how three engineering processes are used safely Analyse why three engineering Evaluate, using high quality written
when manufacturing a given product or when delivering processes are used to manufacture language, the effectiveness of using
a given service. a product or to deliver a service different engineering processes to
Assessment practice 2.1 and how human factors, as an manufacture a product or to deliver
individual and as a team, affect a service and how human factors, as
A.P2 the performance of engineering an individual and as a team, affect
Explain how human factors, as an individual or as a team, processes. the performance of engineering
affect the performance of engineering processes. Assessment practice 2.1 processes.
Assessment practice 2.1 Assessment practice 2.1
Learning aim B
Develop two-dimensional computer-aided drawings that can be used in
engineering processes
B.P3 B.M2 B.D2
Create an orthographic projection of a given component Produce, using layers, an accurate Refine, using layers, an accurate
containing at least three different types of feature. orthographic projection of a orthographic projection of a
Assessment practice 2.2 component containing at least component containing at least three
three different types of feature different types of common feature
B.P4 and a circuit diagram containing at and a circuit diagram containing at
least six different component types least six different component types
Create a diagram of a given electrical circuit containing
that mainly meet an international to an international standard.
at least six different component types.
standard. Assessment practice 2.2
Assessment practice 2.2
Learning aim C Carry out engineering processes safely to manufacture a product or to

deliver a service effectively as a team
C.P5 C.M3 C.D3
Manage own contributions to set up and organise a Manage own contributions safely Consistently manage own
team in order to manufacture a product or deliver a and effectively using feedback from contributions effectively using
service. peers, as a team member and a team feedback from peers, as a team
Assessment practice 2.3 leader, to manufacture a product or member and a team leader, to set
to deliver a service. up, organise and manufacture a
C.P6 product or deliver a service safely,
Produce, as an individual team member, a risk demonstrating forward thinking,
assessment of at least one engineering process. adaptability or initiative.
Assessment practice 2.3 Assessment practice 2.3
C.P7
Set up, as an individual team member, at least one
process safely by interpreting technical documentation.
C.P8
Manage own contributions safely, as a team member and
a team leader, to manufacture a batch of an engineered
product or to deliver a batch of an engineering service.
75
Getting started
In a small group, make a list of situations where you have had to work as
part of a team. Think about how teamworking compares with working alone
and make a list of the advantages and disadvantages of the two approaches
to completing a task.
Examine common engineering processes to create

A products or deliver services safely and effectively
as a team
Engineering projects are usually large and complex, These ideas must be developed, evaluated and refined to
requiring a range of specialist skills to complete. Some of the achieve a viable solution. Once a solution is established, it
great feats of engineering from history, such as Concorde or must be communicated effectively to the people who will
the Channel Tunnel, involved tens of thousands of people be asked to manufacture the product or deliver the service.
working together over decades to bring the project to Preparation will include these documents:
fruition. The manufacture of everything, from condensing
▸▸ Technical specifications – define exactly what a
boilers to cars, depends on multi-skilled teams of engineers
product or service will do.
and technicians working together to manufacture products
quickly, efficiently and in the necessary numbers to satisfy ▸▸ Engineering drawings – define exactly what the
demand. After manufacture, similar multi-skilled teams are individual components of a product will look like and
relied upon to deliver the services that help to maintain and how they should be assembled during manufacture to
repair these complex products. make the final product.
▸▸ Scale of production – defines the number of products
Key terms that need to be manufactured or the number of times
Team – a group containing three or more individuals a service needs to be performed, hence dictating the
who have a common objective or shared goal. approach to manufacture or service delivery;
(see Table 2.1).
Batch – three or more products manufactured or
services delivered together. ▸▸ Work plans – define a standard methodology that
should be followed when manufacturing a product or
delivering a service.
A1 Common engineering processes ▸▸ Quality control documents – define the checks that
Preparation before product manufacture or should take place both during and after manufacturing
product delivery a product or delivering a service.
Generally engineering products or services start life as
ideas on how to solve a particular problem or satisfy some
other demand from a customer or the wider marketplace.
▸▸ Table 2.1 Characteristics of different scales of production
One-off Small batch Mass or large batch Continuous

Unit cost high medium low low
Tools and equipment general specialised specialised and dedicated dedicated
Initial investment low medium high high
Production efficiency low medium high very high
Labour type skilled skilled and semi-skilled semi-skilled and unskilled unskilled
Labour cost high medium low low

Learning aim A UNIT 2
Standards and reference material ▸▸ Table 2.2 Metric (course) tapping

drill sizes
The importance of BS8888
The people who design a product and create its technical specifications are often not Thread size Tap drill (mm)
the same people who manufacture the product. In fact, they are increasingly likely to M3 × 0.5 2.50
be thousands of miles apart in different countries and may not even share a common M4 × 0.7 3.30
language. M5 × 0.8 4.20
It is vital, therefore, that the drawings and information that you generate comply with M6 × 1 5.00
the widely adopted rules and conventions laid down in BS8888 for writing technical M8 × 1.25 6.80
specifications. In this way you are adopting a common technical language that will be M10 × 15 8.50
understood by engineering companies globally.
Reference charts ▸▸ Table 2.3 Cutting speeds for
commonly used engineering
When preparing drawings and work plans it is often necessary to use information
metals (using high-speed steel
from reference charts or other sources of technical information. These can be found in tooling)
engineering handbooks and are often displayed as posters in engineering workshops.
The charts give information such as that in Tables 2.2 and 2.3. Cutting speed
Material type
(m/min)
Products and services Mild steel 30–38
The main driver of economic activity through which wealth can be generated is the Cast iron 18–24
provision of products and services. Carbon steel 21–40
Products Stainless steel 23–40
Products are types of goods that are manufactured and then sold to customers. Upon Aluminium 75–105
purchase, customers take ownership of products, which can then be used when the Brass 90–210
customer needs them until they break down or wear out and have to be repaired or
replaced. Products are physical items such as cars, washing machines and bicycles.
Services
A service can be described as a series of activities that provides benefit (value) to
customers. Examples of services are the processing of a credit card transaction by a
bank or an MOT inspection by a garage.
Key terms
Product – the final tangible outcome of a manufacturing process, often referred to
in economics as ‘goods’ (e.g. a car, television or chair).
Service – activities that provide some intangible benefit to a customer (e.g.
processing a credit card payment or performing an MOT inspection on a car).
Working in small groups, list some services that you might associate with the
P a use point
engineering sector.
Hint Such services might involve disassembly, maintenance activities or part replacement.
Extend Choose one of the engineering services you identified and break it down into the
separate steps that would be involved in its delivery.
Common processes used to manufacture engineered products

Bench fitting
Bench fitting is the general term used for a wide range of engineering workshop
activities carried out at a bench, which needs to be substantial and rigid and usually
has a steel working surface. The fitter’s vice (see Figure 2.1) is possibly the most
important piece of equipment in bench fitting. It is used to secure a workpiece or
assembly in place while the engineer uses hand tools such as files, saws or taps.
77
Filing techniques
Files can be used in different ways to give different finishes:
▸▸ cross filing – used for rapid material removal.
▸▸ draw filing – used for finishing to improve surface finish.
▸▸ straight filing – used to flatten surfaces (this is a highly
skilled operation that can take years to master).
As the engineer files material from the workpiece, the
spaces between the file teeth will become clogged. This is
called ‘pinning’. You can minimise pinning by rubbing chalk
into the teeth periodically as you work. When pinning
starts to affect the way in which the file cuts or begins to
▸▸ Figure 2.1 A fitter’s vice mark the surface being worked on, the teeth should be
cleaned with a special wire brush called a file card.
It is usually better to work on individual components or
sub-assemblies from larger products at a bench where you Key term
can securely hold and orient them as necessary to access
various parts. For example, a motor vehicle technician Operation – a single step in a manufacturing process.
wouldn’t disassemble a disc brake calliper while it was still For example, this could be marking out the position of
on a vehicle. a hole when manufacturing a product or removing an
access panel when delivering an engineering service.
Files
You would use a double-cut forged carbon steel file to
shape metals such as brass, aluminium and steel. Cutting
You usually use a hacksaw (Figure 2.3) to cut metal. High-
Files come in many shapes and sizes, with different tooth
quality hacksaw blades are constructed from high-speed
pitches suited to different applications. Rough and bastard
steel (HSS) that has been hardened to enable the teeth to
files with a large pitch between the rows of teeth are most
cut soft metals like brass and aluminium, as well as most
suited to rapid metal removal with reduced clogging, but
steels, accurately and with ease.
they give a poor surface finish. Smooth files with a small
pitch between the teeth give an excellent surface finish but
cannot remove material quickly.
The general-purpose choice of file in most workshops is
the second-cut file (see Figure 2.2), which has a tooth
pitch between those of the rough and smooth files.
Second-cut files are capable of reasonable rates of stock
removal and also give surface finishes that are acceptable
in most circumstances.
▸▸ Figure 2.3 A hacksaw
HSS hacksaw blades are necessarily hard, but as a

consequence they can also be brittle and have a tendency
to snap when bent, twisted or used incorrectly. These
problems can be overcome to an extent by using semi-
flexible bi-metal blades. These have a strip of HSS teeth
welded to a tougher and more flexible, but also softer,
▸▸ Figure 2.2 A second-cut flat file steel backing.

General-purpose carbon steel blades, which have been First, you need to prepare a rod of material of the correct

differentially hardened to make the teeth hard but leave diameter for the thread required. This is the outside
the back tough and flexible, are also commonplace. diameter of the thread, so for an M8 thread you will need
Generally these are suitable only for occasional use or use rod of 8.0 mm diameter.
with soft materials. They tend to wear quickly and become
Like taps, split button dies also have a lead-in, so you must
blunt when used with harder materials such as steel.
similarly orient them correctly in the die holder. To enable
Like other saws, hacksaw blades are available with different easy starting on the first cut, you can spread the split die a
teeth pitches. These are usually defined in terms of the little using the central screw on the die holder. Again, you
number of teeth per inch (TPI). For general-purpose work, need to take great care at this stage to ensure that the die
a 24 TPI bi-metal blade is ideal. is aligned properly so that you don’t end up with what is
known as a drunken thread. You then make the second
Cutting internal threads
and third cuts by progressively closing the gap in the split
Internal threads are cut by hand with taps held in a tap die.
wrench (Figure 2.4).
Secondary machining
Types of workshop machine include pillar drills, lathes and
milling machines. You typically use these to make holes,
slots or other features in a single workpiece by removing
the material required by the component design.
Drilling using a pillar drill
You primarily use a pillar drill (Figure 2.6) to cut circular
holes in a range of materials. The pillar drill has the
▸▸ Figure 2.4 A thread-cutting tap held in a tap wrench advantage over hand drills in that the rotating chuck
moves vertically up and down by means of an operating
Before using the tap to cut a thread, you need to drill
handle and the depth of cut can be controlled using
a hole with the appropriate diameter for the thread
adjustable stops.
required. This diameter is known as the tapping drill
size and can be obtained from appropriate engineering
workshop reference tables (such as Table 2.2).
Taps are generally provided in sets of three with
progressively shorter leads. The first-cut (or taper) tap has
a long lead-in to enable you to start the thread in the plain
hole. You must ensure that the thread is aligned with the
axis of the hole. The second-cut tap has less of a lead-in
and can be used to increase the depth of the thread. The
third-cut (or plug) tap can be used to finish the thread-
cutting through the full thickness of the material or to the
bottom of a blind hole.
Cutting external threads
You cut external threads by hand using a split button die
secured in a die holder (Figure 2.5).
▸▸ Figure 2.5 A split button die in a die holder ▸▸ Figure 2.6 Pillar drill
79
▸▸ Features – through holes, blind holes, countersinking, flat-bottomed holes,
counterbored holes.
▸▸ Tooling – straight-shanked twist drill bits (1–13 mm diameter), taper-shank twist drills
(>13 mm diameter), centre drills, countersinks, counterbores, flat-bottomed drills.
▸▸ Tool holding – keyed or keyless Jacobs chuck.
▸▸ Work holding – machine vice, clamps.
▸▸ Parameters –
▸▸ the spindle speed (N) in revolutions per minute (rpm) must be selected before
drilling. This will depend on a range of factors, but is generally found using the
1000S
formula N =  _______
 , where D is the diameter (in millimetres) of the hole being
πD
drilled and S is the recommended cutting speed (in m/min) of the material being
drilled, which can be obtained from general workshop data tables and charts.
▸▸ You can adjust the spindle speed by moving the spindle drive belt between
pulleys. The machine must be isolated from its power source while this procedure
is carried out.
Turning using a centre lathe

You use a centre lathe (Figure 2.7) to perform turning operations to produce round
features on cylindrical components. Unlike other machining processes that involve
turning, the tool remains stationary while the workpiece is rotated.
coolant supply
gear levers guard
toolpost
chuck topslide tailstock
head stock lathe bed
lead
screw
motor carriage carriage

lever cross-slide handle
emergency stop
▸▸ Figure 2.7 Schematic of centre lathe
▸▸ Features – flat faces, parallel diameters, stepped diameters, tapered diameters,

chamfers, grooves, knurls, axial drilled holes.
▸▸ Tooling – turning tool, facing tool, parting tool, knurling tool, centre drills.
▸▸ Tool holding – turning tools are secured on an adjustable toolpost and must be set
to the correct height and cutting angle when installed; a tailstock-mounted Jacobs
chuck is used for drilling operations.
▸▸ Work holding – cylindrical workpieces are held in a three-jaw chuck; square or
rectangular workpieces are held in a four-jaw chuck.

▸▸ Parameters – ▸▸ Features – flat surfaces, holes, grooves, slots, steps.

▸▸ The cutting speed (N) in revolutions per minute (rpm) ▸▸ Tooling – end mill, slot drill, face mill.
must be selected before turning. This will depend on ▸▸ Tool holding – milling tools have standard shank
a range of factors, but is generally found using the diameters and are held in an appropriate collet which
1000S grips over a large surface area to prevent any tool
formula N =  _______
 , where D is the diameter (in
πD movement or slippage while in use.
millimetres) of the workpiece being turned and S is the
▸▸ Work holding – machine vice, clamps.
recommended cutting speed (in m/min) of the material,
which can be obtained from general workshop data ▸▸ Parameters –
tables and charts. You can change the cutting speed by ▸▸ The spindle speed (N) in revolutions per minute
setting the gear change levers as required. (rpm) must be selected before milling. This will
depend on a range of factors, but is generally found
▸▸ The feed rate is the rate at which the carriage (and
1000S
so the toolpost and tool) moves parallel to the using the formula N =  _______
 , where D is the diameter
πD
workpiece. It is usually stated in millimetres moved (in millimetres) of the milling cutter and S is the
per revolution (mm/rev). This will usually depend recommended cutting speed (in m/min) of the
on the surface finish required because the lower material, which can be obtained from general
the feed rate the better the finish. For deep roughing workshop data tables and charts.
cuts, a high feed rate will enable lots of material to be ▸▸ The vertical and horizontal feed rates generally
removed quickly. When finishing a workpiece, shallow depend on the surface finish required. A low feed
cuts at a low feed rate will give a good surface finish. rate will give a better finish but only remove small
Milling using a vertical milling machine amounts of material.
Milling is a machining operation that uses a rotating cutter Fabrication
to remove material from a workpiece (Figure 2.8). During Instead of removing material from a solid workpiece as
operation the position of the rotating cutter is fixed, and with machining processes, fabrication involves the forming
you move the machine bed to which the workpiece is and joining of sheet metal to components in order to
clamped horizontally and vertically as required. manufacture thin-walled products such as a toolbox. Some
common fabrication processes, such as shearing, rolling
and welding, are described below.
machine Shearing
head You can use hand shears (sometimes referred to as
tin snips) to cut thin sheet metal. These are available
cutting tool with straight or curved blades and in a range of sizes.
A guillotine or press shear can be used to make longer,
machine
straighter and more accurate cuts in a wider range of
vice
material thicknesses than you can with hand shears.
cross traverse
Forming
hand-wheel
You usually making tight and uniform folds in sheet material
knee using a press-mounted V-block and blade or a box press.
vertical traverse Rolling

hand-wheel Rolling allows you to bend sheet material uniformly into
large-diameter curves or even tubes by using a series of
▸▸ Figure 2.8 Schematic of vertical milling machine adjustable rollers.
Calculate a suitable spindle speed for drilling a 10 mm diameter hole in a mild steel
P a use point
workpiece.
Hint You will need to refer to the cutting speeds for commonly used engineering
materials given in Table 2.3.
Extend Investigate the range of spindle speeds available on a pillar drill in your workshops.
81
In a general-purpose workshop these machines are usually Spot welding
manually operated using long handles or foot pedals. Spot welding is a form of electrical resistance welding
Figure 2.9 shows an example of a small, hand-operated suitable only for joining thin sheet metal components. It
combined shear, roll and V-block and blade machine that works by passing an electrical current through a small area
gives three-in-one functionality. as sheet components are pressed together by the welding
electrodes. The temperature in the material between the
electrodes is sufficient to melt and fuse the sheets together.
Electrical wiring
Engineered products often contain electrical components
that need to be wired up and connected together. Before
assembly into a product, you can make a wiring loom,
where all the necessary wires are cut to length and fitted
with the necessary connectors to join with switches and
other components. This saves time during installation
and is common practice in the automotive and aerospace
industries.
Soldering
▸▸ Figure 2.9 General-purpose combined shear, roll and V-block
and blade machine for the small workshop
You can make reliable and permanent electrical
connections by soldering. Solder is a low-melting-point
MIG welding metal alloy (commonly 60% tin and 40% lead) that
Metal inert gas (MIG) welding (Figure 2.10) is a form of can be melted safely and easily using a soldering iron
electrical resistance welding where a consumable welding (Figure 2.11). Molten solder adheres extremely well to the
wire is fed from a reel to the welding gun during operation. surface of copper wires (and many copper alloys such as
A high electrical current is fed through this wire and the brass) and can be used to make low-resistance electrical
workpiece, and a high-temperature electrical arc at the connections, while also providing good mechanical
point of contact provides the heat necessary to form the strength after it has cooled and solidified.
weld. To prevent oxidation of the molten materials as the
weld is formed, air is excluded from around the weld as it
is formed by using a shield of inert gas (usually argon) fed
from a cylinder to the tip of the welding gun. MIG welding is
suitable for a variety of material thicknesses, from car body
panels to heavy beams, because both the supply current
and the wire feed rate can be quickly and easily adjusted.
▸▸ Figure 2.11 A soldering iron
You solder components on printed circuit boards (PCBs)

by passing the board’s underside through the surface of a
bath of molten solder so that hundreds of soldered joints
are made in a single operation.
Electrical connectors
There are many situations in which it is either inconvenient
or too time-consuming to make individual soldered
connections. Sometimes there is a need for temporary
connections, which need to be easily disconnected. You
can use many different types of electrical connectors in
▸▸ Figure 2.10 MIG welding

these cases, including screw terminal blocks, crimped spade connectors and bullet

connectors (Figure 2.12), as well as plugs and sockets in hundreds of different styles
and sizes.
Primary forming
Primary forming is a term used to describe the reshaping of metals without the
removal of material. Primary forming processes include casting, forging and moulding.
Casting
You use casting processes when large numbers of components are required or when the
shape of a metal component is complex and difficult to machine. Processes take many
forms, including sand casting (Figure 2.13), investment casting and die casting. All work ▸▸ Figure 2.12 Crimp ring, bullet and
on the basic principle of pouring molten metal into a die or mould that is pre-formed in spade terminal connectors
the required shape. Once cooled, you can remove the cast component from the die or
mould and either use it directly or use secondary machining processes to refine it.
Link
Casting and forging processes

are covered in more detail
in Unit 25: Mechanical
Behaviour of Metallic
Materials.
▸▸ Figure 2.13 Pouring molten iron in sand casting
Forging
Forging does not involve melting the metal, and so the internal grain structure of
the material is different from that of cast products that have undergone complete
recrystallisation in their new shape. Forging deforms and stretches the internal
structure of the material, leaving it considerably stronger and crucially tougher than
cast components.
It is possible to cold forge some materials, but you usually need heating to soften the
metal and make it malleable so that it can be reshaped.
Traditionally forging was carried out in a blacksmith’s forge, and the reshaping was
done with an anvil and hammer. More modern forms of forging include drop and
press forging (Figure 2.14), where material is forced into a shaped die using a series of
blows or the application of extremely high pressing forces.
83
P a use point What process is used in the manufacture of spanners?
Hint Inspect a spanner in your workshop.

Extend Why do you think this process is used for making a spanner in preference to
alternative methods?
Other signs which indicate that further investigation is

required might be noisy operation, vibration, over-heating,
a blown fuse or any other problem affecting the correct
operation of the system.
Systems servicing
Most engineering systems require regular system
servicing as part of a preventative maintenance plan.
You are probably most familiar with this in relation to
motor vehicles, which need to undergo regular oil and
filter changes to help prevent premature engine wear.
Waste engine oil has to be collected, safely disposed
of and replaced with the correct grade and quantity of
new oil.
There are hundreds of examples of industrial systems
▸▸ Figure 2.14 A freshly struck, and still hot, drop-forged that require similar attention. Engineers in workshops
component ready for removal from the die
or factories that use compressed air must regularly
drain the water that accumulates in tanks and pipework
Common processes used in engineering to prevent corrosion. They need to top up lubrication
services fluids so that the compressed air feed to power tools
Disassembly, replacement and refitting carries sufficient oil to lubricate the working parts.
You will often need to disassemble an engineered product To perform these procedures safely, you must depressurise
in order to maintain, service or repair it. You usually do this the system, and isolate and lockout the compressor to
by using general tools such as screwdrivers, spanners or prevent accidental operation while the system is being
hexagon keys. worked on.
Make sure that you collect and label all the fixings (such as Installation
screws, clips and bolts) so that you can easily identify them The installation of new equipment or parts is often
during re-assembly. necessary in a range of circumstances. This might be the
Parts that have worn during normal operation (such as installation of a central heating boiler in a new house, a
cam followers, push rods or bearings) should be replaced new machine, such as a laser cutter in a workshop, or a
in the same position and orientations as they were in hydraulic winch on an off-road vehicle.
before removal, so you should also carefully record this In all these circumstances, the manufacturer of the
information. product to be installed will provide detailed installation
You will need specialist tools in certain disassembly and re- instructions.
assembly operations. These might include security screw
fasteners (which require a specific driver bit to remove), A2 Health and safety
bearing pullers or specialist alignment tools.
It is both a legal and a moral responsibility of employers
Inspection and their employees to take health and safety in the
A visual inspection of the condition of certain components, workplace seriously. There is a well-established legal and
such as those prone to wear like cutting edges on tools, regulatory framework in the UK that helps to ensure the
lubricant levels or the condition of the coolant being used safety of workers. The following is a selection of some of
on a lathe, is often enough to prompt further investigation the more important legislation and regulations that are
and component replacement, adjustment or repair. commonly encountered in engineering.

Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974 Under the Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous

The Health and Safety at Work etc Act (HASAWA) is Occurrences Regulations (RIDDOR), an employer has a
the cornerstone of British health and safety legislation. legal duty to report certain types of serious accident,
It establishes in law the legal responsibilities that an incident or dangerous occurrence directly to the Health
employer has towards their employees as well as visitors and Safety Executive (HSE). These reports are used by the
and members of the public while on their premises. As HSE to compile statistics on the numbers of different types
a consequence, if you are an employee, apprentice or of accidents. If the HSE suspects that a company has failed
on work experience in an engineering business, then the to meet its legal responsibilities with regard to the health
employer must provide you with: and safety of its employees, the reports are also likely to
prompt an investigation.
▸▸ safe machinery and systems of work to help prevent
accidental injury including the provision of appropriate An accident or incident at work becomes reportable under
personal protective equipment (PPE) RIDDOR if certain types of injury result. These include, but
▸▸ a healthy workplace, which should include adequate are not restricted to:
lighting, heating (or air conditioning) and washing ▸▸ death
facilities ▸▸ the fracture of any bone, except a digit or toe
▸▸ a safe workplace with appropriate fire alarms, clearly ▸▸ amputation of any part of the body
defined exit routes and established emergency ▸▸ permanent or temporary loss of sight
procedures ▸▸ any crush that has damaged internal organs in the head
▸▸ safe methods of storing, transporting, handling, or torso
using and disposing of any substances or materials ▸▸ serious burns
encountered as part of your employment ▸▸ scalping that requires hospital treatment
▸▸ appropriate training and instruction in how to carry out ▸▸ loss of consciousness resulting from a head injury or
your duties safely. suffocation
▸▸ certain injuries that have resulted from working in an
Employees (and any other persons with permission to
enclosed space.
be on site) also have a legal responsibility to look after
their own and their colleagues’ health and safety, and to Some occupational diseases must also be notified if
cooperate with their employer on health and safety issues. contracted while at work, such as occupational dermatitis
caused by contact with cement dust, oils or waste materials.
Suppliers and manufacturers of materials and equipment
used in the workplace also have a legal obligation under Dangerous occurrences that must be notified to the HSE
the Act to ensure these are safe. They must provide include:
adequate information (e.g. data sheets, operating ▸▸ failure of any crane, lift, hoist or derrick
instructions) on the correct use of the products they ▸▸ failure of a pressurised container, such as a tank on a
supply. compressor
HASAWA also established the Health and Safety Executive ▸▸ a forklift truck tipping over.
(HSE) that is responsible for developing national health and
safety guidance and enforcing the provisions made in the
Personal Protective Equipment at Work
Act. HSE inspectors have the right to enter any workplace Regulations 1992
where they believe dangerous working practices are Employers have an obligation to provide appropriate PPE
being used. If a serious breach of health and safety law is when its use is deemed necessary by a risk assessment.
discovered, notices can be served to halt dangerous work
PPE must be fit for purpose in order to provide the required
and/or prosecutions made against the company involved.
level of protection. For example, a boiler suit provided
for use by a welder should be manufactured from a
Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and flame-retardant material, and dust masks must be of an
Dangerous Occurrences Regulations 2013 appropriate type and sufficient quality to provide effective
All accidents and incidents (including minor ones and protection against the inhalation of dust or particulates.
near misses) in the workplace should be recorded in the All PPE must be provided free of charge to relevant
company accident book. These records will be used when employees, and it must be cleaned and maintained by the
reviewing risk assessments, and they often prompt the employer. Worn or damaged equipment that is no longer
introduction of additional control measures. fit for purpose must be replaced.
85
Control of Substances Hazardous to Health
Regulations 2002
The Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH)
Regulations are designed to ensure the safe use and
handling of the potentially hazardous substances that are
often encountered in engineering. For instance, frequent
and prolonged skin contact with some common fluids,
such as petrol and oil, can cause long-term skin problems,
which is why you should use barrier creams and gloves to
minimise your exposure.
Some chemicals, such as those used as solvents in paints
and glue, can cause more immediate damage or even ▸▸ Figure 2.15 Examples of COSHH warning symbols that can be
death if inhaled in sufficient quantities. found on product labels
Potentially harmful fumes, dust, liquids and chemical

vapours can enter your body through a number of Manual Handling Operations Regulations
mechanisms, including being absorbed directly through 1992
the skin or eyes, entering the bloodstream through a cut
About a third of all reported injuries at work are the result
or broken skin, and being inhaled or even ingested in
of people using incorrect manual handling methods when
contaminated food or drink.
lifting or moving heavy objects. In engineering there
Very few substances commonly encountered in engineering is often the need to move heavy tooling, equipment,
will cause immediate acute symptoms, and even fewer have components or products, so you must be familiar with safe
the potential to pose an immediate threat to life in normal ways in which this can be achieved.
circumstances. However, prolonged exposure to a range of
Employers should ensure that their staff avoid moving
substances has been shown to be severely detrimental to
any items in the workplace in a way that could cause
long-term health. For instance, exposure to coal dust over
them injury. Where repetitive movement of heavy
the working life of a miner is known to cause chronic lung
objects is required, some mechanical aid should be
diseases, and exposure to asbestos, used for years as a heat-
employed to lessen the reliance on manual handling.
proof insulation material, is directly linked to an aggressive
For instance, on a vehicle production line, heavy sub-
and incurable form of lung cancer.
assemblies such as doors are picked up and supported
When using or working with potentially hazardous in position by mechanical hoists while they are bolted
chemicals you should: into place.
▸▸ ensure that they are stored securely in appropriate and Pallet trucks, trolleys and conveyors are all widely used
labelled containers to lift and move objects around factories and production
▸▸ read and understand the labels and/or the lines. If manual handling cannot be avoided, then it is
manufacturer’s data sheets on the safe use of the important that staff be trained in the safest methods and
substances, and follow the recommendations techniques to minimise any risk of injury.
▸▸ always use the correct type of PPE to protect you from
contact with hazardous substances Research
▸▸ investigate the availability of safer alternatives.
Carry out your own research to find out more details
Appropriate warnings and labels should be displayed about employer and employee responsibilities under
where hazardous materials are present. Examples of the health and safety requirements mentioned above.
internationally recognised signs are shown in Figure 2.15.
P a use point Identify any substances in your workshop that are potentially hazardous.
Hint To comply with COSHH regulations, these substances will be locked away, so you’ll
need a technician or tutor to join your investigation.
Extend Investigate the availability of safer alternatives.

A3 Human factors ▸▸ to operate and act responsibly, avoiding negative

environmental, social or economic impact when
Human factors affecting productivity conducting work-related activities
The productivity of any organisation depends on the ▸▸ to accept responsibility for your own work and that of
people carrying out the processes. Their skill level, training, others
experience, enthusiasm and conscientiousness all play a ▸▸ to exercise personal responsibility – for example, managing
part. a project through to completion to an agreed deadline
Reliability ▸▸ to manage and apply safe systems of work – for
An important factor in maintaining productivity is that example, carrying out risk assessments
staff arrive at work on time and have a good attendance ▸▸ to take responsibility for identifying your own
record. Absenteeism increases pressure on fellow workers limitations and training requirements
as the absentee’s duties need to be performed by others ▸▸ to carry out continuing professional development
who perhaps lack the relevant knowledge and experience (CPD) activities to enhance operational knowledge and
or who may become overloaded. This inevitably leads to a competence
decrease in work output. ▸▸ to act with due care, skill and diligence throughout your
professional life.
Quality
In modern factories, quality assurance systems go well Ethical principles
beyond the traditional quality control checks carried out at If an individual, team or larger organisation is seen to
the end of the manufacturing process. All staff are expected conduct themselves ethically with a strong sense of
to perform continual quality checks as they work to ensure right and wrong, then they are perceived as trustworthy
that any problems they encounter or perhaps even cause are
and reliable. Some of the qualities displayed by those
not passed on to subsequent stages without being addressed.
considered to be acting ethically include:
This requires a certain level of trust that is cultivated in a
team-oriented environment where allocating blame is less ▸▸ Rigour – approaching each task or project in a thorough
important than addressing and solving problems together. It and careful manner.
is vital that individuals are conscious of the importance of the ▸▸ Honesty – being truthful and straightforward in dealings
quality of their own work and the work of their team and the with other people (and yourself).
potential effects on the wider organisation. ▸▸ Integrity – able to recognise right from wrong and
willing to do the right thing.
Safety
As noted in the ‘Health and safety’ section above, it is a ▸▸ Respect – displaying regard for the feelings and
legal requirement that all employees in an organisation opinions of others, valuing their contribution.
manage their own health and safety and do nothing to ▸▸ Responsibility – being accountable for your actions and,
jeopardise the safety of others. Safe working practices also when things go wrong, willing to admit you were wrong
help to maintain productivity. Stoppages while incidents and work to put things right.
and accidents are investigated or damage repaired can be
significant and have a disastrous effect on productivity, Behaviours
so it is an employee’s ethical duty to ensure that nothing Some personal characteristics and forms of behaviour can
harms their colleagues or equipment. influence how individuals are perceived and affect their
roles within a team. For instance:
Human factors affecting the performance of ▸▸ Strong values – maintaining your principles and
individuals and teams standards of behaviour is important if you are to retain
Professionalism your self-respect and gain the respect of other people.
The regulatory body for the engineering profession in the UK ▸▸ Attitude – maintaining a positive outlook can help to
is the Engineering Council. It is the role of such professional bolster the morale of a team under pressure.
bodies both to set and to regulate the standards of ▸▸ Persuasion – getting people to embrace change or try
technical competence, commitment and ethical behaviour something new is best achieved by encouragement,
of its members. These are laid out in the UK Standard for enthusiasm and reasonable argument. An individual
Professional Engineering Competence (UK-SPEC). who has given their support and agreement to a course
Some of the expectations of professional conduct for of action through collaboration will be more committed
engineers are: and effective than if they were coerced.
87
▸▸ Coercion – an unacceptable form of forceful persuasion, ▸▸ Fatigue – physical or mental tiredness.
which might include threats or emotional blackmail, that ▸▸ Memory – it is only possible to retain a limited number
will cause long-term damage to relationships and morale. of facts and effectively process a limited amount of
▸▸ Rapport – establishing good relationships with groups information at any one time.
or individuals by understanding their thought processes, ▸▸ Capability – the extent of someone’s ability to complete
cares and concerns and communicating clearly and a task.
effectively with them is a valuable skill. ▸▸ Motivation – the reasons why people act in the ways
▸▸ Authority – although the person in charge of a team or they do; put simply, it is their desire to do certain things.
organisation has the right to make decisions and direct People tend to be motivated by a variety of factors, and
the activities of others, the way in which they choose to it shouldn’t be assumed that all people are alike in what
exercise their authority can be damaging if it is not done they find motivating.
respectfully. ▸▸ Knowledge – the depth of a person’s technical
Limitations knowledge must be sufficient for the task in hand.
There are both physical and mental limitations to the ▸▸ Experience – generally people become quicker and
activities that can be undertaken by an individual or a more effective at performing tasks or processes if they
team in a busy working environment. You must consider have done them before.
the following: ▸▸ Health – some physical tasks are unsuitable for those
▸▸ Stress – a sense of mental and emotional strain or with particular health issues or physical limitations.
anxiety that can be brought about by the demands and Other factors, such as the consumption of drugs or
pressure of work. alcohol, can seriously affect an individual’s ability to
▸▸ Time pressure – having to complete tasks in a fixed time perform tasks safely.
frame or at a defined rate.
P a use point Which ethical and behavioural characteristics do you believe you already possess?
Hint Go through the list one at a time and be honest about your assessment of yourself.
Extend Ask a colleague to carry out the same procedure, but to look for the characteristics
they recognise in you. Do the two lists match?
Assessment practice 2.1 A.P1 A.P2 A.M1 A.D1

You are working in a small engineering company, and your Plan
manager has asked you to take a look at a prototype of a •• What is the task? What am I being asked to
screwdriver and determine the best way to manufacture five more do?
as samples for potential clients. Your recommendation should be •• How confident do I feel in my own abilities
fully justified and include a comparison with alternative processes. to complete this task?
If the screwdriver eventually goes into production, it will be •• Are there any areas I think I may struggle with?
required in large numbers. Your manager has explained that when Do
demand reaches a certain level, a fully automated manufacturing •• I am confident in what I’m doing and know
system will be introduced that will eliminate human involvement in what I should be achieving.
the process almost entirely. •• I can identify where I’ve gone wrong and
This would require a significant investment, and your company adjust my thinking/approach to get myself
is keen to establish how a range of human factors could actually back on course.
benefit the performance of engineering processes involved in Review
manufacturing. •• I can explain what the task was and how I
Your manager has asked you to write a technical report that will approached its execution.
address the issues that she will present to the operations director •• I can identify the parts of the task that I
of the company. Care must be taken to ensure that a high found most challenging and seek ways that
standard of written language is used throughout. will help me to overcome any difficulties.

Learning aim B UNIT 2
Develop 2D computer-aided drawings that can be used

B

in engineering processes
Link
Unit 10: Computer-Aided Design in Engineering covers many of the techniques

and concepts required by this learning aim. Unit 10 also includes additional
background material that you will find helpful when you practise using CAD
software to produce your own drawings
B1 Principles of engineering drawing

Orthographic projections
An orthographic projection is a method of positioning the different views of an object
when representing it in an engineering drawing, such as that in Figure 2.16. The rules
that dictate where each view goes in an orthographic projection can be confusing, so
you may find the following rules of thumb helpful.
▸▸ Figure 2.16 Third-angle orthographic projection of a screwdriver handle component
Third-angle orthographic projection

The standard symbol (Figure 2.17)
that you will find on a drawing
arranged in a third-angle projection
looks very much like something that
you are probably familiar with – a
traffic cone. This will help remind you
how to set out the drawing.
▸▸ Figure 2.17 Symbol for third-angle projection
89
Worked Example
Draw a third-angle orthographic projection of a real traffic cone.
Solution
Swing up the base
Third-angle side
Plan view elevation
▸▸ Figure 2.18 Rule of thumb to create a third-angle projected view
Step 1: Draw the plan first – this shows the view of the object from directly above. In this case the plan view
consists of two concentric circles, representing the tapering section of the cone, inside the larger circular base (left-
hand side of Figure 2.18).
Once this has been drawn, all the other views in the drawing are projected from the plan.
Step 2: Now imagine picking up the traffic cone by its narrow pointed end and swinging the bottom of the cone
out in the direction of the next projected view to be generated (a side elevation). What you now see from above is
the way this side of the cone should be drawn as a third-angle projection (right-hand side of Figure 2.18).
Step 3: Repeat this process to create as many views as are necessary to show all the features on an object.
First-angle orthographic projection

The standard symbol for a first-angle orthographic projection is shown in Figure 2.19.
▸▸ Figure 2.19 Symbol for first-angle projection


Worked Example
Draw a first-angle orthographic projection of a real traffic cone.
Solution
Tip over
the cone
First-angle side
Plan view elevation
▸▸ Figure 2.20 Rule of thumb to create a first-angle projected view
This follows a very similar method to that used above for a third-angle projection. The only difference lies in
Step 2: instead of picking up the cone and swinging the base out, you just tip it over in the direction of the required
projected view.
Dimensions
projection line extension
Dimensions are an essential element of any dimension
engineering drawing. It takes only one missing projection line gap
or poorly formatted dimension to cause 40
unnecessary confusion and possible delays.
projection lines
Dimensioning should:
▸▸ not interfere with the component drawing feature or object
lines or any other features 50
arrow heads outline of object
▸▸ be neatly aligned and spaced out evenly
in line with
▸▸ be consistent in the use of font, text size each other
and style
▸▸ be clear and easy to interpret 50
termination
▸▸ comply with the requirements of an
(arrow head)
appropriate standard (such as BS8888).
Examples of good practice when drawing 80
linear dimensions and the different terms
used when referring to the features of ▸▸ Figure 2.21 Examples of good practice and the terms used to identify the
dimensions are shown in Figure 2.21. features of dimensions
91
Several acceptable methods can be used to dimension Material
circles; these are shown in Figure 2.22. The actual method An engineering drawing generally states the material from
to use often comes down to personal preference, but the which the component is made. This should be specified as
underlying principle here, as with all dimensioning, should a particular type, grade or alloy.
be to choose the method that gives optimum clarity.
Surface finish
Ø20 The roughness of a finished surface is defined in terms of its
roughness average (Ra) measured in micrometres (μm), which
is the arithmetic mean of the sizes of the peaks and troughs
present on a surface when viewed under a microscope.
You should state the Ra value for each surface shown on an
Ø2
0 engineering drawing. For example, a cast iron engine block
has a relatively rough cast finish (Ra ≈ 20 μm) over most of
Ø20 Ø20 its surface, but on bearing or mating surfaces, such as the
cylinder bores or where the head is mounted, the surfaces
are ground to a much lower roughness (Ra ≈ 0.2 μm).
Figure 2.23 shows the standard symbol for surface
roughness. In this case Ra = 3.0 μm is specified. This is
typical of the finish left by turning and milling operations.
▸▸ Figure 2.22 Examples of acceptable practice when 3.0

dimensioning circles
Tolerances ▸▸ Figure 2.23 The standard symbol for surface roughness

Tolerances define the allowable variation between the (indicating Ra = 3.0 μm)
measured dimensions of a completed product and the
Scale
design dimensions stated on an engineering drawing.
It is important to select a suitable scale for any engineering
Generally speaking, a reduction in tolerance means an drawing you are asked to complete. Few things will fit
increase in associated manufacturing cost. As tolerances conveniently on a standard sheet of A4 or A3 paper. More
become smaller, costs can rise because the machinery often than not, objects are drawn either larger or smaller
used in manufacturing needs to be capable of working to than life-size.
the required accuracy and precision.
Small objects, such as the components of a mobile phone,
The tolerances required will depend on the product would usually need to be drawn larger than in reality
being manufactured. For manufacturing a sheet metal so that sufficient detail can be shown with the clarity
wheelbarrow, the tolerances are likely to be large (of the necessary. When making small objects larger in a drawing,
order of ±2 mm), because this level of variation will not it is conventional to use one of the following scaling
detrimentally affect the functioning of the product. At the factors: 2 : 1, 5 : 1, 10 : 1, 20 : 1 or 50 : 1.
other extreme, a jet engine turbine assembly will require
manufacturing tolerances of the order of ±0.005 mm to Large objects, such as a car door, would be too large to
prevent vibration when the assembly rotates at high speed. draw full size on a sheet of A3, so they should be drawn
to a smaller scale. When making large objects smaller in
Tolerances can be represented on engineering drawings a drawing, it is conventional to use one of the following
in a number of ways. Again, personal preference plays a scaling factors: 1 : 2, 1 : 5, 1 : 10, 1 : 50 or 1 : 100.
part in which method you use, but you should stick to the
principle of the clearest method being the best.
Drawing conventions
BS8888
Research
The accepted conventions used in engineering drawings
Search the internet to find different ways in which and other documentation for specifying a product are
tolerances can be represented on engineering drawings. laid out in British Standard BS8888 Technical Product
Documentation and Specification.

The topics covered in BS8888 relevant to this unit are: ▸▸ Hatching – used to define areas that have been

scales, dimensioning, tolerancing, surface finish, lines, sectioned.
arrows and lettering, projections and views, and symbols ▸▸ Auxiliary view – if a component cannot be fully
and abbreviations. represented by the standard orthographic plan view
BS60617 and front, back and side elevations, then an additional
A range of standard electrical and electronic symbols for auxiliary view might be required. This allows features
use in wiring diagrams and circuit layouts are defined in that are not aligned with standard orthographic views
BS60617. to be shown and clearly dimensioned.
General layout and title block Line types

A standard layout should be used for all the drawings There are several standard line types that can be used to
produced by any one organisation. Layouts will differ represent the features on an engineering drawing. These
slightly between companies, but they should all be based are shown in Table 2.4.
on the conventions laid down in BS8888. ▸▸ Table 2.4 Standard line types used in engineering drawings
▸▸ A drawing’s extent is defined by a border. This often
Line type Usage Example
includes vertical and horizontal divisions that form a
Continuous Visible outlines and
coordinate system for identifying specific features in a
thick line edges
drawing.
Continuous Dimension projection
▸▸ The title block, usually positioned in the bottom right thin line and leader lines,
corner of a drawing, contains basic information about hatching
the drawing itself, including: Chain thin Centre lines of
▸▸ drawing number – a unique reference number that line symmetry
can be used to identify the drawing Dashed thin Hidden outlines and
▸▸ projection symbol – a symbol that specifies whether line edges
the drawing views are arranged in first- or third-angle
orthographic projection Link
▸▸ scale – the scale applicable to the component drawn
Unit 10, Figure 10.2, shows some other standard line
▸▸ units – the units in which the dimensions are stated
types used in engineering drawings.
▸▸ general tolerances – the tolerances that apply where
no specific tolerance is stated on a dimension
Circuit diagram symbols and components
▸▸ name of author – provides traceability back to the
person who created the drawing Commonly used electrical and electronic components are
▸▸ date – specifies when the drawing was completed.
represented on circuit diagrams using standard symbols,
which include those shown in Table 2.5.
▸▸ Parts referencing – when the drawing depicts an
assembly, it is common for each element to be labelled ▸▸ Table 2.5 Some component symbols used in engineering
with a balloon note and referenced in a table that drawings
contains additional information such as part numbers Component Symbol
and a description. Cell 1 2
Views
The different views portrayed in engineering drawings are: Battery 1 2
▸▸ Plan – the view of an object from directly above.
▸▸ Elevations – the front, back and side views of an object Switch – single pole
or component. Where only a single side view of an single throw (SPST)
object is required, this is sometimes referred to as the Resistor
end view.
▸▸ Section – sometimes it is necessary to provide details Diode
of a cross-sectional slice through a component to reveal
Capacitor (polarised) 1
internal or otherwise hidden details. This is provided in
a section view.
93
▸▸ Table 2.5 Some component symbols used in engineering Lettering used in notes and annotations elsewhere on
drawings – continued drawings of this size should have a minimum height of
Component Symbol 2.5 mm.
Transistor (NPN) General notes should be grouped together in one place
on the drawing wherever sufficient space is available.
However, notes relating directly to a specific view or
feature may be located adjacent to that view or feature.
All notes should be aligned in the same direction,
Integrated circuit conventionally this will be parallel to the bottom of the
drawing.
Common features
Often time and effort can be saved by using simplified
representations of common features and components in
Light emitting diode engineering drawings, such as springs, threads and splines
(LED)
(see Figure 2.24).
Tension
Motor spring
M
Buzzer
Compression
spring
Link
Male
More information can be found in Unit 19: Electronic threads
Devices and Circuits.
Abbreviations Female
threads
A number of standard abbreviations can be used in
engineering drawings. Table 2.6 lists some of these.
▸▸ Table 2.6 Some abbreviations used in engineering drawings

Splines
Abbreviation Meaning
A/F across flats
CHAM chamfer ▸▸ Figure 2.24 Simplified representations of springs, threads and
splines used in engineering drawings
DIA diameter
R radius
PCD pitch circle diameter
B2 Two-dimensional (2D) computer-
aided drawing
Lettering
It is vital that the lettering used in the title block, notes and Coordinates
dimensions are of a size and type that ensures clarity and A computer-aided design (CAD) package displays a system
legibility. To facilitate this, all lettering should be in upper of coordinates on-screen. These coordinates allow you to
case and additional formatting such as underlining should navigate around a drawing and to specify accurately the
be avoided. positions of features such as the centre of a circle or the
start and end points of a line.
On drawings sized A2, A3 and A4 the lettering used in the
title block for important information such as the drawing There are three coordinate systems available for use in
number and title should have a minimum height of 3.5 mm. most CAD packages:

▸▸ Absolute coordinates – these define your position in ▸▸ Polygon – regular polygons include shapes such

the drawing using X and Y Cartesian coordinates with as squares, rectangles and hexagons, which are all
reference to a fixed datum point or origin, often the commonly required in engineering drawings.
bottom left corner of the drawing. ▸▸ Chamfer – this describes the replacement of a sharp
▸▸ Relative coordinates – these let you choose a position (90°) corner with an edge of a specified angle.
as the origin of a Cartesian coordinate system. This is
▸▸ Fillet – this describes the replacement of a sharp (90°)
useful when you are drawing a number of different
corner with a curve of a specified radius.
features on the same diagram. For example, if you
define the starting point of a line as the origin of the ▸▸ Grid – a system of on-screen dots that help you lay out
coordinate system, then the end of the line can be the drawing. You can specify different grid spacings
specified more easily using X and Y coordinates. appropriate to the size and scale of the drawing you are
▸▸ Polar coordinates – these are a type of relative producing.
coordinate system that is particular useful when ▸▸ Snap – this allows you to use the mouse pointer to
positioning features in circular arrays. Instead of using specify an exact position in a drawing. In its simplest
distances along two perpendicular (X and Y) directions, form, when you click the mouse button, a snap will jump
polar coordinates use an angle and a distance from the to the grid point nearest to the mouse pointer. Snapping
origin to specify a position. is useful when you want to make a seamless join with the
end point or midpoint of a line, or with intersections and
Templates numerous other entities on your drawing.
The starting point for most CAD drawings will be a ▸▸ Copy – replicating an entity or group of entities that
basic template, which already contains a border and a make up a component on a drawing.
partially completed title block. Using a standard template
saves time and helps to ensure that all the drawings an Key term
organisation produces look similar and contain all the
required information in the title block. Entity – a discrete element of a drawing, such as a line
A template will probably be the first thing you create in or circle.
CAD and will be used in all your subsequent drawings, so it
is important to get it right. ▸▸ Rotate – turning an entity or group of entities around a
given centre by a specified angle.
Layers ▸▸ Erase – deleting an entity or group of entities from the
Layers in a CAD drawing can be used to overlay different drawing.
information on a common drawing outline. Each feature ▸▸ Stretch – resizing an entity or group of entities by
you add to a drawing will belong to a specified layer and specified amounts in the X and Y directions.
can be moved to a different layer if needed. You can specify
any number of layers in a drawing. You can give the layers ▸▸ Trim – removing specified sections of overlapping lines.
names and colours and control them in different ways. ▸▸ Scale – establishes the scale of the engineering drawing
For instance, if the drawing outline and dimensions are being produced, letting you use the actual dimensions
on separate layers, then you have the option to hide the of an object when creating the drawing.
dimension layer so that only the drawing outline is visible. ▸▸ Dimensioning – methods of dimensioning the features
of your drawing will vary depending on the particular
Common commands in CAD
CAD package being used. Default dimension styles and
▸▸ Line – you create straight lines by specifying a start and
formats are generally pre-set in the program preferences
an end position. You can do this by using a mouse to click so that they will be used consistently. The actual value for
between grid snaps or by clicking with the mouse to start a dimension is usually generated automatically according
a line and entering the relative coordinates of its end point. to the exact size of the drawing you have produced, but
▸▸ Circle – you can define circles in a number of ways. positioning will be up to you.
A common method is to define the centre of the circle
▸▸ Text – text boxes are frequently used in drawings to
(in the same way as you define the starting point of a
provide additional information about a component.
line) and then input its diameter.
Again, the default style and format used will generally
▸▸ Arc – this is part of the circumference of a circle.
be pre-set in the program preferences so that the text
A common method of drawing an arc is to define the will have a consistent appearance.
centre of the circle and the start and end points of the arc.
95
▸▸ Pan – moving a particular area of a drawing so that it is ▸▸ Importing standard components or symbols
more conveniently positioned on the screen. It is often – one of the advantages of CAD is that there
used in conjunction with the zoom function. are libraries containing thousands of standard
▸▸ Zoom – you zoom in to enlarge a particular area of a pre-drawn components or symbols that can be
drawing and zoom out to display more of the drawing. imported into your drawings. This can save a
great deal of time and effort when producing
▸▸ Cross-hatching – most CAD packages will have a
circuit diagrams.
number of pre-defined hatch patterns that are usually
used to denote areas of cross-sectioning. Methods of Link
applying cross-hatching differ between CAD packages,
but generally cross-hatching can be applied only to an See Unit 10 for more details on computer-aided design
area that is fully bounded by a continuous line. in engineering.
Experiment by exploring the capabilities and commands available in the 2D CAD

P a use point
package you will be using.
Hint Start by drawing simple entities such as lines and circles before attempting to join
them together.
Extend Find different ways of drawing similar features. How many ways can you draw a
circle in the CAD package you’re using?
Assessment practice 2.2 B.P3 B.P4 B.M2 B.D2

A colleague in technical sales has been working with Plan
a client on a new product and has brought in some •• What is the task? What am I being asked to do?
hand sketches they have drawn up during a recent •• What tools will I need in order to complete the task?
meeting. •• How confident do I feel in my own abilities in using the
The first sketch is of a stepped drive shaft with a milled tools? Are there any areas I think I may struggle with?
keyway cut in one end. Do
The second is of an electronic circuit that monitors the •• I know what I’m doing and what I am aiming to achieve.
temperature of the oil in the gearbox that drives the •• I can identify the parts of the task that I find most
shaft. difficult and devise strategies to overcome those
Your colleague has asked you to use the information difficulties.
in the sketches to produce an engineering drawing for Review
the shaft and a circuit diagram for the temperature •• I can explain what the task involved and how I
sensor. Use a 2D CAD package to complete these approached the work.
drawings, ensuring that they both comply with •• I can explain how I would deal with the hard elements
appropriate international standards. differently next time.
Carry out engineering processes safely to manufacture

C a product or to deliver a service effectively as a team
C1 Principles of effective teams
If teams are going to work together to achieve a common goal, then every member of the
team needs to understand what that goal is, what it will look like when it is achieved, the
part they are expected to play and how this fits with the activities of other members of the
team.

Learning aim C UNIT 2
Good communication ▸▸ Negotiation – Negotiation is a process used to reconcile

Clear communication within teams and by team members differences between parties. This could mean haggling
to external stakeholders and interested parties is vital if over the price of a contract or trying to agree how
the project is to be effective. Communication skills are the workload should be distributed within a team.
important and can take many forms: Negotiation should be carried out in a reasonable and
fair way, with the aim of establishing a compromise that
▸▸ Verbal – The language you use and the clarity with
is acceptable to all parties. Nobody should walk away
which you are able to get your message across are from a negotiated settlement feeling that they have
extremely important when talking to people. You are been treated unfairly or unreasonably.
likely to need to enunciate your words carefully and
talk more loudly during a formal presentation. You ▸▸ Assertiveness – A team leader must have a certain level
should always remain conscious of the reaction of your of assertiveness to establish and maintain the direction
audience – they will usually make you aware if they are in which the team should proceed. But don’t confuse
unable to hear or understand you properly. assertiveness with being dictatorial. Being assertive can
help to build loyalty and maintain the focus of the team
▸▸ Written – The quality and clarity of written
as they move forward with you. Being dictatorial and
communications must always be high and should be
imposing your opinions without establishing a general
tailored to suit different readers. A technical report will
consensus breeds resentment and disquiet within a team.
use appropriate technical terms, impersonal objective
language and a structure appropriate to its readership. ▸▸ Body language (non-verbal actions) – How you present
In contrast, a letter requesting a meeting to introduce yourself can often have an unconscious effect on how
a new product to a potential customer will be formal others perceive you. Maintain eye contact when you
but friendly, because it seeks to persuade the reader are talking to people; smile and shake hands when
to consider using your services. Use of correct spelling being introduced to colleagues; use your arms to help
and grammar may not be sufficient to make a good emphasise what you are saying; and definitely keep
impression, but repeated mistakes in a letter or report your hands out of your pockets!
will always leave a poor one.
Planning
▸▸ Effective listening – Other team members can only
make effective contributions if they are encouraged The following are important when planning a project:
to express their thoughts during meetings and ▸▸ Setting targets – A team needs to have a clearly defined
discussions. This means giving them the opportunity target that they are working together to attain. It is
to contribute. You must listen carefully to what they important that all members of the team understand
have to say without curtailment or interruption. Ask what the final outcome of their activities should be and
questions to make sure you really understand what the consequences to the organisation of missing the
they are saying – it could be crucial to the success deadline for their target.
of your project. Maintain eye contact and provide
▸▸ Considering alternative approaches – The full team should
encouragement by using non-verbal cues such as
meet early in the project to brainstorm ways by which
nodding as people speak.
their target might be reached. If everyone is involved in
▸▸ Respect for others’ opinions – Although you may not this way from the very start, team members will feel more
agree with all that someone else brings to a discussion, involved in the project and are more likely to buy in to the
it is important that they have the opportunity to express decisions reached and the processes chosen.
themselves and are treated with respect. This will ▸▸ Organisation – see Section C2 ‘Team set-up and
encourage them to keep contributing their ideas, some organisation’.
of which might prove valuable.
P a use point In small groups, take it in turns to express your mood using body language only.
Hint Try the easy ones first, such as happiness, sadness and excitement.
Extend Try to express more complex emotions, such as boredom, frustration or disbelief,
and see if your colleagues interpret them correctly.
97
Motivation Remember the rule of thumb that ninety per cent of
Maintaining the motivation of individuals and teams is feedback should be positive. The motivating effect of
essential if they are to function effectively. There are many thanking someone for a job well done and confirming
factors that can influence motivation. that you appreciate the efforts being made by others is
invaluable in raising morale and maintaining motivation
▸▸ Shared goals – A sense of shared enterprise towards
– but be careful not to give false praise because this can
established and achievable goals will help to sustain the
mislead.
motivation of individuals in a team.
▸▸ Collaboration – People generally enjoy working Working with others
collaboratively with their colleagues in situations where
There are several aspects of being able to work successfully
their opinions and suggestions are valued and they
as a team.
feel they are making a valuable contribution to a larger
process. ▸▸ Being a team player – To work successfully in a
▸▸ Reaching agreements – Effective negotiation will leave all
team, you need to open up to the idea that your
parties feeling fairy treated when agreeing workloads or colleagues might actually have some useful input,
allocating responsibilities within a team. People generally which could improve your way of working. In a multi-
resent having decisions imposed upon them without disciplinary team, for example, some of the tasks you
consultation or discussion. Change is best implemented currently perform might be done more effectively
by reaching mutual agreement where possible. or efficiently by a colleague. Sometimes being part
of a team means putting your feelings and opinions
▸▸ Fairness – A team leader must act impartially in all
to one side and doing what is best for the team as a
matters. Any hint of favouritism should be avoided
whole.
because it will have a negative impact on the morale of
other team members. ▸▸ Flexibility/adaptability – Your willingness and ability to
carry out multiple roles within a team will make you a
▸▸ Opportunities to take responsibility – Encourage team
valuable asset to any organisation. Working together
members who are unused to managerial roles or
is often about concentrating greatest effort where it is
positions of responsibility to take charge of parts of
needed most at any one time. This might be in an area
a project in which they have valuable experience or
that is outside your core competency or specialism
specialist knowledge. For instance, the setter who has
but in which you could effectively contribute if you are
worked with and maintained a specialist machine will
prepared to adapt.
have important knowledge to organise its transfer and
re-installation. ▸▸ Social skills – It is important to remember that you
▸▸ Constructive feedback – Comments relating to the work must practise good language and behavioural skills
carried out by members of a team should be both timely at all times in the workplace so that you don’t cause
and constructive. When things go wrong, other members embarrassment or offence. Some colleagues or team
of the team need to know quickly. Any issues raised members might become close personal friends over
should be worked on and resolved collaboratively with time.
colleagues that have been affected by the problem. ▸▸ Supporting others – You will work closely with
In general, the allocation of blame will neither help solve others in a team. A sense of loyalty and camaraderie
a problem nor improve the performance of a team or among team members is important. Mentoring
individual. Working together to solve issues will help to and supporting colleagues through difficulties both
cement relationships and demonstrate to those involved inside and outside of work help to cement these
the importance of their part in the bigger picture and the relationships.
potential effects their actions can have on the work of others.
P a use point What are the main benefits of working in a team?
Hint Try to think of an example from your own personal experience.

Extend What, if any, are the potential pitfalls of being part of a team and working closely
with others?

The working environment

Here are some attributes of a working environment that are conducive to successful
outcomes.
▸▸ Safe – Health and safety at work is vitally important to you and your team members,
and everybody should take responsibility to ensure that safe working practices are
rigidly adhered to, even if this means that a particular process might take a little
longer to complete.
▸▸ Supportive – A supportive working environment might mean more than just the
friendship of your colleagues. Your workplace might provide on-site childcare
facilities to support working parents or agree to you working from home or
becoming a part-time employee if you need to establish a better work–life balance.
Treating employees as real people and appreciating that an employee’s life outside
work can and will affect their contribution inside is likely to increase staff loyalty and
the long-term retention of staff.
▸▸ Challenging – Working within your comfort zone on the same kind of work day after
day can lead to boredom, complacency and a lack of fulfilment. Most people need
a little challenge in their working lives. Boring, unfulfilling jobs lead to bored and
unfulfilled employees, and this will in turn harm productivity and the effectiveness
of an organisation.
▸▸ Opportunities to show initiative and leadership – Providing opportunities for
employees to show initiative and leadership encourages them to push themselves,
develop and achieve their full potential. Effective leaders are rarely born, but
are developed in organisations that provide sufficient training, challenge and
progression opportunities to their staff.
Case study
The Toyota Production System (TPS) century, the lean philosophy has been applied to
everything from the delivery of services in hospitals to
the manufacture of aircraft.
A cornerstone of TPS is the empowerment of the
employees who actually carry out manufacturing
operations. Any one of them can stop the production
line in order to address a quality problem they have
encountered. The changes needed to solve the problem
can be made by the team itself immediately, without
having to seek further guidance – this minimises delay.
Taking collaborative ownership of a process in this way and
exercising both individual and joint responsibility for the
quality of the work leaving their production cell has meant
▸▸ Figure 2.25 Car being manufactured on a production line that TPS provides an environment where near-perfect
quality is the norm.
The Toyota Production System developed by the
Japanese car manufacturing giant is the forerunner of Check your knowledge
what has come to be known as the ‘lean philosophy’. How do you think that the TPS approach benefits the
Since its development in the latter part of the twentieth employees and the company as a whole?
C2 Team set-up and organisation

Team competencies and development
When establishing a team it is vital to recruit team members who have the correct mix
of skills to complete a project successfully.
99
Professional team members will have a diverse mix of For example, suppose the scope of a project is described as:
experience that can be passed on to other members ‘Change the coolant on a centre lathe.’
to develop their abilities and effectiveness. These
This is not sufficiently clear – will the project include cleaning
development activities help to enhance the flexibility and
out the coolant tank after it has been drained or safe disposal
capability of individuals and of the team as a whole.
of the old fluid? When is the coolant change going to take
Constructive peer feedback place? What will define completion of the project?
Most multi-disciplinary teams have a fairly flat hierarchical A better description might be:
structure, often with a single project manager responsible ‘Change the coolant on a centre lathe. Machine to be taken
for coordinating the efforts of the whole team. As such, out of service and handed over to maintenance team at 17.00
most opportunities for receiving feedback on your work on 04/05/16. Maintenance team to complete the following:
will come from your colleagues, who might be affected drain old fluid, clean out storage tank, flush pipework, transfer
by issues that will benefit from your improvement. waste to waste fluid drums (in preparation for collection),
Peer feedback can be a very valuable and powerful refill system with new coolant to equipment manufacturer’s
developmental tool to ensure the smooth running of a specification, test operation of coolant pump and delivery
project. Problems tend to be exposed quickly and can be system. Machine to be returned to service and handed back
addressed immediately. to manufacturing team at 19.00 on 04/05/16.’
During a project or process, a number of milestones or
Roles and responsibilities gateways may also be established in the plan to enable the
The allocation of roles within a team is often a matter of project manager to measure the progress of the project.
common sense because team members will usually be At these key points in the project, the team might be
selected on the basis of their skills or expertise in a specific gathered together to review the work completed so far
area. It is important to ensure that sufficient staff are allocated and suggest any improvements or changes that might be
to each task. Core responsibilities will be clearly laid out for required in the next phase of the project.
each member of the team, but there is usually some flexibility.
Timescales and planning C3 Health and safety risk

The project manager usually plans a project and assessment
coordinates the efforts of the team involved in its delivery. Risk assessment in an engineering workshop
The schedule can be extremely complex for a large project.
The Health and Safety Executive (HSE) gives clear guidance
In practice, planning the delivery of projects often moves (www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg163.pdf) on how to conduct a
backwards from a required completion date, and staff risk assessment in five steps:
and resources are determined so that the project can be 1 Identify the hazards.
completed on time and within budget.
2 Decide who might be harmed and how.
At the heart of the plan is a detailed list of all the activities 3 Evaluate the risks and decide on precautions.
that need to take place to complete the project and the 4 Record your significant findings.
order in which they should be carried out. Some activities
5 Review your assessment and update if necessary.
can be performed concurrently, with different parts of
the team working on different elements of the project at Identifying hazards
the same time. Other activities cannot be started until the Hazards are best described as anything that has the
completion of some previous task or tasks. potential to cause harm. You can identify hazards by
You can use flow charts, tabulated data, Gantt charts and/ inspecting your working environment and the equipment
or network diagrams to visualise project planning activities. available to you. In an engineering environment, hazards
might include things such as:
Objectives and target setting ▸▸ having an untidy workshop
It is important that the scope of any project is properly ▸▸ using hand tools, such as a hacksaw
established and its success criteria are well defined. In ▸▸ using machine tools, such as pillar drill
other words, you must state exactly what it is you are ▸▸ exposure to chemical substances, such as lathe coolant
trying to achieve and define clearly how you will know
▸▸ using hot processes, such as welding.
when you have achieved it.

Deciding who might be harmed and how Evaluating risk and adopting control measures

For each of the hazards identified, you need to determine Risk is related to the likelihood of a hazard actually causing
how an injury might happen and who might be injured. an injury and the likely severity of that injury. It is sometimes
For example, if you consider the hazard of ‘having an useful to establish a rating for each risk so that the risks
untidy workshop’, someone might be injured by tripping can be compared and categorised as trivial, acceptable, or
over or slipping on something left on the floor. The unacceptable and requiring immediate action.
consequences of a fall can be serious and could lead A risk rating is the product of a likelihood score, which
to head or back injury, cuts or broken bones. Those at represents how likely it is that an injury will occur, and a
risk of the hazard include anyone who has access to the severity score, which represents the potential seriousness
workshop, such as technicians, supervisors, managers and of any injury. The calculated risk ratings can be displayed in
site visitors. a matrix as shown in Figure 2.26.
Severity
reportable)
reportable)
reportable)
(lost time)
Moderate
(First aid)
(RIDDOR
(RIDDOR
(RIDDOR
Serious
Fatality
Minor
Major
injury
injury
injury
injury
1 2 3 4 5
Extremely unlikely 1 1 2 3 4 5
Likelihood
Unlikely 2 2 4 6 8 10
Likely 3 3 6 9 12 15
Extremely likely 4 4 8 12 16 20
Almost certain 5 5 10 15 20 25
▸▸ Figure 2.26 Example of a risk rating matrix
In this example, where a risk rating is 4 or less (the green to reduce the risk rating further. Immediate action must be
cells in Figure 2.26), the risk is considered trivial and taken to reduce the risk if its rating is 12 or above (red cells
no additional control measures need to be put in place. in Figure 2.26).
Risks with a rating of 5–10 (amber cells in Figure 2.26) are You can use a variety of techniques to control risk – each
accepted, but any measures put in place to limit the risk has a different level of effectiveness (see Table 2.7).
should be reviewed regularly and efforts should be made
▸▸ Table 2.7 A hierarchy of effectiveness for control measures
Control measure (in order Examples and comments

of decreasing effectiveness)
Eliminate the hazard This might mean stopping use of a particular process, material or piece of equipment because it is
unacceptably dangerous. For example, exposure to lead fumes during soldering operations in the
electronics industry was extremely difficult to control effectively. As a consequence manufacturers
changed the type of solder used to one which no longer contained lead, thus eliminating the problem.
Reduce the severity of the Building sites use electrical tools that operate on a reduced, and therefore safer, voltage of 110 V
hazard instead of the UK standard supply voltage of 240 V.
Isolate personnel from the Computer numerical control (CNC) machine tools, such as lathes and milling machines, are
hazard completely enclosed during operation.
Limit the extent of exposure or A residual current device (RCD) will limit exposure to electric current if an electrical device develops a
contact with the hazard fault.
Welding curtains are used to limit the exposure to UV radiation of workers near where welding
operations are being carried out.
Personal protective equipment Goggles provide eye protection from flying debris that might otherwise cause eye damage.
Discipline and safe working Instruction and training on safe working practices are important but rely on good discipline,
practices concentration and responsible behaviour, which cannot always be guaranteed.
101
Other means of reducing risk in the workplace include:
▸▸ good design – for example, improving the operational safety of equipment;
designating exit routes from workplaces.
▸▸ permit-to-work system and guards – allowing only designated personnel to work
in hazardous areas or on hazardous jobs; physical barriers to keep visitors or
unauthorised people away from dangerous equipment.
▸▸ testing and maintenance – checking that equipment is in good working order and
safe; revealing potentially dangerous faults.
Recording significant findings
Carrying out a risk assessment and putting in place the necessary control measures are
insufficient on their own. Keeping proper records is also extremely important because
these prove that you have carried out your legal obligations to provide a safe place of work.
HSE provides pro forma documentation to enable record-keeping to be done
effectively. Prompts are provided to ensure that important steps are not missed (see
Figure 2.27).
Company name:
What are the Who might be What are you already What further action is Action by Action by Done
hazards? harmed and how? doing? necessary? who? when?
Slips and Staff and • General good • Better housekeeping All staff, From now 01/10/10
trips visitors may housekeepoing. in staff kitchen supervisor on
be injured if • All areas well lit, needed, e.g. on to monitor
they trip over including stairs. spills.
objects or slip
on spillages. • No trailing leads • Arrange for loose Manager 01/10/10 01/10/10
or cables. carpet tile on
• Staff keep work second floor to be
areas clear, e.g. repaired/replaced.
no boxes left
in walkways,
deliveries stored
immediately,
offices cleared
each evening.
▸▸ Figure 2.27 Example of an HSE-approved risk assessment template
Reviewing the assessment

Work methods, tools and machinery tend to change over time, so it very important
that risk assessments are reviewed periodically to ensure that they are still relevant and
effective.
Working with a small group of colleagues, carry out a risk assessment on the use of a
P a use point
pillar drill.
Hint Follow the procedures laid out in the five steps to risk assessment.
Extend How does your risk assessment compare with the work carried out by other groups?


Case study
Slippery workshop floors The company decided to take a two-pronged approach

to reducing the risk of slipping by both upgrading the
An employee slipped on the dusty concrete floors of a
extraction and filtration system to capture more dust and
workshop during a routine visit; luckily he wasn’t hurt.
installing textured resin flooring in the workshop.
However, this incident did spur the company into action
to investigate methods of making the workshop safer.
Check your knowledge
The nature of the work being carried out meant that
What might have been the consequences for the
graphite dust was constantly being produced, and
company if the employee had slipped and been seriously
despite using an extraction system, some of this dust
injured?
found its way onto the floor.
C4 Preparation activities for batch manufacture or

batch service delivery
Health and safety factors
In all branches of engineering, health and safety needs to be considered during the
planning and preparation for any new manufacturing or process task.
In both manufacturing and service processes, risk assessments and safe working
prractices need to be eastablished prior to the commencement of any work.
On completion of the planning and preparation activities, a comprehensive risk
assessment on the manufacturing or service delivery plan you have developed is required.
This should be carried out according to the approach explained in Section C3.
Defining the required outcomes

When planning the manufacture of a product, you will need a materials list, relevant
engineering drawings for the manufactured components and a general assembly drawing
detailing how the finished product is put together (if necessary). These documents
will contain a complete definition of the product being manufactured and all of its
component parts.
When planning to provide an engineering service, you will need a full description of the
required outcomes that must be achieved. For instance, to perform the renewal of the
coolant in a centre lathe, the outcomes might be defined as: supply and renewal of coolant;
removal and safe disposal of the used fluid; cleaning out the tank; testing the fluid flow.
Determining the processes required

For manufacturing a product, this phase of planning and preparation will require careful
inspection of the specification and component drawings in order to determine suitable and
efficient methods of manufacturing. This will help you select appropriate manufacturing
processes for each step. A single product may require an understanding of several different
process types. For example, the manufacture of a light fitting might require: mechanical
processes to create formed metal components, assembly processes to fix components
together, electrical processes to install wiring and connect electrical components, and
testing processes to ensure the product is electrically safe and functioning properly.
For an engineering service, you need to take a close look at the requirements of the service
being planned and determine the best way to achieve each of the required outcomes. This
will require research into the equipment you will be working on (where necessary), and might
involve consideration of a number of disassembly, replacement and test processes. This will
103
help you select appropriate engineering servicing processes for each step. A service may
require an understanding of several different process types. For example, changing the
coolant on a lathe will require: effective use of safe working practices such as electrical
isolation of the lathe to prevent accidental activation, safe material handling and disposal,
disassembly processes using hand tools to gain access to the coolant tank, safe cleaning
and fluid replacement processes, and testing processes on the coolant pump, coolant flow
and checking for leaks or blockages.
Sequence of operations
As part of the preparation, define the sequence of operations that need to be carried
out. Identify the operations that must be performed sequentially and those that can
be carried out concurrently. This will form the basis of your manufacturing plan (for a
product) or delivery plan (for a service), which defines what must be done, how, when
and by whom.
Equipment
Determine the equipment that will be needed to complete each operation in the
manufacturing plan or service delivery plan.
Quality control
Define when and how checks will be carried out to ensure that the product has been
manufactured or the service delivered as originally specified. For a product, this might
include taking measurements, assessing the fit and finish, and testing the finished
product. For a service, this might include functional testing and ensuring that all fixings
have been replaced and tightened to the required torque.
Materials and parts

For a product, gather together the materials and parts, such as screws or washers,
that will be required to complete all the manufactured components and assemble a
finished product. For a service, gather together the materials and replacement parts
that will be required to complete the engineering service.
C5 Delivery of manufacturing or service

engineering processes
Manufacturing engineered products
Many manufactured products are suitable for consideration in this unit – for example,
a screwdriver, a toolmaker’s clamp, a sheet metal toolbox, callipers, a ball joint splitter
and a wiring loom.
You need to consider a number of basic workshop processes when manufacturing an
engineered product.
▸▸ Marking-out processes are used to indicate the positions of features on a workpiece
clearly so that they can be created accurately. This might mean using a rule, square
and scriber to mark the position of a saw cut or using a centre punch to mark the
position of a drilled hole. This stage must be done precisely, and there are a range
of specialist tools that will help you achieve the required accuracy – for example, a
scriber, rule/tape, punch, square, vernier height gauge or marking-out medium.
▸▸ Manual processes are usually used for one-off production because they are
versatile. The down side is that they are time-consuming and usually require a high
degree of skill to use proficiently and achieve a good finish. Tools used in manual
processes might include shears, punch, guillotine, bender, saw, tap, die or file.

▸▸ Machining processes tend to be used for the quick and accurate removal of larger

amounts of material than would be practicable with hand tools. Typically these
might include a pillar drill, lathe or milling machine.
▸▸ Assembly processes complete the final product once all its component parts have
been manufactured. There are numerous joining methods used in assembly, which
might include the use of adhesives, mechanical fasteners such as screws, rivets or
clips, and cable ties or wiring connectors such as bullets, spades or terminal blocks.
▸▸ Quantity production techniques are used to semi-automate processes that need to
be repeated on a large number of products. Manufacturing aids, which help to cut
down production times, might include bespoke form tools, templates, jigs, moulds,
fixtures or stops.
▸▸ Measuring processes must be employed to ensure that work is marked out and
manufactured accurately. This is likely to require the use of specialised engineering
measuring devices such as micrometers, vernier or digital callipers and comparators.
Engineering services
Many engineering services are suitable for consideration in this unit – for example,
refurbishing an alternator (including worn part replacement and testing), modification
of pipework (including the connection of valves and operational checks), modifying
and rewiring electrical switch panels, and performing a service on a centre lathe
(including coolant renewal).
Delivering engineering services
Engineering services will not usually require the use of heavy workshop machine
tools. Instead, they concentrate not on the manufacture of new parts but on the
refurbishment or repair of existing products. Again, there are a number of workshop
processes that will need to be considered when carrying out engineering services.
▸▸ Disassembly, removal and strip processes all involve the removal of parts. You will
usually do this because the parts need to be checked or they are simply in the way
and preventing the removal of other components that need to be checked. You will
need a range of tools to remove the fasteners that hold a product together, such as
screwdrivers, wrenches, spanners, sockets, pliers/grips and hexagon keys.
▸▸ A manual process may be needed in removing, repairing, refurbishing or refitting
components, such as when removing burrs, cleaning, trimming pipes to length or
cutting gasket material. You may need to use other hand tools such as snips, cutters,
knives, punches, saws, files or hammers.
▸▸ Assembly processes are those required to reinstate the product into working
condition. It is fundamentally the opposite of disassembly, but some of the electrical
connections or mechanical fixings may need to be totally replaced. These processes
might include using a soldering iron to connect wiring, refitting or replacing
mechanical fasteners, using a torque wrench to ensure that machine screws are
correctly tightened, fitting new wiring crimp connectors, and using pneumatic tools
or clamps to hold components in place while fixings are refitted.
▸▸ You will use inspection/testing processes to verify the function of the product once
it has undergone a service and to ensure that components have been assembled
correctly. This might mean using a multimeter to check continuity of electrical
connections, flow meters to verify that fluid input and output are as required, or a
pressure sensor/gauge to ensure that appropriate system pressures are maintained
and there are no leaks.
105
Assessment practice 2.3 C.P5 C.P6 C.P7 C.P8 C.M3 C.D3
In your role as a shop floor supervisor in a small Plan
engineering company, you have been tasked with •• What is the task? What am I being asked to do?
setting up, leading and working alongside a small team •• What issues do I need to consider and what research
of two manufacturing technicians to make a batch of should I undertake in completing this task?
five sample screwdrivers for approval by a client. •• Are there any areas I think I may struggle with?
•• Discuss your role as an effective team leader in Do
manufacturing the screwdrivers. •• I know what I’m doing and am confident that I can
•• Discuss the requirements in setting up the achieve my goals.
manufacturing process. •• I can identify the challenging aspects of the task
Ensure that you include safety, efficiency and quality and refine my thinking/approach to overcome these
aspects in your answers. You will be expected to difficulties.
produce a risk assessment for at least one engineering Review
process and discuss any necessary set-up activities. •• I can explain what the task involved and the steps I took
to complete it.
•• I can identify the parts of my knowledge and
understanding that require further development.

UNIT 2
Think
Future
I’m now in my third year as an apprentice engineering technician with a multinational
Patrick Makin manufacturing company. At school I completed a BTEC National in Engineering,
and as part of the course we did some project work with my current employer and
Apprentice worked with them to solve some real-world engineering problems. Well, I must
have done something right because they encouraged me to apply for one of their
engineering apprenticeships. At the start of Year 13 I did just that and sent off my application. After
technician an interview I was accepted! I joined the programme immediately after leaving school
(with a Distinction in my engineering course) and couldn’t wait to get stuck in.
I am now settled in and really enjoying myself. I have been supported in loads of
different ways by the company and am considered as part of the team by my work
colleagues who I really enjoy working alongside.
Focusing your skills

Becoming established in a new environment •• Ask questions – don’t be afraid to ask questions, but
It can be tough when you start a new job or join an unfamiliar make sure that you don’t keep asking the same ones of
team. Here are a few tips to help with the transition: the same people.
•• Listen – starting a new role will mean having to absorb •• Learn how the equipment works – you need to know
of information. You need to pay attention to what you how the equipment you will be using works and if
are told. People will generally cut you a bit of slack in the there are any dos and don’ts that do not appear in the
first few weeks, but don’t expect that to last. manuals. Obviously don’t use a piece of equipment
•• Take a few notes – note down important information unless you have been trained to do so and are familiar
such as start, finish and break times. with any relevant safety requirements.
•• Address people by name – this helps to establish •• Ask for help – if you are lost (this can happen in a big
working relationships more quickly. Try to remember facility!), confused about something or simply need
names. You could even make a note of people’s names direction to the nearest toilet, then don’t be afraid to
as you are introduced to them. ask. Take the opportunity to introduce yourself at the
same time.
•• Be aware of what your body language is saying – you
might be intently listening to a presentation, but if you’re •• Be punctual – be on time in the morning, don’t be late
leaning back in your chair with your eyes closed it will back from breaks and don’t be the first to rush out of the
look like you are not. door at the end of the day.
•• Stay safe – during your induction and initial tour of the •• Be friendly – if you are friendly towards your colleagues,
facilities make sure you pay attention to the emergency then they will usually reciprocate. If you’re in a bad mood
procedures, where to find the exits, how to contact a then bite your lip and don’t take it out on your colleagues.
first-aider and all that stuff you hope you’ll never need. •• Maintain your sense of humour – smile!
107
UNIT 2
Getting ready for assessment
Hazeem is working towards a BTEC National in Engineering. He was given an

assignment for Learning aim A that asked him to evaluate the manufacturing processes
used to make a screwdriver and the impact that human factors have on manufacturing
operations.
His findings had to be written in a technical report that would be passed on to the
operations director of the company in the assessment scenario.
The report had to:
▸▸ justify the use of at least three manufacturing processes used to manufacture the
screwdriver, comparing them with possible alternatives
▸▸ evaluate how human factors and characteristics affect the performance of
individuals and teams when carrying out manufacturing processes.
Hazeem shares his experience below.
How I got started What I learned from the experience

First, I had a really good look at the screwdriver we were I think my assignment went really well on the whole.
given to use as the basis of the assignment. From my Keeping good notes of the things we covered in class really
notes on manufacturing processes I was able to recognise helped later on. I am going to buy a notebook to keep all
the tools and techniques that could be used to make the my class notes together though. Trying to keep all my loose
different parts. What really helped was drawing pictures sheets of paper in order is a pain.
of the different components on A3 sheets of plain paper
If I were going to do this again, I would make sure that I got
and then adding annotations to record my thoughts
hold of a copy of the unit specification so I could look at
on the different ways each feature could be made. The
the ‘Essential information for assessment decisions’ page
assessment criteria said I had to consider at least three
while I was writing the assignment. This would have been
different processes, but I made sure I had plenty to choose
really useful because it explains what the assessment criteria
from.
actually mean in practice, and tutors use this when assessing
The second part of the assignment on the effects of the work.
human factors on individual and team performance was
harder to get my head around. I started by reviewing
my notes and making a mind map of all the factors that
I thought were most important. This helped me visualise
what I should write about and helped me to structure my
written report.
How I brought it all together

I wanted my report to look professional because it was Think about it
going to be read by a senior business manager, so I used ▸▸ Have you planned what you need to do in the time
a simple Arial font and included a footer on each sheet available for completing the assignment to make
containing my name and page numbers. I added a title sure that you meet the submission date?
page, which included a photograph of the screwdriver, and ▸▸ Do you have your class notes on manufacturing
then wrote a short introduction. I included lots of relevant processes and the influence that human factors can
photographs to support what I was saying in the text and have?
to add some visual interest.
▸▸ Is your information written in your own words and
While I was writing the report, I ticked off the points I had referenced clearly where you have used quotations
covered on the annotated sketches and mind maps I had or information from a book or website?
created previously in my preparation for the assignment.

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Delivery of Engineering

Getting to know your unit

Engineering processes, whether concerned with the manufacture of a

How you will be assessed

74 Delivery of Engineering Processes Safely as a Team

Delivery of Engineering Processes Safely as a Team

Pass Merit Distinction

Learning aim A Examine common engineering processes to create products or deliver

Learning aim C Carry out engineering processes safely to manufacture a product or to

Examine common engineering processes to create

One-off Small batch Mass or large batch Continuous

76 Delivery of Engineering Processes Safely as a Team

Standards and reference material ▸▸ Table 2.2 Metric (course) tapping

Delivery of Engineering Processes Safely as a Team

Common processes used to manufacture engineered products

▸▸ Figure 2.3 A hacksaw

HSS hacksaw blades are necessarily hard, but as a

78 Delivery of Engineering Processes Safely as a Team

Delivery of Engineering Processes Safely as a Team

Turning using a centre lathe

motor carriage carriage

▸▸ Figure 2.7 Schematic of centre lathe

▸▸ Features – flat faces, parallel diameters, stepped diameters, tapered diameters,

80 Delivery of Engineering Processes Safely as a Team

▸▸ Parameters – ▸▸ Features – flat surfaces, holes, grooves, slots, steps.

Delivery of Engineering Processes Safely as a Team

vertical traverse Rolling

▸▸ Figure 2.11 A soldering iron

You solder components on printed circuit boards (PCBs)

82 Delivery of Engineering Processes Safely as a Team

Delivery of Engineering Processes Safely as a Team

Casting and forging processes

Hint Inspect a spanner in your workshop.

Other signs which indicate that further investigation is

84 Delivery of Engineering Processes Safely as a Team

Delivery of Engineering Processes Safely as a Team

Potentially harmful fumes, dust, liquids and chemical

86 Delivery of Engineering Processes Safely as a Team

A3 Human factors ▸▸ to operate and act responsibly, avoiding negative

Delivery of Engineering Processes Safely as a Team

Assessment practice 2.1 A.P1 A.P2 A.M1 A.D1

88 Delivery of Engineering Processes Safely as a Team

Develop 2D computer-aided drawings that can be used

Delivery of Engineering Processes Safely as a Team

Unit 10: Computer-Aided Design in Engineering covers many of the techniques

B1 Principles of engineering drawing

▸▸ Figure 2.16 Third-angle orthographic projection of a screwdriver handle component

Third-angle orthographic projection

Swing up the base

▸▸ Figure 2.18 Rule of thumb to create a third-angle projected view

First-angle orthographic projection

▸▸ Figure 2.19 Symbol for first-angle projection

90 Delivery of Engineering Processes Safely as a Team

Delivery of Engineering Processes Safely as a Team

▸▸ Figure 2.20 Rule of thumb to create a first-angle projected view

▸▸ Figure 2.22 Examples of acceptable practice when 3.0

Tolerances ▸▸ Figure 2.23 The standard symbol for surface roughness

92 Delivery of Engineering Processes Safely as a Team

Delivery of Engineering Processes Safely as a Team

Learning aim A Examine common engineering processes to create products or deliver

Learning aim C Carry out engineering processes safely to manufacture a product or to

Timescales and planning C3 Health and safety risk

C4 Preparation activities for batch manufacture or

C5 Delivery of manufacturing or service