EHRA VT Storm Guidelines 2024

Europace (2024) 26, 1–36 EHRA DOCUMENT
https://doi.org/10.1093/europace/euae049
Management of patients with an electrical

storm or clustered ventricular arrhythmias:
a clinical consensus statement of the European
Heart Rhythm Association of the
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ESC—endorsed by the Asia-Pacific Heart
Rhythm Society, Heart Rhythm Society,
and Latin-American Heart Rhythm Society
Radosław Lenarczyk 1* (Chair), Katja Zeppenfeld 2 (Co-Chair),
Jacob Tfelt-Hansen 3,4†, Frank R. Heinzel 5, Thomas Deneke 6,7,
Elena Ene 6, Christian Meyer 8, Arthur Wilde 9,10†, Elena Arbelo 11†,
Ewa Jędrzejczyk-Patej 12, Avi Sabbag 13,14, Markus Stühlinger 15,
Luigi di Biase 16, Marmar Vaseghi 17 (HRS Representative), Ohad Ziv 18,19
(HRS Representative), William-Fernando Bautista-Vargas 20
(LAHRS Representative), Saurabh Kumar 21 (APHRS Representative),
Narayanan Namboodiri 22 (APHRS Representative), Benhur Davi Henz 23
(LAHRS Representative), Jose Montero-Cabezas 2, and Nikolaos Dagres 24
Reviewers: Petr Peichl25 (EHRA Review Coordinator), Antonio Frontera26, Stylianos Tzeis27, Jose Luis Merino28,
Kyoko Soejima29 (APHRS), Christian de Chillou30, Roderick Tung31 (HRS), Lars Eckardt32, Philippe Maury33,
Peter Hlivak34, Larisa G. Tereshchenko35 (USA), Pipin Kojodjojo36 (APHRS), and Jacob Atié37 (LAHRS)
1
Medical University of Silesia, Division of Medical Sciences, Department of Cardiology and Electrotherapy, Silesian Center for Heart Diseases, Skłodowskiej-Curie 9, 41-800 Zabrze, Poland;
2
Department of Cardiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands; 3The Department of Cardiology, The Heart Centre, Copenhagen University Hospital,
Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark; 4The Department of Forensic Medicine, Copenhagen University Hospital, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark; 5Cardiology, Angiology, Intensive
Care, Städtisches Klinikum Dresden Campus Friedrichstadt, Dresden, Germany; 6Clinic for Interventional Electrophysiology, Heart Center RHÖN-KLINIKUM Campus Bad Neustadt, Bad
Neustadt an der Saale, Germany; 7Clinic for Electrophysiology, Klinikum Nuernberg, University Hospital of the Paracelsus Medical University, Nuernberg, Germany; 8Division of Cardiology/
Angiology/Intensive Care, EVK Düsseldorf, Teaching Hospital University of Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany; 9Department of Cardiology, Amsterdam UMC University of Amsterdam,
Amsterdam, the Netherlands; 10Amsterdam Cardiovascular Sciences, Heart Failure and arrhythmias, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; 11Arrhythmia Section, Cardiology Department, Hospital
Clínic, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; IDIBAPS, Institut d’Investigació August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades
Cardiovasculares (CIBERCV), Madrid, Spain; 12Department of Cardiology, Congenital Heart Diseases and Electrotherapy, Silesian Centre for Heart Diseases, Zabrze, Poland; 13The Davidai
Center for Rhythm Disturbances and Pacing, Chaim Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel; 14School of Medicine, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv,
Israel; 15Department of Internal Medicine III, Cardiology and Angiology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria; 16Albert Einstein College of Medicine at Montefiore Hospital,
New York, NY, USA; 17UCLA Cardiac Arrythmia Center, Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA; 18Case Western Reserve
University, Cleveland, OH, USA; 19The MetroHealth System Campus, Cleveland, OH, USA; 20Cardiac Electrophysiology, Fundacion CardioInfantil La Cardio, Bogota, Colombia;
21
Department of Cardiology, Westmead Hospital, Westmead Applied Research Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia; 22University of Science and Technology Kochi, Kerala, India;
23
Instituto Brasilia de Arritmias-Hospital do Coração do Brasil-Rede Dor São Luiz, Brasilia, Brazil; 24German Heart Center of the Charite, Berlin, Germany; 25Department of Cardiology,
IKEM, Prague, Czech Republic; 26Department of Electrophysiology, Great Metropolitan Hospital Niguarda, Milan, Italy; 27Cardoilogy Department, Mitera General Hospital, Hygeia Group,
Athens, Greece; 28Arrhythmia and Robotic EP Unit, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Madrid, Spain; 29Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Kyorin University Hospital, Tokyo, Japan;
30
Department of Cardiology, University Hospital Nancy, Vandoeuvre les Nancy, France; 31Division of Cardiology, Cardiovascular Clinical Research, Banner Heart Institute, The University of
* Corresponding author. Tel: +48 32 47 93 682, E-mail address: radle@poczta.onet.pl

†
Member of the European Reference Network for rare, low prevalence and complex diseases of the heart: ERN-GUARDHEART.
© The Author(s) 2024. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the European Society of Cardiology.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted reuse,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
2 R. Lenarczyk et al.
Arizona College of Medicine-Phoenix, AZ, USA; 32Department of Cardiology – Electrophysiology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany; 33Cardiology, University Hospital Rangueil Toulouse,
Toulouse, France; 34Department of Arrhythmias and Pacing, National Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases and the Slovak Medical University School of Medicine, Bratislava, Slovakia; 35Department
of Cardiovascular Medicine, Heart, Vascular & Thoracic Institute, Department of Quantitative Health Sciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cardiology, USA; 36Asian Heart and
Vascular Center, Singapore, Singapore; and 37Hospital São Vicente – Rede Dor, Department of Cardiology, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Received 6 February 2024; accepted after revision 7 February 2024; online publish-ahead-of-print 8 April 2024
Abstract Electrical storm (ES) is a state of electrical instability, manifesting as recurrent ventricular arrhythmias (VAs) over a short
period of time (three or more episodes of sustained VA within 24 h, separated by at least 5 min, requiring termination
by an intervention). The clinical presentation can vary, but ES is usually a cardiac emergency. Electrical storm mainly affects
patients with structural or primary electrical heart disease, often with an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD).
Management of ES requires a multi-faceted approach and the involvement of multi-disciplinary teams, but despite advanced

treatment and often invasive procedures, it is associated with high morbidity and mortality. With an ageing population, long
er survival of heart failure patients, and an increasing number of patients with ICD, the incidence of ES is expected to in
crease. This European Heart Rhythm Association clinical consensus statement focuses on pathophysiology, clinical
presentation, diagnostic evaluation, and acute and long-term management of patients presenting with ES or clustered VA.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Graphical Abstract
Electrical storm
Incidence Presenting arrhythmia Outcomes
Primary prev ICD SMVT 86–97% Mortality
4–7% 3.3 x
VF 1–21%
Secondary prev ICD
10–30% SMVT
3–14% Re-hospitalization
+VF
ICM = NICM 4.8 x
5.8–6.9%/50.9 mo PVT 2–8%
Pathophysiology Management
Dysfunctional channels Sedation Catheter
Scar/fibrosis Vulnerable EADs
Reversible ICD PED
Slow conduction Dispersed repolarization causes check & AADs ablation
SHD heart PED Sub-epi fibrosis
LQTS:
-Mg2+,K+
Dispersed refractoriness reprogram
Current-load mismatch SHD -Isoprenaline,
AMI/revasc: -Mexiletine
lschaemia
Inflammation -BBA, Amio Brs, SQT, iVF:
Electrolytes -Quinidine -lsoprenaline Denervation
Adrenergic drive -Quinidine
Autonomic HF:
-BBA, Amio CPVT:
Trigger disruption -BBA
...................................................................................................................................................
Keywords Electrical storm • Arrhythmia • Ventricular tachycardia • Ventricular fibrillation • Sudden cardiac death •
Consensus document
Table of contents 8.1.2. Twelve-lead electrocardiogram ......................................................... 7

1. Background .................................................................................................................. 3 8.1.3. Documentation of ventricular arrhythmia and immediate
2. Aim of the document.............................................................................................. 3 implantable cardioverter-defibrillator interrogation ............................. 7
3. Review of evidence................................................................................................... 3 8.1.4. Blood tests.................................................................................................. 7
4. Definitions.................................................................................................................... 3 8.1.5. Coronary angiogram, cardiac imaging, and additional
5. Scope of the problem ............................................................................................. 3 diagnostic studies............................................................................................... 10
6. Pathophysiological aspects .................................................................................... 5 8.2. Treatment.......................................................................................................... 10
6.1. The vulnerable heart—underlying structural heart disease........... 5 8.2.1. Electrical storm with haemodynamic instability ...................... 10
6.2. The vulnerable heart—underlying primary electrical 8.2.2. Disease-specific aspects ..................................................................... 11
disease............................................................................................................................ 6 8.2.3. Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator reprogramming......... 12
6.3. External precipitation factors or triggers............................................... 6 8.2.4. Deep sedation and mechanical ventilation ................................ 13
6.4. The autonomic nervous system................................................................. 6 8.2.4.1. Agents used for (deep) sedation ........................................... 13
7. Clinical presentation ................................................................................................ 6 8.2.5. Pharmacotherapy for the acute management of electrical
8. Acute management .................................................................................................. 7 storm ...................................................................................................................... 15
8.1. Initial evaluation, assessment of external precipitating factors, 8.2.5.1. Structural heart disease ............................................................. 15
and reversible causes............................................................................................... 7 8.2.5.2. Primary electrical disease.......................................................... 15
8.1.1. History.......................................................................................................... 7 8.2.6. Mechanical circulatory support....................................................... 18
Management of patients with an ES or clustered VAs 3
8.2.6.1. Rescue therapy in acute haemodynamic death (SCD).1 In 2017, a document on the same topic was released by
decompensation because of refractory, haemodynamically the Heart Rhythm Society (HRS), the American College of Cardiology,
intolerant ventricular arrhythmia .......................................................... 18 and the American Heart Association.4,5 A consensus statement addressing,
8.2.6.2. Rescue therapy in peri-procedural acute specifically, catheter ablation (CA) of VA was issued by the HRS and the
haemodynamic decompensation because of refractory European Heart Rhythm Association (EHRA) in 2019, in collaboration
unstable ventricular arrhythmia in patients undergoing with the Asia Pacific HRS (APHRS) and the Latin American HRS
ventricular tachycardia ablation ............................................................. 18 (LAHRS).6 This document aims to complement the prior ESC guidelines
8.2.6.3. Prophylactical mechanical circulatory support and consensus statements by providing detailed practical advice on diagnos
implantation prior to ventricular tachycardia ablation in tic evaluation and acute and long-term management of patients presenting
patients at high risk of developing haemodynamic with ES or clustered VA. The definition of the different categories of advice
instability .......................................................................................................... 18 is provided in Table 1. The used categories for strength of advice and sup
8.2.7. Acute catheter ablation...................................................................... 18 portive evidence are listed in Table 2. It should be emphasized that this
8.2.8. Autonomic modulation ...................................................................... 20 EHRA Clinical Consensus statement is not intended as a guideline.
8.2.8.1. Stellate ganglion block ................................................................ 20

8.2.8.2. Thoracic epidural anaesthesia................................................. 21
8.2.8.3. Surgical/thoracoscopic sympathetic cardiac
denervation..................................................................................................... 21
3. Review of evidence
8.2.8.4. Renal denervation ........................................................................ 21 The EHRA Task Force prepared this consensus document with HRS,
8.2.9. Overdrive pacing................................................................................... 22 LAHRS, and APHRS representatives. Members of the Task Force
8.2.10. Bailout strategies ................................................................................ 23 were asked to review English-language literature across multiple data
9. Stabilized patient ..................................................................................................... 23 bases, including PubMed, Embase, and the Cochrane Library, incorpor
9.1. Long-term treatment.................................................................................... 23 ating studies up to November 2023. Search was focused on all aspects
9.2. Anti-arrhythmic drugs to prevent electrical storm of ES, including prevalence, pathophysiology, clinical manifestation, and
recurrence.................................................................................................................. 23 management. Advices were constructed considering the strength of
9.2.1. Chronic anti-arrhythmic drug therapy in patients with evidence supporting particular management or procedure and esti
structural heart disease .................................................................................. 23 mated patient outcomes. Potential sources of bias or factors that might
9.2.2. Chronic pharmacotherapy in primary electrical disease ..... 26 have modified the results (e.g. number and characteristics of patients,
9.3. Catheter ablation to prevent electrical storm recurrence........... 26 duration of follow-up, patient groups’ heterogeneity, physician/patient
9.3.1. Ischaemic heart disease ...................................................................... 26 preferences, etc) were identified and considered when establishing the
9.3.2. Non-ischaemic cardiomyopathy..................................................... 26 strength of advices. In controversial or poorly evidenced areas, a con
9.3.3. Primary electrical disease .................................................................. 26 sensus was reached by agreement of the expert group. Writing and re
9.4. Autonomic modulation................................................................................ 27 viewing were both iterative and collaborative, aligning with the
10. Psychological counselling................................................................................... 27 principles of the Delphi process, and ensuring a broad range of expert
11. Special patient groups......................................................................................... 27 opinions were considered. All advices were voted on using an online
11.1. Patients with left ventricular assist device......................................... 27 voting system, and consent of ≥80% of voters was required to accept
11.2. Patients with advanced heart failure.................................................... 28 the advice. The document underwent a thorough, two-round external
12. When not to perform interventional treatment.................................... 28 review.
References....................................................................................................................... 29
1. Background 4. Definitions
Ventricular electrical storm (ES) is defined as three or more episodes of
sustained ventricular arrhythmias (VAs) occurring within 24 h, separated 5. Scope of the problem
by at least 5 min, requiring termination by an intervention.1 According to
this definition, the clinical presentation can vary from asymptomatic or The reported incidence of ES depends on the definition, studied population,
mildly symptomatic episodes of well-tolerated ventricular tachycardia and observation period.7–10 Electrical storm occurs in 10–30% of patients
(VT) to a life-threatening electrical instability, often aggravated by en
hanced sympathetic tone. Similarly, clustered VAs, defined as ≥2 epi
sodes of sustained VA within 3 months, can encompass a wide Table 1 Category of advice
spectrum of clinical presentations.2 Electrical storm and clustered VA
are frequently encountered in patients with ICDs. Most patients have Definition Categories of
underlying structural heart disease (SHD), with monomorphic sustained advice
VT (MSVT) as the most common initiating arrhythmia. Electrical storm ..................................................................
due to polymorphic VT (PVT) or primary ventricular fibrillation (VF) Evidence or general agreement that a given Advice TO DO
also occurs and is more likely in the setting of acute cardiac ischaemia measure is clinically useful and appropriate
or in patients with channelopathies [primary electrical diseases Evidence or general agreement that a given May be appropriate
(PEDs)].3 Electrical storm with recurrent ICD shocks has been associated measure may be clinically useful and TO DO
with psychological disorders, heart failure (HF), and increased mortality
appropriate
and is considered a cardiac emergency. Management of ES requires a
multi-faceted approach and involvement of multi-disciplinary teams. Evidence or general agreement that a given Advice NOT TO DO
measure is not appropriate or harmful
2. Aim of the document No strong advice can be given, lack of data, Area of uncertainty
In 2022, the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) released guidelines for inconsistency of data
management of patients with VA and the prevention of sudden cardiac
prevention of SCD and is estimated to be 4–7%, 18–24 months after

Table 2 Strength of advice and strength of evidence ICD implantation.8–10,12 The reported incidence of clustered VA was
26% during 40 months in ICD recipients for primary or secondary SCD
Strength of advice Symbol
.................................................................. prevention.2
Clinical advice, based on robust published evidence
The incidence of ES is not significantly different in primary prevention
ICD recipients with chronic coronary artery disease (cCAD) or non-
ischaemic cardiomyopathy (NICM) during long-term follow-up (5.8 vs.
Clinical advice, based on consensus of the writing group 6.9%, respectively, within 50.9 ± 33.9 months after implantation).10,13,14
Cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT) may influence the occurrence
May be appropriate, based on published evidence of ES. In a retrospective observational study of a mixed cohort of pa
tients with cCAD and NICM, patients with CRT-defibrillator had a low
er ES incidence compared with propensity-matched ICD recipients.
May be appropriate, based on consensus of the writing
However, in some patients with CRT, left ventricular (LV) pacing
group may cause ES and should be disabled in such cases. Nevertheless,

Areas of uncertainty CRT-responders had lower ES rates,12 which may be explained by
the association between higher LV ejection fraction (LVEF) and lower
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . risk of ES.15 With the growing number of patients with ICDs, the num
Strength of evidence Abbreviation ber of patients requiring ES management is likely to increase.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Meta-analysis of RCTs META Data on ES in patients with PED are scarce and based on case reports
or small series. Though ES incidence among PED patients seems to be
RCT RCT
low, increasing ICD use and improved survival are likely to also increase
Observational studies OBS the rate of ES in this group.16 In patients with catecholaminergic PVT
Expert opinion OPN (CPVT), ICD shocks are sometimes ineffective and may trigger ES.17
Clustered VA and ES, according to the definition above, are more com
META: evidence from >1 high-quality RCT or >1 meta-analyses of high-quality RCTs. mon in patients with known SHD and ICDs, but occasionally, ES may be
RCT: evidence from 1 high-quality RCT, >1 moderate-quality RCTs, or meta-analyses the first manifestation of a previously not known cardiac disease.
of moderate-quality RCTs. OBS: observational or registries studies or meta-analyses of Electrical storm is associated with high morbidity and mortality,
such studies. OPN: randomized, non-randomized, observational studies, or registries
with limitations of design or execution. Meta-analyses of such studies. Physiological
particularly in the presence of additional factors (including amiodarone
or mechanistic studies in human subjects. Consensus of expert opinion based on use, chronic kidney disease, and LVEF < 35%).18–22 Electrical storm was
clinical experience. Case series. associated with a 2.5-fold higher risk of all-cause mortality compared
RCT, randomized clinical trial. with patients with sporadic episodes of VT and a 3.3-fold higher risk
compared with patients without sustained VAs during follow-up.13 In
a mixed cohort (cCAD and NICM) of ICD recipients, those who
who have received an ICD for secondary prevention of SCD. The average were admitted with an ES had a 4.8-fold higher risk of re-hospitalization
time after device implantation to ES is 4–9 months.7,11,12 The incidence of and a 1.8-fold higher risk of major adverse cardiac events [defined as a
ES is lower in patients who undergo ICD implantation for primary composite of acute myocardial infarction (AMI), target vessel
Table 3 Definitions for VA subtypes
Definitions of VA
..............................................................................................................................................
Incessant VT Continuous sustained VT that recurs promptly despite repeated intervention for termination over several hours
Sustained VT VT for at least 30 s or which requires an acute intervention for termination
Non-sustained VT Run of consecutive ventricular beats persisting for at least 3 beats to <30 s duration
Monomorphic VT VT with the same QRS morphology from beat to beat
PVT VT showing an abrupt morphological change of the 12-lead ECG VT morphology during an ongoing VT episode
Bidirectional VT VT with beat-to-beat alternation of the frontal QRS axis
PVT VT with continually changing QRS morphology
TdP Subtype of a PVT in the context of QT prolongation, with continually changing QRS complexes that appear to spiral around
the baseline of the ECG lead in a sinusoidal pattern
Short coupled ventricular A PVC that interrupts the T-wave of the preceding conducted beat
complexes
VF A chaotic rhythm with undulations that are irregular in timing and morphology, without discrete QRS complexes on the
surface ECG
ES Three or more episodes of sustained VA occurring within 24 h, separated by at least 5 min, each requiring termination by an
intervention
Clustered VAs Two or more sustained VA events within 3 months
ECG, electrocardiogram; ES, electrical storm; PVC, premature ventricular complex; TdP, torsade de pointes; VA, ventricular arrhythmia; VF, ventricular fibrillation; VT, ventricular
tachycardia.
A B

C D
Figure 1 Types of ventricular arrhythmias: (A) monomorphic VT, (B) bidirectional VT, (C) polymorphic VT initiated by shortly coupled monomorphic
premature ventricular complexes, (D) torsade de pointes in long QT syndrome; macroscopic T-wave alternans prior to VT. VT, ventricular tachycardia.
revascularization, and all-cause mortality], compared with patients with of the autonomic system in promoting and maintaining ES has been re
VT or VF but without ES.20 Clustered VA was also associated with a cognized.26,27 Genetic predisposition may play a role as well. Rare gen
2.7-fold increased risk of death compared with ICD recipients without etic variants in genes associated with inherited syndromes of sudden
arrhythmia, and mortality risk increased with higher VA burden (num cardiac death may also predispose to ES in patients with cCAD.28
ber of VA episodes in a cluster) and shorter cluster length (the time Early repolarization patterns have been described in patients with
frame during which a specified number of VA events occurred).2 A cCAD or NICM presenting with ES.29 A significant correlation between
5-year survival free of death or heart transplant was 67 and 87%, re early repolarization patterns and VA recurrences in patients with idio
spectively, in patients with and without clusters.23 pathic VF (IVF) could be observed.30
6.1. The vulnerable heart—underlying

6. Pathophysiological aspects structural heart disease
The pathophysiological mechanisms leading to ES are difficult to study Most patients presenting with ES or clustered VA have SHD. The
in humans and differ depending on the underlying structural or electric critical VA substrate is typically related to areas of heterogeneous
al heart disease. fibrosis, which can be observed in patients with cCAD and different car
In a rabbit model, a complex interplay among enhanced sympathetic diomyopathy phenotypes, including arrhythmogenic right ventricular
tone, calcium-related signalling abnormalities, dysregulation of protein cardiomyopathy (ARVC), dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM), and hyper
phosphorylation, and a susceptible arrhythmogenic substrate was trophic cardiomyopathy (HCM). Ventricular arrhythmia due to a dis
shown to contribute to VF episodes.24 It has been suggested that three eased conduction system (e.g. Purkinje system-related) also needs to
key factors are prerequisite or contribute to ES, namely (i) a ‘vulnerable’ be recognized.31
heart—which is a ‘conditio sine qua non’ of ES (i.e. the presence of a Patients with SHD presenting with an ES are older, more often male,
pre-existing heart disease that creates the necessary anatomical or elec with a lower LVEF, advanced HF, and higher cardiovascular comorbid
trical ‘substrate’), (ii) external precipitating factors or triggers, and (iii) a ities compared with those without ES.32,33 In an observational study of
disruption of autonomic nervous system activity, particularly sympa ICD patients, chronic renal failure, depressed LVEF, and MSVT as index
thetic activation. Although several external factors may be involved arrhythmia were independent predictors of an ES.33 Among patients
(see Sections 6.3. and 8.2.2.), a likely initiating trigger has, however, who underwent radiofrequency CA (RFCA) for MSVT, those with his
only been identified in 13% of ICD recipients with SHD.7,25 The role tory of ES had failed more anti-arrhythmic drugs (AADs), had more
inducible VTs, and required longer procedure times and radiofrequency patients with idiopathic VF, ES can be triggered by premature ventricular
delivery time to control VT, suggesting a more complex or advanced complexes (PVCs), originating from the Purkinje system, RVOT, or the
VA substrate.14 In a study of patients with cCAD, ES patients had papillary muscle.61 Of importance, overlapping mechanism may exist
more diseased LV segments and more often anterior, septal, and apical that contribute to arrhythmogenicity. For example, in Purkinje-related
endocardial LV scar. In contrast, a recent observational study of 152 idiopathic VF, repolarization abnormalities may play an important role,
consecutive patients with cCAD (43% with ES) undergoing VT ablation such as in overexpression of dipeptidyl peptidase-like protein-6.62,63
found no differences in the incidence of ES between patients after an
terior and inferior AMI.34 In patients with NICM, the overall extent of 6.3. External precipitation factors or
the electroanatomical scar was similar, but lateral LV endocardial scar
was more frequently observed in ES patients than in non-ES patients.32 triggers
External and reversible factors that may provoke an ES (see
Section 8.2.2.) include acute myocardial ischaemia, electrolyte imbalance
6.2. The vulnerable heart—underlying (e.g. hypokalaemia), fever (e.g. in BrS), hypothermia (e.g. in ERS), hormonal
primary electrical disease factors (e.g. hyperthyirodism), sepsis, starvation, decompensated HF,

All inherited arrhythmia syndromes carry a significant risk of SCD sec physical exertion or emotional stress, and non-compliance to medical
ondary to malignant VAs. In patients with long QT syndromes (LQTS) advices/or medications. However, a specific trigger is only identified in
(acquired or congenital), torsade de pointes (TdP), with or without de the minority of cases.25
terioration into VF, is the signature arrhythmia, and in the other ar
rhythmia syndromes, rapid PVT or VF is pertinent.35 6.4. The autonomic nervous system
In LQTS, adrenergic stimulation exerts genotype-specific effects.36 In
Structural heart disease is associated with an imbalance between the
LQT1, in which most arrhythmic events are triggered by exercise, sus
sympathetic and parasympathetic limbs of the autonomic nervous sys
tained β stimulation enhances Ca2+ L-type inward current (ICaL), which
tems. Myocardial infarction (MI) and HF result in neural remodelling. In
is not counterbalanced by a slowly rectifying IKs potassium current, due
animal models and humans post-MI, sympathetic remodelling occurs
to a dysfunctional pore-forming α-subunit. This results in the prolonga
due to injury and denervation of sympathetic fibres within scar areas,
tion of action potential duration (APD). Sudden adrenergic surges (like
subsequent localized nerve sprouting in the border zone regions, and
during arousal) do not induce this effect due to the protective role of
loss of efferent sympathetic nerves in non-infarcted areas, distal (apical)
intact fast rectifying IKr current.37,38 On the contrary, in LQT2, in which
to the infarcted area.64–66 This remodelling is followed by increased sys
VA is evoked commonly by sudden arousal (e.g. loud noise, startle),
temic but decreased cardiac levels of catecholamines and regional
abrupt adrenergic drive causes imbalance between APD-prolonging
super-sensitivity to catecholamines in the scarred (denervated) areas.66
ICaL and dysfunctional IKr currents, with resulting prolongation in
Changes in the parasympathetic limb are less well defined, with dimin
APD, whereas more sustained adrenergic stimulation (like during exer
ished acetylcholine release at the nerve–myocyte interface caused by
cise) does not have such an effect due to the protective role of the in
the high norepinephrine levels and other sympathetic cotransmitters
tact countervailing IKs current.39 In CPVT, adrenergic stimulation plays
(galanin and neuropeptide Y) as one of the suspected mechanisms.67,68
an essential role in increasing calcium leak through ryanodine receptor
The sympathetic/parasympathetic imbalance promotes arrhythmogen
Type 2, triggering delayed afterdepolarizations, and VAs,40 especially
esis in many ways: by both shortening and creating heterogeneities of
from Purkinje cells.41
APD, by increasing dispersion of repolarization (and consequently of
In contrast, in Brugada syndrome (BrS) and early repolarization syn
refractoriness), and by promoting early and late afterdepolarizations.69
drome (ERS), bradycardia, beta-adrenergic blockade, or vagal stimula
In PED patients, the role of the autonomic system is crucial and dis
tion and fever are considered pro-arrhythmic.42–46 Conventionally,
ease -specific (see Sections 6.2. and 9.2.2.).
an epicardial to endocardial repolarization gradient was assumed as
one of the underlying mechanisms for arrhythmia initiation.36,47,48
More recently, microstructural abnormalities of the extracellular ma
trix (fibrosis), particularly within right ventricular subepicardial myocar
7. Clinical presentation
dium, manifesting as epicardial regions of abnormal, fractionated Patients with clustered VA or ES, according to the definition used, can be
potentials, were found in patients with BrS and less frequently in ERS asymptomatic or can present with a broad spectrum of symptoms.
and IVF.49–51 This suggests the presence of subtle subepicardial cardio Symptoms can range from palpitations due to tolerated VT [often with
myopathy, rather than purely electric disease.52–56. Subepicardial con VT cycle length (CL) below ICD detection] or VT terminated by anti-
duction in right ventricular outflow tract (RVOT) epicardial regions tachycardia pacing (ATP), through pre-syncope or syncope despite VT ter
can be further compromised by impaired Na+ current due to the mination by ATP or ICD shocks, to haemodynamically unstable VT or VF,
SCN5A pathogenic variant, Na+ channel blockade, or pacing, leading requiring advanced cardiovascular life support (ACLS), multiple external car
to slow/asynchronous conduction, areas of localized block, and creating dioversions (CVs)/defibrillations (DFs), or even arrhythmic death.70
large potential difference relative to the body of the right ventricle (RV; Arrhythmias responsible for an ES are MSVT in the majority of cases (86–
depolarization theory).57 Excitation failure due to current-to-load mis 97%), followed by primary VF (1–21%), both MSVT/VF (3–14%) and PVT
match and localized RV epicardial activation delay may manifest as (2–8%) (Table 3 and Figure 1). In more than half of patients with an ES, the
J-point/ST-segment elevation and predispose to re-entry and PVT/ intervals between VT/VF episodes are shorter than 1 h.7,9,11,25,33,71–73
VF.58 Short QT (SQT) syndrome is a rare arrhythmogenic syndrome The clinical presentation depends on multiple factors, including the
associated with several genetic mutations, including gain-of-function underling cardiac disease, biventricular function, the type and CL of
mutations of potassium channels and loss-of-function mutations of cal the VA, and the time to and mode of termination.74 Both cardiac func
cium and sodium channels, resulting in a shortened repolarization phase tion and non-cardiac comorbidities (including renal impairment, chronic
of the action potential and transmural repolarization dispersion.59,60 pulmonary disease, and sepsis) influence the clinical presentation, elec
The diagnosis of idiopathic VF requires exclusion of an underlying trical stability, and prognosis.75–78 Identification of patients at high risk
structural, channelopathic, metabolic, or toxicological aetiology.1 and early transfer to a dedicated unit allowing for mechanical ventilation
Detailed invasive mapping studies have revealed subtle microstructural and mechanical circulatory support (MCS) is important.
changes, leading to depolarization abnormalities that allow for re-entry Patients with ICDs, in whom the VA episode is terminated promptly
and VF in a subset of patients diagnosed with idiopathic VF.51,54 In by ATP, are likely to improve earlier than patients with prolonged VT
episodes terminated by ICD shocks after ATP failure.79 Of note, even in 8.1.2. Twelve-lead electrocardiogram
patients with ICDs and good functional status, frequent episodes of Recording the 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG) after VA termination
slow, acutely tolerated and appropriately terminated VTs, can aggra and, whenever possible, during the VA episodes is mandatory. The ECG
vate ventricular dysfunction and increase New York Heart can be diagnostic for ST-elevation MI (STEMI) but may also show signs
Association (NYHA) class and cardiac mortality.80 of myocardial ischaemia, which may be the consequence of VA.
Electrical storm can induce or exaggerate cardiac ischaemia, leading Therefore, repeated ECGs are required to evaluate whether ECG
to cardiogenic shock and renal failure with metabolic acidosis and elec changes consistent with ischaemia (e.g. ST depression) resolve shortly
trolyte disturbance, further promoting electrical instability. after VA termination or persist. The ECG after VA termination may
also point towards precipitating factors (e.g. prolonged QT interval,
Brugada pattern, signs of hypokalaemia) but may also indicate a yet un
diagnosed underlying heart disease (Tables 4 and 5 and Figure 2). The
8. Acute management ECG of the VA can also contribute to the diagnosis of a potential under
lying disease (e.g. bidirectional VT for CPVT or TdP for LQT) but may
8.1. Initial evaluation, assessment of also provide important information on substrate location (Table 6).

external precipitating factors, and
reversible causes 8.1.3. Documentation of ventricular arrhythmia and
Assessment of vital signs and the haemodynamic status (consciousness immediate implantable cardioverter-defibrillator
level, body temperature, heart rate, respiratory rate, and blood interrogation
pressure), followed by continuous assessment of the rhythm and haemo Evaluation of the appropriateness, necessity, and effectiveness of ATP
dynamic monitoring, is mandatory in patients presenting with and ICD shocks is required in all patients with an ICD—(Flowcharts 1
an ES.18,81,82 and 2). Collecting the available information on the initiation and
mode of termination of all VA episodes from 12-lead ECG, wear
ables, cardiac monitor rhythm stripes, tracings stored in automated
external defibrillator, or intra-cardiac electrograms obtained from
8.1.1. History ICD interrogation is crucial for the acute and chronic management
Collecting all information on the underlying heart disease and the patient’s of ES.50,56 If PVC-induced VF is likely, continuous recording of
functional status and comorbidities are essential. Thorough family history, the 12 lead ECG is helpful to capture the morphology and to
including a history of sudden cardiac deaths or diagnosed PED, plays a crit determine the likely site of origin in case of unifocal PVCs and
ical role, especially in young patients with the first presentation. The drug helps to mark sites just in case of electrophysiologic study and
history, including all prescribed and free available drugs, in particular, if re ablation.89
cently initiated or up-titrated, may give a first suspicion of drug-induced ar
rhythmias [e.g. QRS or QT-prolonging drugs (http://www.crediblemeds.
org) or drugs that unmask Type 1 Brugada pattern (https://www. 8.1.4. Blood tests
brugadadrugs.org)], drug–drug interaction, or electrolyte abnormalities Evaluation of serum electrolyte levels (Na+, K+, Mg2+, and Ca2+)
(e.g. thiazide and loop diuretics) that may contribute to electrical instability. is part of the initial evaluation.25,72,73,90,91 Hypomagnesaemia
Recent changes in the clinical status (e.g. chest pain, dyspnoea, new signs of and/or hypokalaemia can be associated with TdP. Initial blood tests
cardiac decompensation, infection, or palpitations) or non-cardiac symp should also include thyroid-stimulating hormone to exclude hypo
toms (vomiting, diarrhoea, and dehydration that can contribute to electro thyroidism or hyperthyroidism as a potential trigger of ES (e.g. in
lyte abnormalities) should be noted. Factors that may be associated with an amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis92). In addition, renal77 and liver
ES should be gathered from family members/accompanying persons in function tests, impairment of which may lead to drug toxicity
case of unconscious patients.25 (e.g. sotalol), and blood tests for infection and inflammation may
Table 4 Baseline ECG changes suspicious for precipitation factors/underlying aetiologies
Baseline 12-lead ECG Condition/diagnosis

..............................................................................................................................................
PED QTc ≥ 460 ms LQTS (including acquired LQT)
Type 1 Brugada ECG Brugada syndrome
J-point elevation ≥2 mm with coved ST-elevation and T-wave inversion in at least one right precordial lead Exclude other conditions
(phenocopies)
Early repolarization pattern Early repolarization syndrome
J-point elevation ≥1 mm in ≥2 adjacent inferior and/or lateral ECG leads
SHD Pathological Q waves: >40 ms, >0.2 mV, >25% of QRS amplitude, any in V1–3 except LBBB cCAD
QRS fragmentationa cCAD, SHD
ST-segment elevation : J-point elevation ≥2 mm in V2/V3 in men, ≥1.5 mm in women, or ≥1 mm in 2 other STEMI
contiguous chest leads or limb leads
Epsilon wave V1–V3: low amplitude signal occurring after the QRS complex and before the onset of the T wave ARVC, cardiac sarcoidosis
a
An additional R′, notching of the R wave, notching of the S wave, or the presence of multiple (>2) R waves, in the absence of a wide QRS.65
ARVC, arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy; cCAD, coronary artery disease; ECG, electrocardiogram; LBBB, left bundle branch block; LQTS, long QT syndrome; PED,
primary electrical disease; QTc, corrected QT; SHD, structural heart disease; STEMI, ST-elevation MI.
Table 5 Electrolyte disturbances—ECG, causes and management
Hypokalaemia Hyperkalaemia
..............................................................................................................................................
ECG findings • T-wave flattening/inversion • Peaked T waves
• Widespread ST depression • P-wave widening/flattening
• Prominent U wave • PR prolongation
• Increased P-wave amplitude • QRS widening
• Prolongation of PR interval • Bradyarrhythmias: sinus bradycardia, high-grade AV block with slow
• Long QU interval junctional and ventricular escape rhythms, slow AF
• Conduction blocks (bundle branch block, fascicular blocks)
Causes • Abnormal losses: medications (diuretics, laxatives, • Increased intake: potassium supplementation, red blood cell

corticosteroids), gastrointestinal losses, renal losses, transfusion
hypomagnesaemia, dialysis • Impaired excretion: kidney disease, congestive heart failure, cirrhosis,
• Transcellular shifts: medications: (insulin overdose, medications (potassium-sparing diuretics, ACE inhibitors, ARBs,
B2-sympaticomimetics, decongestants), alkalosis, heparin), hypoaldosteronism
thyrotoxicosis, hypothermia, head injury, myocardial • Transcellular shifts: insulin deficiency, acidosis, medications (BBs,
ischaemia digoxin toxicity)
• Inadequate intake: anorexia, dementia, parenteral nutrition • Pseudo-hyperkalaemia: haemolysis, leucocytosis (>75 000 cells per
mm3), erythrocytosis, thrombocytosis
Management • Oral potassium chloride: 40–100 mmol • Potassium <6 mEq/L: stop potassium-elevating drugs, 15–30 g
• i.v. 20–40 mmol/L potassium chloride in 500 mL of saline (not sodium polystyrene sulfonate orally or rectally
exceed 20 mmol/h; higher rates in emergency situation via • Potassium >6 mEq/L: insulin with glucose (5–10 unit with 50 mL 50%
central venous catheter) glucose), calcium chloride 10 mL of 10% solution i.v. over 5–10 min or
calcium gluconate 30 mL of 10% solution i.v. over 5–10 min, beta
2-antagonist (salbutamol 0.25–0.5 mg iv, repeated dose after 15 min),
dialysis
Hypocalcaemia Hypercalcaemia
.............................................................................................................................................
ECG findings • QTc prolongation (ST-segment prolonged) • Shortening of the QT interval
• The T-wave unchanged • Osborn waves (J waves)
• Dysrhythmias uncommon • PVCs/PVT/VF
• TdP may occur
Causes • Hypoparathyroidism • Primary hyperparathyroidism
• Pseudo-hypoparathyroidism • Cancers (lung, breast, multiple myeloma, renal cell carcinoma,
• Renal disease prostate, ovarian, lymphoma, sarcoma)
• Vitamin D deficiency and dependency • Drugs: hydrochlorothiazide, lithium, calcium supplements, vitamin D
• Acute pancreatitis toxicity
• Drugs: phenytoin, phenobarbital • Sarcoidosis
• Infusion of gadolinium • Renal disease
• Magnesium depletion • Thyrotoxicosis
• Septic shock
Management • i.v. calcium gluconate 10 mL of 10% solution over 10 min • Serum calcium <11.5 mg/dL (< 2.9 mmol/L): oral phosphate 250–500
• 1–2 g of oral calcium for post-operative hypoparathyroidism mg 4 times a day
• 1–2 g of oral calcium and vitamin D for chronic hypocalcaemia • serum calcium <18 mg/dL (<4.5 mmol/L): iv 500–1000 mL of saline
and furosemide 20–40 mg every 2–4 h
• serum calcium 11.5 to 18 mg/dL (3.7 to 5.8 mmol/L) and/or moderate
symptoms: iv 500–1000 mL of isotonic saline and furosemide
20–40 mg every 2–4 h, bisphosphonates (zoledronate 4–8 mg iv) or
other calcium-lowering drugs
• serum calcium >18 mg/dL (>5.8 mmol/L): haemodialysis
Hypomagnesaemia Hypermagnesaemia
.............................................................................................................................................
ECG findings • Prolonged QT interval • Flat P wave
• Prolonged PR interval • Prolonged PR interval
• Atrial and ventricular ectopy • Widened QRS complex
Continued
Table 5 Continued
Hypomagnesaemia Hypermagnesaemia
.............................................................................................................................................
• VT and TdP • Tall T wave
Causes • Gastrointestinal: reduced intake, reduced absorption, • Impaired renal excretion: renal failure, hypothyroidism, adrenal
increased losses (diarrhoea, laxative abuse) insufficiency, lithium therapy
• Increase renal excretion: drug-induced (loop diuretics, • Excessive intake: as treatment for peptic ulcer disease
thiazides, proton pump inhibitors), hypercalcaemic states, • Excessive absorption: gastric or intestinal inflammatory
hyperaldosteronism
Management • Oral magnesium salts • Ca2+ in as 10–20 mL of 10% calcium gluconate i.v.
• In severe cases [magnesium <1.25 mg/dL (<0.5 mmol/L)] and • i.v. administration of 1000–2000 mL of 0.9% NaCl and furosemide

life-threatening arrhythmia: magnesium sulfate 1–2 g i.v. over 20–40 mg
30–60 s and repeat in 5–15 min if necessary • Haemodialysis using magnesium-free or low-magnesium dialysate
• In asymptomatic patients and magnesium <1.25 mg/dL
(<0.5 mmol/L): magnesium sulfate 1–2 g/h i.v. for up to 10 h
ACE, angiotensin-converting enzyme; AF, atrial firbrillation; ARB, angiotensin receptor blocker; AV, atrioventricular; BB, beta-blocker; ECG, electrocardiogram; PVC, premature
ventricular complex; PVT, polymorphic ventricular tachycardia; TdP, torsade de pointes; VF, ventricular fibrillation; VT, ventricular tachycardia.
A B
C D
Figure 2 Manifestations of electrolyte-level disturbances on ECG: (A) hypokalaemia, (B) hyperkalaemia, (C ) hypocalcaemia, (D) hypercalcaemia. ECG,
electrocardiogram.
Table 6 Twelve-lead ECG during VT
ECG during VT Description Suggestive cause of ES/site

of origin
..............................................................................................................................................
TdP PVT with ‘QRS twisting’ Acquired or congenital LQT
PVT VT with continually changing QRS morphology Acute ischaemia, primary
electrical disease (BrS, SQT,
IVF, CPVT, ERS)
Bidirectional VT Alternating QRS morphology (beat-to-beat) CPVT, digitalis intoxication,
Andersen–Tawil syndrome
LBBB-like and inferior axisa ARVC, idiopathic VT from the

RVOT (normal heart)
RBBB-like VT with left superior axis (LAH-like, less frequently right Narrow QRS (100–140 ms), short RS interval (onset Left ventricular fascicular VT
inferior axis LPH-likea)83 of R wave to nadir of S wave of 60–80 ms), r < R′ in (usually normal heart)
V1
QRS broad (≥150 ms), absence of rsR′ in V1 Papillary muscle VT
QRS broad (≥155 ms), R ≥ s in V5, may be positive Peri-mitral VT
QRS concordance
Fast (>200 b.p.m.) LBBB-like VT, with rapid downstroke of S wave Short QRS onset—the R-wave peak time (R-wave Bundle branch re-entrant
in the anterior precordial leads, QRS during sinus rhythm peak time) and fast downstroke of S wave in V1–V2 tachycardia (SHD)
(usually broad) may be identical to QRS duringa VT84,85
RBBB-like VT with pseudo-delta wave and broad RS interval,4 Pseudo-delta wave ≥34 ms (interval from the earliest VT with epicardial origin (SHD)
absence of q waves in inferior leads and presence in Leada I86–88 ventricular activation to the earliest fast deflection
in any precordial lead)
R-wave peak time in V2 ≥85 ms
Shortest RS complex ≥121 ms (in any precordial
lead)
a
LBBB-like pattern is characterized by a negative net amplitude of QRS complexes in leads V1 and/or V2 and RBBB-like by a positive net QRS amplitude in these leads.
ARVC, arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy; BrS, Brugada syndrome; CPVT, catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia; ECG, electrocardiogram; ES, electrical
storm; ERS, early repolarization syndrome; IVF, idiopathic ventricular fibrillation; LAH, left anterior hemiblock; LBBB, left bundle branch block; LPH, left posterior hemiblock; LQT, long
QT; PVT, polymorphic ventricular tachycardia; RBBB, right bundle branch block; RVOT, right ventricular outflow tract; SHD, structural heart disease; SQT, short QT; TdP, torsade de
pointes; VT, ventricular tachycardia.
provide important diagnostic information on circumstances that re stabilization, has been reported.97 If acute myocarditis is suspected,
quire prompt treatment. endomyocardial biopsy (EMB) is the gold standard for the diagno
Initial lab testing should also include serum troponin, even sis, which has important implications in cases of, e.g. giant cell myo
though following ES, the diagnostic performance of cardiac injury carditis.98 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography
markers alone is limited. In general, VA, in particular, if poorly can be useful in diagnosing arrhythmic myocarditis or cardiac sar
haemodynamically tolerated, can cause myocardial injury and may coidosis (CS), particularly when cardiac magnetic resonance
lead to an increase in these markers.93 Therefore, troponin should (CMR) is contraindicated and is unsuitable because of irregular
be monitored sequentially and interpreted in the context of symp rhythm or ICD–related artefacts or when there is a diagnostic mis
toms (angina pectoris), and ECG changes to identify and treat match between CMR and EMB.99,100
acute coronary syndrome (ACS). Toxicology screening for cocaine,
alcohol, and other drugs may be appropriate in selected cases as
abuse of those agents may lead to VA and even SCD.94,95 8.2. Treatment
According to ESC guidelines, blood should be collected for poten 8.2.1. Electrical storm with haemodynamic instability
tial later analysis.1 In case of haemodynamic instability, initiation of immediate ACLS is
indicated.1,109 Unstable patients need to be managed by an interdiscip
8.1.5. Coronary angiogram, cardiac imaging, and additional linary team, including a cardiologist with expertise in cardiac electro
diagnostic studies physiology and cardiac implantable devices, an anaesthesiologist or
Transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) should be performed early intensive care specialist, and, in selected cases, a HF specialist or a car
to assess cardiac function, dimensions, and disease progression in diac surgeon. Patients may be haemodynamically unstable because of
patients with known cardiac disease and to identify SHD in those frequent episodes of VT or incessant VT with haemodynamic com
without prior history of cardiac disease. Urgent coronary angiog promise. Haemodynamical instability may also persist after VT termin
raphy (CAG) is essential in case of STEMI or electrical instability ation due to a delayed recovery after long episodes of VT and/or several
with suspicion of ongoing myocardial ischaemia.96 Of note, ter ICD shocks or CVs, in particular in patients with poor cardiac function.
mination of incessant VT with intracoronary administration of Patients with ES and ongoing haemodynamically unstable VT or VF
radiographic contrast media, with subsequent haemodynamic should be managed according to the general principles of ACLS
(Figure 3).110 Basic airway techniques and a stepwise approach (bag-mask or with an external defibrillator. When using external DF/CV in ICD pa
ventilation, supraglottic device or intratracheal intubation, and mechanical tients, patches or paddles should be placed at least 8 cm from the ICD and,
ventilation75) are advised until adequate ventilation is achieved. if possible, in a front-to-back position.110 External CV was shown to be
High-quality chest compressions with minimal interruption and early similarly safe but superior to ICD shock for restoring sinus rhythm in pa
DF remain priorities. Rapid DF or CV may be delivered from the ICD tients with atrial fibrillation (AF) in a recent meta-analysis, but data on DF
or CV for VT/VF are lacking.111 In a cluster-randomized trial including 405
patients with refractory VF, double sequential external defibrillation
Advice Table 1 Initial evaluation—general aspects (DSED; rapid sequential shocks from two defibrillators) and vector
change (VC) DF (switching DF pads to an anterior-posterior position)
Evidence Strength were associated with higher survival to hospital discharge and DSED
.................................................................. (but not VC) with a better neurologic outcome.112 In patients with a non-
Advice TO DO shockable rhythm, adrenaline (1 mg i.v./i.o.) should be used immediately
Admit patients to a dedicated unit allowing OBS and repeated every 3–5 min during ACLS; in shockable rhythm, it should
be administered after the third DF/CV and repeated every 3–5 min in case

multi-disciplinary patient management and
of persistent arrhythmia. Amiodarone (300 mg iv/io) is advised after three
continuous monitoring18
shocks in patients with VF/PVT, followed by 150 mg iv/io after five shocks.
Assess vital signs and haemodynamic status, OPN If amiodarone is unavailable, lidocaine (100 mg iv/io) can be alternatively
including conscious level, heart rate, used after three shocks and repeated (50 mg iv/io) after five DFs.
respiratory rate, blood pressure, Conscious patients require deep sedation or anaesthesia before deli
body temperature, and arterial haemoglobin vering synchronized CV (see Section 8.2.4.). Guidelines-recommended
oxygen saturation. management of patients with VT and a palpable pulse advices a 120–150 J
for the initial CV.110 The energy can be increased if the first shock fails.110
Investigate for external precipitating factors OBS
Even in haemodynamically tolerated VT, prompt termination, preferably
and reversible causes77,90–92 by CV, is recommended by the current ESC guidelines, as haemodynamic
Collect data on current drug treatment and OPN deterioration may occur.1 Pharmacological treatment may be an alterna
prior drug failure for VA tive if the risk of sedation/anaesthesia is high (see Section 8.2.5.).
Record a 12-lead ECG of VA, whenever OPN Mechanical circulatory support may be appropriate in selected patients
possible
in whom conventional cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is not effect
ive114 (see Section 8.2.6.). The role of therapeutic hypothermia in pa
Record a 12-lead ECG after VA termination OPN tients with ES is unknown.
and repeat 12-lead ECG at least on a daily
basis in selected cases (ST changes, QT
8.2.2. Disease-specific aspects
prolongation)
Optimal HF management is mandatory and may help to stabilize the
Perform TTE after VA termination OPN rhythm.120,121 In case of suspicion of ongoing myocardial ischaemia,122
For initial evaluation in patients without urgent CAG is essential and is indicated in case of STEMI following cur
known disease rent guidelines.96 In patients with cCAD but no STEMI, the potential
For disease progression in patients with benefit of (complete) revascularization should be carefully weighed
known structural cardiac disease
against risk.123,124 Noteworthy, MSVT is rarely caused by ischaemia,125
and ischaemic evaluations in patients with monomorphic VT storm
Evaluate appropriateness and necessity of ICD OBS without ACS did not improve procedural outcomes or mortality after
therapies101–103 ablation.126
Reprogramme and/or inactivate ICD therapies OBS In the rare case of acute giant cell myocarditis, promptly initiated im
in case of malfunction, inappropriate, or munosuppression can be curative.127 In patients with CS and VA, cor
unnecessary therapies104–106 ticoid therapy is advised by the ESC Working Group on Myocardial and
Collect all available information on type, OBS
initiation, and termination of all VA episodes,
including telemetry strips and recordings Advice Table 2 Advanced life support
from cardiac implantable electronic devices
Evidence Strength
(CIEDs)89,101 ..................................................................
Perform urgent CAG in case of OBS Advice TO DO
STEMI107,108 Apply standardized advanced life support RCT
Persistent electrical instability and suspected (ALS) algorithms including high-quality chest
ongoing ischaemia compression with minimal
May be appropriate TO DO interruption109,115
Initiate continuous 12-lead ECG monitoring in OBS Use vasopressors (epinephrine) early for non- RCT
case of PVC-induced PVT/VF to determine shockable cardiac arrest following ES116–118
similarity and likely site of origin of PVCs89 May be appropriate TO DO
Advice NOT TO DO MCS may be appopriate when OBS
Do not perform routine toxicology screening OPN haemodynamical stabilization can not be
achieved by conventional therapy119
Assess rhythm
VF VT
DF 150 J Passive ventilation

120–200 J biphasic Body positioning, opening airway,
Pulse
>8 cm from CIED passive O2 administration No Yes
Chest compressions
100–120/min
minimizing pauses DF 150 J

120–200 J biphasic Conscious
>8 cm from CIED
Adequate ventilation, O2 supplementation No Yes
Bag-mask ventilation, supraglottic device, intratracheal
intubation, mechanical ventilation if needed
Routine POCUS use
CV 120–200 J Sedation/
1 mg epinephrine iv/io after 3rd shock >8 cm from CIED anaesthesia
and every 3–5 min thereafter
If no defibrillation response: CV 120–200 J

>8 cm from CIED
300 mg amiodarone i.v./i.o. after 3rd shock and
150 mg after five shocks Vasopressin
100 mg lidocaine i.v./i.o. if amiodarone and corticosteroids
unavailabe Adviced Not adviced
Figure 3 ACLS in an electrical storm.110,113 ACLS, advanced cardiovascular life support; CV, cardioversion; DF, defibrillation; POCUS, point of-care
ultrasound.
Pericardial Diseases.127 Data on the acute effect of steroids in patients hypomagnesaemia.137 I.v. potassium is usually effective, and K levels
with active CS and ES are lacking, and AAD or RFCA may be needed.128 should be brought to the upper limits of normal range.
Anti-inflammatory therapy with corticosteroids or other immunosup
pressive treatments may also be appropriate in myocarditis, if an 8.2.3. Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator
autoimmune mechanism is suspected (circulating serum cardiac auto- reprogramming
antibodies and ongoing inflammation) and no active viral replication has Inappropriate ICD therapy can be due to supraventricular tachycardias
been detected.129 In case of electrical instability in the inflammatory or AF with a rapid ventricular response (Figure 4). Inappropriate ICD
phase, AAD therapy and RFCA in case of drug-refractory storm may therapy can also result from cardiac or extracardiac oversensing
be appropriate. In a small cohort of patients with biopsy-proven chron or lead defects. Unnecessary ICD therapy may be triggered by
ic active myocarditis and drug-refractory VTs, RFCA effectively con non-sustained VTs, particularly if short detection times are pro
trolled MSVT.130 grammed. In these cases, ICD therapies must be interrupted and pre
Acute illness and fever should be aggressively treated with fever- vented by disabling and reprogramming the device.104 If there is no
reducing medications, particularly in patients with BrS.131 Emotional immediate access to a device programmer and ICD malfunction or
stress should be considered as the potential trigger in patients with inappropriate ICD treatment is suspected from the telemetry or
CPVT, and elevated sympathetic tone needs to be addressed in all pa ECG recordings, ICD therapy can be transiently disabled by placing a
tients with ES (see Sections 8.2.5.2. and 8.2.8.). Bradycardia may facili magnet on the device can (although this is a manufacturer and model-
tate VA initiation, in particular in the setting of QT prolongation, and specific feature, which can be programmable).
may require appropriate measures to increase heart rate (see Recurrent, appropriate ICD shocks may not only be due to ineffect
Sections 8.2.3., 8.2.5.2., and 8.2.9.). Of note, the corrected QT ive ATP or CV/DF and acceleration of VT by ATP (e.g. RAMP protocol
(QTc)/corrected JT (JTc) interval can be significantly prolonged after re set as a first mode) but also be due to programmed low VF detection
suscitation or in the setting of hypothermia, independently from rates, in particular if ATP during charging is not available or disabled.104
QT-prolonging drugs, and normalization should be only expected be Programming of longer detection times and longer and less aggressive
yond Day 6 after the acute event.132,133 Any potentially offending ATP therapies may reduce or avoid ICD shocks. In particular, in pa
drug must be withdrawn, and drugs known to prolong the QT interval, tients with haemodynamically well-tolerated VT, terminated by ICD
except AADs used to treat the ES, must be avoided. Early correction shocks, disabling the device therapy and termination of episodes by
of serum electrolyte levels (K+, Mg2+, and Ca2+) is indicated134–136; in commanded ATP or AADs are advised. Recurrent ICD shocks are
cases of TdP, i.v. magnesium is effective even in the absence of traumatic events associated with increased mortality, and the related
ATP/ICD shock in response to atrial fibrillation/SVT with rapid conduction on telemetry/ECG

ATP/ICD shock in the absence of ventricular arrythmia on telemetry/ECG
ICD shocks in the absence of symptoms consistent with VA and/or inappropriate ICD therapy evident from ICD interrogation
Inappropriate ICD shock suspected
Admit to hospital, monitor with telemetry

Without delay disable device with magnet or programmer
Review 12-lead ECG Review ICD settings (detection and treatment) Review of all episodes
e.g. broad QRS with potential R wave Evaluate lead position and integrity (including (e.g. appropriate and inappropriate ICD
double counting chest X-ray, if lead malfunction suspected) therapy?)
Cause of inappropriate ICD shock identified

Transvenous ICD Subcutaneous ICD
Lead-related Cardiac Noncardiac

AF/SVT Cardiac oversensing* AF/SVT
oversensing* oversensing* oversensing*
Optimize programming:
- Rate & duration (prolonged detection setting, high rate thresholds) Optimized programming:
- Multiple zones - Enable SMART pass filter
- Conditional and nonconditional shock zones
- Program non-therapy zone - Change vector if indicated
- Switch off SVT discriminator timeout Implement remote monitoring
Implement remote monitoring
Treat arrhythmia: Improve SVT/VT Reduce Reduce oversensing: Treat arrhythmia:

- Efficient rate discrimination oversensing: - Reprogram ventricular - Efficient rate
Adviced
and/or - Sudden onset - Enable specific sensitivity and/or rhythm
rhythm - Chamber of algorithms - Enable specific control
control onset algorithms - CA for SVT
- Activate,, noise
Benefit less known/ unknown - CA for SVT - Interval stability - Alter sensing - AAD/CA for AF
algorithm”
- AAD/CA for - A vs. V rate bandwidth
AF - Morphology
- Change sensing bipole
- Activate TWO algorithm
Recurrent inappropriate S-ICD shocks despite

Persistent oversensing?
optimized programming & medication?
N N Y Y N Y N
Reposition lead or implant

Follow-up Follow-up Implant transvenous ICD Follow-up
new lead if indicated
Flowchart 1 ICD interrogation and reprogramming—inappropriate therapy suspected.139*Cardiac oversensing: T-wave oversensing (most com
mon cause of inappropriate shocks in S-ICD); P-wave oversensing; R-wave double counting. #Lead-related oversensing: conductor fracture; insulation
breaches; connection problems; lead–lead interaction; air entrapment in the header. @Extracardiac oversensing: myopotentials from skeletal muscle
activity (diaphragmatic, pectoral, intercostal rarely); electromagnetic interference (alternating current line breakdown, interference from medical
sources). AAD, anti-arrhythmic drug; AF, atrial fibrillation; ATP, anti-tachycardia pacing; CA, catheter ablation; ECG, electrocardiogram; ICD, implan
table cardioverter-defibrillator; SVT, supraventricular tachycardia; S-ICD, subcutaneous ICD; TWO, T-wave oversensing.
hyperadrenergic state may trigger recurrent episodes. Accordingly, pa response, defined as the termination of ES within 15 min without recur
tient sedation (see Section 8.2.4.) and inactivation of unnecessary ICD rent episodes over the following 24 h, occurred in 47% of a mixed co
shocks, even if appropriate, may mitigate the ES.105,106 hort of 116 ES patients who were refractory to AADs. Response to
In addition, and depending on the mode of VA initiation, increasing deep sedation was an independent predictor of in-hospital survival.141
the lower rate thresholds for anti-bradycardic pacing to avoid bradycar
dia and short-long-short sequences may prevent VA episodes101—(see
8.2.4.1. Agents used for (deep) sedation
Flowcharts 1 and 2; Section 8.2.9.). Although adequate LV or biventri
cular pacing of CRT is desirable, recently initiated effective LV stimula Benzodiazepines. Short-acting agents like midazolam are commonly
tion may be arrhythmogenic, and disabling LV pacing may sometimes used in patients with an ES. With no negative inotropic effect, benzo
terminate or mitigate the ES.138 diazepines are considered first-line sedation drugs, often used for initial
mild sedation.140,142
Propofol. Propofol is a potent intravenous hypnotic agent used for
8.2.4. Deep sedation and mechanical ventilation deep sedation in the context of an ES.140,143 Propofol may substantially
In conscious patients with recurrent ICD shocks or symptomatic VTs, inhibit sympathetic nerve activity; 144 it has a rapid onset of action with
mild-to-moderate sedation is essential for patient comfort and to re in 2–3 min, a short half-life of 1–3 h, and good amnestic potential. This
duce sympathetic tone (Table 7). Deep sedation and mechanical venti agent must be used cautiously in patients with SHD because of its nega
lation have successfully controlled drug-refractory ES.140,141 An acute tive inotropic effect.
Non-sustained VT episodes on telemetry/ECG

ATP or ICD shocks after spontaneous termination of VA on telemetry
Patient with (potentially) unnecessary ATP and/or ICD shock for VA
Disable device with magnet or programmer
Review of all episodes Review ICD settings (detection and treatment)
VT/VF terminated spontaneously before ICD shock was applied
Y N

VT/VF did not terminate spontaneously, but may have terminated without ICD shock, e.g.:
- Because of short programmed detection setting
- Other non-sustained episodes
- Potential response to (individualized) ATP
Optimize programming:
- Rate & duration
- Multiple zones
- Program appropriate ATP
- Program non-therapy zone
Adviced
Implement remote monitoring
Benefit less known/unknown
Adjust confirmation &

Program individualized ATP
redetection criteria
Treat arrythmias dependent on symptoms and/or burden
Flowchart 2 ICD interrogation and reprogramming—unnecessary therapy suspected.139 ICD, implantable cardioverter-defibrillator.
Figure 4 Inappropriate ICD therapy. (A) Fast conducting AF misdetected as VF with ICD shock (arrow), (B) fast conducting AF misdetected as VT
with ATP delivered (arrow), (C ) noise caused by damaged RV electrode misdetected as VF with ICD shock (arrow). Shock initiates VF. A, atrial signal;
AF, atrial fibrillation; Aring, ring pole of atrial electrode; Atip, tip pole of atrial electrode; ATP, anti-tachycardia pacing; CRT, cardiac resynchronization
therapy; EGM, intra-cardiac electrogram; F, ventricular fibrillation detected; ICD, implantable cardioverter-defibrillator; LV, signal received by electrode
in left ventricle in CRT device; RV, signal received by electrode in the right ventricle; RVring, ring pole of electrode in the right ventricle; RVtip, tip pole of
electrode in the right ventricle; STIM, stimulation; VF, ventricular fibrillation; VS or RVs, ventricular sensed event; VT, ventricular tachycardia.
In a retrospective study of 46 subjects presenting with VT storm or characteristics, including comorbidities and patient-specific contraindi
incessant VT, 15 patients refractory to AAD underwent propofol- cations, and the availability of drugs. In patients with SHD, suppressing
induced deep sedation. After propofol administration, a complete reso sympathetic tone with beta-blockers (BBs), preferably non-selective
lution of VT/VF within minutes to hours was achieved in 12 patients (e.g. propranolol), is the first-line treatment unless contraindicated.26
(80%), and partial resolution in 2 (13%), with no VA recurrence after In a randomized controlled trial (RCT), the combination of i.v. amiodar
3 h.140 Hypotension was the most common side effect managed one and oral propranolol was safe, effective, and superior to the com
primarily with norepinephrine infusion. One case of necrosis of the bination of i.v. amiodarone and oral metoprolol in the management of
caecum was attributed to the complications of norepinephrine. ES in ICD patients.149 In patients with an ES due to VT/VF after a recent
Uncommon complications are hypertriglyceridaemia, pancreatitis, (<3 months) MI, sympathetic blockade with i.v. esmolol or i.v. propran
allergic reactions, and propofol-related infusion syndrome, which is olol (160–320 mg/24 h) or left stellate ganglion blockade was superior
an often lethal complication of high-dose propofol infusions, character to lidocaine i.v (followed by procainamide i.v. or bretylium, if not
ized by severe metabolic acidosis, bradyarrhythmias, acute renal failure, effective) for VT/VF suppression and survival.26 In patients with
rhabdomyolysis, and hyperkalaemia.145 Propofol may occasionally sig recurrent PVT in the early post-MI phase [but also post-coronary ar
nificantly prolong QT interval.146 tery bypass grafting (CABG) and percutaneous coronary intervention

Opioids. Short-acting opioid agents are also considered first-line (PCI)], quinidine has been reported to be effective after BB and
treatment because of their mild negative inotropic and potent analgesic amiodarone treatment failure.150,151 In patients with recurrent, haemo
effects.74,147 Fentanyl/remifentanil are used for the induction of general dynamically unstable VT despite amiodarone, landiolol (ultra-short-
anaesthesia. The onset of action of fentanyl is <2 min, with a peak of acting β1-selective blocker) was effective for arrhythmia suppression
2–5 min after administration. The half-life is 90 min, and the duration in two smaller studies.152,153
of action is 30–60 min. Remifentanil has a distribution half-life of Amiodarone i.v. (5 mg/kg/20 min) is frequently used in patients with
2–4 min and elimination half-time of 10–20 min. Its offset of action SHD who present with an ES. It terminated haemodynamically toler
(3–5 min) is not affected by the duration of drug infusion (no accumu ated VT in 38% of patients, the majority (80%) with SHD.154 Effects
lation with repeated and prolonged administration), and its pharmaco of oral vs. intravenous loading with amiodarone may differ; combined
kinetics is not affected by renal nor hepatic impairment. i.v. and oral loading may shorten the time to VA control compared
Dexmedetomidine. Dexmedetomidine is a highly selective α2- with oral loading alone and may lower the cumulative dose required.155
adrenoreceptor agonist with a short half-life (6 min) that reduces Patients already on amiodarone therapy may benefit from acute reload
sympathetic activity by enhancing central vagal tone and inhibiting pre ing with this AAD.142
synaptic catecholamine release. It provides both sedation and analgesia In patients with SHD and haemodynamically tolerated VT without
without respiratory depression and was shown to decrease the inci acute ischaemia, procainamide can also be used. In the PROCAMIO
dence of VT in critically ill patients.148 However, it should be used trial, procainamide was superior to amiodarone in terminating haemo
with caution as it may cause severe hypotension and bradycardia. dynamically tolerated VT of unknown aetiology, with fewer major ad
verse events.154 Lidocaine is only moderately effective (and worse
8.2.5. Pharmacotherapy for the acute management of than procainamide i.v.156 and sotalol i.v.157) in stable MSVT but has
been considered potentially useful in the context of acute ischaemia
electrical storm
(bolus 1–1.5 mg/kg followed by infusion rate of 0.02 mg/kg/min).158
8.2.5.1. Structural heart disease Its prophylactic use had little or no effect on mortality or VF in AMI pa
Anti-arrhythmic drugs are the cornerstone of therapy for the acute tients in a meta-analysis of controlled RCTs.159 As negative inotropic
management of ES (Table 8). The specific AAD treatment depends effects of lidocaine have been demonstrated in animal studies,160 the
on the type of VA, the (likely) underlying aetiology, patient’s drug needs to be used with caution in patients with impaired ventricular
function. Ranolazine, an antianginal and anti-ischaemic drug, also exerts
anti-arrhythmic properties, presumably due to the inhibition of the late
Table 7 Medication for sedation in ES patients sodium and the delayed rectifier potassium current.161 In a double-blind
RCT including 1012 ICD patients with SHD (54% with cCAD), ranola
Sedation90–92
.................................................................. zine significantly reduced the risk of recurrent VT or VF requiring ICD
therapy (pre-specified secondary endpoint) without an impact on mor
Agents Initial dose Infusion rate tality during a mean follow-up of 28 ± 16 months.162 The use of other
..................................................................
AADs depends on the underlying aetiology and the type of VA.163
Benzodiazepines
Midazolam 0.01–0.05 mg/kg, 0.02–0.1 mg/kg/h, titrate
repeat q5–15 min up/down by 25–50% 8.2.5.2. Primary electrical disease
Lorazepam 0.02–0.04 mg/kg 0.01–0.1 mg/kg/h (not In patients with PED, treatment of an ES is disease specific. In LQTS, it in
exceed 10 mg/h) volves the immediate elimination of eventual triggers [acquired LQTS
(aLQTS) and congenital LQTS (cLQTS)], BBs, ideally non-selective (nadolol
Propofol 0.8–1.2 mg/kg 5–50 μg/kg/min
or propranolol), intravenous extracellular magnesium and potassium supple
(0.3–3 mg/kg/h) mentation (aLQTS and cLQTS),134,135,137 isoproterenol (aLQTS), mexile
Up-titrate every 5–10 min tine (cLQTS), and temporary pacemaker therapy with supra-normal rates
by 5–10 μg/kg/h (aLQTS and cLQTS Type 2).3 Class III AADs should be avoided.
Opioids In BrS and IVF, an ES is best treated with isoproterenol i.v.164–166
Quinidine with or without isoproterenol has also been used successful
Fentanyl 1–2 μg/kg 1–2 μg/kg/h
ly in individual cases.167–172 Class Ic drugs should be avoided. Short QT
Remifentanyl 0.5–1.5 μg/kg 0.05–2 μg/kg/min syndrome is very rare, and data regarding the treatment of ES are very
Dexmedetomidine 1 μg/kg over 10 min 0.2–0.7 μg/kg/h limited; isoproterenol may be efficient in such cases.173
In CPVT, ES is rare and almost exclusively triggered by adrenergic
ES, electrical storm. stressors (including erroneous administration of epinephrine during re
suscitation efforts). Treatment should therefore be directed towards
16
Table 8 Pharmacotherapy for acute treatment of patients with ES
Acute treatment
............................................................................................................................................................................................
Vaughan Drug Channels Dose (i.v.) Pharmacokinetics Specific use Caution Monitoring Adverse effects
Williams affected
Class
............................................................................................................................................................................................
Half-life Desired plasma Metabolism
concentration
Class I Quinidine INa, IKr, ITo, M, α Loading dose: 6–8 h 1.5–3.5 μg/mL Hepatic VT, VF, ES after MI, Severe bradycardia and/ ECG (QRS duration QTc prolongation, TdP, QRS
800 mg/50 mL PCI, CABG, BrS, or high-degree AV and QT interval), prolongation, increase in
Maintenance SQT syndrome block in the absence heart rate, platelet defibrillation threshold,
intravenous: IVF of a pacemaker, count hypotension, bradycardia,
50 μg/min myasthenia gravis, heart failure exacerbation,
decompensated diarrhoea, immune
heart failure thrombocytopenia
Procainamide INa, IKr ganglionic 100 mg bolus, can be 3–4 h 4–12 μg/mL Hepatic and VT, pre-excited AF Severe sinus node ECG (QRS duration Rash, myalgia, vasculitis,
block repeated after renal disease, severe AV and QT interval), agranulocytosis,
5 min if no effect, conduction blood pressure hypotension, bradycardia,
alternatively disturbance, previous QT prolongation
10–17 mg/kg myocardial infarction,
administered at a reduced LVEF,
rate of 20–50 mg/ hypotension, BrS,
min, max 500– myasthenia gravis
750 mg (max
50 mg/min) and
then 2–6 mg/min
Lidocaine INa 50–200 mg bolus and 7–30 min 2–6 μg/mL Hepatic Ischaemic VT/VF Severe sinus node/AV ECG (PR interval and Hypotension, confusion,
then 2–4 mg/min heart block in the QRS duration), tremors,
(25–50 μg/kg/min) absence of temperature methemoglobinaemia,
pacemaker, malignant hyperthermia,
cardiogenic shock, anaphylactoid reactions
hypersensitivity to
lidocaine or
amide-type local
anaesthetist
Mexiletine INa Intravenous: not 10–14 h 0.6–1.7 mg/mL Hepatic VT/VF, Cardiogenic shock, ECG (QT interval), Ataxia, tremors, hypotension,
recommended LQT3 pre-existing sinus hepatic function angina
Loading dose: 400 LQT2 node disease, or
mg initially followed second/third-degree
R. Lenarczyk et al.
by 600 mg in the AV block without
first 24 h pacemaker,
Maintenance dose: hypotension, history
600–1200 mg of seizures
Continued

Management of patients with an ES or clustered VAs
Table 8 Continued
Acute treatment
............................................................................................................................................................................................
Vaughan Drug Channels Dose (i.v.) Pharmacokinetics Specific use Caution Monitoring Adverse effects
Williams affected
Class
............................................................................................................................................................................................
Class II (BBs) Esmolol β1-receptor Bolus dose: 0.5 mg/kg 5–10 min NA RBC esterase VT Severe sinus Heart rate, blood Bronchospasm, hypotension,
for 1 min bradycardia/severe pressure sinus bradycardia, AV block,
Infusion: 25–50 μg sinus node disease/ fatigue, depression
/kg/min up to AV conduction
250 μg /kg/min disturbances without
(titrate every 5– pacemaker,
10 min) Decompensated
Propranolol Non-selective BB Bolus dose: 0.15 mg/ 3–6 h NA Hepatic VT, PVCs, heart failure,
kg over 10 min, LQT Prinzmetal’s angina,
160 mg/24 h asthma/chronic
Metoprolol β1-receptor Bolus dose: 2–5 mg Tartarate: NA Hepatic VT, PVCs obstructive airway
every 5 min, up to 3 3–4 h disease, myasthenia
doses in 15 min Succinate: gravis
3–7 h
Class III Amiodarone INa, ICa, IKr, IK1, IKs, Ito, Loading dose: 5 mg/kg 4–14 weeks 1–2.5 μg/mL Hepatic VT, VF, PVCs Concomitant digoxin Heart rate, blood Increases DFT, hypotension,
α, β in 20 min to 2 h, 2– administration, pressure bradycardia, AV block, QT
3 times in 24 h and concomitant warfarin prolongation, TdP (rare),
then 600– administration hypothyroidism/
1200 mg/ 24 h 8– hyperthyroidism, nausea,
10 days photosensitivity, skin
discolouration, peripheral
neuropathy, tremor,
hepatitis, pulmonary
fibrosis/pneumonitis
Beta agonist Isoproterenol β1 and β2 0.5–10 μg/min 2.5–5 min NA Hepatic and IVF Coronary artery disease, Heart rate, blood Tachycardia, hypertension,
pulmonary TdP, ES in myocardial ischaemia pressure, ECG for angina, tremors
Brugada convulsions, renal ST-elevation
syndrome, SQT disease,
syndrome, VAs hyperthyroidism
secondary to AV
block
AF, atrial fibrillation; BB, beta-blocker; BrS, Brugada syndrome; CABG, coronary artery bypass grafting; DFT, defibrillation threshold testing; ECG, electrocardiogram; ES, electrical storm; IVF, idiopathic ventricular fibrillation; LVEF, left ventricular
ejection fraction; LQT, long QT; MI, myocardial infarction; NA, not applicable; PCI, percutaneous coronary intervention; PVC, premature ventricular complex; QTc, corrected QT; RBC, red blood cell; SQT, short QT; TdP, torsade de pointes; VF,
ventricular fibrillation; VA, ventricular arrhythmia; VT, ventricular tachycardia.
17
the radical removal of all adrenergic triggers. Beta-blockers remain the 8.2.6.3. Prophylactical mechanical circulatory support implantation prior to
first line of therapy, and epinephrine should be avoided, including in the ventricular tachycardia ablation in patients at high risk of developing
setting of cardiac arrest/resuscitation.174 haemodynamic instability
In all inherited arrhythmic syndromes or arrhythmogenic cardiomy
Clinical evidence is scarce despite the potentially rational arguments
opathies, where adrenergic stress is causally involved, the ultimate
for adopting this strategy. The selection of patients is the cornerstone
therapeutic option is deep anaesthesia (see Section 8.2.4.). of the strategy. The PAINESD score (Table 10) may help to estimate the
risk of peri-procedural haemodynamic decompensation in patients with
8.2.6. Mechanical circulatory support scar-related VTs requiring ablation.119,178 The risk of haemodynamic de
Temporary MCS may be beneficial in treating life-threatening, refrac terioration during the procedure may be influenced by the mapping strat
tory, haemodynamically non-tolerated VA, providing maintenance of egy, in particular if repeated VT induction or mapping during VT is deemed
organ perfusion while allowing for the treatment of the precipitating ar necessary. In patients with a high PAINESD score (≥ 15), prophylactic
rhythmia. However, MCS is associated with non-negligible rates of MCS may reduce mortality.182,183 Prophylactic use of MCS was associated
complications (vascular access-related, bleeding, etc.), procedural logis with survival benefits, as shown by a meta-analysis of 2465 patients with ES
or high PAINESD scores.119 However, MCS as a support for ablation was

tics/complexity/availability, and increased costs. The lack of robust evi
dence on MCS use in the setting of ES makes it difficult to draw any associated with higher complication risk and procedural time/fluoroscopy
definitive conclusions about its role in this scenario. burden.184 The vascular access strategy, the need for LV venting, and the
Current temporary modalities for MCS include the intra-aortic expected duration of support time are mandatory to consider before the
balloon pump (IABP), the Impella devices (Abiomed, Danvers, procedure.
MA, USA), Tandem Heart left atrial-to-femoral bypass (Cardiac
Assist Inc., Pittsburgh, PA, USA), extracorporeal membrane oxygen 8.2.7. Acute catheter ablation
ation (ECMO), and peripheral cardiopulmonary bypass. Their main Catheter ablation is the treatment of choice for monomorphic VT re
characteristics are depicted in Table 9 and Figure 5. Mechanical circula fractory to drug therapy in the acute phase and is advised in all eligible
tory support device selection depends on the patient’s characteristics, patients to reduce ES recurrence.1,185
required support level, local expertise, and logistics. Notably, the use of In haemodynamically stable patients, expedited CA may be appropri
temporary MCS is highly complex and should only be performed by ate if non-invasive strategies cannot achieve prompt rhythm control.
experienced multi-disciplinary teams in specialized centres. The role Catheter ablation aims to suppress VA and to prevent prolonged low-
of temporary MCS in ES has not been extensively investigated. output state that can lead to acute multi-organ failure. Consideration of
Mechanical circulatory support may be helpful in patients presenting early CA is reasonable in patients with incessant VA or recurrent epi
with ES in the following scenarios: sodes of PVC-induced VA (also PVTs) that are haemodynamically sig
nificant despite AAD and deep sedation.
The ideal timing for CA remains unclear. However, in a recent
8.2.6.1. Rescue therapy in acute haemodynamic decompensation because
meta-analysis, stabilization of patients with an ES using elective MCS
of refractory, haemodynamically intolerant ventricular arrhythmia prior to CA of VT appeared to be beneficial, compared with urgent
Because of the level of support provided and its rapid instauration, MCS or non-MCS (see Section 8.2.6.).119 Rescue CAs within the first
veno-arterial ECMO is the most attractive option for patients present 24 h after ES onset with ongoing cardiogenic shock due to sustained
ing with haemodynamic deterioration due to VA (ES, VT refractory to VA episodes are associated with a higher rate of ablation failure and
AADs, recurrent VF, or refractory cardiogenic shock after VA cessa VA/ES recurrence.186 Evidence also suggested that CA performed after
tion).18 In an RCT in patients with incessant shockable rhythm the first 48 h from admission is associated with lower mortality at 30
(VT/VF), extracorporeal CPR (ECPR) was associated with lower mor days compared with conservative therapy or very early ablation.187
tality to hospital discharge compared with conventional CPR (7 vs. Therefore, haemodynamic stabilization and arrhythmia suppression be
43%).175 On the other hand, in another RCT including 256 patients fore proceeding with CA should be attempted but may not always be
with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) of presumably cardiac possible.
cause (61% with VF as presenting rhythm), ECPR failed to show a sig
nificant benefit in mortality when compared with conventional CPR (32
vs. 22%, P = 0.09).176 In a recent multi-centre RCT on 160 patients
with OHCA due to refractory VT/VF, ECPR was not superior to con
ventional CPR in terms of mortality at 30 days (20 vs. 16%, P = Advice Table 3 Mechanical circulatory support
0.52).177 Systematic selection of optimal candidates and refinement
of patient care through the process remain the cornerstone for a suc Evidence Strength
..................................................................
cessful ECPR programme. The use of other MCS devices in this con
text, such as Impella, is anecdotal and only supported by small case May be appropriate TO DO
series. MCS may be appropriate in patients with acute RCT
ES for optimizing haemodynamics18,175–177
8.2.6.2. Rescue therapy in peri-procedural acute haemodynamic MCS may be appropriate in patients OBS
decompensation because of refractory unstable ventricular arrhythmia in undergoing ablation of non-tolerated VAs to
patients undergoing ventricular tachycardia ablation support mapping and ablation179,180
Acute haemodynamic deterioration during VT ablation may occur in up MCS if started before ablation may be OPN
to 11% of patients and is associated with increased mortality, both in extended to aid elective CA
the short and long term.178 Veno-arterial ECMO is the preferred res Initiation of MCS prophylactically before CA OBS
cue MCS modality in patients with ES undergoing CA. However, re
may be appropriate in high-risk patients,
ported mortality rates in the short-term are high, ranging from 38 to
76%, despite successful CA.179,180 Of note, rescue MCS during CA presenting with an ES or clustered
was associated with a higher mortality rate than pre-emptive MCS or VA119,181,182
no-MCS.181
Table 9 Types of mechanical cardiac support
Pros Cons Contraindications

............................................................................................................................................................................................
IABP Indirect LV support by aortic Percutaneous arterial access (7– Simple set-up Very limited LV support Moderate-severe aortic regurgitation
counterpulsation, with afterload 8 Fr) Indirectly unloads LV Requires stable rhythm Severe peripheral artery disease
reduction and diastolic aortic pressure Modest cardiac output increase Availability Aortic dissection
augmentation (0.5–1.0 L/min) Affordable
Low complication rate
Impella CP Microaxial continuous anterograde flow Maximum average flow 3.7 L/min Relatively simple set-up and Partial LV support Moderate-severe aortic regurgitation
pump LV aorta Percutaneous arterial access implantation Electromagnetic interference in Mechanic aortic prosthesis
(femoral/axillary) Unloads LV mapping system. LV thrombus
Introducer diameter 14 Fr Availability Difficult catheter manipulation Severe peripheral artery disease
Pump motor 14 Fr Percutaneous removal during ablation Severe RV failure
May require transeptal access
for CA
High costs
Impella 5.5 Microaxial continuous anterograde flow Maximum average flow 5.5 L/min Full LV support Requires surgical team/complex Moderate-severe aortic regurgitation
pump LV aorta Surgical axillary cut-down Unloads LV logistics Mechanic aortic prosthesis
Introducer diameter 23 Fr Prolonged support duration Surgical insertion and removal LV thrombus
Pump motor 19 Fr Allows early mobilization High costs Severe peripheral artery disease
Severe RV failure
Impella RP Type of MCS Main characteristics Technical details Anecdotical experience in ES or Mechanical valves, severe valvular
VT ablation stenosis/regurgitation of the tricuspid
Only available in selected sites or pulmonary valve
High costs Right atrium or vena cava thrombus
Presence of a vena cava filter or caval
interruption device
TandemHeart Left atrial-to-femoral artery bypass using Percutaneous or surgical access LV support Complex logistics. Moderate-severe aortic regurgitation
external centrifugal pump Transseptal puncture required Indirectly unloads LV Multi-disciplinary team RV failure
Generated output up to 5 L/min Prolonged support duration May impede transeptal Ventricular septal defect
Inflow cannula 21 Fr approach for CA Severe peripheral artery disease
Outflow cannula 15 Fr Large bore cannulas
VA-ECMO Cardiopulmonary support system Percutaneous/surgical vascular Full biventricular support Complex logistics. Severe aortic regurgitation
integrated by a centrifugal pump and an access Prolonged support duration Multi-disciplinary team Aortic dissection
oxygenation membrane 17–21 Fr outflow cannula Default choice in isolated RV Requires often arterial distal Severe peripheral artery disease (in
19–25 Fr inflow cannula failure perfusion cannula to prevent peripheral cannulation)
Maximum output up to 8 L/min May be percutaneously leg ischaemia Uncontrollable bleeding or
removed High complication rates contraindications to systemic
anticoagulation
ES, electrical storm; IABP, intra-aortic balloon pump; LV, left ventricle; MCS, mechanical circulatory support; RV, right ventricle; VA-ECMO, veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation; VT, ventricular tachycardia
19
A B C D

Figure 5 Types of mechanical circulatory support: (A) intra-aortic balloon pump, (B) transvalvular microaxial flow pump (Impella), (C) tandem heart,
(D) veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenator.
extend beyond those influenced by BB therapy. Elevated sympathet

Table 10 PAINESD scores ic tone also leads to the release of sympathetic cotransmitters,
such as neuropeptide Y, that likely decrease APD and influence
Parameter Points
.................................................................. arrhythmogenesis.203,204
In addition to increasing sympathetic efferent tone, sympathetic
Pulmonary disease (COPD) 5
afferent activation may also play a role by inhibiting vagal tone.
Age > 60 years 3 Therefore, sympathetic neuromodulatory therapies, such as stellate
IHD 6 ganglion blockade (SGB), thoracic epidural anaesthesia (TEA), cardiac
NYHA Class III and IV 6 sympathetic denervation (CSD), and renal denervation (RDN), by
changing efferent and afferent sympathetic signalling of the heart (affer
EF < 25% 3
ent renal and efferent heart signalling in case of RDN), address mechan
Storm electrical 5 isms beyond blockade of beta-adrenergic receptors.
DM 3
Low risk: ≤8, median risk: 9–14, high risk: ≥15 points
8.2.8.1. Stellate ganglion block
COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; DM, diabetes; EF, ejection fraction; Stellate ganglion block is performed with an anaesthetic agent (bupiva
IHD, ischaemic heart disease; NYHA, New York Heart Association; caine or ropivacaine) at the left or bilateral stellate ganglia level under
Advice Table 4 Acute treatment of ES in SHD

Catheter ablation in patients presenting with ES and PVT/VFs can be
challenging. Trigger elimination is an effective strategy to achieve short- Evidence Strength
term and long-term ES freedom in post-MI patients with focally trig ..................................................................
gered VF storm (see Sections 8.1. and 8.2.2.).188–190 Epicardial approach Advice TO DO
may be needed in refractory cases in NICM, but also in cCAD pa Design a management plan for each ES patient OPN
tients.191–193 Due to the complex nature of VA ablations in ES that of in a multi-disciplinary team
ten require MCS, epicardial access, skilled operators, and support of
Start i.v. amiodarone (in combination with RCT
multi-disciplinary staff, performing these ablations in experienced cen
tres after initial stabilization is advised. propranolol) in patients with SHD and
Urgent heart transplantation may be an option for selected patients reduced systolic function149
who have a VA storm refractory to the therapy. Quinidine is appropriate in patients with OBS
recurrent PVT resistant to amiodarone and
8.2.8. Autonomic modulation BBs, in the early post-MI phase or
The autonomic nervous system plays an important role in the gen post-coronary revascularization
esis of VT/VF.198–201 (see Section 6.4.). Beta-blocker therapy can de
intervention150,151
crease the risk of sudden cardiac death.202 Specifically, in the setting
of ES, propranolol has demonstrated better efficacy compared
with metoprolol.149 Of note, the effects of sympathetic activation Continued
ultrasound and/or fluoroscopic guidance (Figure 6).205,206 In several case

Advice Table 4 Continued series, pharmacological SGB reduced VT burden in patients with refrac
tory VT or VT storm and was more effective than standard ACLS
Evidence Strength
.................................................................. protocol using amiodarone, though prospective and randomized data
Perform VT ablation in patients with recurrent OBS
are needed.26,205–208 Continuous infusion of anaesthetic agents using
a catheter placed near the stellate ganglion can provide better control
MSVT despite optimal medical therapy,
of VA than a single bolus injection.209 Of note, efficacy of
provided that an experienced team is cryoenergy-induced and radiofrequency-induced SGBs have been re
available14,186 ported in small case series.210,211 In a recent RCT in 26 patients with
Perform CA in patients with recurrent OBS refractory ES, transcutaneous magnetic stimulation (a new, non-
episodes of VF triggered by a similar PVC invasive method of modulating a patient’s nervous system activity)
despite optimal medical therapy, provided that targeted the left stellate ganglion was no better than a sham pro
cedure in preventing VT recurrence within 24 h but was more effective
that an experienced team is available189,190
in reducing VT burden (incidence rate ratio, 0.42; P < 0.001) and num

Transfer patients with recurrent MSVT or OBS ber of AADs.212
recurrent episodes of VF triggered by a
similar PVC despite optimal medical therapy
8.2.8.2. Thoracic epidural anaesthesia
to a specialized centre for VA ablation,
Thoracic epidural anaesthesia provides greater sympatholysis, as ad
whenever possible18 ministration of an anaesthetic in the C7-T4 epidural space can block
Advice NOT TO DO sympathetic activity along the stellate and thoracic sympathetic gan
Do not apply invasive treatment in case of OPN glia bilaterally. This procedure is performed under fluoroscopic guid
specific directive or ‘do not resuscitate’ ance. Contraindications include active infection, dual anti-platelet
therapy, and the requirement for uninterrupted anticoagulation.
orders
Similar to SGB, TEA has been shown to reduce VT burden in
small case series of patients with VT storm or refractory VT by
≥80%, though prospective and randomized data are lacking.213,214
Notably, SGB and TEA are temporary measures used as a bridge
to more definitive therapy, such as CA, CSD, or occasionally, heart
transplantation.
Advice Table 5 Acute treatment of unstable ES in PED
8.2.8.3. Surgical/thoracoscopic sympathetic cardiac denervation
Evidence Strength
.................................................................. The role of surgical CSD has been studied in patients with LQTS and
Advice TO DO CPVT (see Section 6.4.), as well as in those with refractory VT/VF storm
and SHD.215 Left CSD (LCSD) effectively reduces the burden of VT in
Isoproterenol infusion is beneficial in BrS OBS
LQTS and CPVT patients and has been used in cases of BB intolerance
patients presenting with an ES164,166–169,172 or refractoriness.216–220 In a series of 147 high-risk LQTS patients, 75%
Intravenous magnesium and potassium OBS of whom were symptomatic despite BB therapy, and the mean yearly
supplementation is useful in the acute phase number of cardiac events, including syncope, was reduced by 91% after
of LQTS-associated TdP. Remove or CSD.219 Bilateral CSD has shown better results in patients with
correct external triggers (i.e. drugs, SHD,221–225 and in the largest multi-centre series of 121 patients
(mean LVEF 30 ± 13%, 71% with NICM, 75% with VT storm, and
electrolyte imbalance).134,135,137
92% on BB combined with an AAD), bilateral CSD was associated
May be appropriate TO DO with a 58% 1-year ICD shock/transplant-free survival and a >90% re
Isoproterenol or quinidine may be clinically OBS duction in ICD shock burden in the year after compared with the
useful to acutely treat an ES in patients with year prior to CSD.224 In another series of 21 patients of which >70%
idiopathic VF194–196 had presented with ES, 76.9% were free from recurrent ICD shocks
and 38.5% were free from any VA during a mean follow-up of ∼9
Isoproterenol infusion may be appropriate in OBS
months.215 Notably, in patients with SHD, CSD may be efficacious in
ERS patients presenting with ES197
both monomorphic VT and PVT or VF,215 and utilization of CSD at
Isoproterenol may be appropriate in SQTS OPN an early stage, compared with performing the procedure urgently or
patients with an ES173 emergently, may lead to better outcomes.226 Cardiac sympathetic de
Verapamil may be clinically useful to OPN nervation is currently being evaluated in randomized clinical trials to
acutely treat an ES in patients with idiopathic treat refractory VT (NCT01013714). A retrospective study of patients
undergoing CSD suggested that CSD may also reduce the burden of
VF195
PVCs, potentially playing a role in reducing triggers for VT/ES.227
Advice NOT TO DO
Catecholamines such as epinephrine and OBS
8.2.8.4. Renal denervation
isoproterenol are not appropriate in CPVT
Renal denervation involves the ablation of renal nerves surrounding
patients with an ES174 the renal arteries. This procedure can be performed under electro
anatomic mapping and fluoroscopic guidance.228,229 In several case
A B
TH
SCM
Trachea
V
1
SCM
2 IJV
CaA

IJV
3
SG
CaA
LCM
SG 4
LCM
5
Figure 6 Stellate ganglion block. (A) Neck cross-section showing SGB guided by surface landmark technique and palpation (left) and ultrasound
(right). (B) Transverse sonographic view of the neck at the level of sixth cervical vertebrae (C6). CaA, carotid artery; IJV, internal jugular vein; LCM,
longus colli muscle; SCM, sternocleidomastoid muscle; SG, stellate ganglion; SGB, SG blockade; TH, thyroid.
series of patients with cardiomyopathy, including DCM and Chagas

cardiomyopathy, RDN with or without VT ablation was reported Advice Table 6 Sedation and autonomic modulation
to reduce the burden of VT.230–232 In a meta-analysis of 121 pooled
Evidence Strength
patients from multiple studies/case series (mean LVEF of 30.5 ± ..................................................................
10.3%, 76% men, 99% on BB, and 79% on amiodarone therapy),
Advice TO DO
RDN reduced ICD shocks and ATP episodes.229 Primary challenges
with RDN include a lack of clear procedural endpoints and anatomic Initiate sympathetic blockade (esmolol, RCT
variability of structures surrounding the arteries that can affect abla propranolol) in preference to lidocaine i.v. in
tion biophysics and efficacy.233 Prospective randomized data are ES patients with recent (<3 months) MI26
lacking. The combination of i.v. amiodarone and oral RCT
propranolol is preferred to the combination
of i.v. amiodarone and oral metoprolol in the
8.2.9. Overdrive pacing management of ES in ICD patients149
Overdrive pacing (ODP) may extinguish abnormal ventricular automa Initiate mild-to-moderate sedation OBS
ticity by overriding the ectopic pacemaker, which permits capturing and
(benzodiazepine) in all patients with an ES
suppressing the ectopic pacemaker. Overdrive pacing may also cause an
and ongoing/recurrent arrhythmia140,141
exit block from the ectopic focus. In re-entry VT, fast pacing may dis
rupt the re-entry circuit by altering the conduction rate, changing the May be appropriate TO DO
excitation pathway, shortening, and decreasing dispersion of refractori Deep sedation/general anaesthesia and OBS
ness of tissues in the re-entrant circuit and restitution of more uniform mechanical ventilation may be appropriate in
repolarization.234 By reducing ventricular refractory period, ODP may case of drug-refractory ES140,141
also reduce the susceptibility to the R on T phenomenon. These effects
Stellate ganglion block or TEA may be OBS
can be augmented by addition of AAD.235
Overdrive pacing can be carried out with an implanted pacemaker or appropriate in SHD in the setting of ES or
ICD or through a temporary electrode inserted into the RV, by pacing incessant VT/VF to reduce burden of VAs
at a rate of 10–20 b.p.m. greater than the native rate. Of note, decre and ICD shocks as a bridge to more
mental ODP (with progressively shorter inter-stimuli intervals) was su definitive therapy26,205–207,213
perior to fixed overdrive burst pacing (with constant intervals) in Areas of uncertainty
interrupting VT and auto-decremental pacing (a 10 ms decrement)
and was superior to scheme using a 5 ms coupling decrement.236,237 The role of RDN as adjunct to ablation in OBS
Temporary overdrive atrial or ventricular pacing in patients without patients with recurrent VAs and ES is
ICD demonstrated its efficiency in preventing recurrence of drug- uncertain
resistant VA in several case reports, mainly in the context of acute or
recent myocardial ischaemia.238,239 Moreover, bradycardia pacing recurrence [hazard ratio (HR) = 0.34; 95% confidence interval (CI) =
might be useful in some patients with brady-mediated PVT. 0.15–0.74] and appropriate ICD therapies (HR = 0.33; 95% CI =
0.15–0.76), compared with standard optimal medical therapy, including
8.2.10. Bailout strategies BBs, in patients with ICD and a history of VA.262 In the Optic study, the
The inability to create transmural or deep intramural lesions in the combination of BB and amiodarone was superior to sotalol or BB
ventricular myocardium is one of the reasons for VT CA failure. monotherapy in reducing the risk of appropriate ICD shocks during
One solution is sequential radiofrequency applications from adjacent 1 year observation in ICD patients implanted for secondary preven
opposite sites, including epicardial access. However, this might not be tion.263 However, treatment-attributed adverse events need to be
sufficient, and several bailout strategies have been proposed and considered, including hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism, pulmonary
described in the literature.240–248 These optional strategies include and liver toxicity, and drug-related mortality.264 In a recent RCT
prolonged or high-power applications, bipolar ablation, simultaneous meta-analysis, amiodarone use was associated with an increased risk
unipolar ablation, use of low-ionic solution (half normal saline), of death (odds ratio 3.36, 95% CI 1.36–8.30, P = 0.009).265 Similarly,
retractable needle ablation, septal coronary venous mapping, intra in a large observational study of 281 patients with DCM undergoing
coronary artery wire mapping/ablation, ethanol ablation, coil embol RFCA for drug-refractory VT (ES 35%, incessant VT 20%), amiodarone

ization, or stereotactic radiotherapy. All these techniques have at discharge was independently associated with mortality or heart
not been utilized in large or randomized series and have been transplantation (HR 3.23, 95% CI 1.43–7.33, P < 0.01).266 Whether
described/adopted by highly skilled operators working in high-volume this is directly amiodarone related or whether amiodarone is just a
centres. marker for sicker patients is not clear yet.
Sotalol is a racemic mixture of two isomers, of which the d-isomer
blocks potassium channels and the l-isomer acts as a non-selective BB
9. Stabilized patient together with Class 3 properties. Lower doses exert mainly a beta-
blocking effect, whereas higher doses are needed for the Class III effect;
9.1. Long-term treatment however, significant QT prolongation has been observed after a single
Without specific anti-arrhythmic interventions, ES recurs in >50% of low dose.267,268 In the Optic trial, sotalol was superior to BBs alone in
patients with SHD. The risk of ES recurrence is highest within the first reducing the risk of ICD shocks.263 Of note, the number of all episodes
year after the event. Independent predictors of ES recurrence were terminated by ATP or ICD shock was not significantly different be
LVEF ≤30%, age >65 years, and lack of optimal HF treatment in one tween patients on sotalol or BBs.262 In the d,l-Sotalol Implantable
observational study.249. Cardioverter-Defibrillator randomized trial, sotalol reduced the
Beta-blockers,120 angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors or mean number of ICD shocks compared with placebo (1.43 vs. 3.89
angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs),250 spironolactone,251 and angio per year, P = 0.008), irrespectively from the LVEF.269 However,
tensin receptor-neprilysin inhibitor (ARNI; valsartan–sacubitril)252 have pro-arrhythmic side effects, including TdP, are of concern, and careful
been associated with a reduced risk of arrhythmia and SCD in patients monitoring of the QTc interval, in particular in patients with impaired
with HF with reduced LVEF (HFrEF). There is limited evidence that sta renal function, is mandatory. Sotalol should be used with caution in pa
tins253 may reduce the occurrence of VA. Preliminary data suggest a tients with HF and poor LVEF due to its negative inotropic effect.
beneficial effect of sodium-glucose co-transporter-2 (SGLT-2) inhibi However, it may be useful in patients with ARVC.
tors.254 Although there are no data evaluating the effect on ES recur Mexiletine is a Class IB AAD with high bioavailability (80%) that al
rence specifically, optimization of HF treatment is important and lows for its oral administration. It acts by blocking rapid sodium chan
should follow current guidelines.255 In patients with cCAD, complete nels and was used as adjunctive therapy to amiodarone to prevent
revascularization may be beneficial.256 VA in case of amiodarone inefficacy or intolerable side effects.270–272
Precipitating factors, including potential pro-arrhythmic drugs, ex There are little data on the long-term safety of its use in patients
cessive alcohol consumption,257–259 illicit drugs,260 and electrolyte im with advanced SHD. Rapid loading (1 × 400 mg per os) was associated
balances, must be avoided. with HF decompensation in patients with severe LV dysfunction.273 It
has also been shown to increase DF thresholds.274
9.2. Anti-arrhythmic drugs to prevent Procainamide is a Class IA AAD, prolonging APD at faster rates
(through the blockade of the rapid inward Na depolarization current
electrical storm recurrence in a use-dependent fashion) and prolonging repolarization via the block
9.2.1. Chronic anti-arrhythmic drug therapy in patients ade of the delayed rectifier K channel. It reduced spontaneous VA and
with structural heart disease suppressed VT inducibility in the ESVEM Trial and small, single-centre
Randomized controlled trials or large observational studies evaluating studies.275,276 In a recent small single-centre observational study, oral
the efficacy of AAD to prevent specifically ES recurrence are scarce. procainamide reduced ICD therapies in patients with VT refractory
However, the potential efficacy may be extrapolated from studies to other AADs, including amiodarone.277 However, severe side effects,
that addressed the efficacy of AAD in preventing VT recurrence in gen including a drug-induced lupus erythematosus-like syndrome, are of
eral. Anti-arrhythmic drugs used to prevent ES recurrence are listed in concern. Of note, procainamide is not available in many countries.
Table 11. Quinidine is a Class IA AAD, available in oral formulations, which has
Beta-blockers are a cornerstone of drug treatment of patients with been shown to have only a modest negative inotropic effect.278
VA in the context of SHD. In a large retrospective registry of VT/VF sur Quinidine plays a role in suppressing PVC-induced PVTs and VF in
vivors, chronic BB use was associated with improved survival at 3 years the subacute phase of MI (but also after revascularization: CABG and
compared with a propensity-matched group not taking BBs.261 PCI) and in patients without SHD.150,197 However, quinidine showed
Amiodarone, preferably in combination with BB, can reduce VA limited tolerability and long-term efficacy when used in the manage
recurrence and ICD shocks. Several studies and meta-analyses have ment of amiodarone-refractory scar-related MSVT.279,280
demonstrated its superior anti-arrhythmic effect in reducing recurrent While flecainide should be avoided in patients with cCAD or
VTs or appropriate ICD therapies compared with other AADs.208–211 HFrEF,281,282 it can be effective, in combination with BBs or sotalol,
In a recent meta-analysis of 22 RCTs, including 3828 patients, amiodar in preventing recurrent VT in patients with ARVC refractory to single
one use was associated with a 70% relative risk reduction for VT AAD or ablation.283,284 However, there is also the potential risk of
24
Table 11 Pharmacotherapy for chronic treatment of patients with ES
Chronic treatment
............................................................................................................................................................................................
Vaughan Drug Channels Dose (p.o.) Half-life Metabolism Specific use Adverse effect Monitoring Counter indications/
Williams effected warnings
class
............................................................................................................................................................................................
Class I Quinidine INa, IKr, Ito, M, α 600–1600 mg 6–8 h Hepatic VT, VF, QTc prolongation, TdP, QRS prolongation, ECG (QRS Severe bradycardia and/or
Loading dose: IVF, increases DFT, hypotension, bradycardia duration and QT high-degree AV block in the
start 200 mg BrS, SQT HF exacerbation, diarrhoea, immune interval), heart absence of a pacemaker,
every 3 h until thrombocytopenia rate, platelet myasthenia gravis
effect, count Use with caution in HF
maximum 3 g in
first 24 h
Procainamide INa, IKr 500–1250 mg q6 h 3–4 h Hepatic and VT, QTc prolongation, TdP, ECG (QRS Myasthenia gravis
ganglionic renal pre-excited QRS prolongation, duration and QT Use with caution in HF
block AF increases DFT, interval), blood
lupus-like syndrome, bone marrow pressure
aplasia
Disopyramide INa, IKr,M 250–750 mg 4–10 h Hepatic VT, PVCs Negative inotrope, Heart rate, blood Severe bradycardia and/or
QRS prolongation, pressure, ECG high-degree AV block and/or
AV block, (QRS duration, severe intraventricular
pro-arrhythmia (atrial flutter, QT interval) conduction delay in the absence
monomorphic VT, TdP), of a pacemaker, decompensated
anticholinergic effects HF, congenital QT prolongation,
myasthenia gravis
Mexiletine INa 600–1200 mg 10–14 h Hepatic VT/VF, Tremor, nausea, paresthesia, numbness ECG (QT interval),
Loading dose: LQTS3 hepatic function
400 mg initially LQT2
followed by
600 mg in the
first 24 h
Flecainide INa 200–400 mg 12–27 h Hepatic VT, PVCs, QRS prolongation, negative inotrope, AV Heart rate, blood Severe bradycardia and/or
CPVT block, sinus bradycardia, pro-arrhythmia pressure, ECG high-degree AV block and/or
(atrial flutter, monomorphic VT, (QRS duration, severe intraventricular
occasional TdP), increase pacing QT interval) conduction delay in the absence
threshold of a pacemaker, ischaemia, SHD,
R. Lenarczyk et al.
BrS, myasthenia gravis
Continued

Table 11 Continued
Chronic treatment
............................................................................................................................................................................................
Vaughan Drug Channels Dose (p.o.) Half-life Metabolism Specific use Adverse effect Monitoring Counter indications/
Williams effected warnings
class
............................................................................................................................................................................................
Class II Metoprolol β1-receptor 25–400mg Tartarate: 3– Hepatic VT, PVCs Bradycardia, AV block, hypotension, Heart rate, blood Severe bradycardia and/or
4h nausea, dizziness pressure high-degree AV block in the
Succinate: absence of a pacemaker,
3–7 h decompensated HF, cardiogenic
shock, myasthenia gravis
Propranolol Non-selective 80–320 mg 3–6 h Hepatic VT, PVCs, Bradycardia, AV block, hypotension, Severe bradycardia and/or
BB LQTS nausea, dizziness high-degree AV block in the
bronchospasm absence of a pacemaker,
decompensated HF, cardiogenic
Nadolol Non-selective 40–120 mg 20–24 h Renal VT, PVC, Bradycardia, AV block, hypotension, Severe bradycardia and/or
BB LQTS, nausea, dizziness, bronchospasm high-degree AV block in the
CPVT absence of a pacemaker,
Class III Amiodarone INa, ICa, IKr, IK1, 200–400 mg 4–14 weeks Hepatic VT, VF, PVCs Increases DFT, hypotension, bradycardia, Heart rate, blood Severe bradycardia and/or
IKs, Ito, α, β Loading dose: AV block, QT prolongation, TdP (rare), pressure, ECG high-degree AV block in the
600–1200 mg/ hypothyroidism/hyperthyroidism, (QT interval), absence of a pacemaker,
24 h 8–10 days nausea, photosensitivity, skin hepatic function decompensated HF, cardiogenic
discolouration, peripheral neuropathy, shock
tremor, hepatitis, pulmonary fibrosis/
pneumonitis
Sotalol IKr, β 160–640 mg 12 h Renal VT, VF, PVCs Bradycardia, AV block, QT prolongation, Heart rate, blood Severe bradycardia and/or
TdP, hypotension, nausea, dizziness, pressure, ECG high-degree AV block in the
bronchospasm (QT interval) absence of a pacemaker,
shock
Class IV Verapamil ICa 120–480 mg 3–7 h Fascicular VT Bradycardia, AV block, negative inotrope, Heart rate, blood Severe bradycardia and/or
hypotension pressure, high-degree AV block in the
hepatic function absence of a pacemaker,
BB, beta-blocker; BrS, Brugada syndrome; CPVT, catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia; ECG, electrocardiogram; ES, electrical storm; HF, heart failure; IVF, idiopathic ventricular fibrillation; LQT, long QT; LQTS,
LQT syndrome; PVC, premature ventricular complex; QTc, corrected QT; SHD, structural heart disease; SQT, short QT; TdP, torsade de pointes; VF, ventricular fibrillation; VT, ventricular tachycardia.
25
myocardial depression and right (and left) ventricular failure in these pa In stabilized patients with cCAD, who present with an ES on chronic
tients, so caution is mandatory also in this population. amiodarone therapy RFCA is advised.299,300 In patients without chronic
amiodarone therapy CA may be appropriate dependent on patient’s
9.2.2. Chronic pharmacotherapy in primary electrical characteristics, comorbidities, and preferences.187
disease
Beta-blockers remain the cornerstone of chronic treatment in LQT 9.3.2. Non-ischaemic cardiomyopathy
syndromes, and non-selective agents (propranolol, preferably long- Patients presenting with ES from NICM comprise a heterogeneous
acting and nadolol, usually starting from doses 80 and 40 mg 1× daily, group of different phenotypes, including DCM, HCM, and ARVC phe
respectively) proved to be more effective.285 Of note, the effectiveness notypes. In particular, DCM can be due to an inherited or acquired aeti
of BBs not only as a group but also of a given drug (e.g. nadolol and pro ology. Whether CA is beneficial to prevent ES recurrence in patients
pranolol > atenolol and metoprolol) might depend on the LQTS geno with NICM is unknown. Patients with NICM undergoing VT ablations
type (LQT1 > LQT2 ≥ LQT3).286 had higher VA recurrence compared with patients with cCAD.309
Mexiletine or ranolazine can be useful in Type 3 LQTS and mexiletine Among the different non-ischaemic aetiologies, outcome after RFCA
probably also in other LQTS subtypes.287–289 If adequate ICD interventions differs and was poorer in patients with HCM, valvular heart disease,

or ES episodes recur despite optimal beta-blockade, LCSD was shown to (active) CS, and inherited DCM. This is often attributed to a more com
protect against VA in LQTS effectively (see Section 8.2.8.).216,218,219 plex VA substrate (e.g. more intramural, epicardial, and septal involve
The role of pharmacotherapy is limited in BrS, but quinidine was bene ment) as well as disease progression.310–312. Observational data suggest
ficial in preventing VA (start dose is 250 or 300 mg bid), ES, and frequent that CA may be associated with lower in-hospital mortality compared
ICD shocks.290 In the randomized QUIDAM study, hydroquinidine with medical management in selected patients.313
seemed to be effective in preventing life-threatening VA, however, at Whether to pursue endocardial or epicardial ablation can vary ac
the cost of frequent (68%, mainly gastrointestinal) side effects.291 cording to the specific aetiologies and suspected disease substrates.
Catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia respond Patients with ARVC might benefit more from the epicardial–endocar
well to BBs; those who experience recurrent syncope or bidirectional dial ablation strategy.314 Combined epicardial–endocardial ablation may
VT while on BBs may benefit from adding flecainide.292–294 Left cardiac also be considered at the index procedure in VTs caused by Chagas dis
sympathetic denervation is an option if VA recur despite drugs.216 In ease, as the epicardial scars are often more extensive than endocardial
ERS and IVF patients with ES, quinidine may prevent VA.197 scars with a high number of epicardial circuits.315,316 Ventricular tachy
Long-term treatment with hydroquinidine was efficient in short QT cardia ablation in stabilized NICM patients presenting with an ES under
syndrome, but data are limited.295,296 chronic AAD treatment may be appropriate. In individual patients with
Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator treatment is indicated, in gen ARVC, chronic myocarditis, or VT substrate location that are expected
eral, in secondary prevention or case of arrhythmic syncope unless to be approachable by RFCA based on pre-procedural evaluation, it is
there is a clear unequivocal trigger underlying the arrhythmias appropriate to carefully discuss this treatment option as an alternative
(i.e. drug use in LQTS).1 to chronic AAD treatment.
However, considering the complex procedure, with often required
epicardial–endocardial approach and bailout strategies, in particular
9.3. Catheter ablation to prevent electrical for deep intramural substrates, transferring these patients to high-
storm recurrence volume, experienced centres is advised.
Catheter ablation for VA is increasingly performed and offers an alter
native to AAD treatment, in particular, if AAD are not tolerated, not 9.3.3. Primary electrical disease
effective, or not desired. Most of the data on ablation outcome are de In PED, CA is not a first-line option. Recent advancements, however,
rived from patients with cCAD, DCM subgroups, or ARVC who were raised interest in the ablation of an epicardial arrhythmic RVOT
treated in highly experienced centres. substrate in BrS. The sentinel study by Nademanee et al.,317,318 demon
Procedural risks and expected outcome depend on individual patient strating epicardial RVOT CA as a viable option in high-risk symptomatic
characteristics (including the specific underlying aetiology, substrate loca patients, was followed by a series from Italy and a long-term follow-up
tion and extent, comorbidities, prior surgery, and prior ablation at study of an international cohort.319,320 These studies showed a high
tempts), and the experience of the treating centres and operators. It is success rate (also in the long term) and low complication rates. It
adviced to provide the patient with detailed information on the proced should, however, be noted that these procedures were performed in
ural aspects, risks, and expected outcomes for shared decision-making. highly experienced, high-volume centres. Before considering prophy
lactic CA of symptomatic or even asymptomatic patients as an addition
9.3.1. Ischaemic heart disease to ICD placement, further research including prospective randomized
While ischaemic heart disease (IHD) represents one of the most com study is required.321
mon ES substrates, limited data are available addressing specifically Preliminary reports of successful CA in patients with LQTS have
the benefit of CA after ES stabilization. A systemic review of rando been published.322 In three of the four patients who underwent map
mized clinical trials, including the SMS, VANISH, CALYPSO, VTACH, ping, the ectopy originated from the specialized conduction system in
SMASH VT trials, and the more recent BERLIN VT trial, showed that the LV (ramifications of the anterior and posterior fascicles). In a recent
CA significantly reduces the occurrence of ES and appropriate ICD study, Pappone et al.323 identified electrophysiological abnormalities in
therapies, including ICD shocks.297–301 Of note, CA was efficient in the RV epicardium in a small series of LQTS patients. Eliminating these
controlling VA resistant to AADs302,303 and was more effective than abnormal electrical activities successfully prevented malignant VA re
amiodarone escalation or adjunctive mexiletine.264,299,300,304,305 A re currences during a mean follow-up period of 1 year. Adoption of this
cent observational study demonstrated that early CA appears superior approach requires further research.
to initial medical therapy regarding VT and ES recurrence, iatrogenic In CPVT, recent experimental studies suggest a Purkinje fibre-related
complications, cardiovascular hospitalizations, and cumulative days in origin of the ventricular ectopy.324 However, clinical studies in occa
the hospital.306 There are insufficient data to evaluate mortality reduc sional patients are inconclusive, demonstrating Purkinje fibre origin in
tion by CA in patients with ES. While CA did not significantly improve some, but not all cases.63
survival or cardiovascular hospitalizations in a meta-analysis of RCTs, In drug-resistant cases on ERS and IVF, in whom similar PVCs trigger
non-randomized studies have reported survival benefits.14,186,307,308 VF, CA may be pertinent if performed in experienced centres.325
9.4. Autonomic modulation Advice Table 7 Continued

Electrical storm recurrences are common, especially within the first year
after the acute event. The pro-arrhythmic effect of sympathetic–para Evidence Strength
sympathetic imbalance may still play an important role beyond the acute ..................................................................
phase,249,326 and initiation of long-term BB therapy is appropriate.26,149 It may be appropriate to offer CA as first-line OBS
While SGB and TEA are usually considered as acute interventions327 treatment in cCAD patients with ES due to
with a transient effect, surgical or thoracoscopic left or bilateral CSD MSVT, provided that the procedure is
results in permanent afferent and efferent CSD (see Section 8.2.8.).
performed in experienced
centres185,301,306
10. Psychological counselling It may be appropriate to perform CA in OBS
patients with NICM, if ES due to MSVT
Symptoms of depression and anxiety are observed in 24–87% of ICD
recurs despite AAD therapy and if AADs are
patients and impact the mental and functional quality of life.330 Both

contraindicated or not tolerated, provided
the concern of receiving an ICD shock and the experience of ICD
shocks contribute to psychological distress. Young age (<50 years), fre the procedure is performed in experienced
quent ICD shocks, and poor understanding of their cardiac condition or centres185,313
their device have been associated with increased distress.330 In a recent It may be appropriate to perform left or OBS
subanalysis from the Danish Trial, shocks during follow-up were asso bilateral surgical or thoracoscopic CSD, to
ciated with depression, anxiety, and ICD concerns.331 Depression and reduce burden of MSVT and PVT in
anxiety are associated with increased mortality in HF patients,332 and
ischaemic and NICM in patients with
anxiety was associated with an increased risk of VAs in ICD patients.333
As a consequence, psychological counselling is advised as part of the arrhythmia recurrences/ES despite medical
multi-disciplinary care for ES patients. Noteworthy, in a recent EHRA- therapy and CA and/or those who are not
initiated survey, only 46% of the surveyed European electrophysiology candidates for CA213,224–226
(EP) centres refer patients to psychological counselling after ES.334
11. Special patient groups

11.1. Patients with left ventricular assist
device Advice Table 8 Chronic treatment of ES in stabilized primary
electrical disease
Ventricular arrhythmias and ES are common in patients with im
planted LV assist device (LVAD), with reported incidences of 20–50 Evidence Strength
..................................................................
Advice TO DO
Advice Table 7 Chronic treatment of patients with SHD who Perform LCSD in LQTS or CPVT patients with OBS
present with an ES after initial stabilization an ICD who are symptomatic on BB and
who experience multiple shocks or ES
Evidence Strength
.................................................................. refractory or intolerant to medical
Advice TO DO therapy216–219
Optimize HF treatment in patients with HFrEF, RCT May be appropriate TO DO
including BBs, ACE inhibitors/ARB/ARNI, Quinidine therapy may be appropriate in OBS
MRAs, and SGLT-2 inhibitors, according to patients with BrS who have recurrent ICD
the latest ESC Guidelines on HF shocks or ES290,291,329
management120,250–252,254 Quinidine in addition to an ICD may be OBS
Perform CA, rather than AAD drug escalation RCT appropriate for ES or recurrent VF
in cCAD patients, if ES due to MSVT has in ERS, PVC triggered VF, or IVF
recurred on chronic amiodarone patients197,325
therapy264,299 Catheter ablation by experienced OBS
Perform CA in patients with cCAD and ES due OBS electrophysiologists may be appropriate in
to MSVT if AADs are contraindicated, not patients with ERS or IVF with recurrent
tolerated, or not desired302,303 episodes of VF triggered by a similar
May be appropriate TO DO PVC non-responsive to medical
Long-term treatment with amiodarone and BB RCT treatment197,325
(choosing BB depending on clinical context) Catheter ablation of triggering PVCs and/or OBS
may be useful to prevent ES RVOT epicardial substrate may be
recurrence263,265,328 appropriate in BrS patients with ES or
recurrent appropriate ICD shocks317–319
Continued
and 9%, respectively.336–338 Ventricular arrhythmia in patients with approaches are used, and recurrent VT induction is avoided. Patients
LVADs are usually well tolerated, especially in those with continuous with severe HF symptoms at rest (NYHA IV) are usually excluded
flow LVAD. However, short-term mortality after an ES has been re from RCTs evaluating CA or are combined with patients with
ported to be high, and recurrent ICD shocks while conscious are of NYHA Class III. While VT ablation did not reduce mortality in patients
concern.338–340 Ventricular arrhythmia in LVAD patients can be occa with cCAD, it was superior to the escalation of anti-arrhythmic medi
sionally due to suction, which may be managed by changing the turbine cation in reducing VT recurrences and ES during follow-up.264 The
speed.341 Mapping studies have demonstrated that the majority of benefit was consistent across functional Class I through III. In a large
MSVT is not related to apical inflow cannula, but rather to remote in international VT ablation registry of 1365 patients, 111 patients in
trinsic myocardial scar.341,342 Anti-arrhythmic drug treatment, sed NYHA IV were included.345 Although there was no significant differ
ation, and autonomic modulation to control the ES do not differ ence in acute complications, NYHA IV patients required more
between patients without or with LVADs. haemodynamic support and had a higher in-hospital mortality.
Small case series from very experienced groups have reported fa Patients with advanced HF have a higher risk of acute decompensation
vourable outcomes after RFCA in highly symptomatic patients with during VT ablation, which is associated with high mortality risk.178
ES or recurrent ICD shocks, usually after the failure of AAD.341,342 Patients with advanced HF require a multi-disciplinary team to decide

Practical considerations include the following: the lack of pulsatile per on the acute management of the ES and whether they are candidates
ipheral flow during vascular access and blood pressure monitoring and for MCS (see Section 8.2.6.), LVAD (see Section 11.1.) or heart trans
plantation. Early evaluation for advanced HF management is advised
for patients with DCM, LVEF ≤32%, and early VT recurrence after ini
tial ablation for an ES, considering the high mortality independent
Advice Table 9 Informing the patient, end-of-life issues, and from the arrhythmic outcome.266
psychological councelling
Evidence Strength
..................................................................
12. When not to perform
Advice TO DO
Provide the patient with detailed information OPN
interventional treatment
on the procedural aspects, risks, and In terminally ill patients or advanced cardiac disease, the type of treat
expected outcomes for shared ment, the expected procedural success of invasive treatments, and the
decision-making, before undertaking CA or willingness and goals of care for the patient and family are important
to consider. In the presence of significant comorbidities, particularly in
any invasive treatment, if possible
the case of recurrent ES, a holistic approach and informed discussion
Psychological counselling is advised as a part of OBS with the patient and family about the options of ICD deactivation and
the multi-disciplinary care for ES treatments to relieve distress and provide patient comfort are
patients331,335 advised.
In the presence of significant comorbidities, OPN
particularly in the case of recurrent ES and Conflict of interest: Radosław Lenarczyk – nothing to declare, Katja
Zeppenfeld – nothing to declare, Jacob Tfelt-Hansen – support re
intractable, end-stage HF, informed
ceived by himself or his institution related to this work - John and
discussion with the patient and family about
Birte Meyer Family Foundation, any other financial support: Johnson
the options of ICD deactivation should be and Johnson, Microport, Cytokinetics and Leo Pharma, Frank R.
undertaken Heinzel – nothing to declare, Thomas Deneke speaker honoraria-
Biotronik, Abbott, Biosense Webster, voted member German
Cardiology Society leadership team, Elena Ene - travel and proctorship
honoraria from Johnson&Johnson, Christian Meyer - Abbott: speaker,
the potential absence of aortic valve opening, favouring transseptal ac Biotronik: consultant, Biosense Webster: consultant, Boston
cess. A theoretical risk of catheter entrapment in the LVAD cannula/im Scientific: consultant, speaker, Arthur Wilde - Associate editor Heart
peller and considerable noise interference on surface ECG and mapping Rhythm, Chair DSMB LEAP trial (unpaid), Member scientific advisory
from HeartMate 3 should also be taken into account.343 The mechan board ARMGO & ThryvTherapeutics (unpaid), Elena Arbelo -
ical haemodynamic support provided by the LVAD usually allows the Consulting for Bayer and Biosense Webster, Ewa Jędrzejczyk-Patej –
advised transfer of patients to specialized centres experienced in the nothing to declare, Avi Sabbag – nothing to declare, Markus
management of patients with LVADs and VA. Stühlinger - speaker honoraria (Biotronik, Medtronic), Luigi di Biase -
consultant for Biosense Webster, Stereoataxis and I-Rhythm, has re
ceived speaker honoraria/travel from Biosense Webster, St. Jude
11.2. Patients with advanced heart failure Medical (now Abbott), Boston Scientific, Medtronic, Biotronik,
Patients with advanced HF are at high risk for VA,344 HF-related re Atricure, Baylis and Zoll, Marmar Vaseghi – grants NIH
current hospitalizations, and mortality. Ventricular arrhythmia and R01HL1706262, NIH R01HL148190, honorarium for educational
ES can be the consequence of end-stage HF but can also worsen car speaking/courses/seminars from Zoll Inc. Medtronic Inc. and Biosense
diac function. Optimization of HF treatment in close collaboration Webster Inc., minor stock in NeuCures Inc, Ohad Ziv – nothing to de
with the HF specialist and cardiothoracic surgeon is mandatory to clare, William-Fernando Bautista-Vargas – nothing to declare, Saurabh
identify those who benefit from advanced HF treatment, including Kumar – nothing to declare, Narayanan Namboodiri – nothing to
LVAD and heart transplantation. Anti-arrhythmic drug treatment is declare, Benhur Davi Henz – nothing to declare, Jose Montero
limited because of the negative inotropic effect of almost all AAD. Cabezas - Shockwave Inc- research funding, Penumbra Inc- speaker
Amiodarone and mexiletine, in selected cases, can be effective. fees, Nikolaos Dagres – nothing to declare, Peichl Petr – Astra
Catheter ablation offers an alternative, particularly if substrate-based Zeneca, Promed, Abbott, Medtronic, Biotronik, Biosense Webster:
speaker fees, consultancy, Frontera Antonio – Abbott, Boston catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia resuscitated from sudden car
Scientific, Biosense Webster: speaker fees, consultancy, Tzeis diac arrest. Eur Heart J 2019;40:2953–61.
18. Della Bella P, Baratto F, Tsiachris D, Trevisi N, Vergara P, Bisceglia C et al. Management
Stylianos – Bayer, Pfizer: speaker fees, consultancy, Merino Jose
of ventricular tachycardia in the setting of a dedicated unit for the treatment of com
Luis – Sanofi Aventis, Microport, Medtronic, Milestone Pharmaceutical,
plex ventricular arrhythmias: long-term outcome after ablation. Circulation 2013;127:
Biotronik, Zoll Medical: speaker fees, consultancy, Bayer: travel and 1359–68.
meeting support, Daiichi Sankyo : Clinical Trial participation, Principal in 19. Gadula-Gacek E, Tajstra M, Niedziela J, Pyka L, Gasior M. Characteristics and out
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Christian – Abbott, Boston Scientific, Biosense Webster: speaker fees,
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consultancy, Tung Roderick – Biotronik, Medtronic, Abbott: speaker 22. Jentzer JC, Noseworthy PA, Kashou AH, May AM, Chrispin J, Kabra R et al.
fees, consultancy, Eckardt Lars - nothing to declare, Maury Philippe - Multidisciplinary critical care management of electrical storm: JACC state-of-the-art
nothing to declare, Hlivak Peter – Pfizer, Boehringer-Ingelheim, Bayer,

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EHRA VT Storm Guidelines 2024

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Europace (2024) 26, 1–36 EHRA DOCUMENT

Management of patients with an electrical

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* Corresponding author. Tel: +48 32 47 93 682, E-mail address: radle@poczta.onet.pl

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Table of contents 8.1.2. Twelve-lead electrocardiogram ......................................................... 7

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prevention of SCD and is estimated to be 4–7%, 18–24 months after

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Table 3 Definitions for VA subtypes

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6.1. The vulnerable heart—underlying

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Table 4 Baseline ECG changes suspicious for precipitation factors/underlying aetiologies

Baseline 12-lead ECG Condition/diagnosis

Table 5 Electrolyte disturbances—ECG, causes and management

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Table 6 Twelve-lead ECG during VT

ECG during VT Description Suggestive cause of ES/site

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DF 150 J Passive ventilation

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If no defibrillation response: CV 120–200 J

ATP/ICD shock in response to atrial fibrillation/SVT with rapid conduction on telemetry/ECG

Inappropriate ICD shock suspected

Admit to hospital, monitor with telemetry

Cause of inappropriate ICD shock identified

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Lead-related Cardiac Noncardiac

Treat arrhythmia: Improve SVT/VT Reduce Reduce oversensing: Treat arrhythmia:

Recurrent inappropriate S-ICD shocks despite

Reposition lead or implant

Non-sustained VT episodes on telemetry/ECG

Patient with (potentially) unnecessary ATP and/or ICD shock for VA

Disable device with magnet or programmer

Review of all episodes Review ICD settings (detection and treatment)

VT/VF terminated spontaneously before ICD shock was applied

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Benefit less known/unknown

Adjust confirmation &

Treat arrythmias dependent on symptoms and/or burden

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Pros Cons Contraindications

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extend beyond those influenced by BB therapy. Elevated sympathet­

Advice Table 4 Acute treatment of ES in SHD

ultrasound and/or fluoroscopic guidance (Figure 6).205,206 In several case

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series of patients with cardiomyopathy, including DCM and Chagas

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9.4. Autonomic modulation Advice Table 7 Continued

extend beyond those influenced by BB therapy. Elevated sympathet