Kathas and Charitas

UNIT 4 KATHAS AND CHARITAS*

Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Kavya Literature
4.2.1 Kavyas as Part of Courtly Culture
4.2.2 Kalidasa’s Kavyas
4.2.3 Kavyas by Kings
4.2.4 Kavyas from Peninsular India: Sangam Age
4.2.5 Kavyas from Peninsular India: Post-Sangam Age
4.3 Charita Literature
4.3.1 Harshacharita
4.3.2 Buddhacharita
4.3.3 Ramacharita
4.4 Kavyas and Charitas as Ornate Literary Creations
4.5 Shift in Language of Kavyas and Charitas as a Signifier of a Historical
Transition
4.6 Summary
4.7 Keywords
4.8 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
4.9 Suggested Readings
4.10 Instructional Video Recommendations

4.0 OBJECTIVES
This Unit aims and attempts to familiarise you with the following:
• what are kavya and charita texts that characterised prolific literary activity
beginning from Gupta era,
• how are they useful sources for reconstructing history,
• a historical tradition implicit in these literary creations that needs to be inferred,
• kavyas that marked setting of new high and fine standards in textual output
and production of creative literature,
• some important charita compositions you ought to know about, and
• how can change in language of kavyas and charitas be seen as signalling a
historical change.

4.1 INTRODUCTION
After perusing this Course, you shall have comprehensive understanding and bird’s
eye view of expression, presentation, representation and manifestation of historical
awareness across a variety of sources like dana-stutis, gathas, akhyana tradition,
Epics, Itihasa-Purana tradition, Buddhist and Jain traditions, inscriptions, Sangam

* Dr. Abhishek Anand, School of Social Sciences, Indira Gandhi National Open University,
New Delhi 55
History Writing corpus, hagiographies and Bhakti literature, genealogies and family histories
in Early India (vamshavalis), so on and so forth. Historical consciousness assumes different forms
as inherent and embedded in a wide and diverse range of sources and in this Unit,
we will study about kavyas and charitas, bountiful creation and production of which
was not without throwing light on their contemporary events, developments and
changes that enables and assists us in reconstructing and reimagining that history.
As Romila Thapar (2013: 4) correctly and intriguingly remarks, ‘Historical traditions
emanate from a sense of the past’, we will see how in kavyas and charitas a distinct
historical tradition was introduced, imbued and transmitted.
Katha literature in prose genre is discussed in Unit 2. Therefore, in this Unit we
will be dealing with kavya literature under katha genre. Within this our focus will
be on both poems and plays.

4.2 KAVYA LITERATURE

Dharmashastras had been penned and were being given final shape and form in
early centuries of first millennium CE. Grammatical essays like Panini’s Ashtadhyayi
(c. 500-400 BCE) and Patanjali’s commentary on Panini – Mahabhashya (2nd-3rd
century BCE) – laid the foundation for Sanskrit literature to grow and flourish.
Now was the time for creative literature under connoisseurship and patronage of
kings and tmheir courts.
Kavya tradition became a hallmark from Gupta period onwards. In Unit 15 of our
Course BHIC-132 we called attention to outburst and profusion of literary activity;
spectacular growth, progress and refinement achieved and registered by Sanskrit
literature; and splendid textual marvels in Sanskrit that characterised Gupta era.
Kavya and charita writings were abundantly authored in this time and times to
come. Beginning with Gupta epoch, able and distinguished writers and poets in
courtly circles of kingdoms began composing dramas and poems. Thapar (2002:
259) provides overview of this phenomenon:
Poetry and prose in Sanskrit were largely the literature of the elite, the
court, the aristocracy, the urban rich and those associated with such circles.

Urban locus of these compositions is underlined by many historians. A departure

from previous periods, this literature concentrated on urban background in
authorship, content and style. Distinctive city life is apparent and manifest in these
texts through references to cities such like Taxila, Mathura, Shishupalgarh,
Mahasthan, Nagarjunakonda, Kaveripattinam, etc.
You will read about Ashvaghosha’s Buddhacharita under the section ‘Charita
Literature’ later in this Unit. He also wrote a Buddhist poem titled Vajrasuchi
which critiqued Brahmins and their social system.
Large chunk of creative literature belonging to this era was to become source of
researches and studies on dramaturgy, poetry and literary theory in subsequent
period. After splendid contribution by Kalidasa’s writings (You will read about
him and his literary marvels under separate Sub-section later in this Unit) creative
literature in Sanskrit witnessed and registered a blaze:
1) Bharavi wrote Kiratarjuniya (its plot is derived from and drawn on a theme
from Mahabharata: Arjuna’s contestation with Shiva),
56
2) Magha authored Shishupalavadha and Bhatti-kavya, among other works, Kathas and Charitas
3) Bhavabhuti wrote Malati-Madhava.
Poetic and prose romances were often based on subject-matters from Epics and
Puranic legends or familiar narratives that were, as Thapar (2002: 311) states,
‘treated in courtly style and subjected to literary virtuosity of many kinds’. Narrative
aspect was, in many cases, subordinated to linguistic embellishment. People of
literary merit and talent who, as Thapar (2002: 345) interestingly points out,
‘indulged in and acclaimed this degree of literary artifice’, were welcome,
patronised and employed at royal courts. Lyric poetry, couched in sophisticated
form, had much appeal to royal men.
Majority of these plays were romantic comedies. Tragic stories were avoided,
perhaps because entertainment was theatre’s purpose. Playwright Shudraka,
believed to have belonged to royal lineage, wrote the famous Mrichchha-katika
(Little Clay Cart). Its basic story is about love and romance between poor Brahmin
trader Charudatta and beautiful, cultured, accomplished and affluent courtesan
Vasantasena. It is deemed one of best productions of ancient drama. It allows us a
peek into urban ways and life. Poet Vishakhadatta dramatises political events of
the past in his play on Mauryan overthrow of Nandas – the Mudrarakshasa.
Authored many centuries after Maurya period, it recounts Chandragupta Maurya’s
ascent to power. Historians gather information about Chandragupta Maurya and
his association with Kautilya on the basis of this text. Thapar (2002: 175-76) tells
us that when Chandragupta sat on the throne, ‘he was then a young man and is
thought to have been the protégé of the brahmana Kautilya (popularly known as
Chanakya), who was his guide and mentor both in acquiring a throne and in keeping
it. This is suggested by a range of stories that relate his rise to power, particularly
from Buddhist and Jaina texts, as well as by the play Mudrarakshasa …’
Vishakhadatta also composed Devichandraguptam that tells the story of Gupta
emperor Chandra Gupta II’s bid and rise to power. In both literary creations we
find interesting elements of functioning, nuances and intricacies of royal court,
but Thapar (2002: 312) remarks that ‘these are significantly different and suggest
his sensitivity to changing historical contexts’.
With view and intent to instruct a young prince in ways of the world Panchatantra
tales were penned. Later, they were elaborated in various versions and travelled
west through translations. As a result of cultural interaction and exchange of ideas
and artifacts with Greco-Roman world through maritime trade between north-
western frontier of Indian subcontinent and Hellenistic land, Thapar (2002: 253)
tells us:
Indian folk-tales and fables travelled westwards and collections such
as the Panchatantra were subsequently translated into neighbouring
languages, appearing in European literature under various guises that
perhaps included some versions of Aesop’s1 fables.

Vasavadatta by Subandhu was renowned for its literary quality. Banabhatta

wrote king Harsha’s biography as well as a romantic novel involving a fantasy
narrative – Kadambari. About this masterpiece Thapar (2002: 312) remarks that it
‘has such an involved plot that one almost loses track of the narrative’. Such
1
A Greek fabulist and storyteller, Aesop (c. 620-564 BCE) has to his credit numerous stories that
are now collectively called Aesop’s Fables. 57
History Writing intense creativity in literary forms has a striking feature that these poems and
in Early India plays largely project and reflect human behavior even if only of a certain section
or fragment of society – royal people. By and large, the backdrop and context are
royal court, royal lifestyle, etc. However, we do have an exception to literary
creations enthused with courtly style – the Kathasaritasagara (Ocean of Streams
of Stories) dated to 11th century CE. Attributed to Somadeva, it is an anthology of
prose stories based on a mix of courtly and folk topics, some of which indicate
commentaries on travels to far-off lands and soils.
In better-known plays like Karpurmanjari by Rajashekhara and
Prabhodhachandrodaya by Krishna Mishra a religious/sectarian rivalry is visible
and evident in form of sharp-edged dialogue. Buddhist and Jain monks and devotees
are subjected to satire, and censure and ridiculing is directed at some Tantric Shaiva
sects like Kaulas2. Such Shaiva ritual practices are looked down upon as despicable.
This demonstrates the trend towards discussing or at least recognising and
acknowledging new emerging cults at court as much as among populace.

4.2.1 Kavyas as Part of Courtly Culture

As we have seen, kavya genre was integral to courtly culture. It can aptly be called
embellished court poetry. Sometimes a poetical piece was authored so skillfully
that it could be read both forward and backward, each reading rendering two
different tales, such as story of Ramayana in one reading and that of Mahabharata
in other. Recognised medium of these compositions was Sanskrit as royal court’s
official language, the use of which was now widely adopted, practiced, promoted
and encouraged in literary circles. However, Thapar (2002: 259) is able to
distinguish between aimed audience of these Sanskrit plays:
Fragments of Ashvaghosha’s plays were found in a distant monastery in
Turfan in central Asia. The interest of the audience would have been as
much in the Buddhist themes as in a relatively new genre of literature. A
more accomplished playwright, Bhasa3, whose cycle of plays included
the now famous Svapnavasavadattam, sought to capture the courtly mood
… His themes concerned incidents from the epics or historical romances,
and court audiences enjoyed the amorous exploits of kings. Bhasa wrote
for the limited audience of the court circle, whereas Ashvaghosha’s plays
could have been performed for a wider audience at religious assemblies.

4.2.2 Kalidasa’s Kavyas4

Greatest and most extraordinary Sanskrit poet/dramatist who gave tremendous
momentum and push to Sanskrit literature like none other was Kalidasa. His
contribution enhanced the prestige of Sanskrit language by leads and bounds and
his written gems influenced many poetic writings composed later. He lived in second
half of fourth and first half of fifth century CE. He was one of ‘nine jewels/ luminaries’
2
Also referred to as Kaulachara (‘Kaula behaviour’) and Kaulamarga (‘Kaula way, path or
practice’), it was a tradition under Tantric Shaivism and Shaktism during first millennium CE.
It was known and marked by its distinct rituals and symbolism associated with worship of
Shiva and Shakti.
3
As a matter of fact, we know of 13 plays authored by him. He was an important poet who lived
in early Gupta phase. Sanskrit is the language in which he wrote but we also find considerable
and substantial usage of Prakrit in his dramas. He authored Dradiracharudatta. This drama is
said to be the precursor of Mrichchhakatika. It was Dradiracharudatta that was adopted and
refashioned as Mrichchhakatika. The term yavanika is used by him for curtain. This indicates
contact with Greeks. Dating for Bhasa is disputed but he is thought to have lived prior to Kalidasa.
4
58 This Section is taken from Unit 15 of Course BHIC-132 written by Dr. Abhishek Anand.
(navaratnas) of Gupta monarch Chandragupta II’s court. He wrote dramas like Kathas and Charitas
Abhijnana-Shakuntalam, Malavikagnimitram, Vikramorvashiyam and poetic works
such as Raghuvamsham, Ritusamhara, Kumarasambhavam and Meghadutam (Cloud
Messenger) which show unsurpassed and unrivalled literary standards. These textual
wonders are unmatched in their verbal and metrical perfection. It is said that he was
acquainted with various branches of learning. He is believed to have acquired
knowledge of entire Vedic corpus, philosophical systems like Yoga and Sankhya
along with fine arts like drawing, painting and music.
If, on the one hand, his story of Shakuntala and her ultimate reunion with her
lover – king Dushyanta – is his best creation that remains supreme achievement of
ancient Indian literature and stagecraft, on the other hand, his Meghadutam came
to be reckoned as most fascinating poetry ever written in Sanskrit. It is a long
lyrical poem that meshes landscape and emotion.

LEFT: Depiction of Kalidasa

Credit: NehalDaveND
Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
Category:K%C4%81lid%C4%81sa#/media/File:Kalidas.jpg).
RIGHT: Sage Durvasa Curses Shakuntala for Being Lost in Fantasy about Her Lover
Dushyant: An Episode from Abhijnana-Shakuntalam, c. 1895
Credit: Chore Bagan Art Studio
Source: Wikimedia Commons; https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Durvasa _ Shakuntala.jpg

Abhijnana-Shakuntalam is touted as one of best hundred literary compositions

worldwide. It was one of earliest Indian literary pieces to be translated into
European languages, Bhagavadagita being the other. Overtime, it came to be
translated into all important languages of the world. Thapar (2002: 311) tells
us that it was ‘regarded as an exemplar in Sanskrit drama by literary critics,
was to be widely discussed both in Sanskrit literary theory, and later throughout
Europe, with its impact on German romanticism’.
Meghadutam was lyrically composed in over hundred stanzas. In this literary
marvel the exiled Yaksha conveys thorough cloud his love, conjugal devotion
and pain of separation from his beloved wife. It is adorned with human 59
History Writing sentiments and striking figures of speech. The similes used by Kalidasa appeal
in Early India to reader/listener on merit of their imagination, variety and appropriateness.
In describing feeling, passion and emotion he stands unmatched. In Raghuvamsham
he extols all-round victories of Rama and is said to be indirectly pointing some Gupta
rulers and their achievements. Kumarasambhavam is a tale about Shiva and Parvati’s
courtship and birth of their son Kartikeya/Skanda/Murugan. Ritusamhara describes
six seasons and this literary piece is full of elements of shringara (decoration and
ornamentation). Malavikagnimitram, among other things, gives a complete definition
of natya and attributes of a skilled dancer.

4.2.3 Kavyas by Kings

It is interesting to know that besides being a capable king and administrator, Harsha is
credited to have authored three plays (Priyadarshika, Ratnavali and Nagananda).
Two of these are witty compositions in classical Sanskrit while the third involves a
contemplative theme adopted and borrowed from Buddhist thought.
But, there is uncertainty among historians regarding he being the actual
composer or if the authorship is ascribed to him only for name sake. His court
poet Banabhatta praises him as a man of exceptional poetical skill and some
later royal chroniclers also regard and praise him as a literary giant. However,
many medieval scholars doubted his authorship of aforementioned texts on
drama. It is argued that he may have contributed certain excerpts but as a
popular proverb says, Sharma (2018 [2005]: 263) strikingly comments, ‘…
royal authors are only half authors.’ One can easily understand and surmise
that with the purpose of boosting the image of a ruler, besides victories and
conquests various other accomplishments that included intellectual thinking
and enterprise, ability to write and associated literary attainments, authoring
scholarly works, etc. were credited to him in ancient as well as medieval India.
This practice of eulogising patron-king that was started by Harishena5 in Gupta
emperor Samudragupta’s time seems to have percolated till the time of Harsha
and seems to have become common and well-established. One can logically
deduce that the intent behind this exercise was to win patron-king’s favour as
well as to authenticate and raise his position and stature among his peers,
rivals and subjects. Not only the art and merit of writing but specific authorship
became associated with emperors and this might have been the case with
Harsha. We have references to princes and kings receiving intellectual training
and when composing literary pieces came to be reckoned as ‘high culture’ it
was only natural that reigning kings were credited to have authored significant
writings which was not the trend before. This became an indicator of Sanskritic
learning, particularly associated with courtly culture. Conscious literary
labouring became fashionable as a virtuoso demonstration of skill and proficiency in
Sanskrit language. We get references about Sanskrit being taught in royal circles,
institutions attached to temples (mathas) and monasteries. But, princes had special
private tutors.
We are also told about Mahendra Varman I (600-630 CE) belonging to Later
Pallavas and a contemporary of Pushyabhuti samarata Harsha of Kannauj
(in present-day Uttar Pradesh) and Chalukyan emperor Pulakeshin II. To him

5
60 In Prayaga-Prashasti inscription about which you will read in next Unit.
we credit the rising political control, strength, sway and dominion of Pallava Kathas and Charitas
kingdom. He was also an ardent appreciator, connoisseur and patron of early
Tamil cultural development. He is said to have been a poet and dramatist of
some repute and standing, and writer of comedy-play titled Mattavilasa-
prahasana (Delight of Drunkards).

4.2.4 Kavyas from Peninsular India: Sangam Age

Sangam literature is earliest available literary source that constitutes and provides
a wealth of detail on Tamilaham/Tamilakam (early Tamil speaking south India). It
is a collection of short and long poetic anthologies on topics that were popular in
these ancient societies. For example, many poems tell episodes about raids and
plunder. Some tell about abduction and capturing of brides. These are themes
common to all heroic literature. They highlight a heroic age of warriors and battles.
Many of them mention a warrior, chief or king by name and elaborately describe
his military exploits, military successes and other achievements. Many extol and
celebrate gifts and donations by him to kinsmen, warriors, bards and other worthy
and deserving beneficiaries and recipients.
Legend says that three assemblies,
academies or colleges (sangams),
patronised by kings and chiefs,
were held, last one at Madurai,
where singing bards and poets
assembled and their compositions
came to be incorporated into
Sangam corpus that culminated
over a period of three to four
centuries. Its precise dating is not
free from problems, which
complicates its worth, scope and
utility as a historical source.
Generally, it is ascribed to first
four centuries of Common Era.
However, Sharma (2018 [2005]:
23) affirms that final compilation
lasted till sixth century. The
corpus comprises about 30,000
lines of poetry arranged in eight
anthologies. Sangam treatises
have many layers but these cannot
be established at present on the
basis of content and style. However,
Maharishi (Great Sage) Agastyar, Traditionally
they can be detected on the basis
Believed to have Chaired First Tamil Sangam
Twelfth Century Stone Sculpture Found at Lakhi of stages in social evolution. These
Sarai, Bihar and consist primarily of earliest stratum
Preserved in Los Angeles County Museum of Art, known as Ettutogai and somewhat
USA
later strata called Pattupattu.
Credit: Wikipedia Loves Art participant ‘team_a’.
Source: Wikimedia Commons; https://
Particularly remarkable aspect of
commons,wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:WLA_lacma_12th_century_Maharishi_Agastya.jpg these poems is ecological awareness
61
History Writing and correlation of human activities with environmental concerns and perceptions. It lists
in Early India five eco-zones (geographical areas with their own peculiar and specific characteristics
like climate, soil conditions, social groups and subsistence-patterns) called aintinai (five
tinais):
a) Kurinji (hills and forests/hilly backwoods): hunter-gatherers and those engaged
in slash-and-burn cultivation lived here.
b) Mullai (pastoral tracts with low hills and thin forests): dwelling of cattle-
keepers/pastoralists and those engaged in shifting cultivation.
c) Marutam (wetlands, fertile agrarian plains): home of agriculturists using
plough (chiefly, rice cultivators).
d) Neytal (sea coasts): abode of fishermen, salt-makers and pearl-divers.
e) Palai (arid land): this was infamous for marauders who indulged in wayside
robbery.
These ecological zones were not sharply demarcated and separated, and there
were overlaps.

Credit: Praveenp.
Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Thinai_en.svg).

Sangam corpus is not religious literature. Numerous poets composed these poems
praising various heroes and heroines. As such, it belongs to the category of secular
literature and despite being primitive songs, they comprise literature of high quality
and merit when they were penned down subsequently. It seems that these poems
were recited in courts. They refer to some Chera rulers who also appear as donors
in inscriptions of first and second centuries CE. They also mention several
settlements like Kaveripattinam, the flourishing existence of which is archaeologically
evidenced and attested. They also talk about Yavanas coming in their own vessels,
buying pepper in lieu of gold and supplying women slaves and wine to natives. This
62 trade is known not only from Latin and Greek writings but also corroborated from
archaeological findings. As such, despite problematic dating, Sangam poetic Kathas and Charitas
anthologies comprise a major source of historical information on social, political
and economic scenario of deltaic Tamil Nadu in early centuries of first millennium
CE. The information it yields on trade and commerce is confirmed by foreign accounts
and archaeological records.
You will study at length about historical consciousness in Sangam literature in
Unit 7.

4.2.5 Kavyas from Peninsular India: Post-Sangam Age

In post-Sangam age also, we find kavyas from regional kingdoms in peninsular
India chiefly in two languages: Tamil and Kannada.
By early and mid-centuries CE Tamil began producing poetry of both lyric and
epic variety. Didactic poems of earlier time, such as those of the Kural and the
Naladiyar, frequently drawing upon Jain inspiration and tradition were known
and recited. Shilappadigarama and Manimegalai, the two long Tamil poetic epics
dated to mid-first millennium CE, prepared ground for an independent and mature
poetic style in Tamil. Shilappadigarama’s composer Ilango Adigal was a member
of royal family and it is evident that he was partial towards Jain shramanas because
despite certain religious eclecticism the composition is infused with spirit and
temper emphasising on karma (human action) and ahimsa (non-violence).

Statue of Ilango Adigal, Author of Silappadigarama, at Marina Beach, Chennai

Credit: Rakesh.5suthar
Source: Wikipedia Commons; https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Ilango_Adigal_statue_at_Marina_Beach_closeup.jpg

Coming from a merchant family, Chattana authored its sequel that continues the
tale and the mood. These poetic works were departures from previous poems and
fables about sword-wielding heroes. Shilappadigarama’s protagonist is heroine 63
History Writing Kannaki/Kannagi. As the story goes, her husband Kovalan’s unfair implication
in Early India for stealing queen’s anklet and his subsequent beheading at king’s order without a
trial brought about a curse on Madurai city. As a chaste and faithful wife, she
eventually ascends as goddess Pattini.
Shilappadigarama and Manimegalai are regarded and classified as Epics but their
subjects are disparate from epic stereotypes. They contain rich imagery of
countryside as well as of the town of Kaveripattinam. Both also underline activities
of daily life or the daily hustle-bustle. Vivid and picturesque description of the
city comes from Manimegalai. Demonstrating classical Tamil style of poetry, they
incorporate many expressions and figures of speech invoking the emotion of love.
Precedent of such style of writing can be gleaned in earlier sangam anthologies.
Likewise, a significant contribution of Kannada poetical literature is the famous
Kavirajamarga dated to 9th century CE.
Development of Tamil poetry was further augmented by a religious movement
(bhakti) that was popularised by groups and communities of teachers/preachers,
hymnologists and poets who are often referred to as ‘saints’ of Tamil devotional
sects. They widely used Tamil in their songs and compositions, pushing further its
evolution and development compared to other southern languages. Absolute
devotion to their deity shaped their primary religious expression. They were seen
and revered as charismatic personalities capable of instructing doctrines of bhakti
and composing dedicational poems. Followers and devotees in large numbers
gathered around them.
Urban landscape is amply underscored in these texts. Shilappadigarama and
Manimegalai, both, focus on centrality of the town and descriptions of urban life.
As stated before, Kaveripattinam, also known as Puhar/Pumpuhar, is vividly
mentioned along with its harbour, merchants’ residences and special part of the
city where Yavanas lived. We get references of paddy from rural areas arriving in
boats to Puhar. Here, it was exchanged in lieu of other merchandise for inland
market centres like Madurai, Kanchipuram and Uraiyur. Puhar is depicted as a
lively city with affluent lifestyle. Commercial production here was linked to trading
in resources from other places:
1) beryl from Palghat,
2) pearls from further south,
3) timber such as ebony, teak and sandalwood from inland forests.
Check Your Progress-1
1) What do you understand by kavya literature? How is historical consciousness
embedded and reflected in such writing?
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
2) What do you know about Kalidasa and his literary marvels?
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
64
 Kathas and Charitas
4.3 CHARITA LITERATURE
Simultaneously coexisting with prashasti epigraphs about which you will study
elaborately in next Unit, we find charitas (biographies or eulogies of kings)
authored by court-poets or writers directly under their tutelage. However, some
decoding is required to understand their purpose. Often, these treatises concentrate
on telling the story about a specific issue concerning and crucial to acquiring of
power. Such a story is weaved into a narrative and expanded into charita text:
1) Harshacharita written by Banabhatta elucidates accession of king Harsha
that entailed usurping the throne and challenging the sanctity of primogeniture
(Harsha was his father-king Prabhakara Vardhana’s younger son).
2) Vikramankadevacharita (biography of Chalukyan ruler of Kalyan – Vikramaditya
VI [late 11th-early 12th century CE]) by Bilhana clarifies why the emperor was
instructed and guided by Lord Shiva himself to overthrow and replace his reigning
elder brother.
3) Ramacharita by Sandhyakara Nandin recounts Pala king Ramapala crushing
the revolt by Kaivartas and successfully reasserting and reinstating his power.
In some charitas and epigraphs the king is represented as an incarnation of Vishnu
or Shiva or being advised directly by the god. This can rightly be construed as yet
another way and form of legitimising kingship. We see expanded versions of
panegyric format of inscriptions being echoed and parallelled in such chronicles.
But, they furnish more detailed histories of rulers and attempt to present kings,
dynasties and regions in an accessible manner. In such capacity they may be said
to be belonging to another category of textual historical sources known as
vamshavalis as their focus is history and historical details of a king, dynasty or
region. Kalhana’s history of Kasmir – Rajatarangini – is unusual and unique in
this regard because he did search for reliable evidence on the past from a variety
of sources. Thus, one cannot deny that his chronicle is an extraordinarily fine
specimen of historical writing as it contains references to actual historical events
and their descriptions that may be deemed historically insightful. Without an iota
of doubt, it is an exceptional literary piece (this is why it is the concern and subject-
matter of a separate, subsequent Unit 6 of this Course), though rooted in vamshavali
genre of writing, due to Kalhana’s extraordinary sense of history. It is also the first
‘history-proper’ written in Indian subcontinent in actual sense of the term.
Another intriguing point worth remembering is that in 12th-13th centuries CE
charitas of some merchants of Gujarat were also penned. A biographical treatise
from south India was discovered, though more might have been written but are
lost. Authored by poet named Atula in 11th century and titled Mushikavamsha, it
recounts achievements of Mushika dynasty that ruled in northern Kerala.

4.3.1 Harshacharita
Harshacharita (The Life of Harsha) is greatest Pushyabhuti king Harshavardhana’s
biography in form of a lively prose narrative attributed to learned scholar
Banabhatta. It is deemed first formal biography of a ruler. It was a prototype of
biographical writing in Sanskrit prose. It began the genre of writing known as charita
literature that was also a prashasti at the same time. Charitas (historical biographies)
became common and fashionable in royal courts in the period to follow.
65
History Writing Notwithstanding the panegyric style, charita literature revolves around some salient
in Early India events. Contemporary perceptions about what was considered significant in events
of a ruler’s reign are provided by charita texts. As such, they must be viewed and
understood from historical perspective of that time rather than being judged from
modern standards of historical writing. Briefly stated before, one immediate reason
for writing charita in this case was surely to validate capture of throne by younger
brother who was a rival of the elder: an act that overturned the law of succession.
Travelling from Kashmir to various places, gifted and accomplished author
Bilhana looked for patronisation, employment, riches and incentives. He was
offered a position at the court of Later Chalukyas where he composed
Vikramankadevacharita. This was, again, a defense of a king capturing the
throne from his elder brother. It is important to remember that the idea of
seeking historical legitimacy spread far and wide. This can be gauged from
shorter chronicles (vamshavalis) on lesser dynasties, for instance, 11th century
Mushakavamshakavya of Atula on a little-known dynasty from Malabar
(present-day northern Kerala) that we made a passing reference to earlier. Style,
content and structure of such vamshavalis was strikingly similar irrespective
of whether they were authored in state of Chamba in Himalayas or in Malabar
(Kerala). What we must remember is that they are immensely significant to us
as kingly, dynastic or regional histories.
Even myths in these texts are sometimes virtually identical. The chronicle traces
mythological beginnings, then progresses towards mentioning founding
ancestors, then to more authentic genealogical history. Crucial points in the story
mark establishment of a kingdom accompanied by categorical changes like more
areas opened to cultivation; founding of a capital city with construction and
consecration of a royal temple symbolic and emblematic of the royal power;
installation of image of king’s deity therein; capital city being connected to
other places through a network of routes; setting up and presence of an
administrative and bureaucratic machinery and permanent standing army; and
inscriptions6 being issued as official versions and declarations of royal decisions
and activities. Subsequently, important events are documented in the chronicle.

4.3.2 Buddhacharita
Ashvaghosha7 authored a long poem on Buddha’s life titled Buddhacharita. It
became famous and is said to be of seminal importance to the rise of historical
biographies. Junagarh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman, about which you will
read at some length in next Unit, is an early example of what was to become
prashasti (eulogy): a style that characterised royal biographies not only in its use
of Sanskrit but also in complying to norms regarding describing a conventional
kshatriya emperor. Such eulogistic epigraphs were also decisive and crucial for
later royal biographies composed as part of courtly culture.
As a blueprint of an ideal king, prashasti denotes entrenching of monarchy in
regions where monarchy had not been so familiar. As a textual format it was
evolving. Apparent in prashasti epigraphs that extol patron-kings, this literary
scheme can be seen even more in Buddhacharita. As a means to validate and
6
You will study about inscriptions as a historical source in next Unit.
7
Some of great creative writers like Ashvaghosha are believed to have been patronised by
Kushanas. Besides Buddhacharita he wrote Saundarananda which is a fine specimen of Sanskrit
66 kavya.
authenticate power, prashasti could portray even chiefs and governors as ideal Kathas and Charitas
kshatriya rulers regardless of their origins. Comparisons of kings, governors and
chiefs with deities had begun but not in an excessive manner. Ironically, association
with divinity became more outspoken when power of the ruler was not so exalted,
except in the case of Kushana title of daivaputra. Dynasties of central Asian origin
exercised choice of investment in local identities and ideologies such as Vaishnavite,
Buddhist or Jain and it is interesting that who chose what (In next Unit you will
read about Heliodorus Pillar Inscription that mentions one of earliest recorded
Greek converts to Vasudeva cult or Bhagavatism).
Ashvaghosha was dexterous in handling Sanskrit. It not only developed as language
of the intelligentsia and the literati in all except peripheral regions, it also now
became preferred language for reflecting on Buddhism. However, local languages
or local Prakrits were not abandoned altogether. But, the tendency to outline and
distinguish high culture, i.e. culture of elite and formally educated, from popular
culture became more prominent.

4.3.3 Ramacharita
We cursorily mentioned about it previously. In this segment we are going to throw
some light on this charita text by Sandhyakara Nandin that is a biography of later
Pala ruler Ramapala. Confronted with the threat of Kaivarta rebellion that aimed
to prevent Pala expansion, the biographical treatise recounts how he suppressed it
through tactfully and diplomatically handling his samantas (feudal lords) and those
with subordinate ruling powers and by means of prompt and timely military effort
and action. Traditionally, Kaivartas were a low caste of peasants and fishermen.
But, retelling of this political event seems to be underlining a revolt by lesser
landowners who might have mobilised Kaivarta farmers. It graphically describes
the process of Ramapala bestowing lavish gifts to samantas and forest-chiefs in
order to ensure their support and alliance. Biographical spotlighting of this historical
event provides a mine of information on relations and their subtleties between
king and his subordinates.

4.4 KAVYAS AND CHARITAS AS ORNATE LITERARY

CREATIONS
By now you must have known that sixth and seventh centuries was a significant
phase in history of Indian literature. Sanskrit was used by ruling category of people
or their court-authors from second century CE onwards. To highlight splendour,
pomp and vanity of those belonging to royal lineage and in sync with the same the
style of Sanskrit poetry and prose became ornate. Perhaps heavily influenced by
Kalidasa’s writing, Sanskrit poetry and prose now entailed using metaphors,
adverbs, adjectives and other creative forms of imagery. Writing became replete
with these. Harshacharita is a typical example. A masterly composition by
Banabhatta in ornate style that became a model for later authors and imitators, it is
a flattering account of early years of his patron Harsha.
Sharma (2018 [2005]: 293) informs us:
In poetry, many metres were invented and elaborated to meet the requirements of the
new ornate, verbose, high-flown style… This literature greatly strengthened the
authoritarian trend in intellectual life, seeking to preserve the state-and varna-based
patriarchal society, and to adapt it to new situations. 67
History Writing
in Early India 4.5 SHIFT IN LANGUAGE OF KAVYAS AND
CHARITAS AS A SIGNIFIER OF A HISTORICAL
TRANSITION
We made a passing reference earlier to Rajashekhara’s Karpuramanjari. It was
written in Prakrit. In next Unit, you will read about shift in language of inscriptions
as a historical shift. Here, it is relevant to elucidate transition in language of
biographical and poetical compositions.
You now know that right from early centuries of Common Era, Sanskrit became
the language of elite discourse. A noteworthy feature in Sanskrit plays of this
period is that people belonging to higher and lower classes are not shown as
speaking same language. High status people featuring in these plays speak Sanskrit
whereas those of low or ambiguous social status like shudras and all women speak
Prakrit. In this way, status and gender were linked with language!
However, in its more popular forms Sanskrit contained elements of local Prakrits.
Major textual compositions in older tradition of writing in Prakrit include:
1) Gathasaptashati by Hala. These are short poems mostly on theme of love
and joy emanating from it. They are in the form of frank monologues by
unmarried ladies or married women. Some of them are overly sentimental in
nature and tone, few are rather amorous while others are enjoyably comical.
2) Pravarasena’s Setubandha, also called Ravanavaho. It narrates Lanka’s siege
by Lord Rama.
3) Vakpati’s Gaudavaho. It is a biographical account of king Yashovarman of
Kanauj.
4) Karpuramanjari by Rajashekhara8. It is a fictional narrative said to have been
written by him to appease his wife Avantisundari who was a woman of refined
taste and talent.
Use of local Prakrits, such as Sauraseni Prakrit in which Karpuramanjari was
composed and Maharashtri Prakrit in which Gathasaptashati was composed, in
authoring creative literature was on decline but they, nonetheless, boosted rise of
Apabrahmsha (literally meaning ‘falling away’), initially in western India where
it originated, then in other areas (mostly peripheral) and eventually it led to
emergence of some regional languages. In the process of speakers of Apabrahmsha
shifting to more central locations they took the language with them. Continued
usage of regional languages is visible and evident when inscriptions use it alongside
Sanskrit or when the Sanskrit used carries identifiable elements of these regional
languages. This pinpoints bilingualism to some extent. We can speculate that
it would have been more expedient for migrant brahmanas to be bilingual,
especially in peninsular region. It may also have been possible that the world
of courtly literature, being transregional, was primarily using Sanskrit but not
without components and portions of local Prakrits. From the process of
recognising multiplicity of languages as per location, further diversification
between Sanskrit and regional languages acknowledged and perceived in part

8
Rajashekhara is the same author who penned Kavyamimansa in 9th-10th century CE. It delineates
and explains features of a good poem and in this capacity, it is essentially a practical guide for
68 poets.
as function of the dominant Sanskrit language itself would have followed. No Kathas and Charitas
doubt, Sanskrit was the dominant language but it did not exclude local linguistic
style and rhetoric both at royal court and elsewhere. Surfacing of regional
languages did not occur overnight. These were substratum languages used by
many social groups and communities. When those speaking these languages
rose in status, the status of their language was elevated as well. Identities
were gradually created from multiple creative expressions in literature and
arts. New languages often became carries of new ideas.
Prakrit, being more closely linked to popular speech than Sanskrit, was also encouraged
and promoted outside court circle. Vimalasuri penned Paumachariyam9. It is a Jain
version of Lord Rama’s story. This text is remarkable and notable not only for presenting
views different from those of Valmiki but also for reiterating and foregrounding function
of the Epic as popular literature catering and appealing to the masses. An intriguing
facet of Jain literature was telling episodes from Lord Rama’s story from Jain
perspective’ (for details see Unit 3). Novels by Jain scholars often deviated to a lesser
or greater extent from established versions of Valmiki’s Ramayana.
It is interesting to note that during first millennium CE and early centuries of
second millennium CE writers of heterodox sects – Buddhism and Jainism –
also started authoring their works in Sanskrit, some of which belonged to
charita genre. Sanskrit began to be quite extensively taught and used in both
Buddhist and Jain learning centers. Jain scholar Bhadrabahu II wrote churnis,
niryuktis and bhashyas that were commentaries on sacred treatises of Jains
and we know of Sanskrit compositions as part of Jain religious literary tradition
like Adipurana and Yashatilaka. Jains frequently composed narratives,
chronicles and biographies of rulers and accounts of royal courts in addition
to religious treatises. Scholars and writers kept track of activities of various
Jain sects and their teachings imparted some historical flavour to their
compositions like it was done earlier in Buddhist tradition. In this way, Jain
tradition paralleled and emulated Buddhist tradition with respect to historical
writing. Later composers like Hemachandra in 12th century and Merutunga in
14th century carried forward the tradition and legacy of this genre of writing. A
good example of sophisticated scholarship combining critical interpretation,
explanation and commentary with some history is Dvayashraya-kavya. Jain
texts like Parishishtaparvan and Prabhandhachintamani were modelled on
prabandha (narrative/semi-historical anecdotal accounts) style. Penning
biographies and hagiographies10 incorporated essays on life, preaching and
activities of Mahavira such as Mahaviracharita.
Check Your Progress-2
1) Describe charita form of writing with reference to one charita composition. In
your opinion how can these textual compositions be treated as historical treatises?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................

9
Written around third century CE, it, curiously enough, mentions Ravana of Ramayana belonging
to Meghavahana lineage of Chedis to which famous ruler Kharavela belonged.
10
You will study about them in Unit 9. 69
History Writing 2) Fill in the blanks:
in Early India
a) ........................ travelled from ........................to various places seeking
fortune and employment until he was given a position at the court of
the ........................ where he wrote ........................ .
b) Ramacharita recounts Pala king Ramapala crushing the revolt
by.............. It was written by ........................ .
c) ........................ was first formal biography of a ruler. It was written
by ......................... .

4.6 SUMMARY
After reading this Unit, you must have learnt that each category of writing in
ancient Indian past has its own way of documenting and capturing that past.
Our colonial masters accused ancient Indians of absence or lack of sense of
history. They took upon themselves the mammoth task of researching and
writing Indian history with view and intent to know about land and people
they aimed and sought to rule and govern and, secondly, to justify their
‘civilising mission/white men’s burden’ and their claim that India was a
primitive land. Yes, ancient Indians did not write history in the way it is done
today and true that India did not produce a Herodotus or Thucydides till the
time of Kalhana who chronicled Rajatarangini as historical narrative of kings
and dynasties of Kashmir in early twelfth century CE.
But, we have amply demonstrated and argued that historical value, significance, scope,
utility and credibility of kavyas and charitas cannot be ignored, sidelined, marginalised
or brushed aside. They display and demonstrate considerable historical sense but history
in these sources is not available ‘readymade’, rather it has to be sifted and culled. As
such, they cannot be dismissed as ‘non-historical’ or ‘ahistorical’ texts as we have
sufficiently and convincingly seen in this Unit. Sharma (2018 [2005]: 23) rightly
observes and surmises about writings of Banabhatta, Kalidasa, Bhasa, Shudraka etc:
Apart from their literary value, they mirror the conditions of the times to
which the writers belonged … Besides being great creative compositions,
they provide us with glimpses of the social and cultural life …

We saw that charitas were essentially based on historical subjects as their plot
revolved around an actual (not mythical), historical figure or personality.
Particularly about Harshacharita Sharma (2018 [2005]: 26) points out:
Although highly exaggerated11, it gives an excellent idea of court life under Harsha
and the social and religious life of his age.

4.7 KEYWORDS
Dharmashastras Ancient Indian manuals/compendiums on moral and
social norms and code of conduct for adherence,
observance and practice by a Hindu. Manava-
dharma-shastra (known as Manusmriti in common

11
It is beyond doubt that the object of charita texts was to applaud, glorify and celebrate the
70 patron.
 parlance) is one of them. P. V. Kane in his book Kathas and Charitas
History of Dharmasastra (five volumes in eight
parts) has extensively researched on them
Herodotus Called the father of history, he was a Greek
historian in ancient time. He portrayed a
fascinating and fanciful image of Indian
subcontinent that is said to have tempted
Alexander to invade it
Yavanas Sharma (2018 [2005]: 200) tells us that this
term initially referred to Greeks but over time
it denoted all people of foreign origin

4.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress-1
1) See Section 4.2
2) See Sub-section 4.2.3
Check Your Progress-2
1) Consult Section 4.3
2) a) Bilhana, Kashmir, Later Chalukyas, Vikramankadevacharita;
b) Kaivartas, Sandhyakara Nandin; c) Harshacharita, Banabhatta

4.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

Pathak, V. S., (1966) Ancient Historians of India: A Study in Historical
Biographies (Bombay: Asia Publishing House).
Sharma, R. S., (2018 [2005]) India’s Ancient Past (New Delhi: Oxford
University Press).
Thapar, Romila, (2002) Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 (New Delhi:
Penguin).
Thapar, Romila, (2013) ‘Historical Biographies: The Harshacharita and The
Ramacharita’ and ‘Biographies as Histories’, in The Past Before Us: Historical
Traditions of Early North India (New Delhi: Permanent Black).

4.10 INSTRUCTIONAL VIDEO

RECOMMENDATIONS
Innovations and Turning Points: Towards a History of Kavya Literature
(University of Chicago)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZmNWWihE0JQ
Andrew Ollett (Harvard University) - Sanskrit as a Metalanguage for
Literature in Dandin
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TVgvrr9QGdA 71