Articulating Filipino Philosophies Origi

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES, THE PHILIPPINE COLLEGE OF HEALTH SCIENCES
Articulating Filipino Philosophies:

Origins, Elements, and Influences
A Research Paper in
Modern Philosophy
Submitted in fulfillment of
the Academic Requirements
for the Degree
Ph. D. English
By Jaime Cabrera
29 March 2016
This paper discusses the articulation of Filipino philosophy as well as the

foundations, development, and influences of modern philosophy in the context of
the established canons of Western philosophical tradition.
CABRERA, Jaime - Modern Philosophy 1
CONTENTS
CONTENTS .....................................................................................................................................................................1
LIST OF TABLES ..............................................................................................................................................................0
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................................................................2
ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................................................................3
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................4
1.1 What is Philosophy? .....................................................................................................................................4
1.2 Philosophic Criteria ......................................................................................................................................5
1.3 Guide Questions ...........................................................................................................................................6
1.4 Precision of Philosophic Language ...............................................................................................................6
1.5 Definition of Key Terms ................................................................................................................................9
1.6 Neolexia of Pilipino Terms .........................................................................................................................12
1.7 Organization of the Paper ..........................................................................................................................20
1.8 Summary ....................................................................................................................................................21
Chapter 2: ORIGINS OF FILIPINO PHILOSOPHY ........................................................................................................22
2.1 What Qualifies as Philosophical? ...............................................................................................................22
2.2 What Qualifies as National Philosophies? ..................................................................................................24
2.3 Defining Originality ....................................................................................................................................25
2.4 Defining Origination ...................................................................................................................................26
2.5 Defining Origins ..........................................................................................................................................27
2.6 Observable Behaviors ................................................................................................................................28
2.7 Historical Framework .................................................................................................................................28
2.8 What is Modern Filipino philosophy? ........................................................................................................29
2.9 Defining Principles......................................................................................................................................31
2.10 Defining Events ..........................................................................................................................................33
2.11 Repeated Defining Events ..........................................................................................................................34
2.12 Eventual Philosophies ................................................................................................................................35
2.13 Prehistoric Trigger Events ..........................................................................................................................35
2.14 Pre-Hispanic Trigger Events .......................................................................................................................36
2.15 16th Century: Early Hispanic Trigger Events ..............................................................................................38
2.16 17th Century: Middle Hispanic Trigger Events ...........................................................................................38
2.17 18th Century: Late Hispanic Trigger Events ...............................................................................................39
2.18 Pre-Modern: American Occupation Trigger Events ...................................................................................40
2.19 Summary ....................................................................................................................................................44
Chapter 3: FILIPINO PHILOSOPHIES .........................................................................................................................46
3.1 Related Literature ......................................................................................................................................47
3.1.1 Terminology and Definitions ..................................................................................................................47
3.1.2 Existence VS Nonexistence ....................................................................................................................48
3.1.3 Methods & Approaches .........................................................................................................................48

3.1.4 Origination & Abstraction ......................................................................................................................50
3.1.5 Cross-Cultural Variables .........................................................................................................................50
3.1.6 Existence of Filipino Philosophies ..........................................................................................................50
3.2 Description .................................................................................................................................................51
3.2.1 Development .........................................................................................................................................52
3.2.2 Forms and Formats ................................................................................................................................53
3.2.3 Articulation ............................................................................................................................................55
3.2.4 Acquisition and Transfer ........................................................................................................................56
3.3 Classification ..............................................................................................................................................57
3.4 Formal Articulation ....................................................................................................................................57
3.5 Relating to the Self .....................................................................................................................................61
3.5.1 Sinangdápat: Filipino Principles of Idealism ..........................................................................................61
3.5.2 Sinangsigúro: Filipino Principles of Hopeful Fatalism ............................................................................62
3.5.3 Sinangmukhä: Principles of Face ...........................................................................................................64
3.5.4 Sinangdïsálä: Principles of Defensive Superiority ..................................................................................66
3.5.5 Sinang-áral: Filipino Principles of Learning ............................................................................................66
3.6 Relating to the World .................................................................................................................................68
3.6.1 Sinángtohánan: Principles of Discerning Truth ......................................................................................68
3.6.2 Sangtohánan: Filipino Philosophy of Truth ............................................................................................71
3.6.3 Sinangdugtóng: Principles of Logic ........................................................................................................72
3.6.4 Sangniwálä: Filipino Philosophy of Belief ..............................................................................................73
3.6.5 Sinámpalatáyä: Principles of Faith .........................................................................................................73
3.6.6 Sangnámpalatáyä: Filipino Philosophy of Faith .....................................................................................74
3.7 Relating to Others ......................................................................................................................................75
3.7.1 Sangnatíli: Filipino Philosophy of Survivalism ........................................................................................76
3.7.2 Sinangkisáma: Principles of Social Cooperation ....................................................................................77
3.7.3 Sinangkadûgö: Principles of Blood Kinship ............................................................................................77
3.7.4 Sinangbákä: Principles of Potential Utility .............................................................................................79
3.7.5 Sinangûsap: Principles of Communication .............................................................................................80
3.7.6 Sinang-Lámang: Principles of Calculated Humility .................................................................................81
3.7.7 Sinangdálaw: Principles of Guest Relations ...........................................................................................82
3.8 Relating to Work ........................................................................................................................................84
3.8.1 Pragmatic Phenomenology ....................................................................................................................84
3.8.2 Sinanglámang: Principles of Compromise .............................................................................................87
3.8.3 Sinanggawä at Sinanggósyo: Principles of Work and Commerce ..........................................................88
3.8.4 Sinangkábuluhan: Principle of Cost-Benefit Causality ...........................................................................89
3.8.5 Pakisáma: Conflict-Avoidance and Relationship-Building......................................................................90
3.9 Recapitulation ............................................................................................................................................90
Chapter 4: MODERN PHILOSOPHIES ........................................................................................................................93
4.1 Western Origins .........................................................................................................................................93
4.1.1 Ancient Origins.......................................................................................................................................93
4.1.2 The Medieval Era ...................................................................................................................................96

4.1.3 The Age of Reason .................................................................................................................................96
4.2 World Origins .............................................................................................................................................97
4.3 Modern Philosophy in the West ................................................................................................................99
4.4 Key Concepts ............................................................................................................................................100
4.5 Summary ..................................................................................................................................................104
Chapter 5: FOREIGN INFLUENCES ..........................................................................................................................106
5.1 Typology of Philosophical Influence .........................................................................................................107
5.2 Modes of Conceptual Transfer .................................................................................................................109
5.3 Cultural Modalities of Communication ....................................................................................................110
5.3.1 Clarity and Ambiguity ..........................................................................................................................111
5.3.2 Contextual Connection and Isolation...................................................................................................112
5.3.3 Information Flow and Control .............................................................................................................113
5.3.4 Power-distance Index (PDI)..................................................................................................................113
5.3.5 Individualism and Collectivism (IDV)....................................................................................................117
5.3.6 Uncertainty Avoidance and Tolerance (UAI) .......................................................................................120
5.3.7 Masculinity and Femininity (MAS) .......................................................................................................123
5.3.8 Long-term vs. Short-term Orientation (LTO) .......................................................................................126
5.3.9 Indulgence vs. Restraint (IND) .............................................................................................................129
5.4 Degrees of Influence ................................................................................................................................132
5.5 Summary ..................................................................................................................................................132
Chapter 6: CONCLUSIONS ......................................................................................................................................133
6.1 Research Goal ..........................................................................................................................................133
6.2 Scope of the Discussion ............................................................................................................................133
6.3 Origination and Description .....................................................................................................................134
6.4 Challenges of Understanding ...................................................................................................................135
6.5 Challenges of Articulation ........................................................................................................................136
6.6 The Vocabulary of Philosophy ..................................................................................................................136
6.7 Creating a New Vocabulary ......................................................................................................................137
6.8 Using Foreign Constructs for Native Thought ..........................................................................................137
6.9 Formal Filipino Philosophic Articulation ..................................................................................................138
6.10 Modern Filipino Philosophies ...................................................................................................................139
6.11 National Philosophies ...............................................................................................................................140
6.12 The Articulation of Native Philosophies ...................................................................................................141
6.13 Tools and Procedures ...............................................................................................................................143
REFERENCES...............................................................................................................................................................145
SUGGESTED READINGS ..............................................................................................................................................152
APPENDICES ...............................................................................................................................................................154
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Five-Point Validity Criteria of Philosophic Statements ....................................................................................6

Table 2: Imprecision in Dictionary Definitions ...............................................................................................................7
Table 3: Opinion, Belief, and Mindset ...........................................................................................................................7
Table 4: Mindset, Principle, and Philosophy..................................................................................................................8
Table 5: Degrees of Mindsets in the Western Tradition ................................................................................................8
Table 6: Originating Pilipino Terms ..............................................................................................................................13
Table 7: Pilipino-English Glossary ................................................................................................................................14
Table 8: Basic Elements of Philosophical Tradition .....................................................................................................23
Table 9: Historical Framework of Filipino Philosophies ...............................................................................................29
Table 10: Filipino Principles and Philosophies, by Cross-Ranking................................................................................32
Table 11: Eventual Filipino Philosophies in Pre-history ...............................................................................................36
Table 12: Eventual Filipino Philosophies of the Pre-Hispanic Period ..........................................................................37
Table 13: Summary of 17th Century Historical Events ................................................................................................39
Table 15: Eventual Filipino Philosophies of the Hispanic Period .................................................................................40
Table 16: Eventual Filipino Philosophies of the Pre-Modern Period ...........................................................................41
Table 18: From Trigger Events to Philosophic Thought (Sample 1) .............................................................................42
Table 19: From Trigger Events to Philosophic Thought (Sample 2) .............................................................................44
Table 20: Arguments about the Existence of Filipino Philosophies .............................................................................51
Table 21: Variables of Philosophical Development in the Philippines .........................................................................53
Table 22 : Differences between Filipino and Western Thought Systems ....................................................................54
Table 23: Abstracting Folk Wisdom into Philosophic Statements ...............................................................................58
Table 24: Validity Analysis of Philosophic Statements (Sample 1) ..............................................................................58
Table 25: Validity Analysis of Philosophic Statements (Sample 2) ..............................................................................60
Table 26: The Language of Hedging in Pilipino ............................................................................................................63
Table 27: Variables Determining National Learning Principles ....................................................................................67
Table 28: General Characteristics of Filipino Philosophies ..........................................................................................68
Table 29: Objectivity – Subjectivity Range of Mindsets ...............................................................................................70
Table 30: Distortion of Time-Reality in Mind-Sets .......................................................................................................71
Table 31: Scope of Connectionism ..............................................................................................................................78
Table 32: Colloquial & Literary Expressions of Humility in Pilipino .............................................................................81
Table 33: Pilipino Terms for Diminishing .....................................................................................................................82
Table 34: Language of Accommodation in Pilipino .....................................................................................................82
Table 35: Why It's More Fun in the Philipines .............................................................................................................83
Table 36: Multilinear Logic of a Filipino Philosophy of Work ......................................................................................86
Table 37: The Use of Na Láng with Pronouns..............................................................................................................88
Table 38: Use of Na Láng in Compromise ...................................................................................................................88
Table 39: Cost-Benefit Causality Logic in a Filipino Philosophy of Work .....................................................................89
Table 40: Conflict Avoidance & Relationship-Building in Pilipino ................................................................................90
Table 41: Worldwide Origins of Modern Philosophy ...................................................................................................98
Table 42: Modern Philosophies and Thinkers ...........................................................................................................100
Table 43: Summary of Modern Philosophical Concepts ............................................................................................101
Table 44: Classification of Key Concepts in Modern Philosophy ...............................................................................103

Table 45: Degrees of Foreign Transfer and Native Originality ...................................................................................108
Table 46: Modification Process of Foreign Influence ................................................................................................108
Table 47: Polarity of Foreign Influence Transfers ......................................................................................................109
Table 48: Development of Filipino and Western Philosophies ..................................................................................110
Table 49: Power Distance and Filipino Mindsets .......................................................................................................115
Table 50: IDV and Filipino Mindsets ..........................................................................................................................118
Table 51: UAI and Filipino Mindsets ..........................................................................................................................122
Table 52: MAS and Filipino Mindsets ........................................................................................................................126
Table 53: MAS and Filipino Mindsets ........................................................................................................................128
Table 54: IND and Filipino Mindsets ..........................................................................................................................131
Table 55: Degrees of Foreign Influences ...................................................................................................................132
Table 56: Historical Timelines of Philosophies ..........................................................................................................134
Table 57: Tools for Philosophic Articulation ..............................................................................................................143
Table 58: English-Pilipino Philosophy Glossary ..........................................................................................................154
Table 59: Events of Mass Influence ...........................................................................................................................159
Table 60: Modern Historical Events Defining National Consciousness .....................................................................160
Table 61: Prehistoric Philippine Historical Timeline ..................................................................................................161
Table 62: Pre-Hispanic Philippine Historical Timeline ...............................................................................................161
Table 63: 16th Century Philippine Historical Timeline ..............................................................................................161
Table 67: The 20th Century Philippine Historical Timeline ........................................................................................174
Table 68: The 21st Century Philippine Historical Timeline ........................................................................................184
Table 69: Movie Ticket Sales of Two Actresses 1975-1982 .......................................................................................187
Table 70: Comparative History of World Philosophy ................................................................................................188
Table 71: Typologies of Pre-Modern, Modern, and Postmodern Philosophies .........................................................188
Table 72: Summary of Filipino Revolts and Rebellions ..............................................................................................188
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Maslow's Hierarchy of Human Needs ...........................................................................................................26

Figure 2: The Laguna Copperplate Inscription ...........................................................................................................191
Figure 3: English Translation of the Laguna Copperplate Inscription ........................................................................192
Figure 4: National Map of the Philippines .................................................................................................................192
Figure 5: Map of the World .......................................................................................................................................193
Figure 6: Philosophical Development Chart ..............................................................................................................194
Figure 7: Progression of Philosophical Development ................................................................................................195
Figure 8: Flowchart of Schools of Modern Philosophy ..............................................................................................196
Figure 9: Illustrated History of Philosophy (Part 1: Ancient Philosophy) ...................................................................197
Figure 10: Illustrated History of Philosophy (Part 2: Athenian Philosophy) ..............................................................198
Figure 11: Illustrated History of Philosophy (Parts 3 to 5: Roman to Middle Ages) ..................................................199
Figure 12: Illustrated History of Philosophy (Part 6: The Renaissance) .....................................................................200
Figure 13: Illustrated History of Philosophy (Part 7: Modern Philosophy) ................................................................201
Figure 14: Illustrated History of Philosophy (Part 8: Contemporary Philosophy) ......................................................202
Figure 15: Areas of Applied Philosophy .....................................................................................................................203
ABSTRACT
Philosophies are beliefs of being, doing, and relating; ideas that are established enough to be
observable as consistent and stable behavioral phenomena over time. Modern Filipino
philosophy refers to shared beliefs in ways of doing, being, and relating that are observable
between 1946 and 1994 as behaviors among the cultures and subgroups of the Philippine
Archipelago, including Filipinos who are working or living overseas. This paper presents
elements of philosophical articulation of native Filipino thought. The paper answers three
research questions. (1) What is Filipino philosophy? (2) How did modern philosophy begin and
develop? (3) How can modern philosophy influence Filipino philosophy? The debate in literature
is that Filipino philosophy is at its nascent stage, originating from folk wisdom, religion, and
contacts with foreign cultures; extant as philosophic acts, beliefs, or mind-sets but never formally
articulated according to the canons of the dominant philosophic tradition and; is continually
reshaped by technological, scientific, and significant historical events that elicit strong or deep
feelings and reactions throughout the country. Older thought patterns and behaviors are
preserved by traditional circles and conservative environments but changes continue. Meanwhile,
for global understanding, the need to articulate modern Filipino philosophical thought in ways
that can be clearly understood by other cultures is increasingly urgent. This paper presents some
tools and approaches to help meet the challenges of articulating modern Filipino philosophy: (a)
articulating native philosophical thought in oral tradition, folk wisdom, and indigenous literature
in accordance with the world‘s established canons of philosophical tradition; (2) developing
precise and succinct native vocabulary to parallel the vocabulary of the dominant philosophical
tradition; (3) identifying national philosophic thought and principles from events that elicit
nationwide emotion and create behavior patterns observable throughout the country over a
significant period of time; (4) deducing philosophical notions from patterns in linguistic elements
common in speech and texts among the nation‘s various languages; and (5) identifying
philosophic trigger points in the nation‘s history that have and can shape the development of
philosophic thought. With these theoretical paradigms, this paper hopes to contribute to the
heretofore frustrating field of native philosophic articulation according to the canons of Western
philosophic tradition.
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION
This chapter (a) defines key terms, (b) summarizes the origins of modern
philosophy in the Philippines and elsewhere, and (c) outlines the organization
of the paper.
Understanding the logic behind Filipino behavior and decision-making is as important for
coping with observable phenomena today as it is for preventing problems in the future. Thus, this
chapter answers the question: What is Filipino philosophy?
1.1 What is Philosophy?

A philosophy can be interpreted as either a noun or a verb. As a verb, it means a systematic
way of understanding basic concepts by tracing logical causes and effects. In other words, it is a
mental discipline that uses reason and logic when trying to ―understand reality and answer
fundamental questions about knowledge, life, morality and human nature‖ (Anon. (N. D.). What
is Philosophy) or ―about the world, the universe, and society‖ (Wikipedia).
In short, philosophy is action. As Ludwig Wittgenstein puts it, ‗‗Philosophy is not a theory,
but an activity‘‘ (Tomley & Weeks, 2015, p. 9). It is what people do when they ―seek to
understand fundamental truths about themselves, the world in which they live, and their
relationships to the world and to each other‖ (n.d.).
As a noun, it can mean either of two things: an academic study about how to determine
truths, or a logical, reasoned opinion. The term opinion indicates that these are ideas created by
people, thus philosophy implies differences and therefore debate, discussion, and argumentation.
―Philosophers do not all give the same answers to questions.
Some people think there are no right answers in philosophy, only better answers and worse
answers ‖ thus encouraging free and independent thought, as well as challenging the opinions of
others (Wikipedia).
To clarify, philosophy is not an idea but a method of forming ideas: ―The presentation of
opinions, theories, or advice isn't philosophy, no matter what the content. Doing philosophy
involves thinking about things in a certain (rigorous, questioning) way, offering arguments for
one's ideas, meeting arguments against them, and being prepared to change one's mind‖ (King,
N. D.).
Aside from trying to answer important questions, philosophy aims to come up ―with answers
about real things and asking ―why?‖ (Wikipedia)
Filipino philosophy is defined as philosophic thoughts that are observable phenomena

among Filipinos in the Philippines and overseas; the modern period of Filipino philosophy is
defined as the years between 1946 and 1994.
The year 1946 marked the formal declaration of Philippine independence from the dominion
of the United States of America while the year 1994 marked the time when the Philippines was
first connected to the Internet (See the red-shaded years on the Historical Timeframe of Filipino
Philosophy).
In between these two years, the national boundaries, national education systems, structures
of national governance, and elements of national language and national identity were – to some
degree or another – identified and established. Dramatic changes in technology and lifestyles
affected native thinking patterns.
1.2 Philosophic Criteria

To articulate the result of such thinking into philosophical statements requires a language
that uses general, abstract expressions, while the content is about ideas. ―The ideas in philosophy
are abstract, which means that they are ‗things that cannot be touched,‘ yet it does not mean that
philosophy is not about the real world‖ (Wikipedia).
In addition, the clear and succinct articulation of abstractions such as philosophical notions –
on a national scale and during a complex period of its history - is a considerable undertaking.
The first challenge includes framing the communication contexts:
Philosophers ask questions about ideas (concepts)…. Some thinkers

find it very hard to find those words that best describe the ideas they have.
When they find answers to some of these questions philosophers often
have the same problem…. how to best tell the answers they found to other
people. Depending on the meaning of the words they use, the answers
change … (Wikipedia).
Aside from the criteria of using only ideas and abstract language, logic is essential when
articulating a philosophy:
Logical consistency is a cornerstone of any acceptable theory…. (to)

disagree with a theory … (is to) try to find a logical contradiction within
the theory. If they can find one, this gives them a reason to reject that
theory. If they cannot find any inconsistency, the philosopher might try to
show that the theory leads to a conclusion which is either unacceptable or
ridiculous (Wikipedia).
In attempting to articulate Filipino philosophies, the following simplified five-point

evaluation criteria can help determine the validity of a philosophical statement.
Table 1: Five-Point Validity Criteria of Philosophic Statements
CRITERIA YES NO
Does content focus on abstract and not concrete concepts?
1. Abstraction Does imagery use abstract & not concrete meanings?
Are meanings abstract & general, with no concrete or specific notions?
Does the statement indicate and/or invite reasoning & critical thinking?
Can truths of the statement be rationally demonstrated based on empirical
2. Empiricality
facts, not on faith or superstition?
Can truths of the statement be proven by repeated, observable phenomena?
Do ideas state or indicate logical connections between causes & effects?
3. Structural
Do stated ideas suggest relationship to other conceptual articulations?
categorization
Can the statement be positioned within a larger web of organized thought?
Is the statement useful in understanding basic truths about human selves or
Is the statement useful in understanding basic truths about the world or
4. Practical Is the statement useful in understanding basic truths about how humans
feasibility relate to the world or
Is the statement useful in understanding basic truths about how humans
relate to each other?
Is the statement a debatable proposition and is an absolute truth or a logically
5. Debatability
complete or closed statement?
TOTAL
The final criterion of debatability in the preceding table is according to Western philosophic
tradition, which requires not only generality and abstraction but also a history of continual debate
(See Basic Elements of Philosophical Tradition).
1.3 Guide Questions

In cross-cultural endeavors such as international trade and commerce, international
governance and policy, as well as in international communication and training, understanding the
logic underlying Filipino behavior and decisioning is as important for coping with observable
phenomena today as it is for anticipating future problems. This paper answers three questions.
 What is Filipino philosophy?

 How did modern philosophy begin and develop?
 How does modern philosophy influence Filipino philosophy?
1.4 Precision of Philosophic Language

Academic language requires accuracy and conciseness but, above all, precision. Most
academic research turn to reference works such as dictionaries, encyclopedias, and thesauri for
help in clarifying terminology.
However, although dictionary definitions ―have their roots in philosophy,‖ these are still
limited to a Western classical format that has been criticized for weaknesses such as circularity,
obscurity, elliptical language, limited connotative or denotative meaning, as well as
ethnocentricity of writers and editors (Adamska-Sałaciak, 2012, p. 2).
For instance, in defining related words such as idea, opinion, belief, mindset, principle, and
philosophy, the precise differences of meaning are unclear in dictionary definitions, as the
highlighted words in the following table shows:
Table 2: Imprecision in Dictionary Definitions
Terms Definitions Sources

Idea a thought, plan, or suggestion about what to do; an opinion or belief merriam-
webster.com
Thought an idea, plan, opinion, picture, etc., that is formed in your mind : something that merriam-
you think of webster.com
Belief A state or habit of mind in which trust or confidence is placed in some person or merriam-
thing webster.com
Opinion A belief, judgment, or way of thinking about something merriam-
webster.com
Mindset A person's attitude or set of opinions about something merriam-
webster.com
Principle A moral rule or belief that helps you know what is right and wrong and that merriam-
influences your actions; A basic truth or theory: an idea that forms the basis of webster.com
something; A law or fact of nature that explains how something works or why
something happens
Philosophy The study of ideas about knowledge, truth, the nature and meaning of life, etc.; A merriam-
particular set of ideas about knowledge, truth, the nature and meaning of life, webster.com
etc.; A set of ideas about how to do something or how to live
Due to the circularity illustrated in the preceding table, dictionary definitions of near-
synonymous terms are, at best, merely referential in academic discourse; operating definitions
are more important. This section clarifies terms that are ―typically subject to mistranslation and
retranslation‖ (Cassin, 2014).
Table 3: Opinion, Belief, and Mindset
OPINION BELIEF MINDSET

From more temporary to more permanent to even more permanent
From more changeable to more stable to even more stable
From more tentative to more decisive to even more decisive
From more of reaction to more of determination to even more of determination
From more amorphous to more precise to even more precise
For instance, between opinion and belief, the difference can be identified as ranges of
degrees between temporary and permanent, changeable and stable, and shaky and firm. Between
belief and mindset, the differences can be identified as ranges of degrees between happenstance
and decision, reaction and will, as well as reaction and determination. The following table
illustrates the process.
Between mindset, principle and philosophy, the difference can be identified in degrees
between the following sense values:
Table 4: Mindset, Principle, and Philosophy
MINDSET PRINCIPLE PHILOSOPHY

From more temporary to more permanent to even more permanent
From more changeable to more stable to even more stable
From more tentative to more decisive to even more decisive
From more of reaction to more of determination to even more of determination
From more amorphous to more precise to even more precise
From more specific to more abstract to even more abstract
From more private to more public to even more public
From more limited to more general to even more general
From more informal to more formal to even more formal
Thus, between opinion and philosophy, the differences can include a range of degrees of
nuance and meaning, the overlap being that both are mental processes. As well, both involve
reasoning and logic but in different degrees.
The following table shows how an ordered range of textual nuances can precisely
differentiate between meanings of related words, better than dictionary definitions. For instance,
beliefs, principles, and philosophies are all mental processes. As well, all are related to thinking,
logic, and decisions. Finally, all are mindsets. However, they differ in meaning.
Table 5: Degrees of Mindsets in the Western Tradition1
IDEA ATTITUDE OPINION MINDSET BELIEF PRINCIPLE PHILOSOPHY

   reaction decision   
   specific general   
   informal formal   
   changing stable   
   spontaneous logical   
For instance, a philosophy is a more formal, stable, and logical mindset than a principle. In
comparison, a principle is a more stable, formal, and logical mindset than a belief, but less so
1
This assumes Western traditional concepts, such as philosophies being more general compared to opinions being more specific. However, in Asian cultures such as in
the Philippines, this is not necessarily true. For instance, pragmatic Filipino philosophies are specific to realities and desired results; meanwhile, prescriptive Filipino
philosophies are non-specific, can be applied in different contexts, and are expressed in indirect or literary language.
than a philosophy. On the other hand, a belief is a more informal, unstable, and spontaneous
mindset than a principle.2
The blue end of the spectrum of mindsets includes ideas, attitudes, and opinions. These are
more reactions than decisions, more informal, more changeable, and spontaneous than beliefs,
principles, and philosophies. These are more formal, stable, and logical mindsets. At this end of
the spectrum, this table can help in formulating precise language. For instance, an opinion is a
more formal, stable, and logical mindset than an attitude. In comparison, an attitude is a more
stable, formal, and logical mindset than an idea, but less so than an opinion. On the other hand,
an idea is a more informal, unstable, and spontaneous mindset than an attitude.
The center of the spectrum is even more useful in sense differentiation. For instance, an
opinion is a more of an informal reaction while a belief is more of a formal decision. An opinion
is more spontaneous while a belief is more measured and logical. Thus, a more precise definition
can be now be articulated:
A principle is a philosophy when language and imagery are most

abstract; form and content are stable; and usable in various contexts or
situations.3
1.5 Definition of Key Terms

Some of the key terms in modern philosophy are pragmatism, modern era, philosophy,
mentality, automaticity, behavior, being, and expression. These and other key terms are
alphabetically arranged, each with standard or dictionary definitions, followed by operational
definitions, as used in this paper. Where there are no available dictionary definitions, other
authoritative sources are used as references.
1. Automaticity (n.): The Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines this as ―happening or done

instantaneously.‖ 4 Similarly, Wikipedia defines it as the ―ability to do things without
occupying the mind with the low-level details required, allowing it to become an
automatic response pattern or habit; usually the result of learning, repetition, and
practice.‖ 5 In this paper, automaticity refers to confident behavior (e. g., reaction,
decision, choice, language) with little or no preceding thought; it is characterized by
measurable accuracy and/or output efficiency.
2. Behavior (n.): The Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines this as ―the way a person or
animal acts or behaves; the way something (e.g., a machine or substance) moves or
functions.‖ 6 In this paper, behavior refers to an external expression (e. g., language,
reactions, and decisions) of internal processes (e. g., emotion, thought, or choices).
2
Beliefs – particularly when shared among different nations, cultures and/or applied consistently (or with some degree of conceptual stability) over time and in
various contexts – can then be redefined as a philosophy.
3
Here, rarification occurs: the common people would understand the principle, while adherents and academics would argue it in another language.
4
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/automaticity
5
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automaticity
6
www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/behavior
3. Eventual philosophy (n.): This phrase contains two concurrent definitions: eventual
evolution and origination from events. (1) Evolution: a notion or principle that can
eventually evolve into or comprise a philosophy and (2) Origination: ideas or beliefs that
become established by repeated experience, by similar events, or by events that arouse
similar feelings or ideas.
4. Expression (n.): The Oxford Dictionary defines this as ―… making known one's thoughts
or feelings.‖ 7 In this paper, expression refers to the translation or transfer of internal
processes (e.g., thought or emotion) into symbols, words, or actions.‖
5. Filipino (n.): A citizen of the Philippines; a native of the Philippines. (Adj.) relating to,
emanating from, or imbued with characteristics of Filipino culture. Cf. Pilipino (n.), the
Philippine national language.
6. Mentality (n.): The Oxford Dictionary defines this as a ―characteristic way of thinking.‖
8
In this paper, it means a prevailing state of mind or belief.
7. Modern (adj.): Dictionary.com defines this as ―… present and recent time;
contemporary; of or relating to the historical period following the Middle Ages‖ 9 while
the Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines it as ―of or relating to the present time or the
recent past; happening, existing, or developing at a time near the present time; of or
relating to the current or most recent period of a language; based on or using the newest
information, methods, or technology.‖ 10 In this paper, modern describes philosophies
that appear or are prevalent somewhere between 1600 and 1800.11 In Chapter 2, it refers
Filipino philosophies prevalent after the advent of mass media in the Philippines (See
Tables: Historical Events of the 19th Century and Historical Events of the 20th Century).
8. National philosophy (n.): Madison et. al. (2000, p. 62) define this as ―… the philosophy
that is subscribed to by all, or … a statistical majority…‖ In this paper, national
philosophy refers to an observable behavior or response pattern in the various classes,
cultures, or sub-groups specific to a particular nation or country.12
9. Personal philosophy (n.): CAPEA defines this as ―A personal philosophy is a person's
interpretation of the events and experiences encountered throughout their lifetime‖ or
―why people do and say the things they do... the driving force behind their actions‖
(2015). In this paper, personal philosophy refers to a consistent behavior or response
pattern observable in an individual, which can be shaped by one or more principles (See
definition: principle), tradition, habit, circumstance, or developing events; and which can
be measurable in such observable phenomena as reactions, decisions, or choices.
10. Personal principle (n.): VocabDictionary.com defines this as a ―principle of, affecting,
or belonging to a particular person…; of or concerning one's private life, relationships,
and emotions rather than matters connected with one's public or professional career.‖ 13
In this paper, personal principle refers to an individual‘s accepted standard of rightness
against wrongness or of effectiveness against ineffectiveness. One or more personal
principles can comprise a personal philosophy (See definition: personal philosophy).
11. Philosopher (n.): The Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines this as ―a person who studies
ideas about knowledge, truth, the nature and meaning of life, etc.: a person who studies
philosophy.‖ 14 In this paper, the term philosopher means one who categorizes and
7
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/expression
8
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/mentality
9
dictionary.reference.com/browse/modern
10
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/modern
11
dbanach.com/course/course/info.php?id=31
12
It can be influenced by one or more principles, traditions, habits, circumstance, or events; and are observable in phenomena such as spontaneous mass reactions,
survey results, or trends.
13
―Personal‖ in Vocabdictionary. Electronic document available at vocabdictionary.com
14
www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/philosopher
generalizes phenomena into logical units at the abstract level to help understand or
address concrete phenomena. 15
12. Philosophic school (n.): Wikipedia defines this as a school of thought or intellectual
tradition, which means ―people who share common characteristics of opinion or outlook
of a philosophy, discipline, belief.‖ In this paper, the term school of philosophy is when16
a group supports, promotes, disseminates, practices and/or modifies a philosophy. (See
definition: philosophic movement).
13. Philosophic movement (n.): Wikipedia defines this as ―the appearance or increased
popularity of a specific school of philosophy, or a fairly broad but identifiable sea-change
in philosophical thought on a particular subject.‖ In this paper, a philosophical movement
is when a group reacts against or moves away from an established philosophy and creates
their own philosophy. (See definition: philosophic school).
14. Philosophy (n.): The Oxford Dictionary defines this as the ―study of the fundamental
nature of knowledge, reality, and existence, especially when considered as an academic
discipline.‖ 17 In this paper, however, a philosophy is a human thought pattern that can be
observed as behavior or response that recurs in specific, related, or similar
circumstance.18
15. Pilipino (n.), the Philippine national language. Syn., Tagalog. Cf. Filipino (n.): A citizen
of the Philippines; a native of the Philippines.
16. Practical philosophy (n.): There are no dictionary definitions, but Wikipedia defines
practical philosophy as ―the use of philosophy and philosophical techniques in everyday
life‖ such as in ―reflective practice, personal philosophical thinking and philosophical
counseling.‖ 19
17. Pragmatic philosopher (n.): From the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, this is one
who claims that ―an ideology or proposition is true if it works satisfactorily; that the
meaning of a proposition is to be found in the practical consequences of accepting it; and
that unpractical ideas are to be rejected.‖ Similarly, from Thayer (2016) a pragmatic
philosopher is one who believes that ―the usefulness, workability, and practicality of
ideas, policies, and proposals are the criteria of their merit‖; one who ―prioritizes action
over doctrine, experience over fixed principles‖; or one who believes that change is an
integral part life so much so that ―ideas borrow their meanings from their consequences
and their truths from their verification.‖ 20 In this paper, however, the term pragmatic
philosopher refers to a philosopher who creates and tests solutions to real problems. This
is synonymous with practical philosophy. Their solutions are shared, copied, modified,
re-tested, and disseminated. They do not become historical figures; they leave no artifacts
as inventors often do. In the Filipino milieu, pragmatic philosophy is a communal
product, subject to use, sharing, and modification by people working together.
18. Pragmatism (n.): The Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines this as ―a reasonable and
logical way of doing things or of thinking‖ 21 or ―Dealing with the problems that exist in
a specific situation in a reasonable and logical way instead of depending on ideas and
15
The articulation of a philosophy can be descriptive; it can use observable phenomena as examples that prove the reality of the philosophy. On the other hand, the
articulation can be prescriptive; Asian cultures generally use indirect language such as aphorisms, maxims, and folk tales to express moral or logical guidance while,
at the same time, avoiding language that might elicit negative reactions for not allowing the receiver any room for choice or flexibility.
16
Not ―where‖
17
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/philosophy
18
The behavior or pattern can be shaped by one or more principles (See Principles), circumstances, and events. As well, philosophies explained by behavior patterns
are measurable in observable phenomena such as in spontaneous reactions, decisions, and choices.
19
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Practical_philosophy
20
―Thus, pragmatic ideas are … instruments and plans of action.‖
21
www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pragmatism
theories.‖ 22 In this paper, however, the term pragmatism refers to exhibiting practical
and viable behavior in response to real problems, actual situations, or similar challenges.
19. Principle (n.): The Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines this as ―a moral rule or belief
that helps you know what is right and wrong and that influences your actions; a basic
truth or theory; an idea that forms the basis of something; a law or fact of nature that
explains how something works or why something happens.‖ 23 In this paper, however, the
term principle refers to an accepted standard of rightness against wrongness or of
effectiveness against ineffectiveness.24
20. Regional philosophy (n.): Thacker, (2015) defines this as ―the philosophy of religion,
political philosophy, the philosophy of science.‖ In this paper, it refers to a behavior or
response pattern that is observable as a stable phenomenon in the various classes or
cultures specific to a particular region – but not in other regions – of a nation.25
21. Theoretical philosopher26 (n.): From the Department of Philosophy at Lund University,
this can be defined as one who ―studies the principles of human knowledge, the
development of science and the basis for scientific knowledge, the principles of thought,
argumentation and communication, the nature of language and consciousness,
metaphysics…. (N. D.)‖ In this paper, it refers to philosophers who ruminate, mentally
connect, categorize, and generalize observations.27
22. Theoretical philosophy 28 (n.): From Wikipedia, the phase ―theoretical philosophy” can
be defined as theoretical philosophy as ―a way of sorting philosophical questions into two
different categories in the context of a curriculum.‖ In this paper, it refers to philosophies
that focus on purely abstract or theoretical concepts, as opposed to the term pragmatic (or
practical) philosophy for solving practical problems or for addressing real situations.
1.6 Neolexia29 of Pilipino Terms

The Filipino language is insufficient for expressing traditional Western philosophical
concepts and structures. To create operating definitions, this research must increase clarity,
precision, and accuracy of definitions by creating appropriate terminology (Kaufman, 2013). For
instance, there are no concise Filipino equivalents for terms such as philosophy, logical
inference, being, survivalism, philosophic principle, pragmatism, phenomenology, or idealism.30
In situations such as this, there is a strong need to generate neologisms or to impose new
meanings on old words, particularly when ―from one language to another, neither the words nor
the conceptual networks can simply be superimposed‖ (Cassin, 2014). To bridge this language
22
www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pragmatic
23
―Principle‖ in Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Electronic document available at www.merriam-webster.com
24
One or more principles can comprise a philosophy (See Philosophy).
25
The behavior pattern can be shaped by principle, tradition, habit, or events. Philosophies are measurable in observable phenomena, e.g., mass reactions, survey
results, or trends within a regional boundary or group.
26
Some central issues are: ―What is knowledge? What is the difference between knowledge and information? What do logical thought and rational argumentation
mean? What does it mean to think critically? What ultimately exists? What is causation? What characterizes a scientific explanation? How should we change our
views and theories in the light of new facts? What distinguishes typical human cognition and communication? What is verbal meaning? How does cooperation work?‖
(Source: Lund University, Department of Philosophy)
27
Their theories are logical opinions that are recorded, transmitted, analyzed, and what happens next determines their stature in history as philosophers of note or not.
28
e.g., moral philosophy, logic, metaphysics, epistemology, philosophy of mathematics, ontology
29
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neologism
30
Terms such as pilosopiya, pilosopo and prinsipyo are loan-words; some carry false definitional nuances such as ―smart-aleck‖ or ―know-it-all‖ or ―sophist‖ for
pilosopo.
gap, a list of psychology terms that use native root words for succinct expression is formulated.
These lexical roots can then be used in various combinations (Mastin, 2011).
Pilipino is an ―affixicing language,‖ a language with the flexibility that is required to form
new words and compound words based from stems – prefixes and suffixes – or word
combinations of which the new meaning may be an aggregate of meanings of the origin words or
a different meaning altogether (Paz, 2003).
The creation of new words (neologisms) is an established tradition, particularly in the

attempts to express concepts with clarity and precision; modern communication requires that
language not only communicate meaning but also prevent misunderstandings (Mayor & Pugh,
2005). On a global scale, this need for communicative clarity is even more critical across
cultures.
Table 6: Originating Pilipino Terms
Pilipino English Pilipino Etymology

áy is, are, was, were áy (v.) is; are; was; were
gawä action gawä or gawáin (n.) action, output, work; gawä (v.), do, work, perform, act
gáwï (n.): habitual, traditional, standard, expected behavior: from the
way of doing Pilipino gawä, n. (act, action, output, work); gawä, v. (do); or gáwï, adv. (e.
gáwï
things; tradition g., house chores: gawáïng-báhay or gáwing pantahánan; or kagawían:
usual ways, action, or thought; culture; routine)
hábi to weave As in maghahábi (n.), weaver; or hinábï(adj.), woven
halagá value halagá (n.), value, cost, price
hawi (v.), to part open, to reveal something; as in hawiin ang ulap (to part
hawï to part open
the clouds); hawiin ang kurtina (to open or part the curtains)
huwarán example From huwarán (adj.) pattern, model, example, standard, paragon
v., from sakláw, (n)., scope, inclusion. Synonyms: ipanglahat, ilahat.
isakláw to generalize
Example: huwag mong isakláw, don’t generalize
n. from sakláw, (n)., scope, inclusion. Synonyms: pangkalahatan, all of
kasaklawan generalization
everything
kathá create From katháin (v.), to author, to create something original
spontaneous As in kusang-loob (n.), the willingness to do something without prompting
kúsä
initiative from others
(adv. prefix of tendency), for, tending towards, in favor of; as in makabayan
maka- favoring (prefix)
(adj.) nationalistic
adj. from may (prep.), with; and hangganan (n.), end, limitation. Lit., with
mayhanggán finite
end. Ant., lähanggán. Example: tayo ay mayhanggán, we are finite
munimúni reflection (n.) reflections, musings, contemplations, meditations, speculations
(v.) paging, being; maging, to be; magiging, to become; (n.): being; from the
pagíging being
paging; (adv.) being something (e.g., pagíging matapát, being loyal)
the art or (n.), the art or pleasure of pleasing others by going along or cooperating;
pakisáma pleasure of From pakí- (prefix), the pleasure of doing or the art of doing something; and
pleasing others sáma (v.), to go with; to go along; to cooperate; or kasáma (n.), companion.
Pilipino English Pilipino Etymology

prefix of function or purpose as in pangsulat (adj.), for writing; pambansa
pan-, pang- of; for; pertaining
(adj.), national; pangkaraniwan (adj.), for ordinary use; common; panloob
or pam- to
(adj.), for inside, for inner use
panatili (v.) to be; to continue a state of being; pananatíli (n.): continuing
panánatíli survival existence; survival; panatíli (adv.): continuing (e.g., panatílíïng katapátan,
continuing loyalty).
panandalian ephemeral dali (adv.) quick; sandali (n.) a moment; sandalian (adj.) momentary
from simula (n.), beginning; starting point) or mula (conj.), from; coming
pinagmulán source
from; emanating from
sampalatayä faith, belief sampalatayä (v.), to worship; to profess a faith, creed, or belief
all of; the suffix - prefix of generalization, e.g., sángkatauhan (humankind, from sang and tao
sang-
kind (n.), human
sarili personal sariling (adj.), self-; one’s own something; or sarili (n.) one’s self
simulá starting From mulá (adv.) from; coming from; emanating from
síning art síning (n.), art and art of
prefix of action or occupation; one who does something; doer of; maker of;
implementer. As in tagalinis, cleaner; tagaluto, cook; tagapagtanggol,
taga- doer, -er (suffix)
defender; tagasira, destroyer; or prefix of origin as in taga-ámin (n.), from
our place
talós (adj.), comprehended; perfectly understood; as in ipatalós (v.),
discovered
talós announce; make known formally; and matalós (v.), penetrate; comprehend;
understanding
be informed; learn; understand
(n) traits; (adj.) tradition, routine (pagpapahalagang gawi; mahalagang
ugálï character
kagawian; kagawiang pinagpapahalagahan)
From the preceding table, the following terms can be formed: tagamúni (philosopher);
habimúni (philosophize); sangniwála (philosophy of faith); sangkisáma (pleasantrism);
sangkibágay (adaptationism); sangkúsä (initiativism); sinangnatíli (survivalist principle); and
sangnándalían (ephemeralism). Likewise, the prefixes sang- for ―philosophy of‖ ; sinang- as
well as simul- for ―principle of‖ are some of the word forms that can be formed. The neologisms
are defined in the following table, also arranged by English terms in the English-Pilipino
Glossary.
Table 7: Pilipino-English Glossary
Pilipino English Etymology

akaláïn (v.) to assume Syn: to presume; to conclude without logical reasoning
From alám (v.) know; and alám (n.) or kaalamán (n.), knowledge.
alamín (v.) to know
Syn: to determine; to find out; to investigate
From hábï (v., weave); and labás (out). Lit., to weave outwards; to
habíbas (v.) induce
weave from the center and going towards the edges. See ihabíbas
habimúni (n.) philosophizing From hábi (v.) ―to weave; to form threads‖ ;31 and múni-múni (n.),
reflection, contemplation, speculation32
31
http://tagalog.pinoydictionary.com/search/weave/
32
Magmunimuni, Tagalog Dictionary at tagalog.pinoy.dictionary.com

From halagá, n., value or price; and gáwï, n., tradition or habitual
halagáwï (n.) values
behavior
From hángin (n.), air; and lútang (v.), float Example: seemingly
hanginlútang (adj.) abstract
abstract idea, kaisipáng parang hanginlútang
From hanggáng (adv.), until and saan, where. Lit., until where.
hangsaán (n.) scope
Example: scope of practice, hangsaán ng gáwï
(v.) induced logically; (adj.) logically induced. From hábï (v., weave);
inducted; and labás (n., out; v., exit, get out; adj., outsider, stranger, foreigner).
hinabíbas (v., adj.)
induced Lit., to weave outwards; to weave from the center and going towards
the edges. See ihabíbas
hinabimúni (adj.) philosophical In the sense of ―containing developed notions of philosophy.‖ Literally,
―made into philosophy‖ or ―philosophized.‖ From hábi (v.), weave,
hinábi (v.) woven; and múni-múni (n.), reflection, contemplation,
speculation
(v.) deduced logically; (adj.) logically deduced. From hábï (v., weave);
hinabísok (v., adj.) deduced and pások (v., enter). Lit., to weave inwards; to weave from the
outside and going inwards to the center. See ihabísok
To engage in logical reasoning from specific elements to general
conclusion; to reason logically and arrive at a general conclusion
ihabíbas (v.) to induce based on specific elements. From hábï (v., weave); and labás (n., out;
v., exit, get out; adj., outsider, stranger, foreigner). Lit., to weave from
inside and going out; to weave outwards
To engage in logical reasoning from general elements to specific
conclusion; to reason logically and arrive at a specific conclusion
ihabísok (v.) to deduce based on general elements. From hábï (v., weave); and pások
(enter). Lit., to weave inwards; to weave from the outside and going
towards the center.
to express in from hanginlútang (adj.), abstract. Syn: to generalize (v.), lahatïn.
ihanginlútang (v.)
the abstract Example: don’t express in the abstract, huwag mong ihanginlútang
v. from lahát, all. Example: nilálahat nila, they are generalizing. Syn:
ilálahat (v.) to generalize
lahatïn. Example: huwag mong lahatïn, don’t generalize
Lit., to guess correctly; From i- (prefix), to; and tugmä (adj.) correct,
itugmähúlä (v.) to infer
connected, related; and húlä (v. and n.), guess.
to express in From tunágay (adj.), concrete. Example: páano itunágay, how to
itunágay (v.)
the concrete express concretely
katháng-gáwi (n.) pragmatic In the sense of ―practical concepts‖ or ―ideas created for practical
concepts use.‖ Literally, katháng-panggáwa or created for action/practical use.
From kathá (n.), creation and gáwï (n.), tradition, routine, expected
action
katháng-múni (n.) theoretical In the sense of ―hypothetical reflections.‖ From katháin (v.) to create,
concepts and munimúni (n.) reflections, musings. Literally, in the sense of
katháng pang-ísip or ―created for reflection or thought.‖
katháng-múning theoretical From tugmäsunód (logic); and pang- (prefix) for; and ísip (n.) thought.
tugmäsunód (n..) logic Lit., logic for thinking; logic of thinking; logic of thought
From ka (prefix), being; itó (this); and lámang (adv.), only. Lit., being
katolámang (adj.) specificity specific. Example: idea with some specificity, kaisipáng may konting
katolámang

From walang (adj.), no or none; and hangganan, n. end, limitation.
lähanggán (adj.) infinite Example: lähanggánang yaman, infinite resource. Syn.
magpakailanmán, magpakailanpamán, forever
From lakïp (adv.), including lahát (pron.), all. Example: general idea,
lakïplahát (adj.) general
kaisipang lakïplahát
magkatugmäsunód From mágkatugmä (adj.), correctly connected; related; and sunód
logical
(adj.) (v.), follow, next; Lit., correctly connected
With the characteristics of inductive reasoning; Lit., tending towards
inductive reasoning. From hábï (v., weave); and labás (n., out; v., exit,
makahabíbas (adj.) inductive
get out; adj., outsider, stranger, foreigner). Lit., to weave outwards; to
makahabíbas na
inductive logic See makahabíbas and tugmäsunód (logic)
tugmäsunód
makahabimúni philosophic In the sense of ―with a tendency towards philosophy‖ or ―containing
(adj.) nascent notions that can develop into philosophy.‖ Literally, ―for,
towards, or favoring philosophy.‖ From maka- (adv.), for, tending
towards, in favor of; and habimúni (n.), philosophizing
With the characteristics of deductive reasoning; Lit., tending towards
deductive reasoning. From maka- (prefix) for, tending towards,
makahabísok (adj.) deductive favoring something; and hábï (v., weave); and pások (v., enter). Lit.,
to weave inwards; to weave from the outside and going towards the
center. See ihabísok
makahabísok na deductive
See ihabísok (to deduce) and tugmäsunód (logic) and
tugmäsunód logic (n.)
makahalagáwï
value systemic See halagáwï
(adj.)
assumption From pag- (prefix), the doing of; and akálä (n. or v.) presumption or
pagakálä (n.)
(n.) presume; assumption or assume. Pronunciation note: not pag-akálä
(n.) the act of logical induction; (v.) logically induced. From hábï (v.,
weave); and labás (n., out; v., exit, get out; adj., outsider, stranger,
paghabíbas (n., v.) induction
foreigner). Lit., to weave outwards; to weave from the center and
going towards the edges. See ihabíbas
The act of logical deduction; (v.) logically deduced. From hábï (v.,
paghabísok (n.) deduction weave); and pások (enter). Lit., to weave inwards; to weave from the
outside and going towards the center.
panggáwï na pragmatic From tugmäsunód (logic); and pang- (prefix) for; and gáwï (n.) action,
tugmäsunód (n) logic behavior, ways of doing. Lit., logic of doing; logic for action
For the purpose of logical induction; Lit., for inductive reasoning.
From hábï (v., weave); and labás (n., out; v., exit, get out; adj.,
panghabíbas (adj.) inductive
outsider, stranger, foreigner). Lit., to weave outwards; to weave from
the center and going towards the edges. See ihabíbas
philosophy of
sangbahálä Cf: sinangbahálä, principle of fatalism
fatalism
sangdäpat philosophy of (To be continued)
idealism
philosophy of
sangdäpat (n.) Cf. sinangdäpat; (To be continued)
ethics

sanggámit philosophy of Cf., sinanggámit, principle of utilitarianism (To be continued)
utlitarianism
sanggáwï (n.) practical Also: pragmatism; informal or unwritten philosophy. From sang-; and
philosophy from gawä (v.), do; or gáwï (adv.), routine; tradition; expected or
habitual action (Cf. simunggáwï)
sanggínay (n.) philosophy of Also: existentialism. From sang-, prefix of generalization; and paging
being (adv.), being something; as well as áy (v.) is; are
sángháwï (n) philosophy of Also: phenomenology. From sang-, the prefix of generalization; and
truth hawï (v.), to part open so as to reveal
sánghuwarán (n.) prescriptive Also: exemplar philosophy; idealism. From sang-, the prefix of
philosophy generalization and huwarán (n. or v.) example, model
sangkibágay (n.) philosophy of Positive communication; positive behaviorism. Cf., sinangkibágay,
pleasantrism principle of pleasantrism. Cf. sangkisáma, principle of adaptationism
sangkisáma (n.) principle of Inblending; adapting to a new situation or concept. Cf., sangkibágay,
adaptationism philosophy of pleasantrism; Cf., sinangkibágay, principle of
pleasantrism
sangkúsä (n.) philosophy of The Filipino philosophy of initiativism is that it should not be done
initiativism unless it is done in such a way that (a) it benefits the group and (b)
the benefiter(s) is credited with its creation and/or success. In this
way, the initiator does not offend by implying that the benefiter(s
is/are) unable to initiate or achieve the event. On the other hand, the
benefiter(s) will – in one way or another – acknowledge real
authorship. When a non-author takes the credit, the real author is not
expected to directly react in any way.
sangmukhä (n.) philosophy of (Syn.) reputationism. The Filipino philosophy or reputationism is that
face all action or expression is considered in the light of (a) the opinion of
an(other) person(s), and (b) the effects of such opinions on future
endeavors.
sangmúni (n.) philosophy From sang-, the prefix of generalization; and múni-múni (n.),
reflections, musings, contemplations, meditations, speculations
sarimúni (n.) personal Also: private philosophy; a philosophy made, taken, or borrowed for
philosophy private or for personal use. From saríli (n.), self or saríling (adj., self-);
and from múni-múni (n.), reflections, musings, contemplations,
meditations, speculations
sim- (prefix) principle of From simula (n.) start, starting point, beginning. See sinang-
simalagá (n.) principle of Also: principle of value; utilitarianist principle. From simulá (n.)
utility beginning; starting-point; and from halagá (n.), value, cost.
simula- (prefix) from From simulá (n.) beginning; starting-point; and from mulá (prep.)
from; coming from; emanating from. Cf. sinang-
simulánay (n.) principle of Also: phenomenological principle; from simulá (n.) beginning; starting-
being point; and from mulá (prep.) from; coming from; emanating from; as
well as from áy (v.) is; are

simuláni (n.) principle in the sense of ―building-block of a philosophy.‖ From simulá (n.)
beginning; starting-point; and from mulá (prep.) from; coming from;
emanating from; as well as from múni-múni (n.), reflections, musings.
Syn., eventual philosophy
simuláni (n.) eventual In the sense of eventual evolution. (1) Eventual Evolution: a notion or
philosophy principle that can eventually evolve into or comprise a philosophy;
and in the sense of and origination from events (2) Event Origination:
ideas or beliefs that become established by repeated experience, by
similar events, or by events that arouse similar feelings or ideas.
From simulá (n.) beginning; start -point; mulá (prep.) from; coming
from; and múni-múni (n.), reflections, musings. Syn., philosophic
principle
simuláning pragmatic Also: principle of practice; principle of usage; principle of application.
panggáwï (n.) principle From simulánay (n.), philosophic principle; and from gáwï (n.) ways,
action, or thought; culture (Cf. sanggawi). Synonym: simunggáwï
simuláning prescriptive Also: idealist principle; principle of ideals. From simulani (n.),
panghuwarán (n.) principle philosophic principle; and from huwarán (adj.) pattern, model,
example, standard, paragon. Synonym: simuwaran
simuláning survivalist Also: principle of survivalism. From simulani (n.), philosophic
pangnatíli (n.) principle principle; and from pananatíli (n.), survival. Synonym: singnatíli
simunggáwï (n.) pragmatic Also: principle of practice; principle of usage or of application. From
principle simulani (n.), philosophic principle; and from gáwï (n.) ways, action, or
thought; culture (Cf. sanggawi). Synonym: simuláning panggáwï
simuwaran (n.) prescriptive Also: idealist principle; principle of idealism. From simulani (n.),
principle philosophic principle; and from huwarán (adj.) pattern, model,
example, standard, paragon. Synonym:simuláning panghuwarán
sin- (prefix) principle of See sinang-
sinang- (prefix) principle of From sining (n.), art and art of; and from sang-, the prefix of
generalization. Synonyms: sim-, sing-, simu-. Cf. simula-
sinangáyos (n.) principle of (To be continued)
order
sinangbahálä (n.) principle of (To be continued)
fatalism
sinangdäpat (n.) principle of Also: principle of ethics; ethical principles(To be continued)
idealism
sinanggámit (n.) principle of Cf. sanggámit, philosophy of utlitarianism
utilitarianism
sinanggandá (n.) principle of (To be continued)
aesthetics
sinangkáya (n.) principle of (To be continued)
coping
sinangkibágay (n.) principle of Positive communication; positive behaviorism. Cf., sangkibágay,
pleasantrism philosophy of pleasantrism

sinangkisáma (n.) principle of Also: principle of compromise; principle of positive cooperation. From
compromise sinang- (prefix), principle of; and pakisáma (n.), the art or pleasure of
pleasing others by going along or cooperating.
sinangkúsä (n.) principle of Cf., sangkúsä, philosophy of initiativism
initiativism
sinanglípas (n.) principle of (To be continued)
ephemeralism
sinangmukhä (n.) principle of reputationist principle (To be continued)
face
sinangpagbágo principle of (To be continued)
(n.) developmental
ism
sinangpalátayä (n) principle of Also: principle of faith; religious principle. From sinang-, principle of;
belief and from sampalatayä (v.), to worship; to profess a creed, or belief
sinangsayáp (n.) principle of From sináng-, prefix indicating a principle; saráp (n.), enjoyment,
hedonism deliciousness, flavor; and sayá (n.), joy, happiness, merriment
sinangtipíd (n.) principle of (To be continued)
economism
sinang-ugnáyan philosophy of (To be continued)
(n.) connectionism
sing- (prefix) principle of See sinang-
ethical
singdäpat (n.) Cf. sinangdäpat; (To be continued)
principles
singnatíli (n.) survivalist Also: principle of survivalism. From sing- (prefix), principle of; and
principle from pananatíli (n.), survival. Synonym simuláning pangnatíli
sinhalagáwï (n.) value system paraan ng pagpapahalagang gawi (To be continued)
tagáhabimúni (n.) pragmatic Also: informal philosopher; practical philosopher. From the prefix
philosopher tagá- meaning ―doer‖ or ―doer of‖ ; and from habimúni (n.),
pragmatism
tagamúni (n.) philosopher Articulator of philosophies; One who formulates or articulates a
philosophy. From the prefix tagá- meaning ―doer‖ or ―one who does
something‖ ; and múni-múni (n.), reflections, musings,
contemplations, meditations, speculations
tagasimúni (n.) princilopher Articulator of principles; One who formulates or articulates a principle
that can be part of a philosophy. From the prefix tagá- meaning ―doer‖
or ―one who does something‖ ; and from simulá (n.) beginning;
starting-point; and múni-múni (n.), reflections, musings,
tagatalmúni (n.) theoretical Also: formal philosopher. From the prefix tagá- meaning ―doer of‖ and
philosopher talmúni (n.), theoretical philosophy

talmúni (n.) theoretical Also: formal philosophy. From talós (adj.), perfectly understood;
philosophy penetrated; comprehended; and múni-múni (n.), reflection, musings,
contemplation, meditation, speculations33
tinugmähúlä (v., From tugmä (adj.) correct, connected, related; and húlä (v. and n.),
inferred
adj.) guess. See, itugmähúlä
from itó (pron.), this; and lámang (adv.), only. Lit., only this. Syn.,
tolámang (adj.) specific
partikulár, from particular Example: specific idea, kaisipáng tolámang
Lit., correct guess; From tugmä (adj.) correct, connected, related; and
tugmähúlä (n.) inference
hula (v. and n.), guess.
From mágkatugmä (adj.), correctly connected; related; and sunód
tugmäsunód (n.) logic
(v.), follow, next; Lit., correct connection
tugmäsunúrang logical
From tugmäsunód (logic) and pagakálä (assumption) (To be
assumption
pagakálä (n) continued)
(n.)
adj. from túnay (adj.) true, real; na (prep.), that is a/an; and bágay
tunágay (adj.) concrete (n.), thing; a real thing. Example: a concrete idea, isang kaisipang
tunanáy
1.7 Organization of the Paper

In order to create a common understanding, the Introduction presents the three research
questions; defines key terms, and the Pilipino terms used in this paper. Where Pilipino terms do
not exist, the crafting of new terms is explained in the section, Neology of Pilipino Terms.
To lay the groundwork of the discussion, Chapter 2: Origins of Filipino Philosophy begins
by determining what makes a philosophy national; then uses Maslow‘s theory of motivation to
frame the origination of philosophical notions; and summarizes the basic traits of philosophic
statements according to Western tradition. The concepts of origin and originality in philosophical
thought are presented according to defining principles, as defining events, and as eventual
philosophies which are then noted for occurrence and recurrence in the Philippine historical
framework before the Modern Period, namely: Prehistoric, Pre-Hispanic, 16th-Century Early
Hispanic, 17th Century Middle Hispanic, 18th Century Late Hispanic, and the Pre-Modern period
during the American Occupation of the Philippines. To lay the groundwork for philosophic
articulation, Chapter 3: Filipino Philosophies describes forms, formats, and articulation;
development, acquisition and transfer; and discusses behaviors that indicate philosophic thought,
which are then presented in four groups: relating to the self, to the world, relating to others, and
to work. To begin the discussion on foreign influences, Chapter 4: Modern Philosophies traces
the origins of Western and Eastern philosophical traditions; and ends with a summary of key
33
Talos, Tagalog Dictionary at tagalog.pinoy.dictionary.com
concepts in modern Western philosophies.How foreign thought can influence indigenous

philosophies are discussed in Chapter 5: Foreign Influences, which summarizes types and
degrees of influences; the ways concepts are transferred; and the different cultural modalities of
communication. To present the discussion as a coherent whole, Chapter 6: Conclusions presents
the research goal, the scope of the discussion; and challenges such as origination and description,
Filipino behavior, philosophic articulation and vocabulary; issues such as the use of foreign
constructs; the nature of modern Filipino philosophies and national philosophies; as well as tools
and procedures for native philosophic articulation. References, Suggested Readings, and
Appendices end this paper.
1.8 Summary
This chapter presents the three research questions. The commonly used terms in
philosophical discussions are presented in three groups: (1) similar terms that require precise
differentiation; (2) key terms in philosophy; and (3) Filipino terms for expressing concepts in the
Western philosophical tradition. The chapter ends with a summary of how the paper is organized.
The next chapter discusses the origins of Filipino philosophies.
Chapter 2: ORIGINS OF FILIPINO PHILOSOPHY
This chapter (a) defines the origins of philosophy, defines notions of originality
and origins; discusses defining principles, defining events; and eventual
philosophies; (b) presents a philosophic historical timeline based on historic
events in the Philippines; and (c) summarizes the origins of eventual
philosophies in the Philippines from prehistoric to pre-modern eras.
It has been argued that human thought and behavior are shaped and then reinforced by
tradition and culture (Mangizvo, 2014). Culture, according to Victor citing Hofstede, is
―collective programming of the mind‖ (Victor, 1992, p. 6). In addition, Petro & Heidrich (2004)
cites Fisher‘s definition of culture as comprising three aspects of shared behavior: ―a set of
values and attributes of a given group; the relation of the individual to the culture; and the
individual's acquisition of those values and attributes‖ (1998).
The importance of shared behavior is in its systemizing of ways of doing things to minimize
confusion as well as to maximize co-operation ―so that groups of people can accomplish what no
single individual could do alone.‖ Shared behavior is formalized by ―sanctions, rewards and
punishments‖ so that order and efficiency can be established.
Furthermore, mindsets, regular practices, and the resulting principles of being and doing –
the beginnings of pragmatic philosophies – are modified by intervening variables such as
weather, politics, commerce, trends, education, training, science, religion, emerging technologies
and lifestyles. All begin from happenstance, serendipity, or accidents of history and geography.
First of all, however, the elements that determine a philosophical notion as national in scope
must be defined. Basic human needs must be met before organized philosophical thought can
emerge in a civilization. Differences between philosophical thought and folk wisdom must be
clarified. These concepts are discussed in the following sections.
2.1 What Qualifies as Philosophical?

The debate in the literature regarding whether or not a Filipino philosophy exists seems to
stem from cultural differences in articulation, projection, reception, and understanding of what a
philosophical utterance is.
For practical reasons, we subscribe to the imposed concept of philosophical utterances

expressed in accordance with the dominant canons and traditions of the field, not only for global
standardization or for academic recognition, but also for widespread understanding not only
among the world‘s academicians and philosophy theorists and analysis, but also among Filipino
writers and readers.
Thus, to help answer the issues raised by this debate, we adapt an assessment tool based on
Scharfstein‘s (1998) basic elements of philosophical tradition.
Table 8: Basic Elements of Philosophical Tradition
Elements “What is a philosophical tradition?

Scholarly It is ―a chain of persons who relate their thought to that of their predecessors … from one
Lineage generation to the next, from teacher to disciple to disciple's disciple.‖ 34
Reactive It comprises ―many subtraditions … (that) share common sources and modes of thought
Development and (that) develop by reaction to one another.
Cumulative It is ―cumulative and it progresses … (as) it defines itself with increasing detail and
Progression density.‖
Distinct Entity It ―has a unity that prevails over all the internal differences it exhibits‖
―…if the attempt to show that unity prevails seems tenuous or
Rational Self- subjective, … (it shows) a history of self-reference of person to person, of intellectual
Reference group to group, of intellectual group to authoritative person, tradition, or text, and so on.‖
35
Elements How is it philosophical?

―…its members articulate it in the form of principles – if only principles of interpretation –
Articulated
and of conclusions reasonably drawn from them.‖
Principles
―…verbally explicit and logically consistent …‖
―… its adherents defend and attack by means of reasonable arguments – even those that
Logical deny reason – and understand and explain how they try to be reasonable.‖ 36
Thought in ―… the principles on which they rest are distinguished from the conclusions built on
Arguments them… or it is reasonably argued that there are no such principles‖
―… the methods of argument are themselves justified…‖
―most … thinkers have shared the same … language, … historical reference points,
Shared Milieu
and … education….‖
Elements What is not philosophical?
myths, riddles, These rely on traditional narratives and on imagination, usually without making their
proverbs meaning explicit; meaning remains basically implicit, never justified by careful reasoning
dilemma tales, These only state the opposing views without developing insight
self-debates These are not carefully related to explicit principles by which situations may be analyzed
Adapted from Scharfstein (1998).
Literature contends that Filipino philosophies are expressed in folk wisdom, indigenous
literature, and in traditions. Other writers believe that there is no Filipino philosophy. ―There are
three great philosophical traditions,‖ Scharfstein (1998) says, ―the Indian, the Chinese, and the
European.‖ 37 Still others contend that Filipino philosophies are so unique that discussion and
expression according to the canons of Western philosophical tradition would be frustrating.
34
―Continuity is the relationship that (returns) everything … in the tradition to the same beginnings in time, place, or attitude.‖
Self-reference… is the quality that makes any isolated statement or philosophy … (easier) to understand … (by) setting it in the contextual web that determines
35
what is internal to the tradition and what is external to it.

36
Scharfstein also notes that philosophy can be rational but always under the influences of elements such as ―religion, communal loyalty, reverence for teachers, and
cultural habits, not to mention individual psychology.‖
37
―Philosophy, it turns out, had just three territorial origins, three beginning languages, three historical pasts, and three webs of self-reference.‖
Filipino philosophy has been defined as ―wisdom in the face of the difficulties of life‖ 38 but
this is deemed insufficient as the preceding table indicates. In addition, it can be argued that the
preceding table is self-limiting, narcissistic, and ―narrow-minded‖ if it ―captures only the
contemporary analytic tradition‖ (Ikunobe, 1997, p. 207). However, in attempts to discuss or
articulate Filipino philosophy, this table can serve as a convenient initial framework.
Furthermore, this table leads to the question: ―What Filipino philosophies can be articulated
according to the parameters of the world‘s great philosophical traditions?‖ This is discussed in
Chapter 3: Filipino Philosophies.
2.2 What Qualifies as National Philosophies?

National philosophies are beliefs of being, doing, and relating. These beliefs are formed by
events that elicit specific emotions that, in turn, create behaviors (e. g., action, decision, speech)
that are repeated by necessity and effectiveness into almost-automatic patterns. Behind these
observable behavior patterns are beliefs – ergo, philosophies.
A nation of islands separated by large bodies of water – as well as by a diversity of cultures,

religions, lifestyles, and languages – means no unified thoughts and actions and the absence of
phenomena common in landlocked nations, such as the ease of transmitting ideas and of
representative, spontaneous mass reactions. It has been observed that prior to the advent of mass
media, knowledge of historic events happens after the fact – if at all – and with diminishing
accuracy and objectivity.
The origins of modern Filipino philosophy can be deduced from historical events that
impinged on the consciousness of those residing in the Philippine archipelago. These would later
shape or influence beliefs, then principles, then philosophies. Knowledge of such events spread
slowly in the centuries before the advent of mass communication.
As increasingly faster communication media spread over the Philippine Archipelago – from
print, to radio, to television, to the Internet – faster and more accurate information access also
increased sharing of reactions, reflections, and opinions. With ease of information access, past
events are easily processed and shared, and from the phenomena of shared hindsight on a
national scale would come what would be known as Filipino philosophy.
For instance, more Filipinos are able to identify cultural similarities which, in turn, help
create a personal sense of being Filipinos despite – and perhaps because of – the variety of
languages, lifestyles, and beliefs in the archipelago. It is this mental flexibility to unify
38
or as a ―group of principles, either stated or implied, by which any person or community views life‖
differences that is being encoded into the general psyche and, ultimately, into a philosophy
unique only to fragmented nations.
To initially identify widespread habits of thought and behavior as national philosophies,

these patterns must be prevalent among most of a population; widespread among its cultures,
groups, and subgroups; and consistently observable despite intervening variables such as
education, overseas travel, and migration.
To recapitulate, events that trigger nationwide emotion that, in turn, create stable behavior
patterns are identifiable as origins of national philosophical notions. Aside from natural disasters
and the routine challenges of modern civilization, the most unifying forces of national emotion
and behavior in the Philippine Archipelago are organized governance and mass communications.
This is reflected in the Table: Events of Mass Influence.
2.3 Defining Originality

The ascribe originality to Filipino philosophical thought is to answer the question: Did
foreign influences shape the beginnings of Filipino philosophies or are these native constructs?
It focuses on the notion of creating versus borrowing ideas. This paper suggests that immediacy
of creation and re-creation of foreign concepts suffice to attribute originality to origins of
philosophic notions.
This paper also posits that, due to the relative geographical isolation of the Philippine
archipelago during the worldwide flowering of formal articulations of various foreign
philosophies, foreign influences were minimal – literature suggests that these were related to
trade or to those seeking better lives – Filipino philosophies must be largely original.
In addition, pragmatic philosophies are working constructs that arise out of mostly urgent
situations that are peculiar to the torrid-zone and in island societies, specifically those visited
each year by earthquakes, typhoons, drought, flood, geographical elevation as well as proximity
to or isolation from the sea, which creates diet and lifestyles which, in turn, create habitual
notions from where philosophic thoughts can arise. This indicates fulfillment of the criteria of
immediacy: that working philosophies are born out of a specific setting in answer to fairly urgent
challenges.
The nature of foreign influences means that these are rarely preserved in their original form
whenever these are transferred to another culture. Absorbing any such borrowed concepts means
initial testing, use, modification, and then transformation for local use, thus fulfilling the second
criteria of re-creation (See Chapter 5: Foreign Influences). Since philosophical development is a
process over time that requires various degrees of modification from simple adaptation to pure
indigenization (See Table: Degrees of Transfer of Foreign Influences), any extant philosophy
from ancient times would eventually be considered original at one degree or another.
Differentiation of origins can be defined as native or foreign, if these can be proven. Since
prehistoric records are virtually nil, Pre-Hispanic records are few, incomplete, and often biased.
As a result, there are no sufficiently objective structures for differentiating the origins of Pilipino
philosophic concepts. In the meantime, two criteria – (1) immediacy of creation and (2) re-
creation of foreign concepts – must suffice in determining originality.39
2.4 Defining Origination

What motivates the creation of philosophical notions? We turn to motivation theory to
explore this concept and find that man, ―a perpetually wanting animal,‖ first attends to needs that
are most urgent. The hierarchy of needs is a theory of human motivation (Maslow, 1943) that
arranges human needs according to increasing levels of urgency (See Figure: Hierarchy of
Human Needs). The theory states that ―the more basic, unconscious goals‖ are more likely to
receive primary attention. It is only when these are met that ―specific, local-cultural desires‖ are
able to develop (Maslow, Ibid.). This theory offers a logical frame of reference for theorizing the
origination of philosophical notions in human history.
Since one need rests on another, the theory contains a hierarchically logical order. As
Maslow puts it, ―the appearance of one need usually rests on the prior satisfaction of another,
more pre-potent need‖ and adds that ―no need or drive can be treated as if it were isolated or
discrete; every drive is related to
the state of satisfaction or
dissatisfaction of other drives.‖
Since philosophy requires

higher-order thinking – as opposed
to the reactive nature of survivalist
thought processes – we rest the
case of the argument that
philosophic articulation in the
break or Indic traditiom occurs
Figure 1: Maslow's Hierarchy of Human Needs only when a society or group is
Graphic Courtesy of ideasuk.files.wordpress.com
39
The process of modifying foreign influences on native philosophies is outlined in Table: Modification Process of Foreign Influence, which can be of help in the
evaluation of philosophical notions by determining the level of originality and, by extension, of origin.
sufficiently organized enough to satisfy all prior needs and stable to do so over a long period of
time.
This paradigm can help explain why most observers of the currently dominant philosophical
traditions opine the general nonexistence of Filipino philosophy.
This paradigm suggest that: (a) philosophical notions may be formed but cannot evolve into
a philosophical tradition in societies that are more preoccupied with continual challenges in
meeting basic needs such as survival and safety; (b) the origins of philosophic thought can be
traced to societies that have established historically stable structures that provide sufficient basic
needs as well as meeting needs such as love and belonging, to the point that self-actualization
activities can occur with relative regularity and with reflective practice.
There is no suggestion that Filipino minds are incapable. What is suggested is that even the
Filipino intelligentsia or the privileged are so embedded in the real effects of widespread
phenomena such as crime and corruption; abuse of power; weak moral stature; increasing
populations and scarcity of resources; as well as widespread poverty and superstition-based
beliefs and behaviors, so much so that the need for formal articulation of national philosophies
has not been accorded the required urgency or resources.
In the debate regarding the existence of formal Filipino philosophies, we suggest that such
thoughts do exist but has not achieved full and formal articulation, and that enough time must
pass for the subsequent philosophical tradition to develop. Yet another complaint is that non-
Filipinos find Filipino philosophy confusing. This can be explained by another layer of cultural
differences between Filipino and Western thought.40
2.5 Defining Origins

The phrase origin of philosophy raises the question: Who created the philosophy? It also
begs a setting: Where and when was the philosophy created? Preceding sections presented how
the informal and pragmatic natures of Filipino philosophies are caused by the need for a range of
quick responses in a survival-intensive environment. This criteria of immediacy suggests that
Filipino philosophies must begin as problem-solving tools whenever needs arise, not as
philosophies arising out of intensive contemplation which is what happened in more stable
societies,41 or out of established religions.42
40
This is such a deeply-ingrained barrier that its effects the articulation, projection, reception, and understanding of all human communication cannot be sufficiently
explored in this paper. However, a summary of this phenomenon is presented in the chapter on foreign influences on native thought, in the section on Culture-Based
Differences.
41
such as Greece and Athens
42
such as in India, China and in the Muslim regions
Over time, such pragmatic thoughts evolve into standard action plans, shared, practiced, and
eventually hard-coded into the culture as pragmatic principles, unwritten but common in the area
later named as the Philippine Archipelago. The inhabitants routinely experience the survivalist
need for cooperation as well as the critical need for maintaining good feelings over times of calm
and plenty. Thus, the various societies in the islands developed what Hofstede calls high-context
communication systems (Gamsriegler, 2005, pp. 3-4).
Along with good manners and pleasantries to grease the wheels of societal interaction, the
need to quickly transfer knowledge to children and adults with a variety of mental abilities was
recognized. Thus, non-confrontational expressions accessible to all minds of all ages and classes
arose: folk tales that mirrored the structure of Biblical parables, jokes and riddles that delight as
well as challenge the mind, and poems with rhythm and rhyme for ease of recall (c.f.,
prescriptive concepts).
2.6 Observable Behaviors

Observable behaviors are measurable and therefore valid as objective data for analysis in
any investigation that uses the scientific processes that include logical reasoning. In proving the
philosophic nature of Filipino thought, this approach can be used. For instance, philosophic
notions can be inferred from observable behaviors common across the various island cultures of
the Philippine archipelago. Such philosophic notions can be described as principles or beliefs –
such as religious, educational, and communication principles – that can eventually yield
philosophical statements. Any proof of a stable behavioral pattern nationwide – one that is
clearly indicative of a certain thought – can be properly identified as proof of a national
philosophy.
2.7 Historical Framework

One challenge is to identify this volatility into convenient and easily comprehended
structures. One method is the classification and labeling of human behavior according to time-
frames, or according to periods of significant historical events. As in the tradition of embedding
philosophy in historical periods, an articulation of Filipino philosophy begins with
acknowledging influences, not only of geography but also of events that affect widespread
thought and behavior patterns.
It has been argued that origins and development of Filipino philosophic thought is not only
shaped by the various cultures and the dissipating forces of the geographic nature of the
archipelago, it is also firmly rooted in the historical experiences of country, as perceived by those
within the native milieu, whether indigenous inhabitants, migrants and traders, or foreigners who
intermarry or settle in the islands.
For instance, periods that subdivide each of the eras can be refined by describing the ideas or
behaviors that happen on a national scale, e. g., subversion or revolt against authority; fight for
freedom or independence; idealistic role models based on leisure, on skin tone, on range of
freedoms or choices, on degrees of power, or on degree of education; spread of ease,
affordability, or speed of travel; spread of information media structures; information access, use,
and creation.
Such a posteriori generalizations of national phenomena in tabulated form can serve as can
help identify development points of national mindsets that comprise eventual philosophies.
2.8 What is Modern Filipino philosophy?

In this paper, Filipino philosophy includes various pragmatic, literary, religious, and cultural
beliefs that are prevalent throughout the Philippine archipelago, as well as overseas where home-
born Filipinos live or work. For several reasons discussed elsewhere in this paper, Filipino
philosophy is not articulated according to the canons of Western philosophic tradition.
However, the Filipino philosophy is evident in behavioral phenomena common to Filipinos

regardless of cultural affiliation. Upon closer examination, the Filipino philosophy can be
identified from commonly-shared problem-solving strategies; from observable principles of
being, doing, and relating; as well as from language, indigenous literature, and folk wisdom.
The tradition of pragmatic, formally unarticulated philosophic thought in the Philippines –

like that of the West – has little but existing evidence of influence from Asian cultures via
Chinese, Malaysian, and Indian trade and settlements; via Arabic cultures from neighboring
Muslim countries; 43 and from African, Mesoamerican, Hellenistic, and European cultures via the
three centuries of Spanish as well as the shorter but more recent American periods.
Table 9: Historical Framework of Filipino Philosophies
Eras Periods National Leadership / Significant Events Years

Small ethnic groups in Mindanao used simple stone tools and lived a life of @200,000 to
Archaic
hunting and gathering. 7,000 years ago
Prehistoric
The Nusantao in southern Mindanao and northeastern Indonesia explored

@ 7,000 to 3,000
Incipient
tides and currents; travelled to Taiwan, coastal south China, and North
years ago
Vietnam (Solheim, 2000).
Early Incipient: Use of blade and flake shell tools spread and became @ 5,000 BC to
traditions 3,000 BC
43
During the Medieval Period, for instance, Muslim religious and scientific ideas significantly influenced early Athens, Greece, and Rome which, in later ages, shaped
the foundations of Western philosophy as we know it.

Middle Incipient: Use of ground and polished shell; polished stone tools; @ 3,000 to 2,000
Spreading manufacture of plain, red-slipped, and paddle-marked pottery BC
Late Incipient: Further spread of pottery manufacture; start of elaborately
decorated pottery; more types of stone tools; The Nusantao develop a
maritime trading and communication network throughout the Philippines, @ 2,000 to 1,000
along the coasts of China, Vietnam, Korea, Japan, Eastern Indonesia, BC
Mindanao, and India; they trade in the Cagayan Valley where horticulture and
pottery are practiced.
More rapid developments of previous periods; more distinct regional
differences within the islands; similarities from the Philippines to eastern @ 1,000 BC to
Formative
Indonesia; increased variety & quality of personal ornaments & pottery AD 500
decoration
Pre-colonial No data @ 900s to 1565
Early Hispanic (New Spain)
1565 to 1815
Manila Galleon Trade System
Colonization
Middle Hispanic
Hispanic
Spain loses Mexico, the Philippines becomes part of the East Indies. Spanish-American 1815 to 1898
War ends. The Philippines sold to the USA in the 1898 Treaty of Paris.
1st Philippine Republic
The Spanish capture President Aguinaldo; the republic is dissolved. The 1901 1899 to 1901
Philippine-American war ends with American dominion of the archipelago.
First two radio stations in Manila & Pasay June 1922
American Puppet Leadership
1901 to 1935
Pre-Modern
Occupation
The Philippine GDP indicates it as the 2nd richest place in all Asia
Commonwealth Leadership
Tourists visit Manila, most beautiful city in the world. In 1946, US sovereignty ends. In 1935 to 1945
1938, the most popular radio program is Kwentong Kutsero
Japanese Leadership
44 1941 to 1945
2nd Philippine Republic; World War 2; Radio ownership dangerous
3rd Philippine Republic
1946 to 1965
Independence from America
Functional radios are in 3% of provincial households; 90% of radio programs are in
Early Republic
1951
Early Modern
Tagalog
45
Radiowealth manufactures TV sets 1955
1.5 million radio sets in the archipelago or 26% of homes; radio soap operas rule radio
1962
(Lent, 1968); TV sets are the most sellable appliances
Ferdinand Marcos Leadership
Marcos seizes TVs stations; 1969 First cable TV; 1974 Miss Universe Pageant; 1975 1965 to 1986
Ali-Frazier Fight; 1981 Pope John Paul II visits; 1986 EDSA Revolution
Corazon Aquino Leadership 1986 to 1992
Modern
Fidel Ramos Leadership 1993 to 1998

Middle Republic
More than USD 2 billion in OFW remittances. On 29 March, the Philippines is

1994
connected to the Internet.
89% of Filipinos & 57% of Philippine households watch TV 6-7 days a week (Anon.,
1996
Post-Modern
2003)
Joseph Estrada Leadership
1998 to 2001
1998 137 television stations in the Philippine Archipelago
30 Manila newspapers w a daily circulation of 7,453,272; of which 30% is provincial;
2005
552 dailies in the provinces
44
http://www.asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-06-01-1968/lent-philippine-radio-history-problems.pdf
45
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_in_the_Philippines

375 AM and 596 FM radio stations; 9 out of 10 house-holds own a radio set; 100 TV
46 2006
stations; 30 online news publications
47
ABS-CBN first digital terrestrial TV 2007
Friendster records 13.2 million hits from the Philippines 2008
Gloria Arroyo Leadership
Business Process Outsourcing BPO ; World’s fastest growi g eco o y; 60+ cha els
2001 to 2011
on cable TV. As of 30 Sept, Over 30 million internet users; 3.8 million employed in
48
tourism
Benigno Aquino Jr. Leadership 2011 to 2017
49
In 2012, at least 103 million active mobile phones . In 2014, almost 1 million BPO
workers annually increasing at 20%. 1.4 trillion pesos in tourism income. In Jan 2015, 2012
PLDT & Globe Telecom offer fixed wireless broadband
Adapted from Philippine History, Wikipedia
The notion of modernity as an age or era is an arbitrary construct of convenience for

understanding complex and abstract phenomena such as philosophical origination, development,
and history. Based on a Philippine historical construct, this paper focuses on Filipino
philosophies prevalent between the start of the Pre-Modern Period in 1946 when the Philippines
became independent of North America, and ending in 1994 when the Philippines was first
connected to the Internet (Wikipedia), but before internet use became common throughout the
archipelago.
Defining the history of philosophic development in the Philippine archipelago can be framed
by a history of national leadership and significant events. In the preceding table, the scope of this
research – Modern Filipino Philosophy – is shaded in red. Refining the preceding table with
more details and accuracy is within the scope but beyond the resource limitations of this paper,
and thus best left to experts.
2.9 Defining Principles

Like philosophies, Filipino principles, strategies, and beliefs are variable and continually
evolving. The contrasts between the beliefs and attitudes of Filipinos in large, modern cities and
those in more isolated or in less modern areas prove this fluidity, which becomes more dramatic
in places where more lifestyle changes occur in increasing tempo, although these remain
observable in widespread behavior.
In the Philippines, such commonalities are so interwoven in the fabric of cultural life – so
ingrained in subtext, nuance, and body language; and so continuously adapting to situational
46
https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/overview-mass-media-situation-philippines-rene-guioguio
47
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_in_the_Philippines
48
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_in_the_Philippines
49
http://business.inquirer.net/111607/telcos-report-record-number-of-customers
varieties and to shifting degrees of sense – that writing them down is not only unnecessary but
also counterproductive (See Articulation). Instead of written philosophies, what we have in the
Philippines are principles that are abstract in medium but concrete in use.
To clarify the relationships between principles and philosophies, an arbitrary logic based on
personal phenomenology illustrated in the following table shows how principles can comprise
philosophies. (Cf. Pilipino Terms for Philosophies and Principles).
In the next table, cross-ranking helps visualize a complex web of principles vis-à-vis
philosophies through a simplification of connections.50 For instance, a glance at the Totals
column indicates which principles are most valued in a typical Filipino society. The column
shows that, compared to other philosophies such as pleasantrism, principles such as thrift or
showing individual initiative is less prevalent among the range of philosophies.
Table 10: Filipino Principles and Philosophies, by Cross-Ranking
Sangmúning
Mga Simuláni Philosophies of
Principles Búhay Pakípag-úsap Pággawä Katohanan Pakisáma Paniwála
Totals
Life Communication* Work Truth** Society*** Belief
Sinang-ugnáyan       6
Connectionism
Sangkibágay       6
Pleasantrism, Positivism
Sinanggámit       6
Utilitarianism
Sinangnatíli      5
Survivalism
Sinangmukhä      5
Face, Reputationism
Sinangbahálä      5
Fatalism
Sinangpagbágo      5
Developmentalism
Sinanglípas     4
Ephemeralism
Sinangkáya     4
Coping
Sangkibágay     4
Adaptationism; Inblending
Sinangsayáp51   2
Hedonism
Sinanggandá   2
Aesthetics
Sinangáyos
Order
50
Ranking refers to arranging values in a logical order. Cross-ranking refers to ranking the total
values of the rows as well as of the columns.
51
Kasiyahan at kasarapan, ―happiness and pleasure‖
Sangmúning
Mga Simuláni Philosophies of
Principles Búhay Pakípag-úsap Pággawä Katohanan Pakisáma Paniwála
Totals
Life Communication* Work Truth** Society*** Belief
 
Sinangtipíd
2
Economism52
Sinangdäpat   2
Idealism

Sinangkúsä 1
Initiativism
Sinangpalatáyä
Faith
TOTALS 14 12 11 11 9 7
* Communication **Phenomenology ***Social Order; Politics **** Thrift
On the other hand, a glance at the Totals row shows that, in general, most of Filipino
principles center– and might therefore be more philosophical – about life and about
communication than about society or about faith. This could well be because the table indicates
that there appears to be more principles comprising the philosophies of living and of
communication than the philosophies about societal order or governance as well as about faith.
It should be noted that this table is presented to serve a modeling function, a form of seminal
visualization in tabular format that can be given increased empirical validity with more complete
data given adequate resources, time, and a more rigid approach towards the collection and
analysis of objective intervening variables.
2.10 Defining Events

To make sense of one‘s being in a world full of uncertainties is a critical need for mental and
emotional stability. As Tondo (2012) puts it:
―…to define a world that makes sense is always in the present, and
draws on memories which help in constructing their lives as familiar and
comprehensible. There is no present without history, and so too, there is no
history without the present‖ (p. 108).
In the Philippines, significant historical events can be tentatively used as periods that mark
changes in mind-sets in large populations or over a significant geographical area, e. g., the
introduction of mass communication starting from print media to electronic media. For instance,
the series of communication technological advances – from printing presses, to radio, to
television, to cell phones, and then the Internet – has created radical changes in the thinking,
logic, behavior, choices, and the pagíging (being-ness) of succeeding generations.
52
Thrift, economy
What events are likely to trigger, shape, and define Filipino philosophies? These are those
events that create the conditions necessary for philosophical origination: Events with the power
to blur differences and forget separations; those that draw together diverse thinking; that create
strongly shared feelings; those that are forged in the intense heat of social passion and then
refined and annealed by repeated practice. Some examples of events that impinge on the national
consciousness can be measured and tabulated in future research (See Table: Events of Mass
Influence).
More probable than single defining events, a succession of events can reinforce initially-
created mindsets or beliefs into a shared belief. For instance, a succession of broken promises
from authority figures from the advent of the Spanish, to the national disappointment in US
promises as exemplified by the Treaty of Paris, up to the continuing series of broken pre-election
promises from elected governments (See Table: The 21st Century Philippine Historical
Timeline) can hardwire common Filipino thought into a way of interpreting notions, truth and
belief, a way that is pragmatic, fluid, adaptable, and fatalistic – but with an explosion point.
2.11 Repeated Defining Events

For the purpose of identifying national philosophies, identifying patterns in events over time
can be helpful. For instance, a case for philosophical articulation can be made of the Filipino‘s
long patience with an accompanying point of eventual critical mass, such as the 500 years of
suffering under the Spanish yoke, or the 21 years of abuse under former president Ferdinand E.
Marcos.
The behavior pattern of a long simmering period with critical boiling point can be expressed
in more philosophical structures than these traditional examples that apply:
Pagkahabä-hábä man ang prusisyón, sa simbáhan din ang tulóy.

No matter how long the procession, it ends up in the church.
Matalíno man ang matsíng, napáglamangan dín.

The monkey may be clever, (but) it can still be dis-advantaged.
While most Filipinos would need no help in explaining why these pithy sayings apply to the
ouster of the Spaniards or to the EDSA Revolution that ended the Marcos Regime, a step-by-step
process for creating philosophy out of native principles embedded in folk wisdom can serve as
an objective framework not only for creation but also for assessment. A guide to abstracting
philosophical statements from folk wisdom is presented in this paper (See Table: Abstracting
Folk Wisdom Into Philosophic Statements). In addition, a guide to determining the philosophical
traits of a statement is presented in this paper (See Table: Validity Criteria for Philosophical
Statements).
Defining events are not only man-made. For instance, the constancy of floods, typhoons,
summer conflagrations create shared feelings and actions on a nationwide scale as well as the
constant ills of traffic gridlock, obesity, broken homes, and environmental deterioration. Such
events have become so expected that coping mechanisms, survival responses, and ways of
perceiving truths are shaped and hardwired into the general Filipino psyche, particularly when
such phenomena create mental habits of survivalism, fatalism, and hedonism.
2.12 Eventual Philosophies

The term ―eventual philosophy‖ contains two concurrent definitions: eventual evolution and
origination from events.
 In the sense of concurrent evolution, the term is used in the sense of nascent philosophic
thought or, in other words, a habitual strategy, traditional belief, or prevalent principle of
being, doing, or relating that can eventually evolve into or comprise a philosophy.
 In the sense of originating from significant events, the term is used in the sense of
behaviorally observable ideas, beliefs, or principles that are triggered by significant
events that are repeated (e.g., annual typhoons, abusive leadership) that arouse
nationwide feelings or reactions. In other words, the term refers to national-scale
automatic mindsets (a) arising out of events and (b) containing building-blocks of
philosophic thought.
Both definitions suggest that proof of existing national philosophies include commonly-used
strategies, shared principles, beliefs and habits that achieve relative stability and permanence by
repetition of trigger events, by regular use, as well as by validation and refinement over time.
2.13 Prehistoric Trigger Events

Between 30,000 and 22,000 years ago the primary ancestors of today‘s Negritos entered the
Philippines via land bridges and narrow channels of water during the Late Pleistocene when
Palawan and Borneo were joined ―as a result of the greatly lowered sea level during the Ice Age‖
(Solheim II, 1992, p. 6). The archipelago that later became the Philippines began to be populated
by settlers from other lands, driving the indigenous population to the hinterlands (de
Schoolmeester, n.d.).
Although land, fish, water, fruits, forests, and freedom were for the taking, the islands are
located in the Ring of Fire, so are beset by earthquakes and tidal waves (Anon., 2013). Being in
the monsoon path meant regular typhoons. It is this milieu that developed the seeds of the
practical Filipino philosophies of making do, as well as the primacy of maintaining positive
social relationships along with flexibility and of mutual cooperation for survival.
Most of the events of prehistory are lost; fragments survive in ancient accounts, in
archaeological artifacts, or are inferred from circumstantial evidence (See Table: Prehistoric
Philippine Historical Timeline). However, notions or principles arising out of events –- eventual
philosophies – can be inferred.
Table 11: Eventual Filipino Philosophies in Pre-history
Eras Periods National Leadership Years

Pre-Historic Pre-Historic tribal leaders 40,000 to 3,000 years ago
Some Notions / Unwritten Principles
survival freedom community leadership
mortality family kinship cooperation
nature animism self mortality
While prehistoric evidence is rare, it has been argued that Asian philosophical traditions
such as those from India and China share a commonality with Muslim philosophies – the
religious starting-point (Bowering, 2015; Sharif, 1381, Influence of Muslim Thought on the
East). It would seem that the need to explain faith and supernatural powers created the first
explorations of philosophical thought, which paved the way for later insights in logic, cognition,
and inquiries into the natures of truth, knowledge, and existence.
Although current Filipino thought is richly infused with the religious aspects of native
culture, the lack of traceable prehistory shrouds the origins of modern Filipino philosophy, which
may best be inferred from artifacts and from observable phenomena.
For instance, Filipino philosophy arouse out of a history of natives seeking freedom in the
hinterlands as migrants seeking freedom settled in the islands, of oppressive occupation and
colonization; of calamities such as earthquakes, typhoons; of government corruption and
widespread poverty over a growing population with limited land area and resources.
To survive in such an environment, Filipinos must depend on each other, thus, preserving
relationships is more important than logic, efficiency, or permanence. Western philosophy, on
the other hand, is either born out of indigenous religions or due to an organized environment
with stable populations of slaves and soldiers that, in turn, allow a separate class enough time to
engage in philosophical thought. These are relatively stable civilizations developing indigenous
concepts.
2.14 Pre-Hispanic Trigger Events

Although prehistoric events are lost from memory, some events from the 10th to 15th
centuries survive through an artifact – the Laguna Copperplate Inscription (Morrow, 1998) – that
indicates thought and practices relating to core elements of philosophy such as honor, debt, trust,
fairness, and justice (See Figure: The Laguna Copperplate Inscription).
Other events of historical significance are few and based on archaeological opinion (See
Table: Pre-Hispanic Philippine Historical Timeline) or a few surviving accounts such as follows.
 In 982, a ship owned by a Muslim carrying goods from Ma—I (Mindoro, the Mayyid of
the Arabs) arrived in Canton…. traders now brought more Southeast Asian products to
China as part of their profitable ventures… (via) a new route … Borneo - Sulu –
Palawan – Mindoro – Luzon – Canton (Majul, 1999).
This would indicate thought patterns relating to trade, fairness, honesty, justice, power and
societal structures, prestige as well as social status.
 In 1011, ―Song Shih documents a tributary delegation from the Indic Rajahnate of
Butuan‖ (Wikipedia, Timeline of Philippine History)
This document would indicate thought patterns relating to politics and governance, power
structures and societal structures, prestige and social status.
Table 12: Eventual Filipino Philosophies of the Pre-Hispanic Period
Eras Periods National Leadership Years

Pre-Historic Pre-Hispanic datus, sultans, etc. X to 1521
fairness justice trade trust
honor debt governance order
power structures societal structures tradition family
animism theology prestige social status
safety security apprenticeship training
 In 1240, records show that ―Tuan Masha'ika, an Arab, travels and introduces Islam to
Sulu‖ (Majul, 1999, pp16-19; Majul, 1977, pp. 5-6).
This document would suggest thought patterns of theology, monotheism, the afterlife, and
architecture.
 In 1400, records indicate the advent of the Baybayin, Hanunoo, Tagbanwa, and Buhid
scripts from Brahmi (Miller, 2011).
This would indicate social thought patterns relating to communication, training, and
conceptual transfer.
 In 1457 and in 1500, records respectively show the ―rise of Kingdom of Maynila under
the Bolkiah dynasty‖ and the founding of the Sultanate of Sulu by Sayyid Abubakar
Abirin.
This document would indicate such thought patterns as societal classes, governance, and
safety; security and information transfer; ethics, crime and punishment; science in seafaring and
production; mathematics in trade, agriculture and commerce.
 A pre-Hispanic document was translated during the Hispanic historical timeline. José
Araneta and Plácido Alberto de Saavedra are said to have translated a 1725 genealogical
document into Spanish. Said to have been first written in the Magindanao Jāwī
language, the Tarsila Zamboangueña reportedly relates the ―lineage of Zamboanga's
aristocracy, from indigenous times to Islamization and then Hispanization‖ (Jimenez,
2010, p.7).
This document would indicate the then existence of philosophic notions such as the
reverence for tradition, for familial continuity, as well as for knowledge. This document also
indicates an awareness of the sense of self, which is a core philosophic concept.
2.15 16th Century: Early Hispanic Trigger Events

Beginning with the Spanish discovery of the archipelago in 1521 until the series of anti-
Spanish Filipino revolts in the late 1580s, the historical events are insignificant in terms of
creating national philosophy at that time due to the archipelagic structure of the islands: the
peoples were divided by geography, which preserved the diversity of languages and cultures.
However, the colonization, establishment of governance, religious, and educational systems

established during the Early Hispanic Colonization period (See Table: 16th Century Philippine
Historical Timeline) laid the foundations of later nationhood. In addition, a widespread
consciousness of the colonizer‘s almost continuous oppression, slavery, and abuse formed a
concept of ―us‖ against ―them‖ – the ―us‖ element being the first steps towards a unified identity.
The various revolts mostly failed, hampered by a generally docile population and the
aforementioned cultural and lingual diversity as well as the fragmented land area. Despite and
because of the many failed struggles for freedom, justice, and equality, these activities began to
hardwire the notions of survivalism, us-ness, and distrust of authority in the native psyche.
2.16 17th Century: Middle Hispanic Trigger Events

In the 90 years between 1600 and 1690, the most striking historical developments in the
Philippines were 19 recorded revolts, 11 historical milestones in education, 23 governor-generals
appointed, two foreign invasions, and one significant development in international trade and in
governance (See Table: 17th Century Philippine Historical Timeline). The following table
summarizes the events:
Table 13: Summary of 17th Century Historical Events
Frequency % Types of Historical Events

23 40.36 Appointments of Governor-generals
19 33.34 Uprisings, rebellions, or revolts
11 19.30 Education milestones
2 03.50 Foreign invasions
1 01.75 Foreign trade
1 01.75 Local governance structure
57 100 Total
What would seem to emerge is a picture of a rebellious nation so difficult to govern that an
average of one governor general every three or four years is appointed. These events can,
arguably, hammer into the national consciousness the importance of education as well as of
fighting for human rights. However, this can be an erroneous oversimplification as there may
have been no ―national consciousness‖ then as we now know it. There was no connectedness as
we have today, where messages can be instantaneous, repeated ad infinitum, or revised for best
effect.
On the other hand, hindsight would seem to indicate that the historic events of the 17th
century continued the foundational accretion of a future national consciousness – of being
Filipino. Later, technological advances throughout the archipelago would optimize conditions to
the point that people from various walks of life recognize past ideas as well as create and share
new thoughts.
2.17 18th Century: Late Hispanic Trigger Events

In the 92 years from 1701 until 1793, the list of significant historical events again suggests
an overall picture of the Filipino as a rebellious people, difficult to govern – or at least non-
docile – or of an abusive colonizer.
At least 23 governor-generals were appointed and at least 11 revolts recorded, an average of

one every eight years, or once for every two governors. Foreign government appointments and
uprisings, rebellions, or revolts made up more than 75% of all significant historical events during
the 18th century in the Philippines. Education and political events were about 17%, while
literature, a foreign invasion, and a natural disaster comprised less than 7% (See Table: 18th
Century Philippine Historical Timeline). In terms of national consciousness-shaping events,
resistance and violence against perceived injustice or abuses by colonizers predominated.
The following table summarizes the events:


4 08.88 Politics / Governance
1 02.22 Natural Disaster
1 02.22 Literature
45 100 Total
Due to the absence of an efficient communication network during those times, historical
events did reach many areas throughout the archipelago but often after the fact, and usually with
diminishing objectivity and accuracy over time.
The following table presents some of the trigger events that might be gleaned from a close
examination of available literature, archaeological artifacts, and other forms or recorded
information relating to Filipino events, behavior, communication, as well as art, music, songs,
dances, and products such as adornments, pottery, weaponry, various modes of transport,
clothing, and other preserved data.
Table 15: Eventual Filipino Philosophies of the Hispanic Period
Era Period National Leadership Years

Early Hispanic 1521 to mid-19th C
Colonization Hispanic Middle Hispanic 1840 to 1875
Late Hispanic Late 19th C
religion governance justice social status
education cooperation revolt freedom
survivalism communication subversion pride
personal identity national identity punishment order
2.18 Pre-Modern: American Occupation Trigger Events

In terms of recorded significant historical events, the 19th century was explosive: at least 180
historical events were recorded between 1805 and 1900, even more than all the recorded events
in the preceding 300 years (See Table: 19th Century Philippine Historical Timeline). Between
1805 and 1900, some the most significant events were in politics, disasters, communication, and
media. The year 1898 was particularly eventful.
 National Identity: In 1809, King Joseph Bonaparte gives Filipinos Spanish citizenship
and grants the colony representation in the Spanish Cortes.
 Disaster: In 1828, an earthquake strikes Manila destroying many of its buildings.

 Communication: In 1880, Manila is connected through telegraphic cable Europe by
Eastern Telecom.
 Disaster: In 1880, on July 18, two shocks of an earthquake create destruction from
Manila to Santa Cruz, Laguna. Tremors continue until Aug 6.
 Disaster: In 1897, an estimated 7.9 intensity earthquake hits Luzon's northwest coast on
15 Aug.
 War: In 1898, the US declares war on Spain on 26 Apr. Invasion: US reinforcements
and troops arrive in the Philippines on 17 Jul. The Spanish surrender to the US at the
battle of Manila on 14 Aug. Media: The Manila Times releases its first issue on 11Oct.
Occupation: Spain and the US sign the Treaty of Paris on 10 Dec; Spain cedes the
Philippines to the US, the US pays 20 million dollars to Spain.
 Revolt: In 1899, hostilities break out between the Filipino and US forces on 4 Feb.
 Media: In 1900, the Manila Bulletin releases its first issue 2 Feb.
It can be argued that these historic events did not much affect thought or feeling on an
archipelagic scale. This is because most of these events happened in less than 10% of the total
land area – mostly in the larger cities with the most intensive concentrations of trade and
commerce, government officials, as well as native populations and visitors.
The distance was not only physical; there was also a widespread psychological distance. For
instance, at this point in history, the common Filipino may have become used to the revolts and
constant changes of leadership – this time not only Spanish but also British and American.53 The
following table summarizes the events. Even more important, there was no mass media as we
know it; the time before the internet, before television stations, even before regular radio
programs. People outside of the major cities – most of the country in other words – would know
of events long after the fact.
Table 16: Eventual Filipino Philosophies of the Pre-Modern Period
Era Period National Leadership Years

American Occupation 1898 to 1934
Occupation Pre-Modern Japanese Occupation 1941 to 1945
Post World War II 1945 to 1946
Opportunity Status Truth Survival
Governance Fairness Rebellion Justice
Trust Skepticism Faith Mortality
Fate Chance Kinship Survivalism
53
In addition, given the natures of the times and cultures then, these were most probably orally transmitted with some reverence or mythicalization.
Aside from the lack the impact of immediacy, there was a strong focus on meeting basic
needs. As in other poverty-stricken parts of the world, most of the inhabitants of the Philippine
archipelago then focused on eking out the next meal.

19 10.55 Politics / Governance
3 1.66 Natural Disasters
2 1.12 Literature
65 36.12 Others
180 100 Total
Historic developments in communication and media are of utmost importance, as these are
the most viable elements of mental and cultural unification for an archipelagic nation. These
developments in the field of philosophic history is discussed in more detail in the chapter on 20th
century philosophy.
Meanwhile, the following table shows how a philosophic notion might be deduced from
repeated trigger events such as:
 The short terms of foreign national leadership

 The continual uprisings against unjust or abusive governance
 The strong feelings elicited nationwide by horrific disasters
 The tolerance for sweet election promises that are broken by those elected into office
 The strong feelings elicited nationwide by Filipinos who triumph in foreign competitions
 The strong, nationwide belief in the power of education to overcome poverty
 The strong, nationwide belief that working overseas is the easiest way to overcome poverty
 The strong, nationwide belief that a man who successfully bigamizes is admirable
 The strong, nationwide feelings against women who bigamize
 The strong, nationwide feeling against getting caught doing wrong
 The strong, nationwide feeling that doing wrong successfully is admirable
Table 18: From Trigger Events to Philosophic Thought (Sample 1)
Ang pagkákamalï ay malí pag nahüli.

Y N
Wrong is wrong if caught.
Is the concept triggered / exemplified by observable phenomena or events? 1 0
Stage 1: Trigger
Do similar forms & contexts of trigger events lead to the same notion or belief? 1 0
Events
Is the connection between trigger events and notion or belief clear or logical? 1 0
Do trigger events elicit strong emotion, even among nonparticipants? 1 0
Stage 2: Strong
Do trigger events elicit strong reaction, even among nonparticipants? 1 0
Results
Do trigger events elicit strong action even among nonparticipants? 1 0
Do the elicited feelings or reactions remain strong over long periods of time? 1 0
Are trigger events known nationwide? 1 0
Stage 3: National
Do the triggered feelings, actions, and reactions occur nationwide? 1 0
Scope
Are triggered reactions felt, echoed, or discussed over a long period of time? 1 0
Is the trigger event repeated over time, in various contexts? 1 0
Stage 4: Are results repeated and the same or similar over time, in various contexts? 1 0
Repetition Are resulting mindsets tried and validated several times, in various contexts 1 0
Do repetitions occur until mindsets are elicited automatically (e.g.?, no analysis) 1 0
Are triggered feelings, actions, and reactions the same or similar across the
1 0
Stage 5: National different ages, cultures, genders, or languages of the country?
Mind-setting Are repetitions of trigger events and mental results the same across the country
0 0
over a long period of time?
Do the automatic mental reactions to trigger events become commonplace
0 0
nationwide?
Do the automatic mental reactions become automatic mental habits? 0 0
Do the automatic mental habits become established mental strategies or
0 0
solutions?
Stage 6: Evolution Do the repeatedly valid results of mental strategies or solutions become beliefs? 0 0
Do the beliefs become expressed as folk wisdom or preserved in literary form? 0 0
Surviving over time, do the preserved notions become principles? 0 0
After universal articulation, use, and revision, do the principles become
0 0
philosophies?
After universal stability over time, do the philosophies become natural laws? 0 0
TOTAL 15 0
The preceding table exemplifies an event-triggered mindset that has not reached any of the
evolutionary stages. It is still a mindset that is in the process of nationalization.
Such notions can, with more precise research and analysis, be classified into various
categories of habitual thought such as attitudes, principles, preferences, or in terms of spread of
the phenomena as regional, tribal, national, or cultural worldviews, regional, tribal, national, or
cultural attitudes, regional, tribal, national, or cultural principles, or even as regional, tribal,
national, or cultural principles.
A scoring guide can be used with more precision for ease of classification and analysis of
such mindsets. In addition, scoring guides can be supplemented by codes of values, color codes,
or similar data processing techniques to help achieve not only objectivity, but also clarity and
ease of use.
For comparison, the following table exemplifies an event-triggered mindset that has reached
the evolutionary stage of folk wisdom.
On the following table, the questions are designed to be answerable by yes or no answers.
For scoring purposes, yes answers can be indicated by a score of ―1‖ and no answers can be
indicated by a score of ―0‖ so that automatic totals can be displayed on the last row.
Table 19: From Trigger Events to Philosophic Thought (Sample 2)
Nasa táo ang mungkáhï, nasa palad ang maghárï.

Y N
Man proposes, Fate disposes.
Is the concept triggered / exemplified by observable phenomena or events? 

Stage 1:
Do similar forms & contexts of trigger events lead to the same notion or belief?

Trigger Events
Is the connection between trigger events and notion or belief clear or logical?
Do trigger events elicit strong emotion, even among nonparticipants? 
Stage 2: Do trigger events elicit strong reaction, even among nonparticipants? 
Strong Results Do trigger events elicit strong action even among nonparticipants? 
Do the elicited feelings or reactions remain strong over long periods of time? 
Stage 3: Are trigger events known nationwide? 
National Do the triggered feelings, actions, and reactions occur nationwide? 
Scope Are triggered reactions felt, echoed, or discussed over a long period of time? 
Is the trigger event repeated over time, in various contexts? 
Stage 4: Are results repeated and the same or similar over time, in various contexts? 
Repetition Are resulting mindsets tried and validated several times, in various contexts 
Do repetitions occur until mindsets are elicited automatically (e.g.?, no analysis) 

Are triggered feelings, actions, and reactions the same or similar across the different
Stage 5:
ages, cultures, genders, or languages of the country?

National
Are repetitions of trigger events and mental results the same across the country over
Mindsetting
a long period of time?
Do the automatic mental reactions to trigger events become commonplace 
nationwide?
Do the automatic mental reactions become automatic mental habits? 
Do the automatic mental habits become established mental strategies or solutions? 

Stage 6:
Do the repeatedly valid results of mental strategies or solutions become beliefs?

Evolution
Do the beliefs become expressed as folk wisdom or preserved in literary form?
Surviving over time, do the preserved notions become principles?
After universal articulation, use, and revision, do the principles become philosophies?
After universal stability over time, do the philosophies become natural laws?
2.19 Summary
This chapter is a discussion of concepts related to modern Filipino philosophy, including
origins and originality; defining principles, defining events, and eventual philosophy. The origins
of Filipino philosophies were analyzed, starting from prehistoric to pre-modern times but –
instead of using the traditional historical timelines of Western philosophy – it is based on
Philippine historical timelines comprising selected significant events that indicate national-scale
commonality of behavior that indicate shared mindsets or emotions. Such behaviors include
continual revolts against unfair or unjust authorities, the collection of diverse cultures and
communities into one governance structure, and national disasters.
In a subsequent chapter, this paper continues the discussion with modern origins or trigger-
events of Filipino philosophy such as the lionization of ―clean‖ personalities, the establishment
of mass media communication structures and the popularization of mass-media personalities.54
54
This paper does not include most recent phenomena such as increasing ease of travel, widespread internet access, and near-universal use of mobile (cellular) phones.
There can be considered as trigger events for a post-modern ager
Chapter 3: FILIPINO PHILOSOPHIES
To continue the previous chapter’s explorations of various frameworks for

articulating native philosophic concepts from observable patterns, this chapter
(a) presents the related literature, (b) describes the forms, formats, expression,
development, acquisition, and transfer of native philosophic notions; (c)
presents a classification of observable behaviors that indicate philosophic
notions; as well as (d) presents key principles of philosophic notions relating to
self, to society, and to work.
As this paper does, Paz (2007) advocates the use of the phrase ―Filipino philosophies‖
instead of the singular. If language preserves culture, which is the repository of philosophic
thought, then ―it follows that since the Philippines has hundreds of languages then the search
must be for Filipino Philosophies and not for the Filipino philosophy.‖
Filipino philosophies can be elicited from observable phenomena. From direct experience
and observation, patterns of behavior emerge and indicate patterns of thinking. When these
thought patterns are consistent over periods of time and are observable among the various groups
and cultures all over the Philippines, we believe that there are nationally-shared mental elements
at play: habits, strategies, principles, or even philosophies.
When the common behavior patterns are distinct from those found outside the Philippines,
we can talk of an original, native, or indigenous philosophy. If these are not written in the formal
language and specialized vocabulary of the canons of the dominating philosophic tradition of the
time but are expressed in other ways and forms, we describe these as oral tradition, folk wisdom,
indigenous literature – argue that these are philosophies in native forms.
We know that events shape cultural phenomena such as beliefs, principles, and philosophies.
However, when we specify a timeframe (e.g., ―modern‖) in Filipino literature, we use foreign
historical timeframes although the native and foreign histories completely differ.
Finally, cultural differences affect perception, language, and meaning. When we attempt to
describe indigenous and abstract phenomena by using foreign language, concepts, and structures,
we face difficulties. The most basic barrier to common understanding is when there are no
equivalent words or concepts in another culture. The second barrier is the complex web of
cultural communication differences in habits of thought and perception that color translation.
Thus we see that, aside from the challenges of describing an already complex construct,
there is the added challenge of using alien constructs in describing indigenous phenomena. To
achieve some common platforms of understanding, this chapter presents preliminary
explorations towards bridging some critical knowledge gaps in modern Filipino philosophy.
3.1 Related Literature

Co (2004) describes the multifaceted task of philosophers as ―to find and formulate a system
or order from an existing, albeit primitive philosophy or potential philosophy. They criticize,
deconstruct, reconstruct whatever it is that they do to philosophies in order to make it
―presentable.‖ This task, however, seems to face an intimidating array of challenges ranging
from basic concepts and definitions to structures and concepts.
At the most basic level of discussion, an initial survey of related literature indicates an
ongoing debate regarding the existence of an indigenous Filipino philosophy; as well as the
validity of using English philosophy structures and terminology in discussing or describing
Filipino psychology.
3.1.1 Terminology and Definitions

Indicative of a nascent philosophical tradition of academic debate, the definitions of core
concepts such as philosophy are debated. For instance, Pada realistically defines Filipino
philosophy as ―shared experiences and concerns that cover the Philippines‖ that are ―dependent
upon the condition of thought and worldviews that are consistent in the behavior of people in the
Philippines,‖ (p. 1). However, there are a range of opinions.
For instance, Quito (1983) rejects its limited conception as ―the science that studies all
things in their ultimate causes and first principles‖ (p. 10) and proposes an observation-based
definition of philosophy as ―the collective mind of a people interacting with its own universe‖ ;
―the attitude of a people toward life and a Supreme Being‖ and ―a people‘s concerted effort to
acquire wisdom in order to live well‖ ; and states that manifestations of philosophic thought can
be found in folk literature (Pada, 2014, p.3). This viewpoint has been labeled as a ―nationalistic
approach‖ to philosophical articulation.
With regards to vocabulary-based communication challenges, Gripaldo (1988) points out

that the term ―pilosopo‖ is used both academically and popularly to mean either philosopher or
sophist. ―What is disheartening is that the Filipino language does not have a word other than
―pilosopo‖ for a sophist.
Regarding cultural communication differences, Reyes points out that kápwä (a person
related or connected to the self, e. g., by shared experience, geography, culture, affiliation,
feeling, tendency, etc.) cannot be translated into English ―because it is embedded in an entirely
different worldview and web of meanings unique to Philippine culture and history … a Southeast
Asian tribal and animist culture mixed with Spanish Catholicism‖ (p. 1).
3.1.2 Existence VS Nonexistence

The debate regarding the existence of an authentically Filipino philosophy is heated. For its
existence, for instance, Reyes (2015) describes the philosophic notions of loób (relational will
towards others) and kápwä (shared self or self-in-the-other) in introducing social-relational
Filipino virtue ethics in the context of Philippine history, ―a Southeast Asian tribal and animist
tradition mixed with a Spanish Catholic tradition for over three-hundred years.‖ 55
Several writers agree that there is no Filipino philosophy. For instance, Mancenido (2010)
agrees that Filipino philosophy is yet to be articulated. She wrote about how several Filipino
thinkers have been searching for an indigenous Filipino philosophy, some in folk sayings and
traditions, others in the act of philosophizing itself (p.1).
Although this notion continues to be debated, Co (2004) says that there is no distinctive and
native philosophy the Philippines because its original culture has been destroyed by foreign
elements. In addition, Quito (1983) describes the situation of philosophy and philosophical
research in the Philippines as dismal: ―the lack of institutional support for philosophical research;
the heavy teaching load and small remuneration for teachers; the prohibitive cost of a foreign
doctorate degree; the dearth of teaching positions, etc.‖ (Gripaldo, 1988).
Pada (2014) agrees that Filipino is yet to be established. In a survey of ―what Filipino
thinkers want to establish as Filipino Philosophy‖ and the methods and structures they use, Pada
concludes that their activities so far ―lacks historical rapport insofar as the work of Filipino
philosophers fails to achieve legitimacy in philosophy through discursive and critical
engagement with current philosophical discourses‖ (p. 1).
Quito (1983) and Mercado (1976) separately came to the same conclusion: that Filipino
philosophy is yet to be articulated. Mercado advocates that such native philosophies can be
found by using language analysis to identify consistent similarities in ―various folk stories from
various regions in the country‖ (Mancenido, 2010, p.1).
Hornedo‘s work on literary theory (1997) can be paraphrased into the apt observation that
―theorists have yet to come up with nationally valid generalizations about the ‗unique‘ properties
of Filipino philosophy because the country still lacks a fully comprehensive view of Filipino
philosophy‖ (Pada, 2014, p.15).
3.1.3 Methods & Approaches
55
In his paper, Reyes correctly equates bahala na (fatalism in this paper) with lakás ng loób (courage).
The methods and approaches to analyzing Filipino philosophy are also debated. While many
contribute statements of their positions, there is little in the literature by way of specific
procedures or tools for practice or use. For instance, although Hornedo believes that a general
Filipino perspective is impossible to produce, he suggests the ―rigid use of anthropological data,
objective contextualization of history, and critical perspective‖ (Pada, 2014, p.15).
Demetrio (2011) offers no specific tools or procedures for philosophical excavation but
believes in the eventual organization of Filipino philosophic ―history, tradition, or academic
output‖ through a pro-active acceptance of the status quo and ―by engaging Philippine reality
through the creative use of theoretical paradigms, be it philosophical, sociological, or
anthropological‖ (Pada, 2014, p.16).
Pada suggests that Filipino philosophies can be analyzed by using anthropological and
sociopolitical critique. The one exception offers a structure for the classification of Filipino
philosophy; Pavo (2010) mentions Gripaldo‘s (2008) suggested three-point classification of
Filipino philosophies into ―citizenship, traditional, and cultural (p. 9).
It turns out that this paper advocates the use of a combination of two approaches described
by Hornedo as the universal approach and the nationalist approach (Laiji, 1997). The universal
approach include ―standards by which literary quality is to be judged are valid everywhere in the
globe at all times‖ while the nationalist approach posits ―that every culture is essentially unique,
and the qualities that characterize it, and consequently the standards by which it should be
judged, are also unique and particular to each nation‖ (Pada, 2014, p.15). However, the literature
reflects a range of opinions.
As this paper does, Pada subscribes to the notion of conforming to the philosophical systems
and structures of the dominant philosophical tradition of the age, saying that Filipino philosophy
must ―grow as a strong academic tradition‖ and ―achieve legitimacy through academic
achievement through rigid, thorough, and creative production of philosophical ideas‖ (Ibid., p.
14).
Likewise, as this paper does, Mercado uses observable phenomena such as strong family ties
and respect for social hierarchy and structures as proof of philosophical thought. On the other
hand, his suggested method of ethno-philosophy for ―translating linguistic practices into a
philosophical system‖ has been criticized for lack of rigor in reasoning and logic according to the
established canons of Western philosophical tradition (Mancenido, 2010, p. 1).
Another method suggested by Mercado is the ―phenomenology of behavior‖ where ―the

semantic content of the linguistic data is verified and supported by observable practices‖ (Pada,
2014, p.7).
Yet another approach is ―comparative oriental philosophy‖ where ideas of Filipino

philosophy can be elicited by analyzing ―similarities of thoughts and behavior from nearby
Filipino cultures‖ (Pada, Ibid.). However, no practical tools are available for implementing these
suggestions.
3.1.4 Origination & Abstraction

As to where to find evidence of philosophic thought that is distinctly native, Filipino
thinkers offer various ideas. For instance, although Pada (2014) disagrees that Filipino
philosophy should and must come from ethnic origins, Timbreza (1982) says that ―Filipino
philosophy must be based on how some Filipinos are able to enact a kind of wisdom or sagely
practice in everyday life,‖ the unique forms of ―national-thought… composed of mythology,
poetry, epics, songs, beliefs, riddles, rituals, attitudes, folk-dance, folk-sayings and proverbs.‖
Timbreza‘s ideas, however, has been criticized for lack of credibility due to weaknesses of
research documentation. As Pada (2014) puts it, ―Timbreza‘s work does not qualify (as) … an
organized system of discourse‖ according to the traditions of Western philosophy (p.11).
3.1.5 Cross-Cultural Variables

The debate regarding the use of foreign elements in discussing native philosophy continues.
Within the country, for instance, Reyes points out the Filipino thought might be incorrectly
represented by Tagalog thought; there are other cultures and tribes in the archipelago. In
addition, he emphasizes significant differences between Filipino and Western worldview as well
as ―the difference between the Philippines and its closest Southeast Asian neighbors…. due
mainly to its unique mix of East and West‖ (p. 1).
Although criticized for possible discrimination, Mercado suggests that Filipino thinkers
should avoid the rationalism and categories of Western Philosophy and instead investigate how
subjectivity shapes linguistic behavior and practices (Pada, 2014, p.9).
3.1.6 Existence of Filipino Philosophies

Related to the use of philosophical development timeframes, Pavo (2010) uses the term
―post-modern‖ as a Western historical timeframe for native analysis by Filipino thinkers, where
they ―can explore the conditions of possibilities that grant a philosophical status to thoughts,
statements or constructions that either come from or pertain to the Filipino mind‖ (p.9). The
relevant key arguments articulated are presented in the following table:
Table 20: Arguments about the Existence of Filipino Philosophies
Pros Cons
There is a Filipino philosophy and its elements and There are no tradition of formal Filipino
characteristics can be best discussed and defined philosophies, other than oral tradition, indigenous
by using foreign philosophical terms and models. literature, and folk wisdom.
There is a Filipino philosophy but its elements and Oral tradition, indigenous literature, and folk
characteristics should not be discussed or defined wisdom, are not considered philosophical according
by using foreign philosophical terms and models. to the canons of Western philosophical tradition.
Instead, native structures and terms are best used.
There is a native tradition of Filipino philosophy that There is no empirical proof of common behavioral
can be found in the language, culture, and elements in the culture, language, or behavior
behavioral elements that are common throughout among the various tribes, cultural groups, groups,
the Philippine archipelago. and subgroups of the Philippines.
Filipinos who engage in philosophic activities prove There is no tradition of philosophical debate
by their action that Filipino philosophy exists. regarding recorded philosophical statements in the
nation’s artifactual history or records of discourses.
Filipinos who display behaviors indicated of mental Activities, no matter how logical the pre-activity
acuity such as practical problem-solving, debating mental processes may be or how philosophical the
faiths and beliefs; analyzing alternative pasts and underlying thoughts or statements of justification, of
projecting possible futures; and using thinking beliefs, opinions, strategies, or descriptions of
habits, beliefs, and opinions to describe or justify habits, routines, and ways of doing may be, are not
their relationships to their selves, their fellowmen, formal philosophical statements in the any form of
and to their perceptions of their worlds – all prove recorded discourse.
that Filipino philosophy exists.
3.2 Description
Does the literature concerning Filipino philosophy describe its sources, origins, creative
processes, or its natures, structures, unifying elements or universal concepts? A preliminary
survey indicates that no such records can be found. Although there appears to be a lively debate
and a range of arguments, there seems to be neither clear nor explicit and unified articulation of
the general nature of indigenous thought, principles or belief, or even the world-view of the
Filipino mind. In effect, there is no clear response to the question: What is a Filipino philosophy?
We do take the position that Filipino philosophies exist in observable behavior, most
obviously as automatic practical solutions for repeating problems and challenges, all of which
are created, tested, refined, and validated by shared use, and not by individual creation or
recording is in the case of Western philosophic tradition. Within their home environments, the
various Filipino cultures developed similar sets of philosophies to address similar situations that
required quick responses and effective solutions. These behaviorally-observable native
philosophies are rooted in fluid survivalist logic that is more pragmatic than abstract. It is
continually evolving with changing situations; multidirectional for flexibility and adaptability;
and communal due to the high-context culture. Given the tribal mindsets of early Philippine
history, the geographic conditions as well as weather, trade, customs, and significant and
repeating historical events can be logically analyzed to hypothesize the common philosophic
notions that would permeate life in the Philippine islands. For instance, it might be surmised that
Filipino thought would be generally pragmatic, adaptive, multidimensional, communal, as well
as informal:
 Pragmatic: Filipino mindsets are expressed as pragmatic sets of behaviors in

response to real situations. They are rarely articulated in formal writing.
 Adaptive: Filipino mindsets are responsive to changes in environment and
circumstance. What works best is shared and refined. This openness to input
allows for foreign influences. Likewise, this natural tendency to modify mental
tools for utmost efficacy ensures that foreign philosophical influences evolve and
undergo transformation to the point of indigenization.
 Multidimensional: Filipinos have mindsets for various ways of being, doing, and
relating, ready to use at any moment, in any twist or variation of fate or
circumstance. For instance, each Filipino has a different way of pakikisama
(going along with others; friendliness; cooperation) and pakikitungo (dealing;
conduct toward others)56 for each type of relationship; for each type of
transactional interaction; for each type of social class; as well as for each person‘s
perceived social stature, importance, or potential.
 Communal: Filipino mindsets are individual but philosophies are communal in
formation, validation, and practice. Philosophies are sparked when mindsets are
shared, particularly in tulungan (helping each other) and in bayanihan
(community spirit) settings. In the contemporary setting, mindsets are formed by
repeated messages on mass media, and become philosophies when adopted on a
nationwide scale particularly in daily language and other observable behaviors.
 Informal: the Filipino mindsets generally remain, to this day, informally
transmitted and expressed, without recourse to written texts either as recorded for
posterity or for reference. These might be considered so mundane that elevation to
written literature would verge on the inutile if not ridiculous, but certainly a
useless, pointless activity, akin to framing great-grandfather‘s milk-can ashtray
and hanging it in the ancestral hallway.
3.2.1 Development
Despite the relative isolation of the Philippines from the major land masses, some
prehistoric cultural interchange has been proven by the discovery of archaeological artifacts as
well as by analysis of commonalities in language, culture, and customs.
56
tagalog.pinoydictionary.com/word/pakikitungo/
Table 21: Variables of Philosophical Development in the Philippines
Typology Examples
Geophysical archipelagic, torrid zone, Ring of Fire, monsoon path
Historical migration, trade, occupation, colonization, formal instruction
Technological travel, recording, mass communication, mass production, mass education
Cultural settlements, tribalism, language transfers, intermarriage, caste abolition, class
divisions, religions, commerce, franchises , lifestyles
The paucity of extant literature can indicate that Filipino philosophy is in its infancy, dating
only from 1976 with Leonardo Mercado‘s Elements of Filipino Philosophy, considered as ―the
earliest attempt at formulating an explicitly Filipino philosophy‖ (Reyes, 2015, p. 17). The rest of
the literature seems to focus on internal phenomena such as thought and feelings – as in Dionisio
Miranda‘s 1969 oeuvre, Loób: The Filipino Within, ―the first extended discussion of loób in the
literature‖ – or religious belief, as in Evelyn Miranda-Feliciano‘s 1990 publication, Filipino
Values and our Christian Faith (Reyes, ibid.); as well as on what other writers have done and
what might be done.
The notion of foreign influence on Filipino thought has been implied, discussed, and
dissected. In summary, foreign influence is strong. Aside from early trade, migration and
settlement, later colonizers influenced Filipino ways of life and thought.
Since then till now, Filipino philosophies of work, education, ethics, religion, science,
communication, management, and governance continue to be influenced by modern philosophies
of foreign lands.
Today, ease of communication, travel, and access to information play a large part of the
continuing foreign influences on Filipino philosophy, which remains difficult to understand
when described by using Western philosophical terms and structures.
3.2.2 Forms and Formats

The term form refers to the media of articulation transmission of ideas. This is an answer to
the question: ―How are philosophies articulated and transferred?‖ Some philosophies are in oral
forms, others in written form. In the case of practical philosophies, transfer is done through
individual or communal action.
The term format refers to the structure of ideas, and answers the question ―How are
philosophies presented for utmost efficacy?‖ Some formats, whether in oral or written forms,
include songs, stories, poems, riddles, sayings, and aphorisms.
Many foreigners have found Filipino philosophies puzzling, and this is confirmed in the
literature (See Cultural Modes of Communication). Quoting Timbreza, de la Paz (2011) says:
Filipino logic is not only ―distinct and unique‖ but also includes that ―would make it illogical or
non-logical compared to western logic.‖ Relevant arguments are summarized in the following
table.
Table 22 : Differences between Filipino and Western Thought Systems
Elements Filipino Western

More concrete, less abstract More abstract than concrete
Concepts
More particular than universal More universal than particular
More metaphorical than literal More literal than metaphorical
No systematic definition of concepts, Systematically defines concepts,
Formulations processes, and structures structures, and processes
Use connotative language to clarify
Uses direct and plain language
meaning: metaphors, analogies, similes, etc.
More practical than theoretical More theoretical than practical
More socio-ethical than cognitive More cognitive than socio-ethical
Thinking
Moralistic, more on relationships and moral
Metaphysical, more speculative
actions
More personal, often subjective and More impersonal, usually objective and
Expressions psychological physical
More rhetorical and functional More logical and empirical
More person-oriented than results-oriented More results-oriented than person-oriented
Reasoning More family-oriented (by consanguinity, then More society-oriented (at national levels,
by marriage) then at local levels)
More on observable phenomena than on
Dealing with More theological than phenomenological
supernatural beliefs
uncertainties
More fatalistic and reactive than proactive More proactive than reactive or fatalistic
Adapted from de la Paz, George. C. (2011). ―Filipino Logic‖ in That Strange Feeling - Meandering Thoughts Of A Pinoy Public School Teacher.
Due to some native principles of communication that is characteristic of the then smaller,
high-context communities, pragmatic philosophies are eloquently silent, their truths proven by
action and results. For instance, prescriptive philosophies that prescribe desirable behavior can
be found in extant literature and folk wisdom. Instead of direct language, however, these are
expressed indirectly in literary forms: poetry, parable-like folk tales, jokes, and even riddles.
The repeated experiences of broken promises by governments during the Hispanic

Occupation, of those during the American Colonization, and elected officials starting from Early
Independence up to the most recent elections; of corruption in governing, religious, as well as
famous public personalities, the Filipino is sensitive to mental manipulation.
This connection between past events and national mindsets can be proven by, for instance,
the many revolts and rebellions that dot Philippine history (See Table: Summary of Filipino
Revolts and Rebellions); the value of box-office ticket sales for popular movie stars (See Table:
Movie Ticket Sales of Two Actresses 1975-1982); or the rock star-level mass turnouts for papal
visits (BBC, 2015; Daniel, 2015; Medina & Antonio, 2014).), martyr‘s burials (Rafael, 1997; Li,
K. K., & 李建強 (1989), or for returning winners of international competitions such as in sports
or beauty pageants (Agence France-Presse , 2015; Delgado, 2016).
To avoid possible offense – or to ensure positive reception – prescriptive concepts are

articulated by using indirect language such as those used in various forms of native literature, or
by embedding morals and other prescriptions in traditional folklore. Where explanatory notions
are conveniently formulated to answer abstractions of non-empirical phenomena (e.g., the origin
of man) or to explain phenomenological inquiries (e.g., why rice grains are so small; why a
pineapple has many eyes; why a carabao has tighter skin than a cow), the Biblical method of
parables is used for ease of access by the then largely unschooled populations.
3.2.3 Articulation
There are no records of native Filipino philosophy in any historical age because, even today,
philosophies are created and modified as real needs arise, and also because there is no felt urgent
need to record common beliefs, traditional standards, and common problem-solving practices.
Even more concrete is the argument of the fragility of written media, the humid and
destructive weather conditions of the Torrid Zone, and the destruction caused by fire, termites,
marauders, invaders, colonizers, politics, and poverty. Without exception, modern researchers
have faced a blank wall when focusing on prehistory.
―Written indigenous documents were rare before the ninth century in

the Philippine archipelago and archaeological evidence provides most of
the information about the state of the islands before the Spanish and
European written accounts‖ (Tondo, 2012, p. 111).
When a nation is fragmented by geography, culture, or language, the commonalities of their

cultural principles may remain undiscovered or unarticulated, at least not to the point of
articulation as a national thought. When principles remain ungeneralized as well as unwritten in
formal language, they may remain as concrete principles instead of evolving into abstract
philosophies (See Table: Evolutionary Process of Philosophic Tradition).
In highly contextual societies (Hofstede, 2011; 1991; 2008; 1980), philosophies –

particularly prescriptive ones – are indirectly expressed to avoid direct or confrontational
language that can elicit negative reactions and thus break down the positive aspects of
relationships. However, when in such societies urgent situations arise, survival mechanisms elicit
a direct and concrete language that is simplified for immediate results, regardless of the age or
ability of the listener.
Aside from practical principles that shape native philosophies – prescriptive philosophies in
the form of folk wisdom indirectly expressed in literary language such as in poetry, folk tales,
jokes, and riddles, the Filipino philosophies articulated herein are behavioral phenomena arising
from real situations.
Despite arguments that foreign philosophical structures and language may be inadequate for
the articulation of Filipino philosophy, this paper subscribes to the notion that native philosophy
can be well articulated using traditions of philosophy – such as structures, terms, and concepts –
at least to communicate to academia, at most to non-philosophers 57 (See Table: Abstracting Folk
Wisdom Into Philosophic Statements). Moreover, Filipinos do not generally feel any urgent need
to describe, explain, or otherwise articulate these notions in writing, much less to perceive these
as philosophies. To the Filipino mind, these ideas are mundane, run-of-the-mill, common-sense
reactions to real situations. These notions are such fluid and constantly evolving mindsets that
fixing them in print seem pointless or absurd, if not altogether ridiculous. Such an unfelt need
can be made felt by calling on the Pakisáma Principle of social cooperation but, it must be
emphasized, on a global scale in order to meet the demanding requirements of global
standardization in communication as well as in education.
3.2.4 Acquisition and Transfer

The acquisition of Filipino philosophies of living, relationships, ethics, communication, and
survival is informally acquired through societal intercourse, superior or peer correction, as well
as constant practice and validation to the point of automaticity.
Filipino philosophies are acquired informally, by osmosis through social interaction starting
from infancy at home, through childhood and adolescence through peers, and later while
interacting with other models and authority figures (Rebate, 2011; McBride, N. D.; Russell, N.
D.). As Filipinos move in different circles, they acquire different mindsets as they absorb each
group‘s philosophies. These do not produce mental conflict; rather, these are set aside as tools
for future use should the need arise.
57
However, when structures – such as traditional notions and timelines of history and development – are awkward or difficult for use in articulating the native
elements of Filipino philosophies, this paper uses plain English.
Despite lively academic argumentation regarding the nature and existence of Filipino
philosophy (Gripaldo, 2009; Gripaldo, 20014), there is no such thing as formal instruction for
acquisition of Filipino philosophies. School curricula and textbooks do not include Filipino
Philosophy as a course of study, because these are absent. It is suggested that this gap be filled,
particularly in the light of changing mores due to increasing influences of foreign cultures to the
point that concerns have been raised regarding the loss or distortion of Filipino identity and
culture.
3.3 Classification
To construct a broad classification of groups of principles and how they comprise
philosophies, we use a tool for examining, comparing, and contrasting underlying orientations or
world views ―which shape how they perceive one another and the issue at hand‖ (Pethő, 2005).
Pethő & Heidrich (2004) cite Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck‘s Value Orientations Method (1961),
which groups ―common human problems58 for which all people at all times must find some
solutions. There are many possible solutions, all of which can be found in different cultures
although the frames, contexts, and preferences differ among the cultures. The common human
problems are in five groups.


The character of innate human nature

The relation of man to nature

The temporal focus of human life

The modality of humankind's relationship to other people and
The modality of human activity.
From the above, this paper groups Filipino value systems in three: (1) relating to the self, (2)
relating to the world, and (3) relating to others. Due to the relative importance of work and
career, included is a section, (4) relating to work. Future research might be able to explore at
length the remaining group, (5) relating to nature.
3.4 Formal Articulation

Pada (2014) points out that philosophies rooted in native, grassroots, and indigenous
elements can only reach academic legitimacy once it begins to participate in the long tradition of
discourse in philosophy‖ (p. 14). One of the many difficulties that must be transcended to
achieve this aim are the different cultural modes of communication between high-context and
low-context countries that can result in one culture not understanding – or even
misunderstanding – the messages out of another culture.
58
The answers to these five concerns are called »value orientations« and can be interpreted as »core values.
To express native philosophies according to the traditional canons of philosophy in the

West, language must be modified into a mode of articulation that moves from concrete to
abstract language, from specific to general imagery.
For instance, the following table illustrates the concept of re-articulation folk wisdom into
statements that can be more acceptable to Western philosophic tradition by analyzing folk
wisdom expressed with concrete nouns and pronouns, then by careful rephrasing for accurate
sense and nuance and using more general language, and finally by using the same careful
rephrasing strategy, but this time by replacing any concrete nouns and pronouns with accurate
equivalent but abstract nouns or pronouns. This three-step approach is exemplified in the
following table.
Table 23: Abstracting Folk Wisdom into Philosophic Statements
Concrete, Specific Language General Language Abstract Language

Ang hindi magmahal sa sariling wika ay Ang pagmamahal sa sariling wika ay Ang wika ay ang diwa
higit pa sa malansang isda. pagmamahal sa sariling bayan bayan
People who don’t value their native Love of one’s language is love of Language is the spirit of
language are worse than smelly fish. country the nation
Ang magalang na sagot nakakapawi ng Ang pagiging magalang ay Ang asal ay sukat ng
pagod magandang asal sariling halaga.
A polite answer wipes away tiredness. Being polite is good manners. Values define value.
Nasa Diyos ang awa, nasa tao ang Ang gawa ang naghuhugis ng Ang búkas ay bukás.
gawa. kapalarn
Mercy is God’s domain; action is of Action determines fate The future is open.
man. Futures are variables.
The next step is to take the most abstract rearticulation of the indigenous thought and to
analyze if this abstracted version conforms to the textual and sensual (as in sense, or meaning)
traditional requirements of Western philosophy. For instance, a yes-no validation checklist can
help determine at the onset if a statement is philosophic in form (See Validity Criteria for
Philosophical Statements).
Table 24: Validity Analysis of Philosophic Statements (Sample 1)
Nasa Diyos ang awa, nasa tao ang gawa. A F S N

Mercy is God’s domain; action is of man.
A (always) 3 points O (often) 2 points S (sometimes) 1 point N (no) 0 points
3 2 1 0
Is the concept triggered / exemplified by observable phenomena or
3 0 0 0
events?
Stage 1: Trigger Are there similar forms & contexts of trigger events that lead to the
3 0 0 0
Events same notion or belief?
Is the connection between trigger events and notion or belief clear or
3 0 0 0
logical?
Nasa Diyos ang awa, nasa tao ang gawa. A F S N

Mercy is God’s domain; action is of man.
A (always) 3 points O (often) 2 points S (sometimes) 1 point N (no) 0 points
3 2 1 0
Do the trigger events elicit strong emotion, even among
0 0 1 0
nonparticipants?
Do the trigger events elicit strong reaction, even among
0 2 0 0
Stage 2: Strong nonparticipants?
Results Do the trigger events elicit strong action even among
0 0 1 0
nonparticipants?
Are the elicited feelings, reactions or actions remembered over a
0 2 0 0
long time?
Are the trigger events known nationwide? 3 0 0 0
Do similar triggered feelings, actions, and reactions occur
Stage 3: National 3 0 0 0
nationwide?
Scope
Are triggered reactions felt, echoed, or rediscussed over a long
0 2 0 0
period of time?
Is the trigger event repeated over time, in various contexts? 3 0 0 0
Are results repeated and the same or similar over time, in various
3 0 0 0
contexts?
Stage 4: Repetition Are resulting mindsets tried and validated several times, in various
3 0 0 0
contexts
Do repetitions occur until mindsets are elicited automatically (e.g.?,
3 0 0 0
no analysis)
Are triggered feelings, actions, and reactions the same or similar
across the different ages, cultures, genders, or languages of the 3 0 0 0
Stage 5: National
country?
Mindsetting
Are repetitions of trigger events and mental results the same across
3 0 0 0
the country over a long period of time?
Did the automatic mental reactions to trigger events become
3 0 0 0
commonplace nationwide?
Did the automatic mental reactions become automatic verbal
3 0 0 0
expressions?
Did the automatic mental habits become stock replies, strategies or
3 0 0 0
solutions?
Did the stock replies, strategies, or solutions become a belief? 3 0 0 0
Stage 6: Evolution
Did the belief become expressed as folk wisdom or preserved in
3 0 0 0
literary form?
Surviving over time, did the belief become a principle? 0 0 1 0
After universal articulation, use, and revision, did the principle
0 0 0 0
become a philosophy?
After universal stability over time, did the philosophy become a
0 0 0 0
formal philosophy?
Total 36 48 6 3 0
This table shows that the statement is not expressed in the philosophical tradition but in the
form of Filipino folk wisdom. As a tool for understanding, it fulfills half of the criteria for
philosophical articulation. However, although the statement invites as well as indicates some
degree of logical reasoning as well as critical thinking, it uses concrete imagery and faith-based
logic instead of logical cause-effect relationship.
For instance, the following table shows that the statement can be considered as displaying
the characteristics of philosophical statements. It invites and indicates a degree of logical
reasoning as well as of critical thinking. It uses abstract imagery and a logical cause-effect
relationship. It can help place the relationship between the person and the world.
As well, the statement can be used to understand fundamental truths. Finally, the statement
is debatable between those who subscribe to the notion of free will and those who subscribe to
determinism or fate.
Table 25: Validity Analysis of Philosophic Statements (Sample 2)
Ang búkas ay bukás. (The future is open.) YES NO

Does content focus on abstract and not concrete concepts? 1 0
1. Abstraction Does imagery use abstract & not concrete meanings? 1 0
Are meanings abstract & general, with no concrete or specific notions? 1 0
Does the statement indicate and/or invite reasoning & critical thinking? 1 0
Can truths of the statement be rationally demonstrated based on empirical
2. Empiricality 1 0
facts, not on faith or superstition?
Can truths of the statement be proven by repeated, observable phenomena? 1 0
Do ideas state or indicate logical connections between causes & effects? 1 0
3. Structural
Do stated ideas suggest relationship to other conceptual articulations? 1 0
categorization
Can the statement be positioned within a larger web of organized thought? 1 0
Is the statement useful in understanding basic truths about human selves or
Is the statement useful in understanding basic truths about the world or
4. Practical Is the statement useful in understanding basic truths about how humans
1 0
feasibility relate to the world or
Is the statement useful in understanding basic truths about how humans
relate to each other?
Is the statement a debatable proposition and is an absolute truth or a logically
5. Debatability 1 0
complete or closed statement?
TOTALS 11 0
This method of eliciting general abstractions of beliefs from common behavioral patterns is
but one of those suggested in this paper. It might be noted that where such beliefs are described
as philosophies (mgá sangmûni), the implication is they are more abstract and general than the
principles (mgá simulánï) discussed here, to the point that they comprise several of the
principles.
On the other hand, principles are ideas that can comprise a philosophy (See Table: Mindset,
Principle, and Philosophy and Table: Filipino Principles and Philosophies, by Cross-Ranking).
3.5 Relating to the Self

In the traditional Filipino milieu, the young mind is trained to display acceptable behavior,
to be aware of what others would think when making decisions, and to consider the family –
particularly one‘s elders – when faced by dilemmas that require immediate action. Thus it is that
the opinion of authority figures as well as the opinion of one‘s peers carries much emotional
weight that can circumvent logical thinking.
Although the main principles of relating to or understanding one‘s self include Sinángmukhä
(Principles of Face) and Sinángkadûgö (Principles of Kinship) as prime determinants, it might be
noted that, due to outside influences, the way that traditional Filipinos – such as those born
sometime around the Japanese Occupation of the Philippine Islands and the next two or three
generations after – find that their ways of thinking , being, and doing differ from, say, those who
were born during the first EDSA Revolution.
Sociological proof of this phenomena can be measured not only in obvious behaviors such
as conversing with parents and authority figures but also in values such as the valuing of
traditions; as well as in increased confidence of self-assertion in choices and lifestyles – even
misplaced feelings of entitlement.
These changes are caused not only by foreign influences through exposure to other cultures
but also due to easier access to information as well as the prevalence of mass communication
channels as well as interactive media that bridge distances, cultures, and other differences.
The bases of self-value, self-perception, personal space and personal interactions with
others, with organized entities, as well as with progress, conflict, or change continues to evolve
along with the increasing speed of changes in modern civilization. Over and above the notions
proposed by traditional literature such as loób and kápwä (Reyes, 2015), any future attempts at
articulating a modern Filipino philosophy of self will have to consider the interplay and effects
of these and other future changes.
3.5.1 Sinangdápat: Filipino Principles of Idealism

The fallibility of human thought is a given due to the limitations of human perception.
However, the attempt to transcend the human limitations of thought and perception, and feeling
can be seen in the phenomenon of faith. Still, humans make mistakes; failures still occur,
particularly in the ethical aspects of life. This is why humans subscribe to the concept of the ideal
– to be or to reach something that should be. The implication is that ideals are not permanent
states of being; when an ideal is attained, it ceases to be an ideal.
Another implication is that ideals are difficult to maintain. The tension is between the nature
of the ideal as well as the nature of humans; the former is difficult to maintain; the latter prone to
errors. The Filipino philosophy of idealism reflects this dual simultaneity of human fallibility and
attainability of short-lived idealism. As well, it articulates the notion that the effort towards
attaining ideals should not stop; it has often been agreed that continuous effort is itself an ideal.
―Anó áng dápat‖ (what should be) is the core notion of idealism which, in itself, is a
complex mental construct: that which is right, that which is proper, and that which is most
acceptable; that which works best, that which lasts longest, and that which brings least damages.
This still-unarticulated but nationally accepted mindset is a philosophy of idealism as it cuts

across principles such as frugality, conservation of various resources, social cohesion, mores,
faith and spirituality, ethical behavior, and standards of success.
Principles that comprise a philosophy of idealism can well include the Filipino notions of
control such as hiyä (embarrassment, shame); as well notions of ideals such as karapatán (right,
entitlement), karangálan (honor, dignity), kalayáän (freedom) and kagitíngan (nationalism,
chivalry) and many others, which have been explored by several writers. However, due to
resource constraints, the sociological methods of determining objective proof of the
philosophical nature of these – as well as other related principles that can comprise the Filipino
idealist mindset – are best left to experts.
3.5.2 Sinangsigúro: Filipino Principles of Hopeful Fatalism

The Pilipino term for ―sure‖ or ―certain‖ is ―sigurádo.‖ There is possible etymological
confusion with the term of tentative possibility, ―sigúro,‖ which means maybe, perhaps,
probably, may be, or might be. Beyond vocabulary and etymology are shades of nuances one of
which is ―hopeful fatalism‖ for the term ―sigúro‖.
In Philippine society, the art of verbal hedging is the mark of refined conversation or of a
cunning mind but in either case certainly indicative of a continuous awareness of risk
calculation. It is a mainstay of the automatic everyday language repertoire of the well-trained
Filipino.
Regardless of one‘s conviction or certainty, good manners and the philosophy of positive
relationships warn the subconscious to refrain from using the very direct ―óo‖ (yes) or ―hindï‖
(no) in polite Pilipino language. For instance, the following table shows the range of Filipino
expressions for hedging, in short, the conditional yes, which indicates probable agreement
subject to intervening variables.
Table 26: The Language of Hedging in Pilipino
Selected Terms Examples of Usage

Pilipino English Pilipino English
Sigúro Perhaps, Maybe Siguro, ikaw. Maybe, (it’s) you.
Báka Maybe, Probably Baka ikaw. Probably you.
Pwéde Possibly / Possible Pwedeng ikaw. It could be you.
Maári Could be/ might be Maaring ikaw. It might be you.
The preceding table of sample vocabulary for hedging shows the importance of hedging and
tentativeness in Pilipino communication. The terms are interchangeable as well as usable in
various combinations, such as, ―Báka ikáw sigúro.‖ (It might probably be you.) Such double-
hedging can be used to intensify the tentativeness of an utterance regarding highly uncertain
probabilities, where the speaker would not want to say an outright ―no‖ so as to help the listener
maintain a measure of equanimity or, at the very least, avoid negative feelings such as immediate
disappointment. In this manner of speech, a principle of positive communication is observed so
as to maintain relationships that is, for Filipinos, a crucial element of societal interaction
Not observing this crucial nicety is dismissing the possibility that one may later turn out to
be wrong. Aside from hedging, it‘s a self-effacing tactic of calculated humility. One admits one‘s
uncertainty to offer the other some leverage; one avoids being wrong later and ensure being
proven right – no loss of face; and one maintains good relations whatever form the truth may
turn out to be.
In the face of insurmountable odds or continual challenges, one way of coping with the
tensions of such a life is to adopt the balancing mindset of hopeful fatalism. This means that one
is cognizant of forces beyond one‘s control yet equally accepting that even the direst situations
can and do turn out for the best. This is a mental flexibility that allows individuals to accept
realities yet continue to strive for the good life, or to achieve goals.
This can explain nationwide phenomena such as wild adulation of underdogs who succeed
as exemplified by media icons in sports (Manny Pacquiao), in politics (Rodridgo Duterte and
Carlos P. Romulo), and in the arts (Jolina Magdangal and Nora Aunor) even to the extent of
crossing barriers of gender and good manners (Willie Revillame and Vice Ganda).
The flipside of the phenomenon is the idealist mentality of idolizing foreign or mestizo-
looking, beautiful people, to the extent of voting popular artists into government positions of
political and social responsibilities.
The negative side of this mental flexibility is that it follows emotional rather than scientific
logic. However, balancing the belief that ―Áng báwat pagpíli áy isa páng kalayáän (Every choice
is still another freedom‖ is the belief that that ―Áng karanasán áy karunúngan (Experience is
knowledge).‖ One way of testing these notions for philosophical validity is via a simplified true-
false national survey in the native tongues (See Table: Validity Analysis of Philosophic
Statements, Sample 1 and Sample 2).
Why is this hopeful fatalism? The fatalistic element is in the logic that fallibility is a natural
characteristic of being human – than one might quite possibly be wrong if one speaks in the
straight declarative.59
The positive element of hope is in using a range of language choices between ―óo‖ (yes) and
―hindï‖ to avoid loss of face and loss of positive relationship as well as – more importantly –
embed a message of possibilities and positivity in the subtext. Furthermore, in situations that are
almost certain to be negative, the hope factor is injected by a word or two that serves to draw
attention to the possibility of things turning out right.
Finally, this is an element in the philosophy of pragmatic survivalism in that a positive

relationship is nurtured for the practical reason of answering eventual need. The implication is
that situations of need must come sooner or later.
Aside from the fact that tactical use of proper language indicates consideration of the
listener‘s feelings – and this is often tacitly appreciated by the listener – the speaker feels secure
that future doors of opportunity remain open. Both feel assured of a continuing relationship and,
should the need arise, both know that one will try and help the other. This is the essence of
survival in uncertain futures.
3.5.3 Sinangmukhä: Principles of Face

In the Asian milieu, the meaning of face value is much deeper and richer than the same
phrase in the North American sense which indicates a shallow covering – only that which is seen
on the surface. The Asian sense is ―the value of face‖ which equates with social standing,
reputation, and integrity.
Mukhä – literally face in Pilipino – is an extremely personal concept that includes notions
such as good reputation and positive social status. Face can be that of an individual, of a family,
of a clan, or of an organization. From parents and to peers, ―Áno na láng ang sabíhin ng ibá‖
59
―Táo lang akó/táyo‖ (I‘m/we‘re only human) is elevated language for explaining away a lapse in judgment.
(What will others say!) urges the Filipino mind to value the good opinion of others – that is, of
social acceptability - as an essential standard of rightness before being or doing anything.
The implication is similar to the Western meaning of ―face value‖ in that what others see is
what‘s on the surface only. The difference is that, while the Westerner is taught to think for one‘s
own good, the Filipino‘s concept of self is subject to the good opinion of one‘s peers and, by
extension, of society.
However, ethical standards are becoming more fluid. From the hitherto strict adherence to
the precepts of the Catholic Church regarding sex, marriage, and gender roles, iconic media
personalities are broadcasting not-so-subtle messages: it‘s okay to be different; it‘s cool to be
dignified in the face of publicly-known transgressions as long as one believes that one is doing
the right thing – or, at least, if one remains successful (e. g., Kris Aquino‘s single motherhood
and multiple dalliances; Vice Ganda‘s insults passing for wit; former President Erap Estrada‘s
and Rodolfo ―Dolphy‖ Quizon‘s polygamy; and former heart-throb and action star Padilla‘s
flagrantly feminine homosexuality; Imelda Marco‘s return to politics despite allegations of
corruption, national plunder, and abuse of power).
Loss of pagmûmukhä is as devastating to the poorest of the poor as to the rich and mighty,
although their standards of measuring degrees and effects may differ, as do their ways of
gaining, projecting maintaining, and protecting mukhä. Preventing loss of face (or ―saving face‖
) is a national preoccupation, ingrained in Filipino behavior, dress, and communication to the
point of near-automaticity. So is recovering from loss of face.
In relating to the self, therefore, the core principle is mirrored in the survivalist philosophy
of the Filipino: survival in the face of strong adversity transcends ethics and religion. This must
be the justification of the Filipinos who looted the Gaisano Mall in Leyte after Typhoon Yolanda
hit. This can be one reason why any academic debate about the rightness of stealing money to
buy medicine for a critically ill mother is confusing to students who have experienced similarly
dire straits.
This can be one reason why, in a strongly Catholic country, proven polygamists or single
parents, divorcees or pro-abortionists can and do hold high office or continue to enjoy primetime
television ratings as well as considerable income from product endorsements on mass advertising
channels. That they still sell in the face of tradition shows a skilled ability to walk the fine line of
nuances between acceptability and social outrage. However, this particular topic of discussion is
outside the limitations of this paper and is therefore left open for other writers to explore.
3.5.4 Sinangdïsálä: Principles of Defensive Superiority

Survivalism is the core mindset of the principle of defensive superiority. The negative prefix
dï- (not, no) and the word sálä (n.), for error or guilt are combined to form the word dïsálä
meaning no guilt, no error, no blame.
One who employs sinangdïsálä in situations where one is questioned, suspected, blamed, or
accused of an error or crime can use a range of observable behaviors ranging from claiming
innocence or lack of information, but never admission of guilt.
The terminology suggests that one attempts to survive by elevating one‘s self from a
negative situation while simultaneously putting one‘s self in a defensive rather than an offensive
position that uses attack language. Instead – just in case one turns out to be eventually proven
wrong – one uses the platform of non-involvement. 60 Despite this explanation, the honest, open,
direct-language folks raised in low-context societies might find this principle confusing,
particularly when they base their observations on Filipino behavior or language. For instance, the
phrase Éwan ko (I don‘t know) can be said with wide-eyed innocence or confusion; with rising-
pitch outrage; with regal dismissal or chin-up superiority.
This principle has devolved into traits ranging from evasiveness to outright lying: This trait
can be observed among salaried folks: employees, household help, laborers, government
officials, and sundry underlings. It is a mindset characterized by the fear of – or inability to - that
openly accepts errors, to the point of outright lying. This behavioral pattern is related to keeping
face.
Those in the know would use proper language so that the Filipino employee is given the
choice of accepting error or defeat, even if this is obvious or foreordained by circumstantial
evidence. In this way, magnanimity is shown by allowing the other to save face.
3.5.5 Sinang-áral: Filipino Principles of Learning

According to observable phenomena in most Philippine classrooms, the most common
educational principles include respect for elders and for authority, sublimation of self over group,
as well as a growing number trend for personal choice over dictated choice – or at least an
illusion thereof. It can be noted that logical reasoning is not a strong element in these
phenomena. Rather, the social element features strongly, with exceptions occurring only among
iconoclasts, freethinkers, creative minds, and rebels.
60
Most Filipinos are aware that the offensive would be taken by either the truly innocent or the truly guilty.
To elicit a generalization of elements that comprise the principles that comprise Sinang-áral
is to identify nationwide behavior patterns that answer questions such as, ―Why do Filipinos
choose to learn one thing and not another?‖ A careful survey might yield that the following
answers are common throughout the archipelago, perhaps with variations according to age,
gender, social status, level of education, sibling order, and so on:
It should be noted that the following table is preliminary work; careful analysis might well
reveal seriously correctible elements. For instance, a cursory glance at the table indicates that
filling out the table as it is would be not only difficult, the resulting tabulated data would be
difficult to understand, which defeats the main purpose data tabulation.
Table 27: Variables Determining National Learning Principles
Rank by
Reasons for Learning
Gender Age Status Education Sibling Order Income Other
Influenced by role model
Influenced by peers
Influenced by family
Influenced by parents
To earn a big salary
To work overseas
To serve others
To help the family
To enjoy myself
To improve myself
To be with someone
To enjoy something
Articulating learning principles could well include the aforementioned principles of truth,
logic, faith, and belief. These principles can help answer Socratic questions such as:
 We learn to discern truth from falsehood. How do we know what is true?

What is truth?
 We believe in some things but not in others. How do we know what to
believe? What is belief?
 What is the difference between logic, feeling, and belief? Why do people
believe in something that cannot be proven scientifically? What is objective
thinking? What is scientific thought? What is faith?
As for origins of formal education, academic training and management philosophies in the
Philippines, almost all are either imported or tradition-based behaviors that are given names
derived from Western philosophical traditions such as Essentialism, Traditionalism, Rationalism,
and Reconstructionism, to mention a few. These are detailed in a following section.
3.6 Relating to the World

How do modern Filipinos relate to their world? For clarity, we specify the term modern
Filipino as referring to those of age between 1946 and 1994 (See Table: Historical Framework of
Filipino Philosophies). Likewise, the term modern philosophy refers to philosophic notions that
are evident or at least discernible during this framework.
By the term world, we mean the physical, emotional, and spiritual realities that comprise the
world as Filipinos see it. This tridimensional mindset may not be equal in all Filipinos, but it is
not an artificial construct either. It is an inherited trait that is more obvious among modern
Filipinos and less among the later generations. It is strongest among those who belong to earlier
eras.
Elsewhere in this paper, traits of Filipino thought are described as multidirectional, fluid,
and multisensory, traits that can describe Filipino philosophy. The following table suggests
descriptive traits of Filipino philosophical thought.
Table 28: General Characteristics of Filipino Philosophies
Traits Details
Multidirectional When assessing critical situations or situations requiring decisions, thinking is not
Connections limited to one direction. Rather, various factors and their interplays – possible, past,
as well as current – are considered, often simultaneously. Linear logic is rarely used;
possibilities, probabilities, past events, and personal preferences are equally
considered.
Multisensory Input When reacting to situational input, thoughts do not focus merely on words or on sight.
Reactions or decisions are based on as many senses as possible, including feelings,
tendencies, hunches, and even faith.
Multidimensional Truth is considered as something that is not limited to what can be observed by the
Truths five senses; sensory observation is only part of truth. Truth includes physical,
emotional, and spiritual elements.
Pragmatic Origins Philosophic utterances are abstractions based on folk wisdom or traditional principles
of practice. The knowledge and principles originate from people solving problems and
sharing as well as refining the solutions to fit various contexts of need or challenge.61
National Practice Originating folk wisdom and practical principles are observable as patterns of
behavior among the various groups and subgroups of the nation. Such behavioral
patterns are relatively stable over time despite cultural differences.
This is a seminal representation on identifying the nature and articulation of Filipino

philosophical thought. Future works could well yield other concepts.
3.6.1 Sinángtohánan: Principles of Discerning Truth
61
In comparison, other modern philosophies are created by religious thinkers to explain elements of faith and belief; or by individuals with enough ability to
generalize sociological phenomena into abstractions, followed by those who recorded, debated, refined, and built upon such utterances.
According to observable phenomena in most of the Philippine societies – particularly those

that are characterized by minimal exposure to other cultures, minimal education, and minimal
travel – some of the most widespread ways of ascertaining truths give most weight to opinions of
authority figures; and to opinions that are seen as emanating from the majority; even more than
opinions from personal experience.
However, among those with increased age, accumulated experience, higher levels of
education, more travel, or more exposure to other cultures, there seems to be a predominance of
personal over group opinions. In short, the confidence attendant to being a perceived authority
figure can elicit respect; utterances of such authority figures can be more valued.
In a volatile geographical environment, periods of calm and productivity are punctuated by

storms or periods of drought, by floods or earthquakes, and other natural as well as human-
triggered disasters. Since such events also trigger widely-shared feelings, nationwide belief
systems related to such events have been developed: what is true now is only certainly true
now.62
The wide spread of behaviors related to a communication reception phenomenon called ―the
willing suspension of disbelief‖ (insert source) as observed in serious following of radio and
television soap operas, reading comics fiction, and electing government officials based on their
promises that all know would be subsequently broken.
This behavior can be explained by commonly-accepted behavioral principles of mindsets

such as pakisáma, útang na loób, and palakásan. The general philosophy is yet to be articulated,
but can be scientifically proven as a national philosophy by using simplified surveys in the native
tongues of each island.
As well, the pragmatic principle of survivalism requires that ―what is true (or valid) is that
which works.‖ The validity of conditional truths can be expressed as ―something is true (or valid)
as long as it works.‖ In addition, that one might be wrong is not only the taking of a position of
humility, it is also an accepted truth that can be expressed as ―what is true is what one believes to
be true‖.
The implication is that truth can change according to one‘s perception. Thus it is that lively
oral debates are common phenomena among one‘s peers, but in ways that are understood as
comradely or, at least, not destructive of social relationships. This can be translated into the
philosophic tradition of writing arguments about philosophic notions using academic language.
62
This can be scientifically proven as an a priori phenomenon as well as a national philosophy by using simplified true-or-false surveys in native languages.
Yet another mental proposition is the truism that ―the most tragic events reveal the greatest
truths.‖ The implication is that truth is a flexible – or, at least, a subjective – construct: ―truths
are not necessarily real‖ or ―what is perceived as realities are not necessarily truths.‖ This view
of reality as truth based on sensory experience can also be expressed thus:
Ang pinakakailangan agad ay yaong kailangan agad dito at ngayon.

What is urgent here and now is the most urgent.
Ang ngayon at ang dito ang pinakatotoo.

The here and the now is the most real.
The basis of truth, to the homegrown Filipino mind, is that that can be seen, heard, smelled,
tasted, and touched. There are degrees of truth, however.
According to observable patterns of behavior common among populations with lower

income and lower levels of education as well as with less travel time or exposure to other
cultures and mindsets, the following principles are spread all over the archipelago, regardless of
language, culture, or gender.
 What is at present is more real than what is in the past, which is more real than what is in
the future.
 What many people say has more truth than what one person says.
 What is repeated has more truth than what rarely happens;
 What is forgotten has lost its immediacy and its truth.
 What is more obvious is truer than what is implied.
 These notions are fluid; although that which is believed is true, this is only until it is
disproved, or a better idea comes along.
 Direct communication is highly sensitive to implications, unsaid meanings, and indirect
transfers of knowledge.63
The following table shows some of the possible variables that can affect the range of degrees
between objectivity and subjectivity in human thinking processes. Feeling and thinking are
separated by their natures as well as by their levels of objectivity and control.
Table 29: Objectivity – Subjectivity Range of Mindsets
INSTINCT or FEELING CONTROL RANGE

Objective Subjective Both High Low Average
Hunch  
Whim  
Urge  
Desire  
Need  
63
The truth, in such cases, lies in culture and context. This is an acquired skill via cultural immersion and social interaction
THOUGHT or CONSCIOUSNESS CONTROL RANGE

Objective Subjective Both High Low Average
Want  
Will  
Plan  
Strategy  
Reason  
Philosophy  
Logic  
.
Following this train of thought regarding the fluidity of truth, we extend the discussion to
include other thinking processes that distort reality. For instance, the following table illustrates
some common distortions.
Table 30: Distortion of Time-Reality in Mind-Sets
LEVELS OF REALITY
TIME
High Average Low
Grief Goal-setting
Past Regret Problem-solving
Creating Strategy
Problem-solving Goal-setting Grief
Present Creating Strategy
Regret
Goal-setting Grief
Future
Creating Strategy Problem-solving Regret
The preceding table is an incomplete and preliminary exploration of illustrating how various
mental processes can create different perceptions of time in human consciousness.
For instance, for someone who is grieving, the past is more real than the present or the
future. However, for one who is engaged in goal-setting, the future is more real than the present,
and the past has the least reality level. On the other hand, one who is solving a problem situation
will be very much in the present, but with a future consciousness that is higher than a
consciousness of the past.
3.6.2 Sangtohánan: Filipino Philosophy of Truth

From the preceding discussion, a philosophy of truth can be expressed:
Áng nandiyán ay totóo.

What is is true.
This philosophy indicates a mental flexibility for assessing the truth of a phenomenon. It
implies that truth is observable and, at the same time, impermanent. These traits of truth rests on
what the senses can perceive and allows for the ephemeral nature of existence. The implication is
not ―What is not there is not true‖ but rather, ―What is not there may be less than true‖ or
Maáring dï mahigtán ng katotohanan ng wala diyán áng nandiyán.

The truth of what is not can be less real than that of which is.
However, Filipinos know that there are truths that cannot be observed, only felt. These
include hunches, supernatural experiences, and real feelings elicited by unseen phenomena such
as sudden temperature changes, the aftershocks of earthquakes, the pain of separation, and the
sublime upliftment of certain, ineffable moments. Thus, an extension:
Áng nandiyán ay isáng bahági ng katótohonan.

What is there is a facet of truth.
Going beyond the purely observable, this second statement opens the nature of truth as
going beyond physical perception into the realm of what is only felt yet still undeniably true.
This can include pain, disappointment, elation, humility, and awe, to mention a few. This is a
more general statement that encompasses more and therefore more complete in meaning.
These a priori statements can be subjected to a national survey to ascertain if the belief is
held across the cultures and subgroups of the nation. These statements can be subjected to
objective assessment for meeting the criteria for philosophic statements. Finally, when these
statements are debated; and when adherents, detractors, as well as positions are taken, then these
have taken on the mantle of philosophy according to the canons of Western traditions of
philosophy.
3.6.3 Sinangdugtóng: Principles of Logic

It has been argued that Western minds often find Filipino logic confusing. This has been
explained to be caused by several characteristics of the cultural high-contextuality of the
Philippines (See Cultural Modalities of Communication). The Filipino logic is rooted in the
practical (what works) and in what can be experienced: first by what is perceived, second by
what is felt. This refers to natural and to supernatural beliefs.
According to observable patterns of behavior common among populations with lower

income and lower levels of education as well as with less travel time or exposure to other
cultures and mindsets, the following principles are spread all over the archipelago, regardless of
language, culture, or gender.
 What works is real; what doesn‘t work is probably useless so it is set aside.
 What is truly useless is discarded but after revalidated validation of its uselessness.
 What can be perceived is real; anything else is and less real.64

 What is felt or imagined might be real. If it repeatedly affects reality, then it is probably
real so, attend to it.65
3.6.4 Sangniwálä: Filipino Philosophy of Belief

After determining truth from untruth, this section discusses how the Filipino might
conceptualize belief. As a pragmatic doer rather than a philosophical thinker, the generic Filipino
mind that might engage in philosophic thinking might not even be aware of it. To the Filipino,
such mental activity is merely munimúni (musings, cogitations), a motor running on idle, rather
than the weighty academic reputation of the term philosophy.
However, it is not beyond the prolific Filipino mind to muse and reflect: Bákit akó
naníniwála (Why do I believe)? In such cases where answers are so obvious that they have never
been expressed, the immediate answer would be ―Eh kasí…‖ (That‘s the way it is….)
The first criterion of belief, therefore, is obviousness of truth. This sense of obviousness
need not be empirical; it might be pragmatic or it might be because many persons say so; it might
be because a statement has been hammered into consciousness; it might because an authority
figure says so. That the truth is not explicit or concrete does not matter. It is the belief – the
feeling of knowing a truth – that matters. The implication is that there is no absolute requirement
for explicitness or concreteness when determining truth.
Thus, despite the pervading pragmatic survivalism in the Filipino mental arsenal, the basic
foundations of truth and belief are abstract, general, and fluid – which just happens to be the
basic criteria for philosophic statements according to the Western philosophic tradition. It can
then be said that the Filipino‘s philosophies of truth and belief are philosophical. Its articulation
remains to be seen.
3.6.5 Sinámpalatáyä: Principles of Faith

According to observable phenomena, common religious principles include beliefs in one
supreme deity (monotheism) whether Jesus or Allah; beliefs in supernatural powers within
natural elements (animism); and beliefs in interventions by spiritual entities such as saints,
angels, or deceased ancestors.
Most of the religious beliefs of Filipinos can be traced to foreign influences such as
Mohammedanism via ancient trade routes, Shintoism via Chinese communities in the
64
such as the abstract or the imaginary
65
This frames the Filipino notions of hunches, superstitions, luck, and fate.
Philippines, Catholicism via the Spanish Occupation, and other Catholicism-based religions via
the USA Colonization such as Christianity and Protestantism.
In addition, local communities of worship were developed such as Aglipayan; and other
forms of devotion such as annual processions (e.g., Candelaria, Nazareno), and self-flagellation,
and reenactments of the crucifixion of Jesus of Nazareth. These beliefs of faith coexist with
seemingly contradictory phenomena such as the sale of herbal abortifacients around the Quiapo
Church; widespread polygamy; extramarital cohabitation alongside monogamous Christianity;
and sexually active priests with obvious luxuries alongside Christian church tenets of abstinence
and poverty. These seeming contradictions can be explained by other principles and philosophies
in this chapter.
The reality of the unseen as seen by the traditional Filipino mind in the Modern Period can
be explained by the Sangmûning Pampaniwálä (Philosophy of Belief); the Sangmûning
Pangkatotohánan (Philosophy of Truth); and the Sinángtohánan (Principles of Discerning
Truth).
3.6.6 Sangnámpalatáyä: Filipino Philosophy of Faith

After determining the nature of truth and belief as characterized by abstraction, generality,
and fluidity, the nature of faith follows, as it follows from belief. The connections between belief
and faith are very close and, to the Filipino mind, both are practically indistinguishable from
each other.
Áng paniwála ay panámpalatáya; áng panámpalataya ay paníwala.

Itó ang kábuluhan ng katótohanan.
Belief is faith; faith is belief. This is a value of truth.
However, in more pragmatic terms, the notions of faith and belief carry different meanings.
Belief is based on perception and logic. However, since truth includes non-material elements that
can only be felt, logic can only go so far. Where logic stops, faith begins. This is how belief
continues as a bridge from the material and the abstract elements of a truth.
For instance, the existence of a supreme deity is an accepted truth that transcends human
logic or understanding.
Áng Maykapál ay dï nangángailángan ng paliwánag ng táo.
God does not need human explanations.
In addition, faith is a mind-set where logical explanations are irrelevant. However, there is
no implication of destiny or lack of freedom to choose: One accepts or not. Furthermore, whether
one accepts the existence of an existing, supreme, divine being does not matter to the existence
of that being.
Dï kailángang ipaliwánag ng táo ang Maykapál.
There is no need for man to explain God.
On the other hand, need drives faith. The traditional inculcation of faith-based beliefs among
Filipino children is optional only when the children are of age and able to decide for themselves.
One commonly observed behavior pattern among those who choose to focus less on faith is that
they turn to it as a very last resort.
Áng panámpalatáyä äy kailángan ng nangángailángan.
Faith is needed by those in need.
The logic of immersing children in traditional faith is that it will be there when the need
arises, whenever this may occur in a person‘s life. To express pragmatic faith, the analogy of a
spare tire would not be incorrect. Fanaticism, however, is an altogether different level of belief.
Although this is a related topic, it is beyond the resource limitations of this research and is
therefore left to experts.
To reprise, what is there is a part of truth; what is perceived by the senses is only a part of
what makes up a truth. Truth is also made up of other elements that cannot be perceived by the
senses; these can only be felt, intuited, hunched, induced, or deduced. To believe in a truth is to
believe in its parts that can be perceived only, as well as in its parts that can be felt only. Where
logic begins to stop working, it is that faith takes over so that the belief continues.
3.7 Relating to Others

Despite being a democracy and a republic, despite – or perhaps because of – the absence of
castes such as in India or in Ancient Greece, despite the historical prevalence of intermarriage
between tribes, cultures, social classes, as well as between foreigners and natives, Filipino
society is divided into classes, no matter how porous the boundaries are.
For instance, movie stars from very poor backgrounds have elicited national adulation (See
Table: Movie Ticket Sales of Two Female Actresses 1975-1982). Christian movie heroes sell
out theater seats in the Muslim provinces. Rich-poor intermarriages are the stuff of fantasy and
do happen. Despite powers that be, underdogs can elicit preferential treatment.
Getting away with it, whether in sports, academics, lotteries, or crime can turn otherwise
marginalized folks into foci of envy. Although this suggests a deep-set interclass tension, the
tension is supra-cultural and therefore indicative of yet another national philosophy.
In this yet-unarticulated philosophy, Filipinos mentally classify their countrymen according

to differences in speech (pronunciation, speech patterns, and vocabulary); according to behavior
(such as manners and social conventions); according to external appearance (skin color, choice
of clothes and accessories), as well as according to education, social circle, or religion.
Such differences can often influence the primacy of the philosophy of good relationships
ranging from subtle ostracism to animosity, to outright violence and even to ages-long warfare.
In polite society, Filipinos are constrained to transcend – at least in superficial interaction – such
differences in the practice called delicadéza (tact) or urbanidád (good manners), which is
indicative of breeding and education or, at the very least, a good family background.
Still, societal class can and do affect a range of activities from marriage plans to corporate
practice. Up to the present, social differences continue to be key considerations in national
policy, legal pronouncements, as well as in national advertising strategies.
As in the previously described Filipino philosophies, how Filipinos relate to society includes
the interplay of various belief systems and behavioral patterns such as those described under the
principles of mukhä and pakisáma.
3.7.1 Sangnatíli: Filipino Philosophy of Survivalism

Survivalism is a Filipino cultural mindset that has come about due to a combination of
widespread and continuing poverty; high population and limited resources; as well as poor
governance, controls, management, transparency, and history.
Historically, however, survivalism was hardcoded into the national psyche due to the
archipelagic geography of the Philippines as well oppressive and abusive government officials,
not to mention natural disasters expected of habitations located in the Ring of Fire on the
equatorial Torrid Zone as well as in the path of annual monsoon winds. This location means that
the inhabitants of the Philippine Archipelago experience earthquakes, typhoons, tidal waves, and
attendant flooding, drought, as well as other destructive forces of nature.66
Survivalism as depicted in Philippine folk literature can be reduced to basic concepts such as
flexibility, blending in and not standing out, communal cooperation, developing and maintaining
lines of future aid, as well as obedience to authority figures.
66
See Philippines at worldatlas.com
Pragmatic experiences, however, say that education, mastered skills, internationally

marketable abilities, subversion, rebellion, luck, cunning, networking, as well inside information
are equally powerful elements of survivalism in the modern milieu.
To survive is to be flexible, to respond quickly to challenges, and to be lucky. To survive is

to have the help of one‘s friends, family, superiors, and even total strangers. Finally, to survive is
also to have the help of all manner of supernatural forces that shape one‘s fate, destiny, and luck.
To ensure survival, Filipinos therefore try their utmost to maintain good relations with people as
well as various spirits and deities.
Pragmatism, however, tells the savvy Filipino that polite language, good behavior, prayers,
and offerings may not be enough to ensure the luck of the draw, or for mere happenstance to turn
in one‘s favor. Connections, cunning, and patient effort have also been proven to work. Others
succeed in life by means of dishonesty, by marrying into money, by crime, or by boot-licking.
One who survives great odds – such as non-ideal looks; lack of money, connections, or
ability; or no education or special qualities – as well one who gets away with it against all odds
are special. When knowledge about such special people – particularly the humble and the lucky –
are spread by mass media, national feelings and reactions are elicited.
3.7.2 Sinangkisáma: Principles of Social Cooperation

The philosophy of survivalism includes the key element of working together as a group. The
concept of pakisáma is hammered into the Filipino mind starting from a young age, and governs
adult life until it ends.
Getting along with others is not only good manners and right conduct; the connections that it
creates are also sources of strength and help. Building a web of support systems in different
circles is a national preoccupation among the most social and the most successful.
Rebels and iconoclasts, loners and freethinkers know that they must engage in pakisáma in
order to survive in any Filipino society. Sooner or later, there is a need for another human – as
social outcasts, eccentrics, and cloistered nuns well know.
The Filipino society‘s webs of interconnectedness are particularly strong due to the
challenges wrought by the archipelago‘s location and geographic characteristics. Articulating a
philosophy of survivalism will necessarily include the principles of social cooperation.
3.7.3 Sinangkadûgö: Principles of Blood Kinship

In the Pakisáma Principle of societal cooperation, the term ―connectiveness‖ refers to social
cohesion, particularly for the purpose of survival. Over and above the Pakisáma Principle, one is
expected to prioritize one‘s immediate family in order of proximity of blood kinship; this is the
Kadûgö Principle, a silent but effective player in the web of social support that are observable
phenomena in Philippine society, ranging from getting preferential treatment to opening doors to
better job prospects; from automatic allies in times of troubles to choosing persons for sensitive
positions.
In the traditional context, the Kadûgö Principle refers to prioritizing one‘s parents and then
one‘s siblings in that order, to the point of sacrificing one‘s self or needs.
In the more modern– or urbanized – context, however, the Kadûgö Principle refers to
prioritizing one‘s wife and offspring, in no particular order, to the point of sacrificing one‘s own
needs or self.
The implication is that, among a particular group of Filipinos, city folks are physically
further away from their parents and siblings and closer to their wives or husbands and offspring;
and that the core family in the city is not the extended family outside the cities.
The following table shows the differentiated relationships between the traditional and the
modern Filipino sense of kinship. This begins with blood kinship and expanding outwards
towards experiential, cultural, and national kinships. Phenomena such as nepotism, favoritism,
and discrimination can be understood by using the preceding table as a point of reference.
Table 31: Scope of Connectionism
TRADITIONAL FILIPINOS MODERN FILIPINOS
Universe Planet
Country Country
Community Culture
Culture Community
Peers Peers
Self Family
Family Self
In addition, the table shows that traditional thought would tend to be more conscious of the
universe, including faith-based notions of heaven and hell, as well as superstitious beliefs in
coexistent but unseen worlds (mga hindï nakikítä). On the other hand, the more scientific and
educated modern mind is more able to grasp detailed concepts of the planet as a whole.
However, both traditional and modern thought are able to conceive of the national entity.
That this principle is accepted and expected practice in Philippine societies – from major
cities to far-flung hamlets – this can well indicates a philosophy that is yet to be expressed
according to the accepted tenets of Western philosophic expression. Such a philosophy can help
explain practices such as nepotism in politics, favoritism in classrooms, and the various, subtle
forms of cultural discrimination among Filipinos, even among those living overseas.
In addition, physical distance is a real determinant. When the city family visits the
provinces, almost-reverential social niceties are accorded to old folks and parental siblings.
When husbands are among peers, the wife and children are placed at a distance – and so are their
needs.
Thus, the traditional Filipino mind can be said to have an automatic-adjustment mode of
mental processes depending on physical proximity. Still, this mode of thought is dependent on
many variables, including effective training during childhood, strong family ties, strong role
models, social exposure, religious faith, education, and financial viability. The scientific proof of
these correlations are obvious to this writer but resource limitations of the research demands that
further research be undertaken by experts.
The notion of Sinangkadûgö as illustrated the preceding table, requires objective data for
definitive proof. This is left open to future research.
3.7.4 Sinangbákä: Principles of Potential Utility

Potentiality is one way of making sense of uncertainty. Thus, it is a way of determining
possible truths in situations of uncertainty by moving perception of reality from unknown, to
uncertain, to tentative, but not to certainty. The sense of moving forward, however, gives the
mind a sense of purpose. Moving towards a certain direction helps the mind focus and achieve a
measure of balance.
Possibility is a notion that helps one cope with uncertainty. The term uncertainty avoidance
was coined by Hofstede in relation to cross-cultural psychology, particularky referring to
uncomfortable situations (Wikipedia).67
While the certainty or uncertainty of a situation may remain unresolved or unquantifiable,

the mind is at least able to achieve a measure of equanimity, a sense of grasp or control. This
helps one achieve a degree of mental balance despite perceived uncertainty or insecurity.
67
See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncertainty_avoidance
This principle implies the future orientation of a multidirectional mental mindset, which is
different from that of one who primarily uses linear logic in thinking or in analysis. Moreover,
this principle also accepts possibilities in past events such as causes or origins. It is this search
for equanimity that defines the usefulness of the principles of the Sinangbákä, principles of
potential utility.
3.7.5 Sinangûsap: Principles of Communication

Common principles of communication and societal relationships include the principles of
Sinangkisáma that elicits positive response by using acceptable behavior, the Sinangmukhä
which shows respect as a matter of principle so that the dignity or equanimity of others are
preserved even in contexts of tension; as well as the Sinangbákä practice of hedging one‘s
language to preclude errors of logic or judgment in one‘s self or in the other.
Aside from speaking in ways that project agreement with probabilities or possibilities,
implying the other‘s superiority is a part of this communication approach.
So as not to appear overtly proud or arrogant in communicating with others – which places
one at a distinct disadvantage due to social disapproval – the common principles of self-
abasement or of adopting humble stances include the aforesaid principles, but more specifically
the Láng and the Sigúro lingual elements of pragmatic survivalism. In this case, the core concept
of belief is that ―truth is tentative until accepted as true.‖
Thus, an opinion or statement is initially offered in the tentative mode, giving the other the
choice of acceptance or rejection, even if a specific result is obvious or foreordained.
In normal circumstances (e.g., non-emergencies, non-urgent), messages that do not convey

emotion, choice, opinion, or value judgment such as ―the grass is green‖ can be expressed
simply, directly, and explicitly. Otherwise, Filipinos communicate in ways that prioritize the
preservation of good relationships over efficiency or accuracy.
These ways include indirect language that are high in contexts and require much reading
between the lines; mediators and flowery or conciliatory language; and enough time for message
processing simultaneous with emotional control.
Verbal expressions of negative messages – or of messages with possibly negative results –

are high in contexts: politesse (pö and ópö; sir and mam; boss for non-employers; kúya or áte for
non-relatives; nátin instead of ko; kayó or ninyó instead of mó). Even when speaking English,
Filipinos can use nuanced circumlocutions or even literary expressions to avoid directly
confrontational language. Puns, wordplay, or humor are methods used to increase emotional
distance or control.
These lingual softening methods result in expressions that can confuse foreigners (or give an
impression of verbosity, indecision, or unnecessary circumlocution) but are clear enough to
Filipinos, particularly with nuances, subtle facial or body language.
3.7.6 Sinang-Lámang: Principles of Calculated Humility

How do Filipinos make sense of the polarities of life, of the vicissitudes of fate, as well as of
the relationship between the seen and the unseen? They believe that luck can be good or bad; that
God and the Devil are as real as night and day. They know that there is no perfect defense
against crime or fate. The mighty can fall, the underdog can win.
How can one increase the good life over the bad? The significance of this question is the
Filipino philosophical stance that one can.
One way is a pragmatic use of language to diminish another person‘s perception of one‘s
threat potential or by refraining from expressing the negative. The strategy includes lowering
one‘s self so as to give the other a sense of importance, of being higher.
With respect to the primacy of good relationships as a handle of stability in the volatile
Filipino environment and culture, the Pilipino language – whether colloquial or literary – is
replete with a range of appropriate expressions that attribute good results to luck, fate, or a divine
being instead of to one‘s self. Some examples are shown in the following table.
Table 32: Colloquial & Literary Expressions of Humility in Pilipino
Colloquial Expressions Equivalent Literary Expressions

Tsámba láng Ang búhay ay párang gulöng Life is like a wheel.
Swérte láng Gulöng ng pálad Wheel of fate.
Nagkataon láng It’s just a coincidence. Mabait ang Diyós God is good.
3.7.6.1 Being Positive
The notion of being positive by choosing one‘s words can be restated in layman‘s terms:
Life is difficult enough, so let‘s make it better, if only in speech. This need to diminish the
negative is met by using the world ―láng‖ as a diminishing agent in speech. The technique is
combining a verbal sublimator or diminisher with a positive idea to intensify the positive
message.
Table 33: Pilipino Terms for Diminishing
diyan láng just around the bend / next corner; not too far
kauntï láng not too much (number, volume)
madalï láng not too difficult; easy
malapit láng not too far
múra láng not too expensive; lit., only cheap
saglit láng only a moment
sandalï láng only a minute
sandalï láng not too long (time)
3.7.6.2 Being Accommodating
Being flexible and forgiving is a Filipino philosophy that falls under hopeful fatalism. The
word ―lang‖ can mean ―only‖ in the conditional sense, as in an extenuating element or
circumstance.
Table 34: Language of Accommodation in Pilipino
Pilipino English Sample Usage Translation

láng Only Matangkäd lang siyá. He’s only tall(er).
Only Only, he’s tall.
kayä láng Kayá läng, matangkäd siyä.
However However, he’s tall.
ngä láng It’s just that Matangkád ngä láng siyá. It’s just that he’s tall.
3.7.7 Sinangdálaw: Principles of Guest Relations

Gaining face is increasing face value by adhering to ethical standards, increasing social
status, wearing better clothes, hosting parties, and particularly putting out one‘s best (behavior,
china, clothes, etc.) for visitors because visitors spread one‘s face when they leave. Much face is
gained. On the other hand, when visitors or neighbors say anything deprecatory or diminishing
about their visit, much face is lost, which is a grave event for a Filipino. As much as possible,
therefore, any language that can even slightly result in loss of face is avoided.
The visitor is assumed to have the wherewithal to travel and is therefore a person of
significant means. The farther the point of a visitor‘s origin, the more important it is to gain, or at
least maintain, face. This is true for local visitors, and even more so for foreigners.
Perhaps compounded by the Philippine history of foreign domination along with widespread
local poverty, foreign visitors are given more importance not only for their potential power of
any kind, or assumed superiority of any type, but because they would generalize their individual
experiences into national face.
Aside from the novelty of interacting with people who look like they come from the same
race as the saints in churches and chapels, as God and Jesus on calendars, and as people in
Hollywood movies, there is a feeling of awe, as well as a felt gratitude that such important
personages deign to communicate with humble folks. In larger cities much more used to
foreigners, merchants and criminals may often see foreigners more for their economic exchange
value than for their religious or celluloid likenesses.
These rationalities can be explained by how Filipinos know what is true, and how they think
in the native cultural contexts of pragmatic survivalism, respect for obvious superiority, and
gaining as well as maintaining face value.
Foreigners often find it difficult to understand why Filipinos – particularly those in their
native environments – prefer to say yes, even when they mean no; why they would smile in
situations that foreigners find no reason to smile; and why Filipinos seem to be a fun group of
people. This can be explained by three strands of simultaneous reasoning within the traditional
native Filipino mind when faced with new visitors.
Table 35: Why It's More Fun in the Philipines
The primacy of pragmatic-survivalist thinking is ingrained in every home-

Pragmatic Survivalism
grown Filipino68.
Foreigners are seen by home-grown Filipinos as potentially superior in one
Assumed Superiority way or another: in financial status, knowledge, physical appearance, or in
social connections.
Foreigners are seen by Filipinos as new visitors, therefore deserving that
New Visitor Treatment
special treatment that is reserved for visitors.
The foreign visitor will see this as a natural behavior. This is because, like other Filipino
philosophies, this is a behavioral philosophy that is absorbed since childhood via direct
observation and through personal interaction with society; deviations are immediately corrected
by authority figures.69 Thus, it comes out naturally and automatically.
When faced with new or unexpected situations – such as new visitors – the Filipino would
find the most neutral and the most positive ways of reacting, behaving, or making quick
decisions. Filipinos would usually present a unified group – no matter their private differences –
before a visitor: positive traits such as cheerfulness, friendliness, and cooperation come out.
These are natural and expected behaviors of Filipinos in front of visitors.
As an adult, the Filipino rationale for automatically activating the New Visitor Treatment
phenomenon revolves around potentialities: potential usefulness, potential sources of support, or
68
As opposed to those who are born, grow up, or trained overseas .
69
It is usually implied, only explicitly articulated when absolutely necessary such as for slow learners, to very young children; or to very curious visitors, but never
formally except perhaps in academic papers.
potential openings or choices in some unforeseen future scenarios. In each of these three
explanations, there is an embedded Mukhä Principle, the Filipino principle of face value.
3.8 Relating to Work

From common or shared work-related behavior, a Filipino philosophy of work can be
elicited. For instance, it has been argued that the Filipino worker is viewed differently at home
and abroad. The Filipino worker in the Philippines has been described as lazy, undependable,
and irresponsible. On the other hand, the overseas Filipino worker has been described as
industrious, responsible, cheerful, friendly, and generally uncomplaining (Sayres, n.d.;
Recuenco, 2014; Rodriguez, 2014).
This begs the question: Why the shift in behavior in the shift in milieu? One answer is that a
Filipino worker‘s behavior is shaped by two markedly different situations: (a) a strong social
support system in the home environment and (b) a weak – or absent – social support system
overseas. The behavioral shift is a survival response to a foreign milieu. This survival philosophy
can be articulated as ―putting one‘s best foot forward,‖ akin to bringing out the finest tableware
for guests, or putting on one's Sunday best for church or formal affairs.
This brings us to the question: What is the Filipino philosophy of work? In each of the three
examples (best output, best tableware, and best clothes), two types of behaviors can be observed:
(a) survival response in a foreign environment; (b) defensive response to possible threat; or (c)
cost-benefit causality.
Observable from behavior and language, native Filipino philosophy is rooted in

practicalities, causality, and cost-benefit (input-output). It primarily depends on smooth and
positive relationships rather than on logic and efficiency, and on real rather than theoretical
challenges.
The way that Filipinos relate to or comprehend the structural and moral notions of work – in
the sense of doing something as well as in the sense of professional work – includes three belief
systems and behavioral patterns: (1) conflict-avoidance, (2) relationship-building, and (3)
pragmatic survivalism.
3.8.1 Pragmatic Phenomenology

A phenomenon is something that happens, an event that is observable. The term
phenomenology means finding truths in what can be observed.
Phenomenological analysis means to observe events or behaviors and then to use logic to
articulate a philosophy. This is done by simultaneously describing and generalizing a shared
belief in a commonly valued way of being, or of doing things.
On the other hand, the term pragmatic is used to describe something that is real, actual, and
practical. Thus, pragmatic phenomenology is an approach – a way of thinking to find truths – by
using practical thinking on real problems.
A philosophy can be elicited when a shared method of creating and validating solutions is
observed and is confirmed by established practice that remains stable over time, as well
application and modification in various contexts.
To reprise: a modern Filipino philosophy of work is unarticulated, informally absorbed

knowledge about a way of doing things or a way of being. It is used as a good practice guide by
overseas Filipino workers, wherever in the world, in whatever line of work.
The following table shows that each ideal behavior pattern can be shaped by six possible
factors: done or not done; cost-benefit and cause-effect; positive and negative effects; and
foreign or native work environments.
The six factors on the following table can create at least 36 possible combinations. While
the Filipino mind may not consider all 36 possibilities, at least several scenarios will come to
mind at any given time unlike purely linear thinking.
Rather than using linear logic, efficiency, or theoretical challenges, Filipino philosophy is
based on pragmatic causality and cost-benefit deduction based on smooth and positive
relationships.
As a result of the native Filipino environment that includes elements of culture, history, as
well as geography, the indigenous Filipino mind is flexible and multidirectional, able to relax
and yet also able to simultaneously consider various possibilities as befits a relatively volatile
environment.
The next table shows expands an example of multidirectional logic in Filipino thought
processes.
The following table shows some of the possible variables that can affect the range of degrees
between objectivity and subjectivity in human thinking processes. Feeling and thinking are
separated by their natures as well as by their levels of objectivity and control.
Evidently, younger generations who grow up insulated from difficulties, those who live in
relative comfort and security, do not have the synaptic development of those who live closely
with nature and are constantly affected not only by the seasons but also by basic insecurities
ranging from the next meal to the future of grandchildren.
Table 36: Multilinear Logic of a Filipino Philosophy of Work
Color and Code C-B: Cost-Benefit Logic C-E: Cause-Effect Logic
Observable Native Work Environment Foreign Work Environment

Behavior If Done If Not Done If Done If Not Done
Consistently Positive: Can gain Positive: May be seen Positive: Positive:
Cheerful more friends as a serious worker Coworkers’ Negative: Poor
Negative: May be C-B Negative: May be seen approval reviews
Consistently seen as immature or as a joyless co-worker; Difficulty finding
Friendly a busybody. the boss’ pet or spy another job
C-E
Highly adaptable Positive: May get Positive: May be seen Positive: Positive:
increasingly as a focused, Employer's Negative:
challenging work C-B dependable follower approval Termination of
Highly flexible Negative: May be Negative: May be fixed contract or no
seen as suck-ups in routine work contract renewal
C-E
Highly Positive: May gain Positive: May lessen Positive: Longer Positive:
productive boss’ approval hostile competition employment Negative: No
Negative: Insecure C-B Negative: May earn salary and no
Highly superiors may feel less salary; may be remittances to
dependable threatened demoted or fired family
C-E
Consistently Positive: May be Positive: May be seen Positive: Pay Bigger debts
Accommodating employed longer as a strong personality children's Social
Negative: May be Negative: May be seen education embarrassment
Consistently seen as a pushover as a troublemaker Pay parents' Lower social
Uncomplaining medical bills status
Pay off loans
In addition, the decisionary logic enmeshed in a Filipino‘s work philosophy can be

influenced by factors such as
 Risk and Benefits: Extremely high work benefits that are difficult to find elsewhere
versus extremely low benefits or work easily found elsewhere;
 Environment and Culture: Influence of prevailing work philosophy in a new work

environment;
 Tenure: Permanent versus contractual (limited contract period) versus renewable work
status.
 Uncertainty Avoidance versus Creative Challenge: Some Filipinos may prefer stable
jobs with little uncertainties such as: jobs that fit the worker‘s abilities, bosses that fit the
worker‘s personalities of work ethic, companies that are least likely to close down or go
under, or predictable routines of work. Others may find such scenarios boring and give
higher value to jobs that include challenges and creativity, opportunities for
advancement and professional development, variety, and personal satisfaction.
Following this logic, it can be argued that a Filipino worker‘s job satisfaction largely
depends on relationships: (a) approval and/or respect by co-workers and bosses as well as (b)
approval and/or acceptance by family members – despite an increasing number of Filipino
workers whose job satisfaction is based on more personal or self-centered factors. This can
explain such phenomena as:
 Why many bosses perceive overseas Filipino workers in a more positive light than
Filipino workers in the Philippines;
 Why public servants in the Philippines have been perceived as inefficient, corrupt, or
unprofessional; and
 Why Filipino workers in well-run organizations – such as private schools or foreign-
owned companies – in the Philippines behave differently compared to those working in
poorly-run organizations, such as government service.
To summarize, the Filipino work ethic – as his philosophy of work – is a flexible construct
that is determined by environmental factors such as relationships and prevailing practices as well
as by internal logic which is pragmatic, causative, and cost-benefit based.
This liquid philosophy is nationally admitted as a negative trait by native descriptions such
as ningas kugon (adj.) flash in the pan) and pakítang gílas (v.), putting one‘s best foot forward at
the onset.
3.8.2 Sinanglámang: Principles of Compromise

In the subtle world of speed-negotiation and compromise in everyday communication, the
Filipino can indicate with two words the sense of requesting or granting; of being gracious or
grudging; or obeying a sense of impulse or compulsion – in any case, to compromise and give in
– and saying so by using na lang, the second word being a short form of lámang (adv.), only.
In the art of haggling, the phrase ―sampü na láng‖ is a request for a lower price: ―please sell
it to me for ten pesos.‖ This phrase begs the vendor to believe the speaker, at the same time
echoing the underlying Filipino philosophy of eliciting good feelings at all times.
This phrase carries the extremely subtle subtext of elevating the vendor to a person of
sympathy, mercy, kindness, and compromise – possibly at a slightly higher level than the seller.
The sense of plaintive request in ―na láng‖ and the subtext of elevating the listener can carry
over in various uses. For instance, the following table shows its use with pronouns:
Table 37: The Use of Na Láng with Pronouns
Usage with Subject Pronouns Usage with Object Pronouns

Ako na lang Let me be the one Akin na lang Let it be mine / Please give it to me
Siya na lang Let him/her be the one Kanya na lang Let it be his/hers / Please give it to
him/her
Ito na lang Let it be the one Iyo na lang Let it be yours / Please give it to
yourself
Tayo na lang Let us be the ones / Let’s do Atin na lang Let it be ours / Please give it to
it70 ourselves
Kami na lang Let us be the ones / Allow us Amin na lang Let it be ours / Please give it to us
to do it71
Kayo na lang Let you (plural) be the ones Inyo na lang Let it be yours / Please give it to
yourselves
Sila na lang Let them be the ones Kanila na lang Let it be theirs / Please give it to them
To communicate agreement, the phrase ―na láng‖ indicates the added element of
compromise, or grudging agreement to a request. Subtexts or implied meanings are clearly
communicated by speaking speed and tone which, unfortunately, cannot be shown in the
following table.
Table 38: Use of Na Láng in Compromise
Function Pilipino Phrase English Translation

Accepting a compromise Sige, piso na lang. All right, I’ll give it to you for the discounted
price of one peso.
Accepting a compromise Sige, dahan-dahan na lang. All right, I’ll do it for you slowly.
Accepting a compromise Opo, inyo na lang po. Yes sir/ma’am, it’s yours (as you insist)
Suggesting compromise Ginisa na lang. I’ll have the stir-fried (as you wish).
Suggesting compromise Binayaran na lang. It was paid (under duress)
Suggesting compromise Pinakasalan na lang. She was wed (there was no choice)
Suggesting compromise Kalimutan mo na lang. Forget it (it would be bad if you don’t)
Requesting patience Sandali na lang po. Just a moment sir/mam (please be patient)
Softening an uncertainty Ewan ko na lang. I really don’t know (you’re digging your grave)
3.8.3 Sinanggawä at Sinanggósyo: Principles of Work and Commerce

Common work and business principles include pragmatism, survivalism; at least surface
respect for perceived authority figures; and non-acceptance or rebellion against perceived
injustice or abuse of power. Principles of survivalism may not outweigh the pressures of poverty
or dire financial straits.
A growing trend in initiativism, expressions of personal choice and opinions can be

observed among the financially stable as well as among highly educated groups and individuals.
70
requesting from someone from within one‘s circle
71
requesting from someone outside one‘s circle
Social connectivity can usually impinge on work efficiency and productivity. Exposure to other
cultures – such as in foreign-owned enterprises as well as in foreign franchises – can modify
principles of aesthetics, of perceiving time as a precious resource, and of accountability.
The principles of – at least surface – trust, fairness, and honesty remain paramount.
However, years of unrelenting poverty as well as of historic rebellion against unjust authority
figures have sharpened the common-man sense of subterfuge; those who get away with it and
give authority figures their perceived comeuppance are often admired, usually in secret.72 This,
however, has devolved into various expressions of accepted dishonesty ranging from tax evasion
to tampering of power-meters, from false excuses for absenteeism to blatant plagiarism, all of
which are driven by perceived social acceptance or, at least, tolerance.
3.8.4 Sinangkábuluhan: Principle of Cost-Benefit Causality

A Filipino‘s philosophy is pragmatic because it comes from – and is used in – real problems
or situations. The philosophy is formed by analyzing causes and effects (causality) of a problem
or challenge as well as the cost-versus-benefits of possible solutions. The best solutions in terms
of costs versus benefit are tested against the causes, the effects, or both.
The term causality means the logical process of connecting causes to effects or vice-versa,
or the creative process of finding causes for effects, or vice versa. The term cost-benefit means
the cost (negative result) of not doing or being something as weighed against the benefit
(positive result) of doing or being something. A Filipino philosophy of work is elicited by using
these two together in a logic called cost-benefit causality.
Table 39: Cost-Benefit Causality Logic in a Filipino Philosophy of Work
COST VERSUS BENEFIT

CAUSE & EFFECT CAUSALITY
BEING AN INDUSTRIOUS FILIPINO OVERSEAS WORKER

Benefits of Being Costs of Not Being
Co orkers’ appro al Poor reviews
Difficulty finding another job
Employer's approval Termination of contract
No contract renewal
Longer employment No salary
No remittances
Pay children's education Bigger debts
Pay parents' medical bills Social embarrassment
Pay off loans Lower social status
72
This is reflected in the public adulation of poor, uneducated, or at least generically Asian-
featured national champions such as Nora Aunor in the arts, Manny Pacquiao in sports, and
Rodridgo Duterte in politics.
The preceding table shows a Filipino‘s multilateral logic in work-related behavior, in this
instance focusing on the behavior of overseas Filipino workers. The yellow arrows represent
cost-benefit thought, which is a simultaneous mental activity along with the orange arrows that
represent causality thinking. In simultaneously activating multidirectional thinking, Filipino
logic arrives at a set of beliefs that can be observed as behaviors of an industrious Filipino
overseas worker.
These concepts may be discussed or expressed in parts among friends or relatives, but are
never formally taught in any curriculum. These may be inferred from televised dramatizations,
films, fiction, or music, but never spelled out in textbooks or taught in classrooms.
3.8.5 Pakisáma: Conflict-Avoidance and Relationship-Building

From language, we can gather examples of multidirectional thinking. For instance, in the
following table of some Filipino expressions used in a work context indicate that verbal
expressions have more than one function such as conflict avoidance and relationship-building.
Table 40: Conflict Avoidance & Relationship-Building in Pilipino
Expressions Examples Typology Utilization

pwede na yan Di na bale, pwede na yan. Conflict To justify temporary or shoddy
avoidance work
that will do Never mind, that will do. Relationship- To reassure an uncertain worker
building
Ikaw ang bahala Magkanong labor nyan? Ikaw Conflict To avoid stating a specific figure or
ang bahala avoidance price
up to you (you How much is the labor cost Relationship- To make the listener feel valued or
decide). for that? Up to you. building important
walang problema May bantay naman kaya Conflict To suggest a positive but partial
walang problema. avoidance element as a total answer.
no problem There’s a guard so no Relationship- To reassure an uncertain customer
problem. building
A more thorough survey of Filipino work-related expressions can frame a discussion of this
notion with more depth, as well as detail variations and varieties of articulation and meaning.
The validity of examining language expressions as proof of an indigenous philosophy can be

discussed in further detail. Meanwhile, the preceding table can serve as an initial framework to
shape the discussion in this paper.
3.9 Recapitulation
This chapter discussed seven points: (1) factors in the development of Filipino philosophy,
(2) the nature of Filipino philosophy, (3) how Filipinos perceive truth, (4) how Filipinos acquire
philosophy, (5) the philosophy of pragmatic survivalism, (6) the philosophy of hopeful fatalism,
and (7) the philosophy of defensive superiority. Although far from comprehensive, this chapter is
an initial articulation of what a Filipino philosophy is.
Foreign analysis of Filipino philosophy can be challenging. The terms illogical,

incomprehensible, and confusing have been used. This may be because western logic is more
linear, perhaps even lateral, while Filipino logic is multidirectional, shifting with changes in real
situations. Western logic is more abstract and general while Filipino logic is more concrete and
aimed at solving real problems.
At the abstract level and in theory, foreigners find the Filipino philosophy of work
incomprehensible. In practice, however, foreigners find Filipinos easy to work with, and fun to
be with outside of work. The primacy of preserving positive relationships and pragmatic
survivalist thinking govern the overseas Filipino‘s work philosophy. This can explain why
Filipino workers are such valued employees73 although foreign employers can hardly be expected
to understand a Filipino‘s philosophical balance, adaptivity, and fluidity.
Living in a place isolated by huge bodies of water, with limited land and increasingly scarce
resources, creates a philosophy of thrift, practicality, and utility. The Filipino working mindset
within a home environment – wherever it may be located – may differ in the mindset of the same
person when working in a foreign or more professional environment. The set of thinking patterns
can elicit a philosophy of minimum validity
Such factors can help explain the differences between the natures of Filipino and Western
philosophies. Western philosophy is an amalgamation of Hellenistic influences – where
philosophy arose out of the emergence of stable leisure and slave classes – and Muslim
influences – where philosophy arose out of stable religions.
On the other hand, Filipino philosophy developed within a harsh natural environment –
where flexibility and survivalism were required mindsets - and by a series of historical accidents
– where fighting for freedom and independence added mindsets such as pragmatic survivalism,
hopeful fatalism, and defensive superiority.
These three mindsets are but some of the descriptions according observed behavior of
middle- to lower-income groups and individuals at home and overseas. Future researchers may
73
As in any large enough population, deviations are expected. This discussion however, focuses
on the majority phenomenon.
confirm, refine, or reject such observations based on recorded data based on realistic situations.
Such data include radio soap operas, television soap operas, Filipino music, and movies based on
true stories.
Although many writers have referred to Filipino ―philosophies‖ in the abstract as well as in
examples such as thoughts found in folk wisdom and in academic literature, many writers agree
that such concepts are not articulated according to the canons of standard literature as perceived
by the West.
The realities that justify such practice of following Western standards include (a) the
standardization of English as a worldwide communication medium including in academic
discourse; and (b) the continued use of the formal education model that was implemented
throughout the Philippine archipelago during the Spanish Occupation as well as that used during
the American Colonization years.
As a clinching argument, there is (c) global standardization; the Filipino social principle of
pakikisáma is in harmony with the current trends of global standardization not only in
manufacturing, governance, the sciences, and in technology, but also in trade, commerce, and
education. Expressing Filipino philosophical concepts according to the Western tradition is but
pakikisáma on a global scale.
The next chapter summarizes the development of modern philosophy elsewhere in the
world. The chapter after that presents its influences on Filipino philosophy.
Chapter 4: MODERN PHILOSOPHIES
This chapter (a) summarizes the origins, development, and differences of

modern Western and Eastern philosophy; (b) presents some key concepts in
modern Western philosophy. The purpose is to clarify which Filipino
philosophic principles are indigenous, which ones are borrowed, and which
ones are transplanted and applied using most of their original forms.
The formal articulation of Filipino philosophies according to the canons of Western

philosophical tradition is, at this time, nascent. Knowing the underlying sources of Filipino
behavior and thought processes is vital because ―studying how philosophers have created their
systems of thought often can help‖ 74 address effects of current phenomena as well as for
anticipating future tensions. Thus, this chapter answers the third question: How did modern
philosophy begin and develop?
The influences of philosophy in various fields of human endeavor have been established as
shaping history itself. Typologies range from applied philosophies such as of management,
education, and science, to theoretical philosophies of art, logic, law, and ethics. Sources of
modern philosophy can be traced to ancient, traditional and later histories. This chapter
summarizes the origins and development as well as presents key philosophical concepts of
modern Western philosophy.
4.1 Western Origins

The development of modern philosophy in the West is divided into periods when human
thinking shifted from faith to logic. These time periods can be identified by breaks in thinking
habits such as (a) when most people believe more in religious, mythological, or supernatural
ideas to societies and (b) most think rationally using logic and observable things and events.
At first, when people tried to understand the world and their relationships with it, they had
traditions, folk tales, legends, and superstition as mental guides. However, during the medieval
era in Europe, how people thought and understood the world and life were mostly shaped by the
Christian Church and scholasticism. What we know today as the traditions of Western
philosophy began around 400 BC, mostly from ideas attributed to Plato and Aristotle.
4.1.1 Ancient Origins
74
http://www.tc.umn.edu/~jewel001/humanities/book/5philosophy.htm
Turner (1903) traces the birth of the modern philosophy of the West back to ancient times,
out of religious thought and sacred hymns in Arabic, Muslim, and Indus cultures75, in Hellenistic
and Asian literature and epic poetry76 as well as in universal folk wisdom and sayings.77 Those
recorded thought systems were characterized by ―an almost complete lack of the rational
element,‖ an ―abundance of speculation,‖ 78 and were born of benign environments absent of
want, of conflict, or stress.79
It has been suggested that the rise of stable slave and leisure classes in Hellenistic cultures
(e. g., Greece and Athens); the rise of introspective priests in established religions in the East (e.
g. India and Arabia), particularly the fast-spreading Muslim religions; and the geography
allowing relative ease of travel and of exchange between these cultures created the traditions of
modern philosophy in the West (See Figure: Ancient Philosophy).
These structures and expressions allowed the evolution and recording of mental explorations
into the then unknown: the self, the mind, the universe – and finding reasons or explanations for
phenomena thereof. Thus we have notions such as Metaphysics, Phenomenology, Logical
Positivism, Analytic Philosophy, Existentialism, Deconstruction Postmodernism,
Poststructuralism, Hermeneutics, Liberalism, and Objectivism (Wikipedia; Fuentes, n.d.).
Though the cultures that first developed philosophy were not in close contact with each
other at the time, most of them developed philosophy at about the same time in history: the 5th-
7th centuries B.C. However, as Turner puts it, the beginnings of Indus philosophy successfully
separated ―the speculative from the mythological‖ although their speculations were ―positive
rather than argumentative.‖
Although philosophy‘s ―rational or dialectical phase of thought‖ first developed in Greece

sans allegory or myth, nascent Greek philosophy was heavily influenced by concepts from India
and other countries. Again, a benign environment is said to have helped in the birth and
propagation of philosophical thought in the direct democracy of Athenian culture (See Figure:
Athenian Philosophy).
Living in a country where there was practically no struggle for life,

where the means of subsistence were produced without much effort on the
part of the tillers of the soil, and where for thousands of years war was
unknown save the war of extermination waged against the original
dwellers in the land, the Hindus gave themselves up unreservedly to the
75
Such as Vedic hymns of 1500 B. C.
76
Such as in in the ethical portrayals of the Homeric poems
77
Such as those of the Gnomic Poets of the sixth century B.C.
79
Material proof is difficult, as records are few; circumstantial evidence in historical and literary records, however, can support such hypotheses.
solution of the problems, Whence are we come? Whereby do we live? and

Whither do we go? (Turner, Ibid.)
Plato‘s writings record the existence of schools of debate founded by respected members of
society who were well paid by their students (Anon. (N. D.). The History of Western
Philosophy). In addition, an established workforce of slave labor freed the male citizens from
work and gave them much time for intellectual pursuits.
(The) free male citizenry… were able to participate in the assemblies

of Athens and spend long periods in discussions on popular philosophical
questions. Students … acquire the skills … to influence the Athenian
Assembly and thereby increase respect and wealth. … Subjects and
methods of debate became highly developed…. (America Pink, n. d.)
In other parts of the world, philosophy was developed by priests or monks. In India for
instance, philosophical ways of thought were handed down by oral tradition for centuries. It was
only between the 8th and the 2nd century B.C. that these oral traditions were written down.
While the Vedas advocated a way of understanding the nature of god and the presence of
god in each individual, the Upanishads focused on psychology, thoughts, and feelings that are
simultaneously spiritual and real, which later comprised the yoga philosophy. In the 5th century
B.C., Buddhism emphasized the search for nirvana while Jainism advocated discipline and
sacrifice to acquire spiritual grace.
At about 600 B. C., China and India, a group of gentlemen scholars who worked in
government wrote about the meaning of government and society. Confucius (551-479 B.C.)
gathered these philosophical ideas and developed a system to teach people how to behave in
government and society. At the same time, Lao-tsu (ca. 604-531 B.C.) started the religious
philosophy of Taoism, which advocated individual freedom and communal farming.
At about this time in in the Middle East, Jews wrote the Hebrew Scriptures. This later
became the bible of Judaism, and influenced Christianity and Islam. Their philosophy advocated
a belief in one supreme and divine being who intervenes in human affairs as well as in reflecting
on the significance of suffering, life, love, and beauty.
Meanwhile, at about the same time, Greeks such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle (ca. 470-
322 B. C.) began the first major philosophical systems that featured logical reasoning and
scientific proof. Three thinkers broke the centuries of traditional thinking and understanding that
were based on faith in legends, folk wisdom, various gods, and superstitions: Socrates, Plato, and
Aristotle. (See Figure: Roman to Middle Ages)
 Socrates encouraged everyone to question all their beliefs, no matter how sacred or
important so his countrymen sentenced him to death for influencing the youth ―with too
much questioning and doubt.‖
 Plato developed orderly ways of thinking about moral, political, aesthetic, intellectual,
and spiritual behavior.
 His pupil Aristotle developed a belief that focused more on logical reasoning than on
religion or superstition (Jewell, 1996).
Elsewhere in Asia, Europe, and the Americas, modern philosophy took roots in religions
that later developed abstract inquiries into the nature of being, truth, mortality, and knowledge.
Asian philosophy – also known as Eastern philosophy – grew out of mostly religious thought,
e.g., Buddhism, Hinduism, and Shintoism, that laid the foundations of concepts of governance,
regulation, and societal order, e.g., Confucianism, Taoism (Haselhurst & Howie, 2012 ).
Due to accidents of geographic location, Jewish and Islamic philosophies straddle the
western-eastern philosophical divide: ―Eastern philosophy … encompasses Chinese, Japanese,
Indian and other Far Eastern philosophies as well as Jewish and Islamic philosophies (although
the latter two are sometimes also considered as a part of Western philosophy).‖
4.1.2 The Medieval Era

Between the Late Middle Ages and the Early Modern period, recovered records show
increased interest in philosophy. During the Middle Ages – or medieval era – between 1154 and
1485 (BBC, 2014), some Islamic, Jewish, and Christian philosophers adapted these ideas to
argue some abstract concepts including monotheism (Hankey, 2004; Echad, 2008; A History of
Muslim Philosophy) as well as intuitions and ideas such as pragmatism and ―the role of the other‖
(Noteboom, 2014, p. 1) (See Figure: The Renaissance).
In the 1600s, Rene Descartes (1596-1650) broke away from the theological route and
advocated the use of reason when seeking truths (Nellickappilly, (N. D.). p. 6). While this
rationalist philosophy was continued in the works of Spinoza and Leibniz (Shand, 2002), modern
science began another way of seeking truths, this time using empirical methods. This new
empiricist philosophy advocated scientific logic based on observable, measurable phenomena as
detailed in works of the foremost thinkers of the time, such as Galileo, Kepler, and Newton in
science, as well as Locke, Hume, and Berkeley in philosophy (Wren, 2007).
4.1.3 The Age of Reason

In the late 1700s, Kant published his Critique of Pure Reason, an oft-quoted work inspired
by Hume‘s empiricism and the earlier rationalists (Baldner, 2016). During the Renaissance,
Erasmus, Niccolo Machiavelli, Galileo Galilei and Francis Bacon emphasized rationalism and
empiricism. This began the Age of Reason and modern philosophy, with 17th century
philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes, Blaise Pascal, Rene Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, John
Locke and George Berkeley, to mention a few. Most of what is known as contemporary
philosophy is based on the philosophical notions that Kant and Hume articulated (Weinstein,
2014).
In the 18th century, dramatic political changes such as the American Revolution and the
French Revolution were influenced by the works of thinkers such as Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau,
Montesquieu, Immanuel Kant, David Hume, Thomas Pain and Adam Smith, all of whom were
influenced by the 17th century philosophers.
In the 19th century, philosophy also drew from the preceding eras but new ideas were born:
idealism by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel in Germany, utilitarianism by Jeremy Bentham and
John Stuart Mill in Britain, as well as Marxism by Karl Marx, existentialism by Søren
Kierkegaard, pragmatism by Charles Sanders Peirce, positivism by Auguste Comte, socialism by
Friedrich Engels, existentialism and sociology by Friedrich Nietzsche (See Figure: Modern
Philosophy).
In the 20th and 21st centuries, new ideas in philosophy were advanced, such as analytic
philosophy by Bertrand Russell and Ludwig Wittgenstein, continental philosophy and
existentialism by Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus, structuralism by Claude Levi-Strauss,
pragmatism and post-analytic philosophy by Richard Rorty, philosophy of language by Noam
Chomsky and Western philosophy and psychoanalysis by Slavoj Žižek, as well as lumniaries
such as Putnam, Levi-Strauss, and Lacan (See Figure: Contemporary Philosophy).
These tentative time periods indicate a shift of belief and knowledge derived from myths
and religions to belief and knowledge coming from ―rational contemplation and introspection‖
(Anon. (N. D.). The Impact of Greek Philosophy on Early Western Civilization, pp. 1-2).
However, this and other literature of its kind display a Eurocentric bias that frankly ignores most
of the rest of the world.
4.2 World Origins

Compared to the time-based or the location-based analyses of Western philosophical history
and development common, Scharfstein (1998) presents a more balanced world view that traces
the early stages of philosophy from Indian, Chinese, Greek, Muslim, Roman, and Buddhist
philosophers in a twelve-point typology of philosophical thought.
Table 41: Worldwide Origins of Modern Philosophy
Thinking Systems Initially developed by Born In Lifetime

Uddalaka Aruni India 1000–600 BCE
Yajnavalkya India Vedic Period
metaphysical
Heraclitus of Ephesus Greece c.500
philosophy
Parmenides Italy c.515 BC
Confucius China 551–479 BCE
Mencius Rome 372–289 BCE
moral philosophy Buddhaghosa India 5th century
Socrates Athens 469–399 BC
Mahavira India 599–527 BCE
logical relativism
Chuang-tzu (Zhuangzi ) China 370 - 287 BC
skepticism
Protagoras Gorgias of Abdera Greece c.450–40 BC
absolutism
Plato Greece c.428–348 BC
rationalism Hsün-tzu (Xun Kuang, Xunzi) China c. 310—c. 220 B.C.E.
Aristotle Greece 384–322 BC
nameless Buddhists
Democritus Greece 5th Century BC
atomism Epicurus Greece 341 - 270 BC
Lucretius, Titus Carus Rome 98–55 BC
Gautama Buddha (Siddhārtha) Nepal 6th century B.C
Plotinus Egypt 205–70 BC
hierarchical idealism Proclus Diadochus Greece 410–85 BC
Bhartrhari India 450–510
skepticism Sextus Empiricus Rome late 2nd century AD
Nagarjuna India 150–250
Jayarashi Bhatta India c. 770–830
Shriharsha India c. 12th century
Ujdayana (Udayanācārya ) India c. 10th century
Chu His China
religio-philosophical Avicenna (Ibn Sina) Persia 980–1037
synthesis Moses Mairnonides (Moshe ben
Spain 1135–1204 AD
Maimon or Mūsā ibn Maymūn)
Thomas Aquinas Sicily 1225-1274
logic-sensitized Gangesha India
methodological Descartes France 1596-1650
metaphysics Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Germany 1646–1716
immanent- Adi Shankara India 788–820
transcendent holism Baruch Benedict de Spinoza Amsterdam 1632–1677
Asanga India 4th century
Vasuhandu India
realistic & idealistic
John Locke England 1632–1704
perceptual analyses
George Berkeley Ireland 1685 - 1783
David Hume Scotland 1711-1776
fideistic neo-skepticism Dignaga India 480-540 AD
Dhamakirti Indonesia c. 7th Century
Immanuel Kant Prussia 1724–1804
The preceding table makes this point: the origins of modern philosophical thought are not
exclusive to the West or to one age. It began as folk wisdom, superstition, and religious beliefs
and developing into systematic ways of thinking about how man relates to self, to others, and to
worlds seen and unseen.
Looking at the timelines, it would appear that philosophies not only blossom anywhere in
the world, it can also happen anytime. Any nation with enough brains and technology can,
sooner or later, contribute to the existing body of philosophic knowledge. It is not inconceivable
that the proposed concepts in papers such as these as well as those that are yet to be written will
provide footholds for the climb towards the eventual articulation of Filipino philosophies in such
ways as would be accessible and acceptable to world philosophers.
With that in mind, we return with an open and questioning mind to this narrative about
modern philosophy. For specificity, we qualify it as Western philosophy, but bearing in mind
that it was born out of ancient grounds fertilized by thoughts from all over the world.
4.3 Modern Philosophy in the West

Tentative timelines show that modern philosophy comes after ancient philosophy and before
contemporary philosophy. In a quote attributed to Schopenhauer, the father of modern
philosophy is Descartes (1596-1850) ―because he helped the faculty of reason to stand on its own
by teaching men to use their brains in place whereof the Bible, on the one hand, and Aristotle, on
the other, had previously served‖ (1974).
And yet, although modern philosophy is said to have started with Descartes, many regard
Kant as ―one of the three greatest philosophers‖ 80 for his ―great contributions to epistemology,
metaphysics, ethics, and aesthetics‖ in his Critique of Reason, which is regarded as a
―masterpiece… the greatest single work in philosophy since the Greeks, perhaps since Aristotle‘s
Metaphysics‖ (Stoney, 2003).
Whether Descartes or Kant stated the train of thinking, they did inspire the outstanding
thinkers of what we know as modern philosophy. These include Thomas Hobbes, John Locke,
Baron de Montesquieu, Jean Jacques Rousseau, and Voltaire (Francois-Marie Arouet) in the field
of modern political philosophy. Their writings focused on the basic notions of statehood or
nationhood, as well as of ―government, politics, liberty, justice, and the enforcement of a legal
code by authority‖ (Corpuz, p. 9).
80
Including Plato and Aristotle
Outstanding thinkers such as Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz, Malebranche, and Pascal

propagated the philosophy of rationalism; thinkers such as Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley, and Hume
developed empiricism; Kant advanced philosophical ideas in critical theory; Fichte, Schelling,
Hegel, as well as Schopenhauer contributed to the philosophy of idealism (Potter, N. D.). The
following table summarizes the era.
Table 42: Modern Philosophies and Thinkers
Philosophies Heyday Contributors Developers

Rationalism 1640-1700 Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz Arnauld, Malebranche, Wolff
Empiricism 1690-1780 Locke, Berkeley, Hume Hobbes, Reid
Transcendental idealism 1780-1800 Immanuel Kant Fichte
Other thinkers Pascal, Vico, Rousseau, Hegel Hutcheson, Schleiermacher
Adapted from Potter, N. D. Introduction to Modern Philosophy.
To reprise, modern Western philosophy is said to have begun with an early period in the 16th
century, and then blossomed between the 17th and 18th centuries, with three major philosophies
dominating: rationalism, empiricism, and transcendental philosophy as attributed to Rene
Descartes at the onset; Hume, Kant in between; and Ludwig Wittgenstein’s Philosophical
Investigations ending the period.
However, the world’s philosophical thinking started from all over the world even earlier,
and not as scientific and systematic as we know it today, but rather as religious, literary, and
superstitious thought.
Many of these nascent philosophical forms have remained in their original indigenous
structures while others have developed into more generalizable, highly abstract expressions that
– because of their fluidity of meaning – can be more reinterpreted and applied in various
contexts.
This criterion of universality of expression is what one of the major chasms that separate the
dominant tradition of Western philosophy from the rest of the world’s traditional philosophical
body of knowledge.
4.4 Key Concepts

The birth of modern philosophy can then be summarized as messy, uneven, and unscientific,
but certainly the work of many minds with contributions from different worlds, times, and
cultures. Mirroring its universal origins, philosophy has branched out into many universal fields
of human activity.
Modern philosophy is a complex field encompassing a wide range of human endeavors. For
an easier grasp of the various modern philosophical concepts, four groups are presented: theories
of reality or metaphysics, theories of right or ethics, theories of good or politics, and theories of
knowledge or epistemology.
These systems of thought try and define answers to some basic questions in metaphysics and
epistemology (See Table: Classification of Key Concepts in Modern Philosophy). The end goal
is “a clearer understanding of the philosophical underpinnings of our modern view of what the
world is like and how we come to know anything about it” (Illinois State University, 2014).
Table 43: Summary of Modern Philosophical Concepts
In Modern
Key Concepts Simplified Summaries
Filipino Culture?
Analytic logical methods result in clarity of knowing; philosophy should
No
Philosophy be consistent with scientifically proven knowledge (Wikipedia)
analyzing connections between texts and their meanings, as
Deconstructionism Yes
well as between meanings and their texts (Wikipedia)
Empiricism knowledge comes from what can be observed by the senses;
Yes
truth is based on what is observable (Wikipedia)
learning should focus cognitive & intellectual essentials , e.g.,
science81 & on current issues, e.g., preservation of culture &
Essentialism Yes
heritage; students passively receive while teachers provide
stimuli (Wikipedia)
philosophical thinking begins with the acting, feeling, and living
Existentialism human being; existence is more important than meaning; Yes
freedom and choice is of primary importance (Wikipedia)
a logical and systematic method of interpreting the written
Hermeneutics No
works of an author (Wikipedia)
liberty and equality are important to achieving the good life82
Liberalism Yes
(Wikipedia)
philosophical problems are only meaningful if logical analysis
Logical Positivism No
can solve them (Wikipedia)
education befits heavily industrialized societies;83 curriculum is
Modernism logical, sequential, w/ clear purposes, experiences, methods, &
Yes
evaluation systems; focus is on effectiveness, rationality and
measurable certainty (Wikipedia)
Monotheism belief in one, all-powerful god84 (Wikipedia) Yes
self-interest is a moral virtue; a better life is more important
Objectivism than social conventions; to achieve happiness, one must use Partly
reality, reason, self-interest, and capitalism85 (Wikipedia)
81
and less on art or athletics
82
Eureopeans give more importance to liberaty, while North Americans prioritize equality.
83
where individuals are controlled and have little choice
84
Examples of monotheist religions are Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
85
and not wish or whim
In Modern
Key Concepts Simplified Summaries
Filipino Culture?
education must prioritize disciplining the mind and the power of
reason based on universal knowledge; a curriculum is subject-
Perennialism Partly
oriented; teachers transmit knowledge to students; knowledge
is based on absolute truths from the past (Wikipedia)
a systematic method of thinking about knowledge and
Phenomenology experience from one’s own viewpoint; belief truth is what can Yes
be observed in objects and events (Wikipedia)
the belief that the world will always be incomplete and
undecided; a critical, strategic, and skeptical mindset that is
Postmodernism Yes
generally suspicious of reasons and ideologies that preserve
structures of power or control (Wikipedia)
a 20th Century movement in philosophy that is generally in
Poststructuralism
opposition to Structuralism (Wikipedia)
the belief that an idea is true if it works; that meaning is in the
Pragmatism practical results of believing the idea; that ideas that do not Yes
work are ignored (Wikipedia)
a method of systematic reasoning about abstract ideas that are
Metaphysics basic elements of the world, e.g., knowing, being, substance, No
cause, identity, time, space (Wikipedia)
the belief that opinions and actions should be based on reason
Scientific
and knowledge rather than on religious belief or emotional Partly
rationalism
response (Wikipedia)
education should aim to find solutions by re-envisioning social
Reconstructionism problems; teachers should advocate change that befit societies
in crisis; lessons should include national and world issues such
as unemployment, poverty, housing and health (Saidi, 2006)
Transcendental Ideas can be validated not only by going beyond what is
Yes
Idealism observable and measurable. 86
(also: pragmatism) Education: learner experience is more
important than subject content; how to think is more important
Progressivism than what to think; truth is relative, changing, incomplete and
Yes
not fixed or traditional. Use the scientific methods of problem
solving to find truths. Politics: government is a tool to address
social problems (Wikipedia)
Education: Instead of unity, certainty, and predictability, new
Post-Modernism meanings are created by emergent, fluid, chaotic & pluralistic
Partly
factors. Understanding one’s milieu requires clear and
systematic thought, usually using established knowledge
A tabular presentation of core concepts in modern Western Philosophy can, at a glance, help
Filipinos determine if similar mind-sets or beliefs are present in current Filipino thought. For
instance, the following table shows that a number of these concepts are present, echoed, parallel,
adapted or adopted. Perhaps these constructs are borrowed, transferred, or simply born out of
situational forces: Deconstructionism, Empiricism, Essentialism, Existentialism, Liberalism,
86
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Transcendental philosophy, at plato.stanford.edu
Modernism, Monotheism, Phenomenology, Postmodernism, Pragmatism, Transcendental

Idealism, and Progressivism.
To determine the origins of these influences or parallelisms would take more resources than
is available for this paper; other experts might be more successful at exploring this field of
inquiry.
The following table also shows that some modern philosophical concepts in the West do not
seem to be present in the general Filipino mindset: Analytic Philosophy, Hermeneutics, Logical
Positivism, and Metaphysics. In-depth research and analysis could determine the causative
framework which might be cultural differences, level of exposure or contact, lack of proponents,
or simply nonviability.
Likewise, the table would seem to indicate a few of foreign constructs that appear to be
partly in the Filipino cultures, including Objectivism, Perennialism, and Scientific rationalism.
Whether these partial usages are results of foreign influences or simply of historical parallelism
or not would be well within the province of this research. However, resource constraints indicate
that such notions would be better explored by better-resourced researchers.
These explorations of partial usage, complete absence, and conceptual parallelisms or

transfer perhaps, could yield significant information regarding the origins, formulation,
development, and articulation of Filipino philosophies.
The presence of full, partial, or zero connections might well be indicative of some of the
forces that shape the continuing development of Filipino thought, as well as shed light to past
forces that had influenced – or failed to do so – the ways that Filipinos relate to themselves, to
each other, and to the world.
To clarify the structural relationships of these core philosophical concepts, the following
table illustrates the fields of study on the first two rows, and the stars signify the involvement of
various key philosophical concepts in each field.
Table 44: Classification of Key Concepts in Modern Philosophy
Reality Epistemology Good Right Beauty

Key Philosophical Concepts
Metaphysics Knowledge Politics Ethics Aesthetics
Analytic Philosophy  
Deconstruction   
Empiricism  
Essentialism  
Existentialism    
Hermeneutics 
Liberalism    
Logical Positivism 
Modernism 
Monotheism  
Objectivism  
Perennialism  
Phenomenology  
Postmodernism    
Poststructuralism 
Pragmatism    
Progressivism 
Rationalism    
Reconstructionism     
Transcendental Idealism  
It should be noted that the preceding table is not indicative of an exhaustive study of the
philosophies. Rather, it is presented here as a preliminary overview of how a conceptual structure
might be designed for clarity.
4.5 Summary
Eastern philosophies originating from Jewish and Islamic religions generally focused on
ideas related to the nature of divinity, but most of the emphasis was on ethics, morality and
justice (Anon., 2012, Eastern Philosophy).87 Those from the West, on the other hand, focused
more on logic, reason, and individuality.
Between the 17th and early 20th centuries, modern philosophy spread in Western Europe
and North America starting with the advent of the philosophy of humanism, which advocated
methodological and logical reasoning to support personal dignity and independent thought
(Corpuz, 2015, p. 1).
Modern philosophy can be differentiated from those of other eras due to its three
characteristics: (a) Unlike the previous era focusing on theocentrism, it focuses on problems
regarding consciousness or subjectivity; (b) Unlike the dogmatic concept of critique, it focuses
on the epistemological concept of critique; and (c) Unlike the previous focus on the teleological
concept of the status quo, it focuses on the teleological concept of the historical progress of
mankind (Corpuz, p. 8). John Dewey (1859-1952) observed that modern philosophy requires
giving up the ―supernaturalism, fixed dogma, and rigid institutionalism‖ of Christianity during
that period (Simon & Schuster, 1931).
87
in http://www.philosophers.co.uk/
The influence of Spanish thought on native gáwï in the Philippine Archipelago has been
established as part of Filipino tradition. Succeeding influences include North American systems
of thinking which have been shaped by infusions from European, Arabic, and Asian sources.
Chapter 5: FOREIGN INFLUENCES
To offer practical structures for application in formal articulation of Filipino

philosophies as well as the clarify the nature of foreign influence on native
thought, this chapter (a) describes a typology of philosophical influences; (b)
describes some modes of thought transfer; (c) summarizes some established
cultural modalities of communication; (d) discusses how these modalities can
influence Filipino philosophic thought as evinced by observable behavior; and
(e) typifies some degrees of influence.
Understanding the logic behind Filipino behavior and decision-making is as important for
coping with observable phenomena today as it is for preventing problems in the future. Thus, this
chapter answers the third of the three questions. How does modern philosophy influence Filipino
philosophies?
The question implies not only the porous nature of principles that underlie human behavior
but also on the interchange of elements from one culture to another. This discussion of cultural
differences not only looks at the typology and degrees of influences, it also explores how modern
philosophies influence Filipino ways of being, doing, and relating.
Although there is no coherent articulation of how the Filipino mind conceptualizes truths in
these fields as a whole, the literature shows considerable foreign influences on gáwï (ways) all
over the Philippine archipelago which, in turn, can be indicative of foreign influences on national
thought. Historical proof abounds. Agreeing with historical evidence that supports this notion,
Pada quotes Cullum (1959) as saying that ―the tradition of philosophy in the Philippines is
marked by its connection with its colonizers, particularly that of Spain‖ and of Moslem seafarers
and traders during pre-Hispanic times (pp. 7-4).
At the advent of continental philosophy to the Philippines via Filipino scholars, foreign
influences on native thought were restricted. For instance, Pada notes Hornedo‘s claim that
―ideas of the French enlightenment and the Philosophe mentality did reach … during the 18th
century (but) … was restricted to the interest of Spanish gain and was intended for the cultural
gain of native Filipinos or Indios‖ (Hornedo, 2001). Today, in contrast, cultural porousness is
increased by instantaneous information access, so much so that one can only reflect on practices
that reflect foreign thought – determining actual foreign transfer and influence is not as easy (See
Table: Summary of Modern Philosophical Concepts).
In addition, Co is quoted as noting that, between the early 1950s and the late 1970s, foreign-
educated scholars introduced philosophy to Filipino society such as Emerita Quito who
introduced continental philosophy to the Philippines and said that, compared Greek philosophical
tradition, Filipino philosophy is inadequate ―as an authentic discourse‖ (Quito, 1979). While this
mentions a Filipino philosophy, Quito states that this has yet to be formally expressed.
Like Quito, Pada underscores the non-existence of a well-articulated Filipino philosophy.

For instance, he says that the more recent writings by Mercado and Timbreza are but attempts to
articulate Filipino philosophy by using quasi-ethnological approaches to create ―a unified
description of Filipino thought through various ethnic practices‖ (Pada, p. 4).
Scholars such as Hornedo, Abulad, Co, and Demeterio use the traditions of Western
philosophy to understand or analyze ―a Filipino Volksgeist,‖ an approach that can be described as
―notably productive‖ because these produced ―works that not only depict a kind of ‗Filipino
philosophy‘‖ but also – quite significantly – created Filipino philosophical discourse by Filipinos
(emphasis in the original). Again, the point is that a native philosophy is yet to be articulated.
The challenge of articulating native thought by using foreign notions has been analyzed by
several writers. For instance, Pada states that traditions of ethnology and Western philosophy are
incompatible platforms of exchange, particularly with philosophies from Filipino culture. He
emphasizes that description is not the province of philosophers but of ethnologists:
―… it would be impossible to simply talk about a discourse that has

its originary roots in Filipino culture. Philosophy, in general, is a connected
series of discourse that has been responding to various cultural traditions in
and out of a culture.‖ (Pada, p. 4)
Finally, Pada proposes that a Filipino philosophy should be articulated but in the Filipino
context; and that such attempts should not search for ―unitary convergences of ideas‖ but should,
instead, ―preserve cultural differences in languages, practices, and thought‖ (Pada, p. 4). The
suggested avenue would seem to focus on what is there rather than to hypothesize connections
within divergent cultural elements.
To sum up, there is tacit agreement that Filipino philosophy is extant. As well, there is
failure of its formal articulation. Finally, there is an urgent need for articulating existing Filipino
philosophies. However, there are no clear and specific procedures that can show Filipino thinkers
and writers how they might achieve this end. This paper attempts to help bridge this knowledge
gap and offer some practical ideas for the formal articulation of Filipino philosophies of being,
doing, and relating.
5.1 Typology of Philosophical Influence

This section discusses types of foreign influences on native philosophies. The influences
range from 100% (pure transfer) to 0% (rejection). In between are degrees that indicate how
much of a foreign element is transferred to an indigenous milieu. The following table assigns
arbitrary but regularly spaced values to differentiate foreign philosophical influences into
convenient typologies.
Table 45: Degrees of Foreign Transfer and Native Originality
Native Foreign 100% 75% 50% 25% 0%

Rejection 100% 
Indigenization 75% 
Assimilation 50% 
Modification 25% 
Transfer 0% 
This paper suggests four typologies: the transferred, the modified, the assimilated, and the
indigenized types of influences. The degrees of differentiation are according to the dominant
influence, which can be either foreign or local. By dominant influence, we mean the influence
that preserves most of its original form.
 Transfer: Transferred influence can be described as the 100% acceptance and use of
foreign construct & elements w/ little or no modification, thus 0% native content.
 Modification: Modified influence can be described as the infusion of familiar elements
into a foreign construct, resulting in about 75% foreign and about 25% indigenous
elements.
 Assimilation: Assimilated influence can be described as the modification of foreign
constructs into familiar elements, resulting in a mix of about 50% and 50%.
 Indigenization: Indigenized influences can be described as the transformation of foreign
elements and constructs, resulting in a unity of approximately 75% familiar and 25%
foreign elements and constructs.
It should be noted that the indigenization is a process over time, influenced by prevailing
mind-sets, ways of being, and ways of doing. Over time, it is subjected to changes so as to
improve ease of understanding, ease of use and efficiency of application, as well as to improve
quality of desired effects.
Table 46: Modification Process of Foreign Influence
Positive Transfer Foreign Modification Assimilation Indigenization Native

Foreign element 100% 75% 50% 25% 0%
Native element 0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
In addition, negative transfer can occur, as in rejection, which can be the creation of an
opposing or divergent construct; and rebellion, which is the complete non-use of the foreign
construct. Finally, reverse transfer can occur, which is when foreign elements are instead
modified by local elements.88
Table 47: Polarity of Foreign Influence Transfers
Negative Transfer Positive Transfer

Rebellion Rejection Reverse Transfer Acceptance Indigenization
Foreign element 0% 0% 0% 100% 0%
Native element 100% 100% 100% 0% 100%
Adventurous Ages 0% 100%
Perceived Benefitting 0% 100%
Traditional Ages 100% 0%
Perceived Threatening 100% 0%
Along the polarity range for phenomena related to foreign influences such as over native
philosophies, the preponderance of native over foreign elements indicate a low power-distance: it
is only at the one point of positive transfer of acceptance that high power-distance can occur.
5.2 Modes of Conceptual Transfer

Philosophy is a communication event involving articulation, transfer, and use of ideas.
Communication styles differ among cultures, markedly so between Asian and Western cultures,
as is discussed in the chapter on influences. It therefore follows that Filipino and Western
philosophical traditions differ, not only in modern forms but also in origin and development.
The following table shows that development factors can be shared although the elements
comprising each factor differ according to cultural milieu.
It should be noted that, compared to this preliminary model, a more comprehensive model
can be elicited through an extended investigation by future researchers. Meanwhile, this table is
useful as a theoretical framework for discussing explorations and analyses of philosophic
arguments.
While Filipino philosophy formed from practical phenomenology is a bottom-up process

that helps anticipate implementation issues for top-down abstractions such as precepts, rules, and
laws, it should be noted that Filipinos do have abstract, top-down-originated guidelines from
local and national governments, churches, and other organizations. The most effective of these
guidelines are those that are designed with implementation issues and Filipino logic in mind.
88
Due to extremely tight resource limitations, his paper reserves for future research all discussions relating negative and reverse transfer as well as those related to
degrees of foreign influence.
Table 48: Development of Filipino and Western Philosophies
Factors Filipino Philosophy Western Philosophy

Sources Communal events, cooperating individuals89 Individual thinkers
Triggers Practical situations that require answers or Observations that are generalized and
solutions logically described
Use, solutions or answers that work Recording, logically-described
immediately observations
Validation Consensus, decision and application Consensus on logic and viability
Environment Urgent situations requiring fast or immediate Leisurely observation, general phenomena
reaction
Native The native language can express real and The native language can express abstract
Language practical concepts and theoretical concepts
Preservation Media for recording ideas cannot withstand Media for recording ideas can last for
natural deterioration; singular locations can ages; multiple locations can ensure
be destroyed by local turmoil preservation despite local turmoil
Time Element Little or no time for long deliberations or for Sufficient time for formal logical thought
formal recording and detailed recording
Cabrera, J. A. (3/4/2016)
For instance, Filipino philosophy expressed in literary language such as salawikain (folk
sayings), puns, jokes, and riddles are not perceived as emanating from authority but from folk
wisdom, thus there is little or no tendency to find flaws, holes, or ways to subvert authority. On
the other hand, a critical conceptual gap exists between oral, grassroots concepts and authority-
issued rules issued in writing. This research helps address this lack of written, phenomena-based
literature on Filipino philosophy that can be a critical factor in the success or failure of
implementing laws, programs, and projects.
5.3 Cultural Modalities of Communication

Formal articulation and influence-transfer of philosophical notions are necessarily
influenced by the source milieu (Stubbs, n.d.; Gudykunst & Nishida, 1999; Nordby, 2008). From
Hall‘s theory of high/low context cultures, we deduce that when communication results in
widespread and common understanding – as in the case of national or cultural principles or
philosophies – such understanding is based on commonalities in communication cultures (Hall,
1959, 1966, 1976, 1983).
In a 2013 study of high- and low-context societies, Garnijanto and Elvin found that
cognitive, affective, and normative phenomena are different, based on one‘s cultural context and
upbringing (p.3). For instance, in some types of environments, principles or philosophies are not
89
Such shared beliefs can be transformed into philosophy as understood by readers schooled in or familiar with Western philosophy when the shared belief is
expressed in a common language, which may or may not use symbols, structures, and terminology derived from Western philosophy.
created by communities rather than by individuals, such as the differences of philosophic thought
between Agusan and Athens.
The literature indicates that behavior and communication differences between cultures have
been dissected at length. For instance, quoting Nisbett et al. (2001), Yama & Zakaria (N. D., p. 1)
note that ―Easterners are more likely to use holistic thinking to solve problems, whereas
Westerners are more likely to use analytic thinking‖ and that ―Western culture favors
independent self-construal (individualist culture) and Eastern culture favors interdependent self-
construal (collectivist culture).‖
Concisely describing the gap between foreign and native communication, Ihator quotes
Shapard (1990) as saying that ―Cultural assumptions always exist as shadows in the background‖
because these are ―often associated with mental images, subtleties, and nuances‖ thus, as a result,
―words do not often have shared common meaning, especially between native and non-native
speakers‖ (p.40).
Among the elements in the taxonomy of influence (Aardsma, 2016), which categorizes
influences into personal and interpersonal, is the notion of viral influence which he defines as an
―individual interpersonal influence that may start small but spreads exponentially, like
influencing two people who each influence two people, and so on‖ (p. 1). This concept is
particularly relevant in examining the subtle interplay of philosophical influences in today‘s
cultures. However, research scope and limitations dictate that this concept be for future research.
Meanwhile, Hofstede‘s research into the types of influences at play in various cultures has
been criticized for, among others, lack of specificity as well as for sweeping generalizations
(Nadia, 2012).
However, Hofstede‘s theory of cultural dimensions not only offers a framework of

understanding cross-cultural communication, it also offers a convenient general typology of ―the
effects of a society‘s culture on the values of its members, and how this values relate to
behavior‖ (Wikipedia).90
5.3.1 Clarity and Ambiguity

In high-context cultures such as in the Philippines and its neighboring countries, answers to
questions can be intentionally vague. However, in low-context cultures such as in North
America, ―a direct question usually solicits a direct‖ Direct answers in the negative are
―considered impolite‖ so other ways of uttering a negative response are used, such as in non-
90
Hofstede‘s Cultural Dimensions Theory, Wikipedia; Electronic document available at wikipedia.com
verbal ways, e. g., ―folding of the hands with trepidation, silence, or lack of eye contact‖ (Kenton
& Valentine, 1997, p. 12).
Direct expression is required in philosophical articulation. The aforementioned abilities in

academic English language allows for direct yet inoffensive communication, even more so in
general and at the abstract level, which is characteristic of philosophical statements.
Like other low-context countries, communication in the USA, Scandinavia, and Germany
places greater emphasis on words, so much so that ―every effort is made to communicate
unambiguously‖ whether in spoken or written words to that the message is clear from the words
themselves and not ―from non-verbal behavior cues, or social and physical contexts‖ so as to
avoid misinterpretation or misunderstanding due to ambiguities of meaning. This is particularly
critical in official as well as in legal writings, Ihator (2000) citing Shapard (1990) notes where
literal meaning is conveyed through explicit and categorical verbal messages.
On the other hand, communication in high-context countries such as the Philippines does not
depend on utterances alone. Written and spoken words alike are not enough to convey
completeness of message transfer.
Even more important are nonverbal communication and relationships between senders and
receivers. Indirect language should be expected as the norm. For instance, Filipino
communication tends to include metaphors, aphorism, circumlocutions, anecdotes, or literary
language (Ihator, 2000, p. 40).
Furthermore, citing Doi (1982), Ihator discusses how meaning is completed in a verbal
message by factors such as the ―perception of the message sender, nonverbal cues, social and
physical contexts‖ so much so that the receiver of the message must mentally fill in blanks; one
who ―relies too much on words, without regard to external cues, may not quantitatively and
qualitatively communicate‖ (p.40).
Thus, in articulating Filipino philosophies, the Filipino writer must overcome the reverse
challenge of explicitly verbalizing all of that which is implied, and of using words to pin down
abstractions as well as to record generalizations of concrete, specific phenomena.
5.3.2 Contextual Connection and Isolation

Thus, to someone from a low-context environment, communicating in Asia can be
unnecessarily complex to the point of confusion. For instance, communication ―is not an isolated
event‖ but serves to affirm warm and harmonious relationships in the past; as well as show ―an
expression of appreciation, humble obedience, respect, and eternal gratefulness,‖ says Ihator
(2000, p. 40), who notes Zaharna (1995) who describes this type of communication as
emphasizing ―form over function, effect over accuracy, and image over meaning‖ as well as
Varner St. Beaner (1995) who adds the characteristics of ―harmony, face-giving and face-saving,
status, and ambiguity‖ in high-context communication (p. 40).
Philosophical articulations are constructs that are necessarily rooted in their milieu.
Hellinistic environments, for instance, created the observations of Plato and Aristotle. This
contextual continuity are implied rather than stated; this can be a characteristic of Filipino
philosophies when finally articulated in acceptable forms.
5.3.3 Information Flow and Control

Aside from the creation, transfer of, and responding to information, the flow of information
differs as well. Ihator cites Lane, DiStefano, and Maznevski (1997, p.73), who say that low-
context countries, such as the USA, Switzerland, and Germany tend to highly focus,
compartmentalize, and control information. As a result, information does not flow as freely as in
high-context societies such in Spain, Japan, and France. There, ―information spreads rapidly and
moves almost as if it had a life of its own.‖
This multidirectional flow of information in high-context societies indicates that there is

open communication at all times among members. In comparison, business information in low-
context culture is usually directed to the concerned parties (2000, p. 41).
The academic, abstract, as well as the generalized language of philosophical utterances are
built-in controls that restrict understanding to particular circles: thinkers, philosophers,
researchers, and academics, but only those with the appropriate background and vocabulary. It is
this limiting language that is taken as standard tradition, so much so that concrete examples such
as anecdotes and simpler language such as aphorisms and folk sayings are needed for popular
understanding.
Elevating the expression of Filipino folk wisdom into philosophical expressions might
logically seem to cater to limited, specific audiences. However, within that circle, the common
belief is that there is no Filipino philosophy precisely because these are not expressed as such.
Using the specialized language of philosophy will, instead, cause the widespread understanding
of Filipino thought among the cognoscenti.
5.3.4 Power-distance Index (PDI)

PDI measures how much the less powerful (the poor) accept and expect an unequal power
structure in their societies or groups.
 High Power-Distance: A higher power-distance indicates that

hierarchy is clearly established and executed without doubt or
reason.
 Low Power-Distance: A lower power-distance signifies that people

question authority and attempt to change the power distribution and
redistribute power.
Citing Kenton & Valentine (1997), Ihator notes that flexibility is a key trait of high-context
culture. For instance, there is the belief that ―laws can be shaped by circumstances‖ ; that tasks
are functions of relationships; that decisions must be made within relationships; and detailed
information is not an emphasized requirement (2000, p. 40). In Japan, for example, verbal and
non-verbal communication modes go together. Japanese ―are very sensitive to the atmosphere
pervading human relationships‖ (Doi, 1982, p.219).
In the challenge of articulating Filipino philosophies according to the standard traditions of

Western philosophical structures of language and logic, the Filipino must diminish this cultural
mindset of power-distance, first by repositioning the writer from receiver of a culture that is
perceived as superior into the position of a creator of a native culture that is perceived as equal, if
not superior.
Initial analysis can indicate that foreign philosophical influences would easily affect Filipino
thought, particularly from cultures that are perceived as superior to Filipino cultures (high
power-distance). On the other hand, if the middle class see these influences as threatening
elements in the hierarchy of human needs, there will be mass reactions that will shake the power
structure.
If threats to lower-level human needs are perceived by the majority poor, the reactions can
be more violent (low power-distance). If no threats are seen, the transfer of a philosophical
influence can continue and develop (See Table: Degrees of Transfer of Foreign Influences). In
the course of this transfer and development, pragmatic survivalism can combine with other
mindsets and determine how much modification the influence will undergo (See Table:
Modification of Foreign Influences).
Power-distance shapes communication in high-context cultures. When communication

participants are separated by a ―substantial power-distance,‖ the use of ―symbols, protocol and
formal forms of address‖ can be significant. On the other hand, countries with low-context
cultures generally follow the law literally, detail facts and statistics, separate work from
relationships, and value ―individual initiative and decision-making‖ (Ihator, Ibid.).
5.3.4.1 PDI and Filipino Mind-Sets

Hofstede‘s supporters and detractors might find rich notional gems in Philippine society,
which would seem to be quite difficult to pin down with a label regarding power-distance. For
instance, in major cities and among the well-educated and the well-traveled as well as among
those in power, with influence or significant real properties and assets, observable behavior
indicates low power-distance. In more rural areas and among populations with less education,
travel, power, influence, or possess little or no properties and assets, Filipinos would behave in
ways that indicate high power-distance.
The Philippines is a matriarchal society in that it is the women who manage the homes.
However, it is the male family name that is taken on by the female in marriage, and it is men
who occupy most positions of power. Between genders, however, females may be observed to
exhibit behaviors that indicate higher power-distance while males indicate lower power-
distances. Between age groups, younger Filipinos show higher power-distance towards those in
higher age groups while older ones show lower power-distance towards younger people. These
relationships shift between those in power and those governed.
Table 49: Power Distance and Filipino Mindsets
Filipino Society Power-Distance

Groups Subgroups High Average Low Total
Visionary Roles 0 0 1 1
Leadership Roles 0 0 1 1
By Power Roles
Management Roles 0 1 0 1
Follower Roles 1 0 0 1
Young Roles 1 0 0 1
Young Adult Roles 0 1 0 1
By Age Roles
Adult Roles 0 1 0 1
Aged Roles 0 0 1 1
Masculine Roles 0 0 1 1
By Gender Roles Feminine Roles 1 0 0 1
Transgender Roles 0 1 0 1
Cooperative Roles 1 0 0 1
By Sense of
Fence-sitting Roles 0 1 0 1
Belonging
Iconoclastic Roles 0 0 1 1
Rich 0 0 1 1
By Disposable
Middle Class 0 0 1 1
Assets
Poor 1 0 0 1
Graduate Level 0 0 1 1
College Level 0 1 0 1
By Education Voc-Tech Level 1 0 0 1
Levels High School Level 0 1 0 1
Elementary Level 1 0 0 1
None 1 0 0 1
TOTALS 8 7 8 23
Historically, the periodic revolutions against governance (See Table: Summary of Filipino
Revolts and Rebellions) indicate that Filipinos do question authority and attempt to redistribute
power, which would indicate a low level of power-distance. However, in the longer periods of
relative peace in between, Philippine society has a very high power-distance; from families to
governments, between class structures and inferior-superior distinctions of status or appearance,
hierarchies are implicit, understood, and accorded automatic respect and obedience.
Although the general Filipino culture can be described as traditionally high in power-
distance, there are strong influences from the low power-distance cultures of North America and
Europe – albeit balanced by the high power-distance of Moslem and other religious cultures.
Furthermore, although there is increasing competitiveness due to widespread poverty, increasing
populations, and decreasing resources that demands more self-assertion (low power-distance) but
there is an underlying pragmatic fatalism, a belief in the uncertain forces of fate and
circumstance (high power-distance exists).
Thus, although it might be observed that, although more self-centered elements Filipino
mindsets such as pragmatism and survivalism are increasing in dominance, the group-oriented
elements of Filipino mindsets such as communication and cooperation will be preserved.
However, this dynamic tension can and will form Filipino philosophies that are still being shaped
by technology innovations, changing values and beliefs, evolving cultures and behavior patterns.
The preceding table indicates an almost equidistant distribution of general group mindsets
related to high, average, and low power-distances in Philippine society as a whole. The numeric
content of this table is based on arbitrary data and is included in this paper for the sole purpose of
presenting a draft framework for future research and application in hierarchic analysis.
5.3.4.2 PDI and Foreign Influence
In the generally high power-distance of Philippine society and its subgroups, do foreign
philosophies have a strong influence over Filipino philosophies?
Within the interplay of tensions between coexisting but opposing power-distances in a

traditionally high-power-distance society, proof can be found arguing for high levels of influence
coming from foreign ideas and shaping Filipino habits of thinking, beliefs, mental strategies, and
values – particularly from cultures that Filipinos see as superior to theirs.
However, the historical tendency to revolt and change existing power structures are
activated when systems that meet human needs (See Figure: Hierarchy of Human Needs) need
protection from perceived threats, particularly when those threats as clearly seen as emanating
from particular human entities. Although threats to the lower hierarchies of human needs will
elicit faster reactions, those whose higher-level human needs are consistently satisfied will better
foresee such threats.
In the case of foreign influences on Filipino philosophic thought, it might be observed that
those who are more engaged in meeting lower-level human needs would display little obvious
concern regarding philosophic notions (higher power-distance). However, among those who are
more engaged in meeting the higher levels of human needs, there will be more individuals who
actively engage in philosophic notions (lower power-distance).
Population-wise, most of the country is poor (high power-distance). However, more

gatekeepers of influence exist among the minority affluent, as well as among the growing
middle-class groups (low power-distance). In such a dynamic setting, it can be difficult to say
whether foreign influences will exert weaker or stronger effects on Filipino ways of being, doing,
and relating (See Table: Polarity of Foreign Influence Transfers).
5.3.5 Individualism and Collectivism (IDV)

IDV measures how tightly or how loosely societies can integrate their individual members
into groups.
 High Individualism, Low Collectivism: Individualistic societies

emphasize the ―I‖ more than the ―we.‖ Loose ties often only relate
individuals to immediate family members.
 High Collectivism, Low Individualism: Collectivist societies

emphasize the ―we‖ more than the ―I.‖ Tightly-integrated
relationships tie extended families and others into in-groups. In-
group members are connected with undoubted loyalty. They support
each other when a conflict arises with another in-group.
Most Filipinos ground their identities from either familial or organizational affiliation
where, most often, ―Collective value system, goals and aspiration take precedence over those of
individuals‖ (Ihator, 2000, p. 41). Compared to people from low-context cultures, Filipinos ―tend
to be less assertive and be governed by the group norm.‖ Citing Hofstede (1980), Ihator notes
this as ―low individualism‖ where membership in a group is highly valued. As well, the social
system shapes or provides individual identity as well as claims achievements of individuals for
the group (Ibid.).
In articulating Filipino philosophies, the Filipino writer must transcend the native cultural
boundaries that restrict solitary ingenuity and creativity. This is acceptable practice now as the
required specialized knowledge and expert skills are acknowledged to be the province of a few.
Inventors and innovators are acknowledged as authorities in their fields, possessing gifts that are
not found among the many.
With this realization, native philosophizing can lose the language patterns elicited by
cultural power-distance to the point that philosophical articulations are equal to traditional forms.
5.3.5.1 IDV and Filipino Mind-Sets
Generally, Filipino societies are highly collective, as is Filipino society as a whole. Self-
identity is generally dependent on perceived social perceptions.
Table 50: IDV and Filipino Mindsets
High Collectivism High Individualism

Filipino Society
Low Individualism Low Collectivism
Groups Subgroups High Average Low High Average Low
Visionary Roles 0 0 1 1 0 0
By Power Leadership Roles 0 1 0 0 1 0
Roles Management Roles 1 0 0 0 0 1
Follower Roles 1 0 0 0 0 1
Young Roles 1 0 0 0 0 1
By Age Young Adult Roles 1 0 0 0 0 1
Roles Adult Roles 1 0 0 0 0 1
Aged Roles 0 1 0 0 1 0
Masculine Roles 1 0 0 0 0 1
By Gender
Feminine Roles 1 0 0 0 0 1
Roles
Transgender Roles 1 0 0 0 0 1
Cooperative Roles 1 0 0 0 0 1
By Sense of
Fence-sitting Roles 0 1 0 0 1 0
Belonging
Iconoclastic Roles 0 0 1 1 0 0
By Rich 0 1 0 0 1 0
Disposable Middle Class 0 1 0 0 1 0
Assets Poor 1 0 0 0 0 1
Graduate Level 0 0 1 1 0 0
College Level 0 1 0 0 1 0
By
Voc-Tech Level 1 0 0 0 0 1
Education
High School Level 1 0 0 0 0 1
Levels
Elementary Level 1 0 0 0 0 1
None 1 0 0 0 0 1
Totals 14 6 3 3 6 14
When Filipinos strongly perceive their positive sense of belonging – membership – in any
group, be it family, kinship, peer group, career group, interest group, cultural group, language
group, national group, or citizenship; they exhibit instantaneously collective behavior with the
other members of that group. This can indicate a high possibility of success for positively-
perceived foreign influences.
The preceding table indicates an unequal distribution of general group perceptions related
collectivism and individualism in Philippine society as a whole, skewed towards high
collectivism and low individualism, but with a significant group engaging in flexible behavior.
It should be noted that the results are divided into two columns, each of which is subdivided
into three subcolumns. The purpose is to mirror the results as a form of instant cross-check of
accuracy of data entry in the first column. If the added totals of one column do not mirror the
totals in the other column, this is indicative of erroneous data entry in one or the other.
Furthermore, the numeric content of this table is based on arbitrary data and is included in
this paper for the sole purpose of presenting a draft framework for future research and
application in hierarchic analysis.
5.3.5.2 IDV and Foreign Influence
In the generally high collectiveness of Philippine society and its subgroups, do foreign
philosophies have strong influence over Filipino philosophies?
Because collective societies display strong behavior patterns such as trends, fashions
particularly among the impressionable and the adventurous age levels, foreign influences over
Filipino thought would be stronger over the younger generation but weaker over the older and
more traditional groups.
Historically, Filipinos acknowledge their need for human support systems in terms of
emotional and social well-being. However, the significant increase of population in high-density
cities and towns where singlehood, anonymity and fleeting relationships are the norm, behavior
patterns are changing towards more of individualism, self-centered competitiveness. As well,
increases in family dysfunction brought about by modern civilizations, lifestyles, and careers
also create individuals with self-centered mindsets. Such phenomena would indicate that
influences of foreign thought would be more at individual levels than at group or community
levels, unless mass media is extensively used for message repetition, and sustained over time
enough to influence behavior.
As in the other indices, foreign influences that are more likely to be perceived as adding
value to personal well-being would be able to exert stronger influence. However, foreign
influences that are seen as threats to human needs providers can be received with negative mind-
sets ranging from ignoring or dismissing to antipathy and rejection, (See Table: Polarity of
Foreign Influence Transfers).
As in the preceding indices, foreign concepts that promise positive experiences for all
Philippine groups and subgroups are likely to be more influential than those that are perceived to
only benefit some groups. In addition, foreign influences would be more likely to achieve quick
initial acceptance if a high number of Filipino elements are easily identifiable.
5.3.6 Uncertainty Avoidance and Tolerance (UAI)

UAI measures a society's tolerance for ambiguity, a people‘s tendency to embrace or to avert
novel, unknown, or unexpected events.
 High Uncertainty-Avoidance, Low Uncertainty-Acceptance: A

higher UAI indicates societies with set behavior codes, guidelines,
and laws. , and generally rely on one absolute Truth that dictates
everything and people know what it is.
 High Uncertainty-Acceptance, Low Uncertainty-Avoidance: A

lower UAI indicates more acceptances of differences in ideas.
People are more used to ambiguity; societies tend to impose fewer
regulations; and environments tend to be more free-flowing.
5.3.6.1 UAI and Filipino Mind-Sets
Generally, Filipino societies have a high tolerance for ambiguity and for unexpected events.
Filipinos take in their stride and adjust to sudden accidents and death; rolls of dice and turns of
luck and fate; typhoons and earthquakes or fires and crime; sweet-talking politicians turned
corrupt or abusive.
Filipino society as a whole has low uncertainty-avoidance. Filipinos visit other homes
without prior appointment. This is especially true among members of the population whose
primary engagements are with providing basic-level human needs.
However, those who engage in higher level human needs such as leaders, decision-makers,
and high-earning professionals – particularly those whose time is precious and limited – prefer
predictability, order, and routine and value schedules, appointments, as well as established, well-
defined functions, identities, values, and measures.
As well, clearly articulated goals and unambiguous guides, laws, and regulations are
preferred, particularly by those who have higher levels of education as well as more exposure to
societies with high levels of uncertainty avoidance.
5.3.6.2 UAI and Foreign Influence

In the generally high uncertainty-acceptance and low uncertainty-rejection mindset of

Philippine society and its subgroups, do foreign philosophies have strong influence over Filipino
philosophies?
Among the young and among those who have less to lose, dealing with uncertainties has the
flavor of adventurism. They would enjoy the thrill of engaging with possibilities and would
consider established realities as humdrum. Thus, new concepts that are suddenly revealed as
possibly advantageous will be entertained. Trends and fashions would be tried, mostly among the
impressionable and the adventurous members.
However, among those who are responsible for providing products or services to large
populations, as well as those with considerable investment in such endeavors, would prefer more
stable and predictable conditions. They would exhibit more cautious behavior and would take
more time for deliberation and consideration of novel elements.
In addition, those who live in less populated areas and are used to highly stability
environments and ways as well as and slower changes of status quo would be most resistant to
changes in mindsets and mental habits. Foreign influences that are accepted would involve more
individuals but be spread over a wider land area.
In comparison, those who live in highly populated areas where fast and ephemeral
interactions are common phenomena would be more likely to display behaviors indicative of
mental receptiveness towards new ideas. Foreign influences that are accepted would be spread
over a wider land area but involve less people.
Historically, Filipinos have rebelled against authoritarian regimes and oppressive colonizers
that resulted in high perceptions of uncertainty in their futures as well as in their basic needs. In
balance, Filipinos have developed attitudinal flexibility towards natural vagaries such as disasters
caused by weather and nature.
It can therefore be assumed that Filipinos would be less accepting of uncertainties caused by
controllable elements (such as individual human behavior), and would be more tolerant of
uncertainties caused by forces beyond one‘s control (such as weather and mass behavior).
It can also be argued that, among the younger generations in larger cities, foreign influences
over Filipino thought would be stronger among a greater number of people. The older and more
traditional groups would most likely be tolerant – if not dismissive - of such behavior patterns in
young people. There might be a display of healthy skepticism among the adult population before
even considering testing new concepts.
The table indicates an unequal distribution of general group perceptions related to

uncertainty avoidance and acceptance in Philippine society as a whole. The totals shown would
be indicative of a non-homogenous mindset with regards to accepting uncertain situations.
Table 51: UAI and Filipino Mindsets
High Uncertainty-Avoidance High Uncertainty- Acceptance

Filipino Society
Low Uncertainty-Acceptance Low Uncertainty- Avoidance
Groups Subgroups High Average Low Total High Average Low Total
By Gender
Roles
By Sense of
Belonging
By Rich 1 0 0 0 0 1
By
Education
Levels
None 1 0 0 0 0 1
Totals 10 6 8 8 6 10
Although the historical inheritance of mental flexibility would expectedly skew the totals
towards higher uncertainty acceptance, the larger and more influential groups in high-population
areas would result in higher totals of people with mindsets characterized by high uncertainty-
avoidance. This might be indicated of a trend towards changes of traditionally expected
mindsets.
It should be noted that the results are divided into two columns, each of which is subdivided
into three subcolumns. The purpose is to mirror the results as a form of instant cross-check of
accuracy of data entry in the first column. If the added totals of one column do not mirror the
totals in the other column, this is indicative of erroneous data entry in one or the other.
Foreign ideas that are perceived as more likely to result in positive experiences for all
Philippine groups and subgroups would be strongly influential compared to those that are
perceived as only benefiting or favoring some groups. Furthermore, if foreign influences are
perceived as adding value to the good life or to personal well-being, foreign influence would
likely be stronger. Foreign influences that place some groups at an advantage and place others at
a disadvantage; as well as those that might threaten the provisioning of human needs, will most
likely have less influence (See Table: Polarity of Foreign Influence Transfers).
However, Filipinos are most likely to try out new concepts (See Table: Degrees of Transfer
of Foreign Influences) before they begin the process of accept or rejection of foreign influences.
Trying out would mean, for instance, modification towards indigenization, or observing how
things work out over a period of time. Thus, in general, it can be argued that conditional
acceptance would be the initial Filipino mindset towards new concepts in their native milieus.
5.3.7 Masculinity and Femininity (MAS)

MAS measures how individual members of societies preserve relationships between
individuals and between groups.
 High Femininity – Low Masculinity: indicates societies that prefer

cooperation, modesty, caring for the weak, and quality of life.
Women share modest and caring views equally with men. Spiritual
rewards are considered more valuable and lasting than material
rewards.
 High Masculinity – Low Femininity: indicates societies that prefer

material rewards for success, achievement, heroism, and
assertiveness. Women are more emphatic and competitive, but gap
between male and female values are recognized. In in highly
masculine societies, there are no such gaps.
Citing Harris and Moran (1991), Ihator says that the ―group is the most important part of
society and is emphasized for motivation. Equity is more important than wealth‖ (2000, p. 41).
Thus it is that the Pilipino language exemplifies communication in collectivistic societies.
Utterances avoid ―arguments or debates that have the potential to disrupt communication‖ unlike
the communication practices in low-context countries where ―debates are welcomed … because
they provide an opportunity for all sides of an issue to be discussed. There is an open market of
ideas.
In comparison, Filipino cultures frown on individual competitiveness, change, or challenge.

However, group competition, change, and challenges are considered as acceptable collectivist
practice (Ibid., p. 39). Collectivist societies are high-context and tend ―towards the maintenance
of the status quo, social symbols, harmony, and collaboration (Ihator, 2000, p. 39).
In the Philippine‘s Late Modern Period, however, the ―culture of competitiveness

permeates‖ due to influences from the individualistic system of the USA. Now, there is an
increasing tendency for ―politics, economics, and markets‖ to be competitive where ―individuals,
organizations, and ideas compete against each other,‖ and where ―individual leaders are praised
or rebuked for the success or failure of an organization.‖
Still, in more traditional circles such as those found outside the major cities, the
collectivistic system rules so that ―competition is managed and controlled, and there is collective
success or failure, praise or blame‖ (Ihator, 2000, p. 39).
Hall (1976) termed this ―high-context and low-context communication systems.‖ He defines
high-context (HC) messages as where ―most of the information is either in the physical context
or internalized in the person‖ but ―very little is in the coded, explicit, transmitted part of the
message.‖ On the other hand, he defines low-context (LC) communication as where ―the mass of
the information is vested in the explicit code‖ (p.79).
The educated, sophisticated modern Filipino is articulate enough in the English language to
the point of being able to use English at the near-native level, if not better in terms of syntax,
grammar, and vocabulary. In addition, academic language – which is required in philosophical
articulation – contains techniques that can preclude offense, such as formal expressions, hedging,
abstraction, and generalization.
5.3.7.1 MAS and Filipino Mind-Sets
Male Filipinos might find this theory‘s nomenclature as problematic, certainly unproductive;
femininity is seen as a weakness and the province of women. Likewise, female Filipinos equate
heroism, success, and achievement as not limited by gender but rather by character and ability.
Henceforth, where more effective, this paper will use ―hard‖ instead of ―masculine‖ and ―soft‖
instead of ―feminine‖.
Generally, Filipino societies highly value the softer elements of this theory. Traditional
gender roles that equate soft mindsets with females and hard mindsets with males are changing,
so much so that male roles are unabashedly portrayed as crying, caring for children, or engaged
in housework that has been the traditional domain of women.
Behaviors that transcend this hard-soft dichotomy seem to be held in high esteem. Example
of this include men who cook, women who drive public utility vehicles, people who fulfill both
fatherly and motherly roles, babaylans, hard-hitting women such as Senator Miriam Defensor
Santiago who is an elected judge of the International Criminal Court; and empathetic men such
as TV show host Vice Ganda as well as singer Gary Valenciano. However, they are seen as
exceptions; the norm and the ideal remain masculine men and feminine women.
However, living amidst struggles and unpredictability has created a widespread

understanding about having an array of multiple mindsets at ready. Thus, one can display
behavior indicative of soft characteristics at one time, and choose to display behaviors indicative
of hard traits at another time. Politicians who kiss babies and plunder the national treasury are as
familiar as mothers who kiss babies and paddle their bottoms for misbehavior.
As a side note, a case might be argued for the value that general Filipino mindsets accord to
those that transcend bifurcation, and particularly to those that successfully get away with it.
5.3.7.2 MAS and Foreign Influence
In the generally high femininity of Philippine society and its subgroups, do foreign
The table indicates an almost polarized distribution of general group mindsets related to
feminine and masculine orientations in Philippine society as a whole. The society might tend
towards its traditionally soft orientation but the opposite is close; there is a growing trend
towards hard orientation in modern times.
The preceding paragraphs discuss the high value accorded to getting away with consistently
iconoclastic behavior. In this connection, philosophies are abstract and flexible enough to be a
rich breeding ground for debate. It might even be argued that foreign mental models that
transcend gender and hard-soft categorization would be helpful in helping Filipinos achieve
longed-for unities of culture, national awareness, feeling, and action.
However, despite the high value given to successful iconoclasm, traditional paradigms reign
strong. Thus, foreign concepts of definite orientations would be more likely to influence Filipino
mindsets than amorphous concepts. On the other hand, concepts that are flexible enough to
bridge dichotomies can have equal – if not better – chances of influencing Filipino thought.
Traditionalists might insist, however, that foreign notions that mirror local notions would be
more influential than those that are markedly different.
Table 52: MAS and Filipino Mindsets
High Feminine Orientation High Masculine Orientation

Filipino Society
Low Masculine Orientation Low Feminine Orientation
By Gender
Roles
By Sense of
Belonging
By Rich 0 0 1 1 0 0
By
Education
Levels
None 1 0 0 0 0 1
Totals 9 3 11 11 3 9
It should be noted that the results in the preceding table are divided into two columns, each
of which is subdivided into three subcolumns. The purpose is to mirror the results as a form of
instant cross-check of accuracy of data entry in the first column. If the added totals of one
column do not mirror the totals in the other column, this is indicative of erroneous data entry in
one or the other.
5.3.8 Long-term vs. Short-term Orientation (LTO)

LTO measures how individual members of societies relate themselves to scenarios that have
happened, are happening, or will happen. This measures the connection between past, current,
and future actions or challenges.
 High Short-Term, Low Long-Term Orientation: A low measure

(short-term) indicates that traditions are honored and kept;
steadfastness is valued.
 High Long -Term, Low Short-Term Orientation: A high measure

(long-term) indicates societies that prefer adaptation; circumstantial
and pragmatic problem-solving. A poor country with short-term
orientation may have little to no economic development while long-
term oriented countries may to develop.
5.3.8.1 LTO and Filipino Mindsets
Historically, Filipino mindsets have developed a short-term orientation to cope with the
periodic ravages of nature and the whims of fate, luck, and circumstance. However, as societies
became more stable and individuals were able to value longer periods of their pasts as well as to
predict longer periods of relatively stable, positive futures, investments in the present grew.
In addition, the rebellions and revolts that dot Filipino history show how Filipinos are able
to connect the track record of poor leadership to future debilitating events. Reputation is built on
past events by present actions; reputation also determines ease as well as conveniences in future
endeavors.
Along with a growing awareness of international relations and future repercussions of

present events; as well as ease of information access particularly past events and future
projections, Filipinos are increasingly able to meld hindsight and foresight with current decision
processes.
Between genders, the biological roles and responsibilities of women are naturally
predisposed towards determining the values of present and past phenomena for their addition of
value to future phenomena. Caring for elements in the past can be connected to present results
that can be projected into positive futures further beyond.
On the other hand, adult males may generally have shorter fuses than females, making them
biologically suitable for providing quick solutions to urgent needs. Thus, they might be more
predisposed towards present than past or future considerations.
5.3.8.2 LTO and Foreign Influence
In the generally short-term orientation of Philippine society and its subgroups, do foreign
The short attention-spans of young age groups as well as the ego-centered mindsets of
young adults would be more receptive of foreign influences that cater to instant and present
urgencies. However, the more mature and traditional age groups would be more open to foreign
notions that promise predictable, stable, and positive futures.
Table 53: MAS and Filipino Mindsets
High Short-Term Orientation High Long –Term Orientation

Filipino Society Grand
Low Long-Term Orientation Low Short-Term Orientation
Total
By Gender
Roles
By Sense of
Belonging
By Rich 0 0 1 1 0 0
By
Education
Levels
None 1 0 0 0 0 1
Totals 9 7 7 7 7 9
The table indicates a near-homogenous distribution of general group mindsets related to

long-term and short-term orientations in Philippine society as a whole. Such results can indicate
a general tendency to connect past and future with present phenomena.
of which are subdivided into three subcolumns. The purpose is to mirror the results as a form of
one or the other. Furthermore, the numeric content of this table is based on arbitrary data and is
included in this paper for the sole purpose of presenting a draft framework for future research
and application in hierarchic analysis.
In the provinces and rural areas where change is slow and relationships are lasting, most
traditions are firmly rooted. Food producers go with the changes of the seasons and the
immediate needs of friends and families; looking too far into the future may not be considered
efficient practice considering the vagaries of nature. One might then argue for ideas from
cultures that place a high value on tradition and stability as having a higher degree of influence
than ideas from other sources.
However, those in stable fiscal conditions and those in positions of power and considerable
investment develop tendencies of thought that reach far into possible futures. It can be argued
that notions from countries with high future orientation would be well received and considered.
5.3.9 Indulgence vs. Restraint (IND)

This dimension is essentially a measure of happiness; whether or not simple joys are
fulfilled.
 High-Indulgence, Low-Restraint: Indulgence is defined as ―a society that allows

relatively free gratification of basic and natural human desires related to enjoying life
and having fun.‖
 High- Restraint, Low- Indulgence: Its counterpart is defined as ―a society that controls
gratification of needs and regulates it by means of strict social norms.‖ Indulgent
societies believe themselves to be in control of their own life and emotions; restrained
societies believe other factors dictate their life and emotions.
5.3.9.1 IND and Filipino Mind-Sets
In traditional Philippines, parents are indulgent towards their young, teachers towards their
pet students, and those in power towards their favorite kin. However, traditional expectations of
high restraint are directed at role models such as parents, teachers, and those in power.
In other words, these mental tendencies are directionally-determined. Low restraint and high
indulgence can be predicted or expected when emanating from adults towards youngsters, from
those who are granting towards those on the receiving end. On the other hand, when gratification
is directed towards the source of gratification, self-effacement and self-sacrifice is considered;
and even more so for public figures.
Culturally, there are strong grounds for approving the government‘s national tourism slogan
―It‘s More Fun in the Philippines.‖ Filipinos indulge in fun and togetherness. They indulge and
give vent to strong emotions from joy and excitement to surprise, fright, and despair; voice and
body language are expressive. Although formal situations are expected to require formal
behavior, celebrations can be built around or after office hours, where social relationships are
developed for better working relationships.
However, on the balance, there are rigid standards of appropriate behavior for specific
settings. Thus it was that social furor was caused by the Vatican lifting of the use of lace veils for
women in church. In TV soap operas, the use of a red dress at funerals is indicative of a very
strong, confrontational message that sends mental shivers to audiences, as do the use of black at
weddings and christenings, the sending of wreaths to birthday celebrants, or the carving of one‘s
name and birthdate on tombstones. Akin to making bomb threats at post-911 airports, such
behavior is highly inappropriate and can elicit strong social reactions.
According to age, younger age groups are more indulged, and therefore expected to be less
restrained in their behavior although constant social feedback continues to transmit lessons
related to appropriate and inappropriate behavior patterns including speech, dressing, and
judgment. As Filipinos advance in age, they are expected to show more restraint, and only
indulge when appropriate.
According to education, those with lower levels of schooling are generally expected to be
less restrained and display more inappropriate behavior than those with higher levels of
education who are supposed to be more mannered and constrained.
According to location, context is an important determinant of propriety and impropriety for

indulgence or restraint. Thus, it may be appropriate to get wildly drunk in the privacy of one‘s
own bedroom but more restraint is expected when one drinks heavily at social gatherings. Face,
social standing, moral distance, power structures, and relationships with people present are
likewise critical circumscribers of appropriateness.
5.3.9.2 IND and Foreign Influence
In the generally high-indulgence mindset of Philippine society and its subgroups, do foreign
The short answer is yes, but only as long as these are tolerable and reasonable. Filipinos
have a high level of tolerance for visitors and foreigners, and their comfort zones and personal
spaces are more considerable than those of foreigners. However long their patience may be,
tempers can be controlled until the breaking point, which can be violent.
For ideas coming from sources that are perceived as superior according to any standard,
history shows that Filipinos are welcoming and open-minded until threats are sensed from the
foreign element.
The next table indicates a general tendency towards highly indulgent mental habits which
can often result in unrestrained behaviors. However, there is a significant distribution of general
group mindsets related to neutral behavior in Philippine society as a whole. This may be
explained by the culturally strict but dichotomous standards of proper behavior according to
public and private contexts.
In addition, it should be noted that, in this table, the totals do not mirror each other,
indicating an error in the data entry. The numeric content of this table is based on arbitrary data
and is included in this paper for the sole purpose of presenting a draft framework for future
research and application in hierarchic analysis.
Table 54: IND and Filipino Mindsets
High-Indulgence High- Restraint

Filipino Society
Low-Restraint Low- Indulgence
By Gender
Roles
By Sense of
Belonging
By Rich 0 1 1 1 1 0
By
Education
Levels
None 1 1 0 0 1 1
Totals 12 12 7 8 12 11
of which are subdivided into three subcolumns. The purpose is to mirror the results as a form of
one or the other.
5.4 Degrees of Influence

The increasing ease of communication and pervasiveness of cultural transfer prove that
cultures have been and will continue to influence each other until – perhaps sadly – a saturation
level of universal homogeneity is achieved. Meanwhile, observable degrees of foreign influence
on Filipino thought can be grouped for convenience, as in the following table.
The term positive influence refers to the additive nature of influences, particularly when the
individual is in a state of tabula rasa, that is, a blank slate with no existing beliefs, tendencies, or
practices. In this case, the positive influence can be also called primary influence or home
influence.
Table 55: Degrees of Foreign Influences
Positive Influence Parentage Culture Language Gawi Tradition Total

Native element % % % % % 100%
Negative Influence Travel Other Cultures Peers Education Media
Foreign element % % % % % 100%
The term negative influence refers to the subtractive nature of influences, particularly when
such influences subtract or diminish, as well as change or distort any elements of the primary
influence. The negative influence can also be called secondary influence or foreign influence.
The preceding table is a preliminary exploration of the concept. A better construct would
show that degrees of influence can be determined by intervening variables such as location,
mobility, media exposure, and date of birth, which would indicate the influences of geography,
technology, and historical events.
5.5 Summary
This chapter presents a typology of philosophical influence, defines some modes of
conceptual transfer, and presents the various cultural modalities of communication. As well, the
effects of foreign cultural modalities on Filipino thought are discussed. Finally, this paper ends
with a description of some degrees of influence. This chapter is particularly significant in the
light of the felt need for the formal articulation of Filipino psychologies according to the
established canons of the dominant (e. g., Western) philosophical traditions.
Chapter 6: CONCLUSIONS
This research began with a nebulous idea of its eventual form, structure and
content. This chapter summarizes the resulting (a) goals of the research; (b)
scope of the discussion, and reprises significant findings related to Filipino
philosophic notions such as (c) origination and description; (d) challenges of
articulation; (e) vocabulary limitations and creation; (f) the use of foreign
constructs for native articulation; (g) the nature of modern Filipino thought and
of (h) national thought; (h) the articulation of native philosophic notions and (i)
some tools and procedures thereof.
Other than the three research questions (Filipino philosophy, modern philosophy, and
influences), this research had neither direction, form, nor structure. The preceding chapters came
about by dint of hard musings, happenstance and serendipity in electronic research. This chapter
wraps up the rather complex and exhausting research work into a coherent body of resulting
ideas, many of which happen to be absent in current literature. The most noteworthy of these
include tools for facing the challenges of extracting Filipino philosophic thought from various
sources and articulating these in philosophic language according to the traditions of the dominant
philosophies of our time.
6.1 Research Goal

This paper seeks to help others describe Filipino philosophy in its own terms and contexts. It
offers initial frameworks for the formal articulation of a modern indigenous Filipino philosophy.
Far from being exhaustive, these practical frameworks can be used to abstract philosophical
concepts from extant folk wisdom and indigenous literature as well as from historical events that
indicate how Filipinos think. The core argument is that there are Filipino philosophies although
these are not expressed according to the established canons of Western philosophic tradition.
6.2 Scope of the Discussion

Shouldn’t foreign philosophy include both Western and Eastern? Ancient philosophers such
as Confucius and Lao Tzu are but a tip of a long list of Asian thinkers: Korean, Indian, Iranian,
Persian, Egyptian, and Arab philosophers, to mention but a few. However, there seems to be
more English text devoted to Western philosophers than to their Eastern counterparts. This paper
will try and avoid such bias.
Human historical records utilize hindsight and approximate categorization, with elements
often overlapping. Where explicit records are absent, records use corroborative data to fill in
facts. When such data are absent, human imagination comes to play. Thus, extant timelines of
the development of philosophy are imprecise.
This must be why related literature indicates how the period of modern philosophical
development and history overlaps the ancient and contemporary periods. The following table
visualizes this concept. The scope of this research is shaded in red.
Table 56: Historical Timelines of Philosophies
Eastern From To Western From To

Babylonian & Assyrian 3800 B.C. 226 A.D. Pre-Socratic (Greek) 600 B.C. 300 B.C.
Egyptian 5500 B.C. 641 A.D. Hellenistic 300 B.C.E 100 B.C.E.
Chinese 551 B.C. 206 B.C Roman 100 B.C.E 400 C.E.
Indian 1500 B.C. 600 C. E. Medieval 500 C.E 1500 C.E
Persian / Iranian 628 B.C - Pre-Modern 1500 C.E. 1600 C.E.
Jewish 900 B.C. 600 C.E. Modern 1800 C.E. 1950 C.E.
Contemporary From 1960 to 2016 (Ongoing)
Adapted from Anon. (N.D.). Ancient History Encyclopedia. Electronic document available at www.ancient.eu; Anon. (N.D.). Timeline of Early Chinese Philosophy.
Electronic document available at iub.edu; Anon. (n. d.) The History of Indian Philosophy Timeline. Electronic document available at www2.hawaii.edu; Ancient
Philosophy. Wikipedia. Electronic document available at en.wikipedia.org; Dowell, C. (2007). A Surrealistic View of Ancient Egypt’s Timeline. Electronic document
available at www.robertschoch.net; Anon. (N. D.). ―Babylonia‖ in Wikipedia. Electronic document available at en.wikipidia.org; Anon. (N. D.). ―Pre-Socratic
Philosophy‖ in Wikipedia. Electronic document available at en.wikipedia.org
6.3 Origination and Description

The Filipino philosophies are shaped by a volatile, unforgiving, demanding environment
hammered by forces of nature and unexpected twists of fate. In between quick natural calamities
are longer lulls of idyllic existence where seasons flow from one to another without much
discernible change91 where change are marked, not by winters, springs, summers, and falls in
other lands, but by the first child, the first grandchild, the first deaths that create mental signposts
that mature the mind and shape thinking habits.
Filipino philosophy is a set of practical solutions for real problems. It is created, tested, and
validated by common usage and not by individual recording. It is rooted in fluid, survivalist
logic, more pragmatic than abstract. This philosophy is out of the Filipino history of migrants
seeking freedom settled in the islands; of natives escaping to freedom in the hinterlands; of
revolts against oppressive occupation and abusive colonization; of calamities wrought by nature;
of government corruption and widespread poverty over a growing population with limited land
area and resources.
To survive in such an environment, Filipinos must depend on each other. Preserving

relationships is more important than logic, efficiency, or permanence. Feelings are more
important than words. These are some core concepts of native philosophic thought.
91
This can help explain why the Filipino‘s genetic program creates more youthful looks than
those of Western counterparts of the same age. At the same time, Filipinos who live a life of
extreme poverty and intense exposure to natural elements can look older, more rugged and
weather-beaten, but certainly stronger and healthier than those who live lives of leisure.
In general, the Filipino common-tao (man-on-the-street) philosophies of being, doing, and

relating can be described as fatalistic-pragmatic, fluid and flexible. His philosophies are thinking
habits that are observable (a) for pragmatic use such as day-to-day problem-solving; revolts
against authorities to achieve better lives and just use of power, or (b) for prescriptive purposes
and expressed in indirect, literary language of folk wisdom such as truisms and aphorisms,
legends and riddles, poetry and humor.
While there are works pertaining to the various types of philosophies being practiced in the
Philippines in various fields of endeavor such as of art, of politics, of religion, of work, of
training or education, or economics, and of management, the formal articulations of distinctly
Filipino philosophies are yet to emerge in the existing body of literature.
6.4 Challenges of Understanding

It has been argued that man‘s survival, growth, and success in society requires moments of
thought to ―think through what they believe and feel and why they act‖ (Jewell, 2006). In many
cases, it is observers that spot the blind spots in human behavior, that is, when one is not clearly
aware of one‘s actions or its consequences. This paper undertakes the role of looking at what
others do and, in the process arrives at some tentative generalizations about what must be within
the minds of fellowmen. These generalizations often begin as questions.
For instance, Filipinos can understand ―no littering‖ and ―no smoking‖ or ―no crossing‖
signs; why does unethical behavior proliferate among old and young? Why does contrary
behavior continue among the elite as the destitute? Filipinos have positive historical role models;
why is there national admiration for media personalities who flout ethics?
Churches, religious festivals, and a national network of private and public schools
underscore the Filipino awareness of ethics. How can little girls still conclude from TV that it‘s
better to be a beautiful mistress than a hard-working wife? How can little boys declare their
ambitions to be security guards because one gets paid while doing nothing?
Filipino friendliness and hospitality is a marketed national trademark, yet foreigners are
bilked by policemen, merchants, taxi drivers, and even by families and relatives of Filipino
sweethearts and spouses. Elected officials bilking their own people continue; polygamy is
unlawful but tolerated; prostitution and gambling are illegal but widespread; education is a
national industry, yet deforestation still floods cities, effluents still kill waterways, and leaders
still mislead.
Such questions led this research to focus on ultimate sources of phenomena. Why would a
Filipino – for instance – find Filipino behavior difficult to explain in English?
One reason is that there is no need to explain it even in Filipino in the first place; one‘s own
cultural insights are so implicit and so obvious to one‘s cultural kin that explaining it in a
traditionally high-context milieu would be akin to relegating the other into the status of
imbecility. Other reasons include such challenges as of articulation, vocabulary insufficiency,
neological research and formation, nationalist versus universalist viewpoints, inappropriate time
frames of historical development, as well as viable tools and procedures for test application in
the identification, abstraction, articulation, and assessment of national philosophic statements.
6.5 Challenges of Articulation

To the foreign philosopher, Filipino thought lacks logic and linear thought processes. To
Filipino philosophers, it exists mostly in the Filipino mind. There is no need to write it down; it
is an everyday occurrence in common situations, expressions, food and music; in arguments and
celebrations; in communication and commerce.
Articulating Filipino philosophies in the modern tradition is fraught with challenges: cross-
cultural misperceptions, language gaps and barriers; the lack of historical tradition in
philosophical activities; the lack of native universal notions in written thought; and the sheer
scope of the subject.
Due to this unfelt need for written articulation, there is neither textbook nor formal
instruction in Filipino philosophy. The notion of formalizing this set of routine thinking is
pointless and almost ridiculous: it‘s only a mentality. Framing it as a philosophy is ambitious, to
say the least.
6.6 The Vocabulary of Philosophy

I ask why my mind considers the phrase ―foreign philosophy‖ to mean ―Western
philosophy.‖ Why is this so? The answer seems to lie in the language that I use here – North
American English – and in the Filipino history of colonization which originated the West: Spain
and North America,92 each country bringing over its own collection of cultural infusions from
Europe, Africa, and Eurasia.
It would seem that I interpret ―modern philosophy‖ to mean ―Western Philosophy‖ because
of inherited history and culture; a history that can create a national consciousness that might be
92
aside from the shorter Japanese occupation
logically expected of a people colonized, subjugated, and oppressed. A consciousness of

inferiority – a belief that anything emanating from the West is superior to any indigenous
equivalent or derivative – might be inferred.
Next, I examine the language I use and ask: why is it so? I use English, as it is the major
mode of expression in academia, business, and professional transaction. I use formal academic
language as this is an academic requirement for an academic degree. Although I am Filipino and
proficient in Pilipino, expressing the preceding paragraph as concisely in Pilipino would be
almost impossible because the Pilipino vocabulary is insufficient to the task. Philosophy includes
frequently-used words that are difficult, if not impossible, in Pilipino – or in any of the
Philippine languages.93
The task of articulating the core rationales of human thought and behavior in ways that can
be understood by other cultures as well as by those in the home culture is, at the very least,
daunting. A new vocabulary must be created for the task.
6.7 Creating a New Vocabulary

To someone who has had surface exposure to this field of study, the task is overwhelming
yet eye-opening. Self-doubts arise with questions such as: Is the literature on the history of
philosophy accurate? Is there precedent for creating a philosophic vocabulary in one’s own
language? Dussel (2008, p. 18) assuages these doubts as he draws from Avicenna:
True historical trajectory of modern philosophy is complex: Greek

philosophy was cultivated subsequently and principally by Byzantine
civilization, and Arab philosophy in turn was the inheritor of Byzantine
philosophy, and in particular, its Aristotelian tradition. This required the
creation of an Arabic philosophical language in the strictest sense.94
One must confess to have felt relief that the two longest tools created in this report (See
Table: Pilipino-English Glossary and Table: English-Pilipino Glossary) may be seminal and thus
require further work but are neither fruitless nor in vain. The neological procedure might be of
use to future research as well.
6.8 Using Foreign Constructs for Native Thought

Aside from the argument that Pilipino vocabulary is insufficient to describe non-Filipino
philosophical concepts, there is also a debate about the use of foreign constructs in discussing
Filipino thought, as well as the resultant failures.
93
Although 13 indigenous languages are listed in Wikipedia, ethnologue.com lists 186 languages in the Philippines.
94
See for example the Lexique de la Langue Philosphique D'Ibn Sina (Avicenne), edited by A. M. Goichon, Desclee de Brouwer, Paris, 1938.
For instance, in a survey of the methodologies used to construct perspectives and ideologies
of Filipino philosophy, Pada states that ―these methodologies … fall short from their use of ideas
and concepts (i.e., phenomenology, linguistic constructivism, and weak anthropological data). As
well, there is a failure to ―construct a mythos of Filipino Philosophy … to construct an identity‖
(2014, p. 1).
The nature of Filipino philosophical thought includes cultural variables that are embedded in
the native experience such inferior self-concepts versus superior self-worth, social conformity
versus survivalism, and respect for authority figures versus fierce independence. For instance,
Filipinos are trained in an education system that is patterned after the North American system.
The implication is that what the Philippines had in the first place was not good enough; an
implication that can be seen as validated by the system‘s continuing existence. Thus, Filipinos
can and do entertain the unconscious belief that North American95 philosophy – terms,
structures, and notions – must be superior knowledge. However, this paper takes the position that
this imagined level of superiority in this particular field is not unattainable.
6.9 Formal Filipino Philosophic Articulation

Current literature has yet to satisfactorily articulate the precise nature of Filipino
philosophies. One criticism is the lack of ―historical rapport‖ due to the failure of Filipino
philosophers ―to achieve legitimacy in philosophy through discursive and critical engagement
with current philosophical discourses‖ (Pada, 2014, Ibid.).
For instance, Filipino writers have described Filipino philosophies by using the traditional
concepts and terminologies of Western philosophy despite the inadequacy of the approach, as
explained by the argument that the nature of Filipino philosophies differs from the nature of
other philosophies. In his essay on Filipino logic, de la Paz (2011) says:
Maybe one of the reasons why there are Filipino philosophers who
doubted whether there could be a Filipino philosophy (is) because we
generally have no fancy notions about reality unlike the west whose
philosophies are abstract and explores areas like ontology, cosmology, and
all the other -ologies.
It may also be argued that a Filipino philosophy has never been adequately established, even
in writings using the Pilipino language, perhaps because Filipino writers use Pilipino while
thinking in English. The situation is exacerbated by characteristics unique to Filipino logic and
world-view.
95
or, by extension, any Caucasian race
Despite years of training in a U. S.-based educational system, native Filipino logic does not
necessarily follow the linear reasoning and formal logic of Western tradition. As de la Paz (2011)
puts it, Filipino thinking is invalid according to Western systems of thought because, ―however
illogical or non-logical it may seem, our reasoning works for us – abstraction will not do us any
good, (as) we are a practical people‖ (p. 1).
6.10 Modern Filipino Philosophies

As opposed to contemporary philosophy, modern philosophy includes developments of
philosophical thought only in the last hundred years, but which has its roots in ancient
philosophy that started between 400 and 600 B. C. mostly in the Indus and the Chinese
civilizations of the East and in the Hellenistic cultures of the West.
Rooted in its unique geography and history of revolt and survival, Filipino philosophies are
unarticulated mindsets that are routinely used as tools to address real scenarios that require
immediate input. It is a product of the volatile Filipino environment and history. The
environment is an archipelago in the Torrid Zone with a history of typhoons, floods, droughts,
and earthquakes; as well as a collection of different Asiatic cultures marked by high poverty, and
increasingly scarce resources.
Historic proof of a strong preference for choice over restrictions includes revolts, rebellions,
and struggles throughout the archipelago. Literary forms include philosophies that prescribe
proper behavior and acceptable thinking; to ensure positive reception, convincing power, and
minimize negative reactions, such teachings use indirect, literary expressions.
Obvious proof of the diversity of human abilities and levels of thinking processes required
that the most efficient transfer of ideas were highly repeatable, highly accessible, and fun: these
include riddles, songs, dances, and stories that used very recognizable native elements.
Filipino history started with migrants fleeing oppression, settling in what was to become the
Philippine archipelago, enjoying new freedoms, and then again battling oppression – first from
adjoining tribes, then from foreign colonizers, then from elected governments. As a result, a set
of Filipino philosophies evolved unarticulated but strongly rooted in practice, unwritten but
widely shared among various islands and cultures, and with a strongly pragmatic-survivalist
nature that aimed to solve problem situations efficiently and effectively.
Relatively isolated from the world until after the European Renaissance, the archipelago was
nevertheless active in the peripheries of the East Asian trade routes in ancient times. The purity
of indigenous thought and ways of living, the rich bounty of natural resources, and the strategic
location of the archipelago proved attractive enough to invite waves of migrants, settlers, then
occupation, invasions, and then colonization by more sophisticated and needful nations. These
waves of foreign influences did add and reshape the indigenous lifestyles, thoughts, and
concerted efforts.
However, over time, such foreign inputs underwent necessary transformation – a process of
gradual assimilation and indigenization for more effective use by the locals. In modern Filipino
thought, such influences can be classified according to the degree of original forms or structures
The most significant elements include (a) the pakisáma philosophy, which focuses on
maintaining social relationships; (b) the mukhä philosophy, which focuses on maintaining
relationship with one‘s self; and (c) the dápat philosophy, which focuses on maintaining
relationships with natural resources (frugality), social resources (usefulness), and spiritual
resources (ethical behavior).
The geographic characteristics of an isolated archipelago in the Torrid Zone; on the Ring of
Fire; and in the path of annual monsoon winds can hinder deep, reflective thought required of
philosophizing, even more for acquiring sufficient powers of articulation.
Until the islands are physically connected with stable bridges that allow ease of travel and
exchange, it is suggested that accurate, instantaneous, and easy-to-access communication
channels are the prime elements of unifying thought and feelings on a national scale. Without
these, no notions can be born and evolve into truly native philosophies.
6.11 National Philosophies

Since unique geography and history can trigger archipelago -wide feelings and positions
among the inhabitants, national philosophies do exist. The triggering of native notions; their
continual usage turning them into principles; and their eventual evolution into philosophies can
well take indigenous development routes, structures, and expressions to result in philosophies
that are unique to a nation.
However, for such national thought to be recognized in the dominating philosophical

tradition, there is a need to learn how to express such abstract ideas in ways that fit the canons of
the dominant philosophic traditions of the age. Over the preceding chapters, this paper presented
ways how this might be done. For instance:
 Long-time tested, nationwide pragmatic principles that are expressed in concrete

imagery can be re-expressed in more abstract language.
 Prescriptive folk wisdom that has always been expressed in specific, indirect literary
language can be re-expressed in more general language.
 To invite input and begin a history of philosophic debate, such ideas can be expressed in
tentative opinions, in the language of hedging, or in one-sided positions that open
critical thought without offensiveness.
 Extant philosophic thought can be elicited from observable phenomena, particularly
those that are observable in almost all cultures and subgroups in the country; and have
been relatively stable over time as proven by documentary or artifactual evidence.
 Philosophic ideas can be elicited, inferred, or predicted according to historic events,
particularly those that the same elicit emotional reactions from almost all cultures and
subgroups throughout the country.
 Philosophic ideas can be elicited, inferred, or predicted from language and speech
patterns, particularly those that are observable in almost all cultures and subgroups
throughout the country.
 A step-by-step guide can help determine if: (a) a philosophic statement is expressed in
traditional philosophic language; (b) particular types of historical events can trigger
national philosophic thought; (c) philosophic notion can be extracted from significant
historical events, from indigenous literature, or from folk wisdom.
From an attempt to understand Filipino philosophy, per se, this paper has turned out to be an
attempt to lay the groundwork for articulating Filipino philosophies – a manual, if you will.
Simple tools, questionnaires and data arrays in tabular format - were created for a variety of
functions: a timeline of philosophical development based on Philippine history; a method of
elevating folk wisdom into philosophical expressions; clarifying key terms that are insufficiently
defined for the purpose of philosophical articulation; assessment of utterances for appropriate
language and content, and so on.
6.12 The Articulation of Native Philosophies

One practical reason for using a language is to unify a fragmented entity. This is particularly
relevant for archipelagic nations, where unification is a critical problem (The problem of the
Philippines, 1926; Diamond, 1997; York, 2015). For instance, in terms of governance, challenges
of control, logistics, and standardization abound. In terms of communication, challenges of
cultural egotism, diverse languages, and mass media continue. In the task of identifying unifying
elements in the national patterns of being, doing, and relating via philosophical discourse, the
challenges of geography and historical traumas add a formidable layer of challenges.
The Philippine historical experience is replete with violent differences for which stable
solutions can be formulated by beginning with root causes; beliefs, perceptions, and
understanding – philosophies, to be precise. My question is: How can universal philosophies
arise out of native thought, particularly those that are rooted in specific realities? Dussel (2008)
connects these notions:
―All philosophies, located inevitably in some specific cultural context,

are nonetheless capable of engaging in dialogue with others through the
prism of shared "core problems' and categorical discourses of a
philosophical character, which are universal to the extent that they are
human‖ (p. 11)
However, that there are no similar structures in extant literature can be heartening in that one
feels one is breaking new ground, but can also be disheartening in that one might be doing
something that has already been done and discarded as useless. Thus the researcher can ask: Is
there room for creativity within the logical-empirical strictures of philosophic articulation?
Fortunately for me, Dussel (2008, p. 19) emphatically states that such work "must be carried
out by critical and creative philosophers ... and not by those who simply repeat the philosophical
theses that are the traditional echoes of consensus.‖ In addition, he states that such work must
include "that which has been discarded, devalued, and judged useless‖ by invaders and
colonizers.
In addition, this paper subscribes to the notion of pakisáma, the sympathetic social attitude
of Filipinos conforming to the majority for the better good, in this case, on a global scale in the
formal articulation of Filipino philosophy. As a result, the assessment of the articulation of
philosophic statements is designed to conform to the established canons of Western
philosophical tradition. One of the resulting discoveries of this research indicates that articulated
philosophies can comprise native content while form is according to – for various practical
reasons – the dominant literary traditions of this age.
Filipino writers have argued the case of rejecting the use of foreign concepts in discussing or
articulating Filipino philosophies on grounds of incompatibility. There are many reasons for
taking the opposing view. For instance, as cited by Dussel (2008), Yabri‘s The Critique of Arab
Reason (2001) puts it rather well:
"Undoubtedly we should build upon and take from the contributions

resulting from the research of all who have preceded us (the Greeks, the
Christians), as sources of assistance in our process of rational study [...]
Given that this is so, and since the ancient philosophers already studied
with great diligence the rules of reasoning (logic, method), it will be
appropriate for us to dedicate our labors to the study of the works of these
ancient philosophers, and if everything we find in them is reasonable, we
can accept it, and if not, those things that are not reasonable can serve as a
warning and a basis for precaution."
The focus is on the formal Filipino articulation of thinking habits and beliefs related to
being, doing, and relating; particularly those that are common among the various cultures
throughout the archipelago.
6.13 Tools and Procedures

Having taken the position that there is as yet, no formal articulation of Filipino philosophies,
this paper implies agreement with the proposition that Filipino philosophies are yet to be
articulated, but not with the argument that Filipino philosophy does not exist. The basic
challenges of formal philosophical articulation are then addressed: vocabulary, assessment of
form and content, methods of identifying philosophical thought from native and indigenous
sources, and transforming these ideas into formal philosophic statements.
From the aforementioned core philosophies, this paper creates some tools that can help
articulate coherence in principles of being, doing, and relating so that commonalities throughout
the Philippine archipelago can be identified in ways that are accessible to universal audiences.
Table 57: Tools for Philosophic Articulation
Purpose List of Tools and Procedures

Section: Near-synonymous Terms
Vocabulary for philosophic Section: Key Terms
articulation Table: Pilipino-English Glossary
Table: English-Pilipino Glossary
Table: Opinion, Belief, and Mindset
Precision of Terms and Definitions Table: Mindset, Principle, and Philosophy
Table: Degrees of Mindsets in the Western Tradition
Identifying philosophic thought Section: What is Philosophy?
Table: Elements of Philosophical Tradition
Differentiating philosophic & non- Table: Validity Criteria for Philosophical Statements
philosophic concepts Section: What Qualifies as Philosophical?
Section: Description
Section: Formal Articulation
Identifying Filipino thought
Section: Classification
Table: Filipino & Western Thought Systems
Table: Filipino Principles & Philosophies by Cross-Ranking
Section: Relating to the Self
Structuring Filipino Thought Section: Relating to the World
Section: Relating to Others
Section: Relating to Work
Section: What Qualifies as National Philosophies?
Identifying philosophic thought of
Section: Defining Events
national scope
Section: Repeated Defining Events
Identifying philosophic thought in Section: Observable Behaviors
observable behavior Section: Challenges of Understanding
Table: Historical Framework of Filipino Philosophies
Table: Filipino Revolts & Rebellions
Identifying triggers of philosophic Section: Trigger events in Filipino prehistory
thought in historical records Section: Trigger events in Filipino Pre-Hispanic History
Section: Trigger events from the 16th Century

Section: Trigger events from the Pre-Modern Period
Section: Trigger events from 20h Century
Section: Eventual Philosophies
Reframing folk wisdom into
Table: Abstracting Philosophic Thought from Folk Wisdom
philosophic statements
Assessment of philosophic Table: Simple Validity Criteria for Philosophical Statements
articulation
Although seminal in content and exploratory in nature, writing a paper such as this can still
be overwhelming as the scope and depth of the field of philosophy is extensive and complex. It is
hoped that this work can open new doors and help create better bridges to what has heretofore
been frustrating chasms in the development of modern Filipino philosophy.
To rephrase Maslow (1943), identifying and criticizing the ideas in this paper is easier than
finding alternative solutions to the problems that these ideas try to address, mostly ―because of
the very serious lack of sound data in this area… due primarily to the absence of a valid theory‖
(p.4). The theories presented as notional explorations herein should be considered as more of
suggested frameworks for future research than as definitive statements. These ideas ―must stand
or fall, not so much on facts available or evidence presented, as upon researches to be done,
researches suggested perhaps, by the questions raised…‖ (Maslow, Ibid.).
Writing this paper has been a meaningful journey of learning. Without the motivation
provided by the PCHS doctoral program of study; without the help of family and friends; without
the interventions of circumstance and variables of history, this paper would not have come about.
This writer offers grateful thanks to all mentioned and begs the understanding of those not.
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APPENDICES
Table 58: English-Pilipino Philosophy Glossary
English Pilipino Etymology

adj. from hángin (n.), air; and lútang (v.), float Example: seemingly
abstract (adj.) hanginlútang
abstract idea, kaisipáng parang hanginlútang
assume (v.) akaláïn Syn: to presume; to conclude without logical reasoning
assumption (n.) pagakálä (pronunciation note: not pag-akálä)
adj. from túnay (adj.) true, real; na (prep.), that is a/an; and bágay
concrete (adj.) tunágay (n.), thing; a real thing. Example: a concrete idea, isang kaisipang
tunanáy
(v.) deduced logically; (adj.) logically deduced. From hábï (v.,
deduced (v., adj.) hinabísok weave); and pások (v., enter). Lit., to weave inwards; to weave
from the outside and going inwards to the center. See ihabísok
(n.) the act of logical deduction; (v.) logically deduced. From hábï
deduction (n.) paghabísok (v., weave); and pások (enter). Lit., to weave inwards; to weave
from the outside and going towards the center.
With the characteristics of deductive reasoning; Lit., tending
towards deductive reasoning. From maka- (prefix) for, tending
deductive (adj.) makahabísok towards, favoring something; and hábï (v., weave); and pások (v.,
enter). Lit., to weave inwards; to weave from the outside and going
towards the center. See ihabísok
deductive logic makahabísok na
See ihabísok (to deduce) and tugmäsunód (logic) and
(n.) tugmäsunód
ethical principles
singdäpat Cf. sinangdäpat; (To be continued)
(n.)
eventual simuláni in the sense of eventual evolution. (1) Eventual Evolution: a notion
philosophy (n.) or principle that can eventually evolve into or comprise a
philosophy; and in the sense of and origination from events (2)
Event Origination: ideas or beliefs that become established by
repeated experience, by similar events, or by events that arouse
similar feelings or ideas. From simulá (n.) beginning; start -point;
mulá (prep.) from; coming from; and múni-múni (n.), reflections,
musings. Syn., philosophic principle
from simula- (prefix) From simulá (n.) beginning; starting-point; and from mulá (prep.)
from; coming from; emanating from. Cf. sinang-
adj. from lakïp (adv.), including lahát (pron.), all. Example: general
general (adj.) lakïplahát
idea, kaisipang lakïplahát
From hábï (v., weave); and labás (out). Lit., to weave outwards; to
induce (v.) habíbas
(v.) induced logically; (adj.) logically induced. From hábï (v.,
inducted; induced weave); and labás (n., out; v., exit, get out; adj., outsider, stranger,
hinabíbas
(v., adj.) foreigner). Lit., to weave outwards; to weave from the center and
(n.) the act of logical induction; (v.) logically induced. From hábï (v.,
weave); and labás (n., out; v., exit, get out; adj., outsider, stranger,
induction (n., v.) paghabíbas
foreigner). Lit., to weave outwards; to weave from the center and

With the characteristics of inductive reasoning; Lit., tending towards
inductive reasoning. From hábï (v., weave); and labás (n., out; v.,
Inductive (adj.) makahabíbas exit, get out; adj., outsider, stranger, foreigner). Lit., to weave
outwards; to weave from the center and going towards the edges.
See ihabíbas
For the purpose of logical induction; Lit., for inductive reasoning.
From hábï (v., weave); and labás (n., out; v., exit, get out; adj.,
inductive (adj.) panghabíbas
outsider, stranger, foreigner). Lit., to weave outwards; to weave
from the center and going towards the edges. See ihabíbas
inductive logic makahabíbas na
See makahabíbas and tugmäsunód (logic)
(n.) tugmäsunód
Lit., correct guess; From tugmä (adj.) correct, connected, related;
inference (n.) tugmähúlä
and hula (v. and n.), guess.
From tugmä (adj.) correct, connected, related; and húlä (v. and n.),
inferred (v., adj.) tinugmähúlä
guess. See, itugmähúlä
adj. from walang (adj.), no or none; and hangganan, n. end,
infinite (adj.) lähanggán limitation. Example: lähanggánang yaman, infinite resource. Syn.
magpakailanmán, magpakailanpamán, forever
From alám (v.) know; and alám (n.) or kaalamán (n.), knowledge.
know (v.) alamín
Syn: to determine; to find out; to investigate
logic (n.) tugmäsunód
(v.), follow, next; Lit., correct connection
logical (adj.) magkatugmäsunód
(v.), follow, next; Lit., correctly connected
logical tugmäsunúrang
From tugmäsunód (logic) and pagakálä (assumption)
assumption (n.) pagakálä
personal sarimúni Also: private philosophy; a philosophy made, taken, or borrowed for
philosophy (n.) private or for personal use. From saríli (n.), self or saríling (adj.,
self-); and from múni-múni (n.), reflections, musings,
philosopher (n.) tagamúni Articulator of philosophies; One who formulates or articulates a
philosophy. From the prefix tagá- meaning ―doer‖ or ―one who does
something‖ ; and múni-múni (n.), reflections, musings,
philosophic (adj.) makahabimúni In the sense of ―with a tendency towards philosophy‖ or ―containing
nascent notions that can develop into philosophy.‖ Literally, ―for,
towards, or favoring philosophy.‖ From maka- (adv.), for, tending
towards, in favor of; and habimúni (n.), philosophizing
philosophical hinabimúni In the sense of ―containing developed notions of philosophy.‖
(adj.) Literally, ―made into philosophy‖ or ―philosophized.‖ From hábi (v.),
weave, hinábi (v.) woven; and múni-múni (n.), reflection,
contemplation, speculation
philosophizing habimúni From hábi (v.) ―to weave; to form threads‖; and múni-múni (n.),
(n.) reflection, contemplation, speculation
philosophy (n.) sangmúni From sang-, the prefix of generalization; and múni-múni (n.),
reflections, musings, contemplations, meditations, speculations

philosophy of sanggínay Also: existentialism. From sang-, prefix of generalization; and
being (n.) paging (adv.), being something; as well as áy (v.) is; are
philosophy of sinang-ugnáyan (To be continued)
connectionism
(n.)
philosophy of
sangdäpat Cf. sinangdäpat; (To be continued)
ethics (n.)
philosophy of sangmukhä (Syn.) reputationism. The Filipino philosophy or reputationism is
face (n.) that all action or expression is considered in the light of (a) the
opinion of an(other) person(s), and (b) the effects of such opinions
on future endeavors.
philosophy of
sangbahálä Cf: sinangbahálä, principle of fatalism
fatalism (n.)
philosophy of sangdäpat (To be continued)
idealism (n.)
philosophy of sangkúsä The Filipino philosophy of initiativism is that it should not be done
initiativism (n.) unless it is done in such a way that (a) it benefits the group and (b)
the benefiter(s) is credited with its creation and/or success. In this
way, the initiator does not offend by implying that the benefiter(s
is/are) unable to initiate or achieve the event. On the other hand,
the benefiter(s) will – in one way or another – acknowledge real
authorship. When a non-author takes the credit, the real author is
not expected to directly react in any way.
philosophy of sangkibágay positive communication; positive behaviorism. Cf., sinangkibágay,
pleasantrism (n.) principle of pleasantrism. Cf. sangkisáma, principle of
adaptationism
philosophy of sángháwï Also: phenomenology. From sang-, the prefix of generalization; and
truth (n.) hawï (v.), to part open so as to reveal
philosophy of sanggámit Cf., sinanggámit, principle of utilitarianism
utilitarianism (n.)
practical sanggáwï Also: pragmatism; informal or unwritten philosophy. From sang-;
philosophy (n.) and from gawä (v.), do; or gáwï (adv.), routine; tradition; expected
or habitual action (Cf. simunggáwï)
pragmatic katháng-gáwi In the sense of ―practical concepts‖ or ―ideas created for practical
concepts (n.) use.‖ Literally, katháng-panggáwa or created for action/practical
use. From kathá (n.), creation and gáwï (n.), tradition, routine,
expected action
pragmatic logic panggáwï na From tugmäsunód (logic); and pang- (prefix) for; and gáwï (n.)
(n.) tugmäsunód action, behavior, ways of doing. Lit., logic of doing; logic for action
pragmatic tagáhabimúni Also: informal philosopher; practical philosopher. From the prefix
philosopher(n.) tagá- meaning ―doer‖ or ―doer of‖ ; and from habimúni (n.),
pragmatism

pragmatic simuláning Also: principle of practice; principle of usage; principle of
principle (n.) panggáwï application. From simulánay (n.), philosophic principle; and from
gáwï (n.) ways, action, or thought; culture (Cf. sanggawi).
Synonym: simunggáwï
pragmatic simunggáwï Also: principle of practice; principle of usage or of application. From
principle (n.) simulani (n.), philosophic principle; and from gáwï (n.) ways, action,
or thought; culture (Cf. sanggawi). Synonym: simuláning panggáwï
prescriptive sánghuwarán Also: exemplar philosophy; idealism. From sang-, the prefix of
philosophy (n.) generalization and huwarán (n. or v.) example, model
prescriptive simuláning Also: idealist principle; principle of ideals. From simulani (n.),
principle (n.) panghuwarán philosophic principle; and from huwarán (adj.) pattern, model,
example, standard, paragon. Synonym: simuwaran
prescriptive simuwaran Also: idealist principle; principle of idealism. From simulani (n.),
principle (n.) philosophic principle; and from huwarán (adj.) pattern, model,
example, standard, paragon. Synonym:simuláning panghuwarán
princilopher (n.) tagasimúni Articulator of principles; One who formulates or articulates a
principle that can be part of a philosophy. From the prefix tagá-
meaning ―doer‖ or ―one who does something‖ ; and from simulá (n.)
beginning; starting-point; and múni-múni (n.), reflections, musings,
principle (n.) simuláni in the sense of ―building-block of a philosophy.‖ From simulá (n.)
beginning; starting-point; and from mulá (prep.) from; coming from;
emanating from; as well as from múni-múni (n.), reflections,
musings. Syn., eventual philosophy
principle of sim- (prefix) From simula (n.) start, starting point, beginning. See sinang-
principle of sin- (prefix) See sinang-
principle of sinang- (prefix) From sining (n.), art and art of; and from sang-, the prefix of
generalization. Synonyms: sim-, sing-, simu-. Cf. simula-
principle of sing- (prefix) See sinang-
principle of sangkisáma Inblending; adapting to a new situation or concept. Cf.,
adaptationism (n.) sangkibágay, philosophy of pleasantrism; Cf., sinangkibágay,
principle of pleasantrism
principle of sinanggandá (To be continued)
aesthetics (n.)
principle of being simulánay Also: phenomenological principle; from simulá (n.) beginning;
(n.) starting-point; and from mulá (prep.) from; coming from; emanating
from; as well as from áy (v.) is; are
principle of belief sinangpalátayä Also: principle of faith; religious principle. From sinang-, principle
(n.) of; and from sampalatayä (v.), to worship; to profess a creed, or
belief

principle of sinangkisáma Also: principle of compromise; principle of positive cooperation.
compromise (n.) From sinang- (prefix), principle of; and pakisáma (n.), the art or
pleasure of pleasing others by going along or cooperating.
principle of sinangkáya (To be continued)
coping (n.)
principle of sinangpagbágo (To be continued)
developmentalism
(n.)
principle of sinangtipíd (To be continued)
economism (n.)
principle of sinanglípas (To be continued)
ephemeralism (n.)
principle of face sinangmukhä reputationist principle (To be continued)
(n.)
principle of sinangbahálä (To be continued)
fatalism (n.)
principle of sinangsayáp From sináng-, prefix indicating a principle; saráp (n.), enjoyment,
hedonism (n.) deliciousness, flavor; and sayá (n.), joy, happiness, merriment
principle of sinangdäpat Also: principle of ethics; ethical principles. (To be continued)
idealism (n.)
principle of sinangkúsä Cf., sangkúsä, philosophy of initiativism (To be continued)
initiativism (n.)
principle of order sinangáyos (To be continued)
(n.)
principle of sinangkibágay Positive communication; positive behaviorism. Cf., sangkibágay,
pleasantrism (n.) philosophy of pleasantrism
principle of sinanggámit Cf. sanggámit, philosophy of utlitarianism
utilitarianism (n.)
principle of utility simalagá Also: principle of value; utilitarianist principle. From simulá (n.)
(n.) beginning; starting-point; and from halagá (n.), value, cost.
n. from hanggáng (adv.), until and saan, where. Lit., until where.
scope (n.) hangsaán
Example: scope of practice, hangsaán ng gáwï
adj. from itó (pron.), this; and lámang (adv.), only. Lit., only this.
specific (adj.) tolámang Syn., partikulár, from particular Example: specific idea, kaisipáng
tolámang
n. from ka (prefix), being; itó (this); and lámang (adv.), only. Lit.,
specificity (adj.) katolámang being specific. Example: idea with some specificity, kaisipáng may
konting katolámang
survivalist simuláning Also: principle of survivalism. From simulani (n.), philosophic
principle (n.) pangnatíli principle; and from pananatíli (n.), survival. Synonym: singnatíli
survivalist singnatíli Also: principle of survivalism. From sing- (prefix), principle of; and
principle (n.) from pananatíli (n.), survival. Synonym simuláning pangnatíli

theoretical katháng-múni In the sense of ―hypothetical reflections.‖ From katháin (v.) to
concepts (n.) create, and munimúni (n.) reflections, musings. Literally, in the
sense of katháng pang-ísip or ―created for reflection or thought.‖
theoretical logic katháng-múning From tugmäsunód (logic); and pang- (prefix) for; and ísip (n.)
(n.) tugmäsunód thought. Lit., logic for thinking; logic of thinking; logic of thought
theoretical tagatalmúni Also: formal philosopher. From the prefix tagá- meaning ―doer of‖
philosopher (n.) and talmúni (n.), theoretical philosophy
theoretical talmúni Also: formal philosophy. From talós (adj.), perfectly understood;
philosophy (n.) penetrated; comprehended; and múni-múni (n.), reflection,
musings, contemplation, meditation, speculations
To engage in logical reasoning from general elements to specific
Ihabísok, conclusion; to reason logically and arrive at a specific conclusion
to deduce (n.) maghabísok, based on general elements. From hábï (v., weave); and pások
manghabísok (enter). Lit., to weave inwards; to weave from the outside and going
towards the center.
to express in the v. from hanginlútang (adj.), abstract. Syn: to generalize (v.), lahatïn.
ihanginlútang
abstract (v.) Example: don’t express in the abstract, huwag mong ihanginlútang
to express in the v. from tunágay (adj.), concrete. Example: páano itunanáy, how to
itunágay
concrete (v.) express concretely
v. from lahát, all. Example: nilálahat nila, they are generalizing.
to generalize (v.) ilálahat
Syn: lahatïn. Example: huwag mong lahatïn, don’t generalize
To engage in logical reasoning from specific elements to general
conclusion; to reason logically and arrive at a general conclusion
to induce (v.) ihabíbas based on specific elements. From hábï (v., weave); and labás (n.,
out; v., exit, get out; adj., outsider, stranger, foreigner). Lit., to
weave from inside and going out; to weave outwards
Lit., to guess correctly; From i- (prefix), to; and tugmä (adj.) correct,
to infer (v.) itugmähúlä
connected, related; and húlä (v. and n.), guess.
value system (n.) sinhalagáwï paraan ng pagpapahalagang gawi (To be continued)
value systemic
makahalagáwï (To be continued)
(adj.)
values (n.) halagáwï pagpapahalaga ng gawi (To be continued)
Table 59: Events of Mass Influence
Events Examples Reach Emotion Repetition

Governance Elections, news, personalities, issues National
Politics Debates, news, crime, issues National
Religion Festivals, news, crime, issues Regional
Education Enrolment, fees, activities, issues National
International Events Politics, sports, competitions, issues National
Entertainment Personalities, programs, crime, issues National
Mass Media News, technology, programs, issues National
Others Disasters, trends, celebrations National
Measures can be based on current national population statistics, by age, gender, region, religion, occupation, education level, as well as annual income.
Although completing this table is beyond the scope of this paper, a number of these elements are discussed in the succeeding chapters.
Table 60: Modern Historical Events Defining National Consciousness
Year Modern Historical Events National Consciousness & Thought

15 The Spanish Occupation Rebellion against unjust laws
18 The American Occupation Rebellion against unjust governance
The Japanese Occupation Rebellion against unjust laws
18 The Treaty of Paris Rebellion against unjust laws
The American Liberation The price of freedom
1922 KZKZ, the first radio station (To be continued)
1953 DZAQ-TV, the first television station96 (To be continued)
1986 The EDSA Revolution (To be continued)
20 The first mobile phone service provider (To be continued)
20 The first internet service provider (To be continued)
Muhammad Ali’s Thrilla in Manila (To be continued)
Manny Pacquiao’s first international win (To be continued)
Philippine Miss Universe (To be continued)
The Assassination of Ninoy Aquino (To be continued)
The Election of Joseph Estrada (To be continued)
The Imprisonment of Joseph Estrada (To be continued)
Carlos P. Romulo heads the UN (To be continued)
Jose Rizal and Gomburza are martyred (To be continued)
Yap Dy? (To be continued)
Typhoon Yolanda (To be continued)
M/V Paz Disaster (To be continued)
Jolibee Franchise (To be continued)
Sainthood (To be continued)
Muslim Insurrection / Insurgency (To be continued)
China claims on Philippine Sea (To be continued)
Freddie Aguilar’s ―Anak‖ (To be continued)
Leah Salonga in ―Miss Saigon‖ (To be continued)
Nida Blanca is (To be continued)
Maryjane Veloso sentenced to death in Indonesia (To be continued)
Flor Contemplacion sentenced to death in Singapore (To be continued)
Philippine soldiers sent to aid (To be continued)
Martial Law and The Marcos Dictatorship (To be continued)
Sarao Jeepneys (To be continued)
Tricycles and traisikads (To be continued)
Tamaraw jeepneys (To be continued)
Nora Aunor wins Tawag ng Tanghalan (To be continued)
Nora Aunor VS Vilma Santos (To be continued)
Pope John Paul Visit (To be continued)
96
―Television in the Philippines‖ in Wikipedia; electronic document available at
en.wikipedia.org
Table 61: Prehistoric Philippine Historical Timeline
YEARS Events in Philippine Prehistory

500,000 BCE Early humans in the Cagayan cave.
400,000 BCE People belonging to the species Homo Erectus set foot on the Philippines.
55,000 BCE The first Homo Sapiens in the Philippines.
50,000 BCE Early humans made stone tools in the Tabon Cave in Palawan.
Homo Sapiens lived in caves in Guri and Duyong Palawan, and in Batangas, Bulacan,
8,000 BCE
and Rizal.
40,000 BCE Negritos start to settle.
20,000 BCE Tabon Man made stone tools in the Tabon Cave.
4,500–300 BCE Multiple Austronesian migrations from Taiwan.
3,000 BCE Presumed date of the Angono Petroglyphs.
Table 62: Pre-Hispanic Philippine Historical Timeline
Years Historical Events from the 10th to the 15th Centuries

900 The Laguna Copperplate Inscription is written in Kawi script in the Manila area
The Indianized polity of Tondo rises around Manila Bay
1000 The Orang Dampuan from Central Vietnam establish trade zones in Sulu
1001 Song Shih documents a tributary delegation from the Indic Rajahnate of Butuan (March 17)
1175 The Namayan polity on the Pasig reaches its peak.
1240 Tuan Masha'ika, an Arab, travels and introduces Islam to Sulu.
1380 Sheikh Karim-ul Makhdum arrives in Jolo and builds a Mosque.
1390 Baguinda Ali arrives in Buansa, Sulu and the people named him Rajah.
1400 Birth of the Baybayin, Hanunoo, Tagbanwa, and Buhid scripts from Brahmi.
1457 Sultanate of Sulu founded by Sayyid Abubakar Abirin
1500 Rise of Kingdom of Maynila under the Bolkiah dynasty
Adapted from ―Timeline of Philippine History, Wikipedia
Table 63: 16th Century Philippine Historical Timeline
Years Historical Events of the 16th Century

1521 Discovery Mar 16: Ferdinand Magellan lands on Homonhon with three small ships: the
Concepcion, Trinidad, and Victoria.
Discovery Mar 28: Magellan reaches the Philippines
Contact Mar 29: Blood compact between Magellan and Rajah Kulambo of Limasawa
Contact Mar 31: The first mass on Philippine soil is celebrated.

Contact Apr 7: Blood compact between Magellan and Rajah Humabon of Cebu.
Humabon and his wife are baptized into the Catholic Church.
Conflict Apr 27: Lapu-Lapu kills Magellan in the battle of Mactan.
Invasion A Spanish expedition under Juan Garcia Jofre de Loaysa to the Philippines
1525
begins; fails
1526 Invasion A Spanish expedition under Juan Cabot to the Philippines begins; fails
1527 Invasion A Spanish expedition under Alvaro de Saavedra to the Philippines begins
1529 Invasion Saavedra's expedition returns to Spain; Saavedra dies on the way home.
Invasion The Loaysa expedition arrives in Spain; one of the survivors is chronicler Andres
1536
de Urdaneta
1543 Invasion A Spanish expedition under Ruy López de Villalobos to the Philippines begins
Invasion Feb 2: Villalobos arrives in the Philippines; names Samar and Leyte as Las Islas
Filipinas in honor of Philip of Asturias, the crown prince of Spain
1565 Invasion Feb 13: Miguel López de Legazpi arrives in the Philippines with four ships and
380 men
Invasion 8 May: Legazpi establishes the first permanent Spanish settlement in the
Philippines
Invasion The Philippines is governed as a territory of the Viceroyalty of New Spain.
Revolt The Dagami Revolt by Filipino rebel Dayahi in Mactan against the Spaniards
1567
(Brown, n. d.)
Invasion The Portuguese, under General Gonzalo de Pereira, attack Cebu and blockade
1568
its port.
1570 Invasion The Portuguese again attack and are repulsed.
Invasion May: Legaspi sends an expedition under Martin de Goiti to Manila.
1571 Revolt 19 May: Rajah Sulaiman, ruler of Manila, wages war against the Spaniards
Colonization Jun 24: Legaspi establishes the Spanish Colonial Government in Manila and
proclaims it the capital of the colony
Governance August 20: Legazpi dies; Guido de Lavezaris succeeds him as Governor-
1572
General (1572–1575)
1574 Revolt Nov 23: The Chinese pirate captain Limahong attacks Intramuros but fails
Revolt Dec 2: Limahong again attacks Intramuros in Manila with 1500 soldiers but fails
again
Revolt The Tagalog Revolt: Rajah Lakandula and Rajah Sulayman in Manila lead
revolts97 against the Spanish.
1575 Colonization Captain Pedro de Sanchez establishes Ciudad de Nueva Cáceres (now Naga
City)
Governance August 25: Francisco de Sande is appointed Governor-General (1575–1580)
97
This revolt happened after Sulayman and Lakandula lost their kingdoms when they were persuaded by Adelantado Legazpi to accept Spanish sovereignty on the
promise that their people will be treated well by the Spaniards. Due to Lavezaris‘s reversal of Legazpi‘s policy of exempting the native rulers from tributes Lakandula
and Soliman decided to rise in arms, proclaimed their revolt and gathered in Navotas (http://aristocrace.blogspot.com/2011/09/rise-of-filipino-nationalism.html).

1579 Colonization The Diocese of Manila is established
1580 Governance Apr: Gonzalo Ronquillo de Peñaloza is appointed Governor-General (1580–
1583)
Governance King Philip II of Spain becomes King of Portugal; this ends the Portuguese
attacks on the Philippines
Slavery The Spaniards institute forced labor on all male natives aged 16 to 60.
1582 Invasion Battles take place between Spanish forces and Japanese Ronin
1583 Governance Mar 10: Diego Ronquillo is appointed Governor-General (1583–1584)
Disaster August: A great fire destroys Manila
1584 Governance 16 May: Santiago de Vera is appointed Governor-General (1584–1590)
1585 Revolt The Pampango Revolt fails98
1587 Revolt Conspiracy of the Maharlikas (until 1588)99
1589 Revolt Revolts Against the Tribute100
1590 Education Jesuit missionaries establish the Colegio de Manila in Intramuros
Governance Jun 1: Gómez Pérez Dasmariñas is appointed Governor-General (until 1593)
1592 Literature Miguel de Benavides's Doctrina Christiana is published in Chinese
1593 Literature The Doctrina Christiana is published in Spanish and in Tagalog
Governance Oct: Pedro de Rojas is appointed Governor-General (1593)
Governance Dec 3: Luis Pérez Dasmariñas is appointed Governor-General (until 1596)
1595 Education The Colegio de San Ildefonso is founded in Cebu; The Diocese of Manila is
raised to an Archbishopric; The Diocese of Nueva Segovia is established; The
Diocese of Caceres is established; The Diocese of Cebu is established;
1596 Revolt The Magalat Revolt
Governance July 14: Francisco de Tello de Guzmán is appointed Governor-General (1596–
1602)
Education The first school for girls in the Philippines, the Colegio de Santa Potenciana, is
1598
established
1600 Literature Pedro Bucaneg inscribes the oral epic Biag ni Lam-ang
Adapted from ―Timeline of Philippine History, Wikipedia101
98
This was an uprising by some native Kapampangan leaders who resented Spanish landowners (encomienderos) who deprived them of their historical land
inheritances as tribal chiefs. Intramuros was to be stormed but a Filipina married to a Spanish soldier reported the plot. Governor General Santiago de Vera sent
Spanish and Filipino colonial troops and the leaders of the revolt were arrested and summarily executed.
99
The Conspiracy of the Maharllikas, or the Tondo Conspiracy, of 1587-1588, was a plot against Spanish colonial rule by the kin-related noblemen, or datus, of
Manila and some towns of Bulacan and Pampanga. It was led by Agustin de Legazpi, nephew of Lakandula, and his first cousin, Martin Pangan. The datus swore to
revolt by anointing their necks with a split egg. The uprising failed when they were denounced to the Spanish authorities by Antonio Surabao (Susabau) of
Calamianes.
100
The revolts of Ilocanos, Ibanags and others was over alleged abuses by tax collectors, including collection of unjust taxes in the present-day provinces of Cagayan,
Ilocos Norte and Ilocos Sur. GovernorGeneral Santiago de Vera sent Spanish and Filipino colonial troops to pacify the rebels who were eventually pardoned; the
Philippine tax system was reformed.
101
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Philippine_history
Year Date Historical Events of the 17th Century

1600 The Dutch attacks the archipelago in a tactical offensive during the European war
Invasion
between Spain and the Netherlands
Governance Bandala System is formed by the Spanish Colonial Government
Trade The Galleon trade between Manila and Acapulco, Mexico begins.
1601 Revolt 1 The Igorot Revolt
Education 1 August 1: The Colegio de San Jose is established
1602 Revolt 2 The Chinese Revolt of 1602
GovGen 1 May: Pedro Bravo de Acuña is appointed Governor-General (1602–1606).
June 24: The Audiencia Real appoints Cristóbal Téllez de Almanza as Governor-
1606 GovGen 2
General (1606–1608)
1608 GovGen 3 June 15: Rodrigo de Vivero y Velasco is appointed Governor-General (1608–1609)
1609 GovGen 4 April: Juan de Silva is appointed Governor-General (1609–1616)
April 28: The Colegio de Nuestra Señora del Santísimo Rosario (later the Colegio de
1611 Education 2
Santo Tomas, and then University of Santo Tomas) is established
April 19: The Audiencia Real appoints Andrés Alcaraz as Governor-General (1616–
1616 GovGen 5
1618)
1618 GovGen 6 July 3: Alonso Fajardo de Entenza is appointed Governor-General (1618–1624)
1619 Education 3 The Holy See recognizes the Colegio de Nuestra Señora del Santissimo Rosario
The Colegio de Huerfanos de San Pedro y San Pablo (later the Colegio de San Juan
1620 Education 4
de Letran) is established
1621 The Colegio de Manila raised to the status of a University and renamed as the
Education 5
Universidad de San Ignacio by Pope Gregory XV
Revolt 3 The Tamblot Revolt (1621–1622)
Revolt 4 The Bankaw Revolt (1621–1622)
1624 July: The Audiencia Real appoints Jeronimo de Silva as Governor-General (1624–
GovGen 7
1625)
GovGen 8 July: Fernando de Silva is appointed Governor-General (1624–1626)
1625 Revolt 5 The Isneg Revolt (1625–1627)
1626 GovGen 9 June 29: Juan Niño de Tabora is appointed Governor-General (1626–1632)
Pope Urban VIII authorizes the Colegio de Santo Tomas (later the University of
1627 Education 6
Santo Tomas) to confer degrees
1632 July 22: The Audiencia Real appoints Lorenzo de Olaza as Governor-General
GovGen 10
(1632–1633)
Education 7 The Colegio de Santa Isabel is established
1633 GovGen 11 August 29: Juan Cerezo de Salamanca is appointed Governor-General (1632–1635)

June 25: Sebastián Hurtado de Corcuera is appointed Governor-General (1635–
1635 GovGen 12
1644)
1639 Revolt 6 Cagayan Revolt
The Universidad de San Felipe de Austria is established as the first public university
1640 Education 8
in the Philippines
1643 Education 9 The Universidad de San Felipe de Austria closes down
Revolt 7 The Ladia Revolt (1643)
1644 GovGen 13 August 11: Diego Fajardo Chacón is appointed Governor-General (1644–1653)
1645 Education The Colegio de Santo Tomas is becomes a university and, on the request of King
10 Philip IV of Spain, renamed as University of Santo Tomas by Pope Innocent X
Revolt 8 The Zambales Revolt
Revolt 9 The Pampanga Revolt
1647 Invasion 2 The Dutch besiege the Spanish in the Battle of Puerto de Cavite.
1649 Revolt 10 The Sumuroy Revolt (1649–50)
Revolt 11 The Pintados Revolt (1649–50)
1653 GovGen 14 July 25: Sabiniano Manrique de Lara is appointed Governor-General (1653–1663)
1660 Revolt 12 The Zambal Revolt
Revolt 13 The Maniago Revolt
Revolt 14 The Malong Revolt (1660–1661)
1661 Revolt 15 The Ilocano Revolt
1662 Revolt 16 The Chinese Revolt
1663 GovGen 15 September 8: Diego de Salcedo is appointed Governor-General (1663–1668
Revolt 17 The Tapar Revolt
September 28: Juan Manuel de la Peña Bonifaz is appointed Governor-General
1668 GovGen 16
(1668–1669)
1669 GovGen 17 September 24: Manuel de León is appointed Governor-General (1669–1677)
1677 September 21: Francisco Coloma is appointed Governor-General by the Audiencia
GovGen 18
Real
September 21: Francisco Sotomayor y Mansilla is appointed Governor-General
GovGen 19
(1677–1678) by the Audiencia Real
September 28: Juan de Vargas y Hurtado is appointed Governor-General (1678–
1678 GovGen 20
1684)
Education 12 May: The University of Santo Tomas is placed under Royal Patronage by King
1680
11 Charles II of Spain
1681 Revolt 18 The Sambal Revolt (1681–1683)
August 24: Gabriel de Curuzealegui y Arriola is appointed Governor-General (1684–
1684 GovGen 21
1689)
1686 Revolt 19 The Tingco Plot

April: Alonso de Avila Fuertes is appointed Governor-General (1689–1690) by the
1689 GovGen 22
Audiencia Real
1690 GovGen 23 July 25: Fausto Cruzat y Gongora is appointed Governor-General (1690–1701)
Year Type Historical Events of the 18th Century

1701 Gov 1 Dec 8: Domingo Zabálburu de Echevarri appointed Governor-General (1701–1709).
1709 Gov 2 Aug 25: Martín de Urzua y Arismendi appointed Governor-General (1709–1715).
1715 Gov 3 Feb 4: Jose Torralba appointed Governor-General (1715–1717) by the Audiencia Real.
Aug 9: Fernando Manuel de Bustillo Bustamante y Rueda appointed Governor-General
1717 Gov 4
(1717–1719).
1718 Revolt 1 Rivera Revolt
1719 Oct 11: Archbishop Francisco de la Cuesta of Manila becomes acting Governor-General
Gov 5
(1719–1721).
Revolt 2 Caragay Revolt
1721 Gov 6 Aug 6: Toribio José Cosio y Campo appointed Governor-General (1721–1729).
1722 Educ 1 Colegio de San Jose conferred with the title Royal.
1729 Gov 7 Aug 14: Fernándo Valdés y Tamon appointed Governor-General (1729–1739).
1739 Gov 8 Jul: Gaspar de la Torre appointed Governor-General (1739–1745).
1744 Revolt 3 Dagohoy Rebellion (1744–1829)
1745 Sep 21: Archbishop Juan Arrechederra of Manila becomes acting Governor-General
Gov 9
(1745–1750).
Revolt 4 Agrarian Revolt (1745–1746)
1750 Gov 10 Jul 20: Jose Francisco de Obando y Solis appointed Governor-General (1750–1754).
1754 Disaster 15 May: Mt Taal emits magma and destroys Lipa, Sala, Tanauan and Talisay towns.
Jul 26: Pedro Manuel de Arandia Santisteban appointed Governor-General (1754–
Gov 11
1759).
1759 Gov 12 Jun: Miguel Lino de Ezpeleta appointed Governor-General (1759–1761).
Jul: Archbishop Manuel Rojo del Rio y Vieyra of Manila appointed Governor-General
1761 Gov 13
(1761–1762).
1762 Revolt 5 Silang Revolt (1762–63)
Revolt 6 Palaris Revolt (1762–1765)
Revolt 7 Camarines Revolt (1762–1764)
102

Revolt 8 Cebu Revolt (1762–1764)
British forces looted and plundered many of Manila establishments through the so-called
Invasion
Rape of Manila.
Invasion Sep 22: British fleet entered seizes Manila Bay as part of the Seven Years' War
Invasion Oct 5: Manila fell under the British rule; start of the British occupation.
Oct 6: Simón de Anda y Salazar appointed Governor-General (1762-17614) by the Real
Gov 14 Audiencia. Provisional Government established in Bacolor, Pampanga with de Anda as
dictator.
Nov 2: The British East India Company is commissioned . The Rt Hon. Dawsonne Drake
Gov 15
became the first British governor-general of the Philippines until 1764.
1763 Revolt 9 Dabo and Marayac Revolt (1763)
Revolt 10 Isabela Revolt (1763).
Politics Feb 10: Treaty of Paris implicitly returns Manila to Spain.
28 May: Deaths of Gabriela Silang, the only Filipina to have led a revolt, and her
husband Diego.
1764 Mar 17: de Anda hands over the control of the colonial government to Francisco Javier
Gov 16
de la Torre, newly appointed Governor-General (1764–1765)
Jun 11: The last of the British ships that sailed to Manila leaves the Philippines for India,
Invasion
ending the British occupation.
1765 Feb 10: The Viana Memorial of 1765 – The Royal Fiscal of Manila Don Francisco
Léandro de Viana writes to King Charles III of Spain, advising the king to abandon the
colony due to the economic and social devastation created by the Seven Years' War.
The suggestion was not heeded.
Gov 17 Jul 6: José Antonio Raón y Gutiérrez appointed Governor-General (1765–1770)
Governor Raon orders the minting of parallelogramic-shaped coins called barrillas, the
Finance
first coined minted in the Philippines.
Jul 23: The Society of Jesus in the Philippines is expelled by Raón after receiving a
1769 Politics 2 dated later from Charles III's chief minister Don Pedro Pablo Abarca de Bolea on March
1, 1767. The Jesuit's Properties are confiscated by the Spanish Colonial Government
1770 Gov 18 Jul: Simón de Anda y Salazar appointed Governor-General (1770–1776)
Moro pirates traveled all over the country and raids many fishing villages in Manila Bay,
1771 Politics 3
Mariveles, Parañaque, Pasay and Malate.
1774 Politics 4 Nov 9: Parishes secularized by order of King Charles III of Spain.
1776 Gov 19 Oct 30: Pedro de Sarrio appointed Governor-General (1776–1778)
1778 Gov 20 Jul: José Basco y Vargas appointed Governor-General (1778–1787)
Real Sociedad Economica de los Amigos del Pais de Filipinas (Royal Economic Society
1780 Educ 2 of Friends of the Philippines) offers local and foreign scholarships and professorships to
Filipinos, and financed trips of scientists from Spain to the Philippines
Bishop Mateo Joaquin de Arevalo of Cebu establishes the Colegio-Seminario de San
1783 Educ 3 Carlos (later the University of San Carlos) from the old building of the defunct Colegio
de San Ildefonso which closed in 1769 after the suppression of the Jesuits.

1785 Lagutao Revolt (1785).
Educ 4 20 May: University of Santo Tomas granted Royal Title by King Charles III of Spain.
1787 Gov 21 Sep 22: Pedro de Sarrio appointed Governor-General (1787–1788)
1788 Revolt 11 Ilocos Norte Revolt (1788).
Literature April 2: Birth of the greatest Tagalog poet from Bulacan Francisco "Balagtas" Baltazar.
Gov 22 Jul 1: Félix Berenguer de Marquina appointed Governor-General (1788–1793)
Sep 1: Rafael María de Aguilar y Ponce de León appointed Governor-General (1793–
1793 Gov 23
1806)
Year Date Historical Events of the 19h Century

1805 Revolt 1 Nueva Vizcaya Revolt (1805)
1806 Aug 7: Mariano Fernández de Folgueras is appointed Governor-General (1806–1810)
1807 Revolt 2 Ambaristo Revolt (1807)
May: French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte installs his brother Joseph Bonaparte as
1808
King of Spain.
Jan 22: King Joseph Bonaparte gives Filipinos Spanish citizenship and grants the
1809
colony representation in the Spanish Cortes
1810 Mar 4: Manuel Gonzalez de Aguilar is appointed Governor-General (1806–1813)
1812 Mar 19: The Spanish Cortes promulgates the Cadiz Constitution
Sep 24: The first Philippine delegates to the Spanish Cortes, Pedro Perez de Tagle
and Jose Manuel Coretto take their oath of office in Madrid, Spain.
1813 Sep 4: José Gardoqui Jaraveitia is appointed Governor-General (1806–1816)
Mar 17: The Cadiz Constitution implemented in Manila
Oct 16: Napoleon is defeated in the Battle of the Nations near Leipzig
Oct: British General Duke of Wellington drives the Napoleonic forces out of Spain
Ferdinand VII proclaimed as King of Spain; Conservatives return to the Spanish
1814
Cortes
1815 Jun 18: Napoleon is defeated in Waterloo;
Oct 15: Napoleon is exiled in St. Helena's Island
1816 The conservative Spanish government rejects the Cadiz Constitution; Filipino
representation in the Spanish Cortes is abolished
Dec 10: Mariano Fernández de Folgueras is appointed Governor-General (till 1822)
1822 Oct 30: Juan Antonio Martínez is appointed Governor-General (till1825)
103

1825 Oct 14: Mariano Ricafort Palacín y Abarca is appointed Governor-General (till 1830)
1828 Disaster Earthquake strikes Manila destroying many of its buildings
1830 Dec 23: Pascual Enrile y Alcedo is appointed Governor-General (1830–1835)
Trade Manila is opened to the world market
1835 Mar 1: Gabriel de Torres is appointed Governor-General (1835)
Apr 23: Joaquín de Crámer is appointed Governor-General (1835)
Sep 9: Pedro Antonio Salazar Castillo y Varona is appointed Governor-General (1835)
Trade 2 Chamber of Commerce is formed
1837 Aug 27: Andrés García Camba is appointed Governor-General (1837–1838)
Trade 3 Manila is made an open port.
1838 Dec 29: Luis Lardizábal is appointed Governor-General (1838–1841)
Literature Florante at Laura is published.
1841 Feb 14: Marcelino de Oraá Lecumberri is appointed Governor-General (1841–1843)
Nov 4: Apolinario Dela Cruz better known as Hermano Pule was executed.
Jun 17: Francisco de Paula Alcalá de la Torre is appointed Governor-General (1843–
1843
1844)
1844 Jul 16: Narciso Clavería y Zaldúa is appointed Governor-General (till 1849)
1849 Dec 26: Antonio María Blanco is appointed Governor-General (till 1850)
1850 Jul 29: Antonio de Urbistondo y Eguía is appointed Governor-General (till 1853)
1852 Disaster 2 Dec 4: Glowing avalanche from Mt Hibok-Hibok.
1853 Dec 20: Ramón Montero y Blandino is appointed Governor-General (till 1854)
1854 Feb 2: Manuel Pavía y Lacy is appointed Governor-General (1854)
Oct 28: Ramón Montero y Blandino is appointed Governor-General (1854)
Nov 20: Manuel Crespo y Cebrían is appointed Governor-General (1854)
1856 Dec 5: Ramón Montero y Blandino is appointed Governor-General (till 1857)
1857 Jan 12: Fernándo Norzagaray y Escudero is appointed Governor-General (till 1860)
1859 Jesuits return to the Philippines
Jesuits take over the Escuela Municipal and establishes the Ateneo Municipal
1860 Jan 12: Ramón María Solano y Llanderal is appointed Governor-General (1860)
Aug 29: Juan Herrera Dávila is appointed Governor-General (till 1861)
1861 Feb 2: José Lemery e Ibarrola Ney y González is appointed Governor-General (till
1862)
Jun 19: Jose Rizal, Philippines' National Hero is born.
Escuela de Artes Y Oficios de Bacolor established as Asia's oldest vocational school.
1862 Mar 24: Joaquín del Solar e Ibáñez is appointed Governor-General (1862–1865)
Jul 7: Salvador Valdés is appointed Governor-General (1862)

Jul 9: Rafaél de Echagüe y Bermingham is appointed Governor-General (1862–1865)
1863 Disaster 3 Jun 3: An earthquake leaves Manila in ruins
Nov 30: Andres Bonifacio, founder of the Katipunan, was born.
1864 Jul 23: Apolinario Mabini, the Brains of the Revolution, was born.
1865 University of Santo Tomas made the center for public instruction throughout the
Educ
Philippines by royal decree of Queen Isabella II of Spain.
Observatorio Meteorológico del Ateneo Municipal de Manila (Manila Observatory)
Educ
established by the Jesuits
Apr 25: Juan de Lara e Irigoyen is appointed Governor-General (1862–1865)
1866 Jul 13: José Laureano de Sanz y Posse is appointed Governor-General (1866)
Sep 21: Juan Antonio Osorio is appointed Governor-General (1866)
Sep 27: Joaquín del Solar e Ibáñez is appointed Governor-General (1866)
Oct 26: José de la Gándara y Navarro is appointed Governor-General (1866–1869)
Colegio de Santa Isabel established in Naga by Bishop Francisco Gainza, OP of
1867 Educ
Nueva Caceres, through the royal decree of Queen Isabella II of Spain.
1869 Nov 17: Suez Canal opened
Colegio de Santa Isabel inaugurated as the first Normal School in Southeast Asia
Jun 7: Joaquín del Solar e Ibáñez is appointed Governor-General (1866)
Jun 23: José de la Gándara y Navarro is appointed Governor-General (1869–1871)
1871 The Gabinete de Fisica of the University of Santo Tomas established as the first
Educ
Museum in the Philippines.
The Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of the University of Santo Tomas is
Educ
established as the first schools of Medicine and Pharmacy in the Philippines.[16][17]
Apr 4: Rafael de Izquierdo y Gutíerrez is appointed Governor-General (till 1873)
1872 Revolt 3 200 Filipino soldiers stage a mutiny in Cavite.
Feb 17: Priests Mariano Gomez, José Apolonio Burgos, and Jacinto Zamora (together
Revolt 4
known as Gomburza) are implicated in the Cavite Mutiny and executed.
1873 Jan 8: Manuel MacCrohon is appointed Governor-General (1873)
Jan 24: Juan Alaminos y Vivar is appointed Governor-General (1873–1874)
1874 Mar 17: Manuel Blanco Valderrama acting is appointed Governor-General (1874)
Jun 18: José Malcampo y Monje is appointed Governor-General (1874–1877)
The Colegio de San Jose incorporated into the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of
1875 Educ
the University of Santo Tomas.
1877 Feb 28: Domingo Moriones y Murillo is appointed Governor-General (till1880)
1880 Mar 20: Rafael Rodríguez Arias is appointed Governor-General (1880)
Apr 15: Fernando Primo de Rivera, 1st Marquis of Estella, is appointed Governor-
General (till 1883)(1st Term)
Media Manila is connected through telegraphic cable Europe by Eastern Telecom.

Jul 18: Two shocks of an earthquake create destruction from Manila to Santa Cruz,
Disaster
Laguna. Tremors continue until Aug 6
1882 Mar 3: Jose Rizal leaves for Spain to continue his medical studies
Jun 2: Jose Rizal begins writing the Noli Me Tangere
1883 Mar 10: Emilio Molíns becomes acting Governor-General (1883). (First Term)
Apr 7: Joaquín Jovellar is appointed Governor-General (1883–1885)
1884 Required forced labor of 40 days a year is reduced to 15 days by the Spanish Colonial
Slavery
Government.
Jun 21: Rizal finishes his medical studies in Spain
1885 Apr 1: Emilio Molíns becomes acting Governor-General (1885). (First Term)
Apr 4: Emilio Terrero y Perinat is appointed Governor-General (1885–1888)
1887 May29: Noli Me Tangere published.
Oct: Rizal starts writing the El Filibusterismo
Educ The Manila School of Agriculture is established.
1888 Mar 10: Antonio Molto becomes acting Governor-General (1888)
Federico Lobaton became acting Governor-General (1888)
Valeriano Wéyler is appointed Governor-General (1888–1891)
Dec 10: La Solidaridad established
1891 Mar 28: Rizal finishes writing El Filibusterismo in Biarritz, France
Literature El Filibusterismo published in Ghent, Belgium
Eulogio Despujol is appointed Governor-General (1891–1893)
1892 Jun 26: Rizal arrives in the Philippines from Europe via Hong Kong
Jul 3: Rizal forms the La Liga Filipina
Jul 7: Rizal is arrested for establishing the La Liga Filipina
Jul 7: Andres Bonifacio secretly established the Katipunan.
Jul 17: Rizal is exiled to Dapitan
Crime M Sep 23: Filipino painter Juan Luna shot dead his wife Paz Pardo De Tavera.
1893 Mar 10: Federico Ochando becomes acting Governor-General (1893)
Ramón Blanco is appointed Governor-General (1893–1896)
1894 Revolt 5 Jul 8: Bonifacio forms the Katipunan
1896 Jul 1: Gov Ramon Blanco recruits Rizal as physician for the Spanish Army in Cuba
Aug 6: Rizal returns to Manila from Cuba
Aug 19: The Katipunan discovered by the Spanish Colonial Government. Katipuneros
flee to Balintawak
Aug 23: Revolution is proclaimed by Bonifacio at the Cry of Balintawak. Katipuneros
tear up their cedulas

Aug 26: Andres Bonifacio, Emilio Jacinto and other Katipuneros board Rizal's ship to
Barcelona. They offer his rescue but Rizal refused
Aug 30: Battle at San Juan del Monte. Gov Ramon Blanco proclaims a state of war in
Revolt 6
Manila, Laguna, Cavite, Batangas, Pampanga, Bulacan, Tarlac and Nueva Ecija.
Sep 2: Rizal Boards the ship Isla de Panay for Barcelona
Execution Sep 12: Thirteen Filipinos were executed in Cavite.
Oct 3: Rizal arrives at Barcelona
Oct 4: Rizal is imprisoned in Montjuich by order of Capt. Gen. Despujo
Oct 6: Rizal returns to Manila as a prisoner
Revolt 7 Oct 31: Emilio Aguinaldo heads a new group of the Katipunan in Cavite
Nov 13: Rizal arrives in Manila and incarcerated in Fort Santiago
Nov 20: Rizal is interrogated for charges against the Spanish Colonial Government
Dec 13: Camilo Polavieja becomes acting Governor-General (1896–1897)
Execution Dec 30: Rizal is executed at Bagumbayan
Execution Jan 4: Eleven of the 15 Filipinos of Bicol were executed at the Luneta in Manila
Execution Jan 11: Thirteen Filipinos were executed at Bagumbayan
Revolt 8 Mar 22: The Katipunan holds its election. Emilio Aguinaldo is elected as president
Execution Mar 23: Nineteen Filipinos of Kalibo, Aklan were executed
Apr 15: José de Lachambre becomes acting Governor-General (1897)
Apr 23: Fernando Primo de Rivera is appointed Governor-General (1897–1898)
Apr 29: Katipuneros arrest Andres Bonifacio & his brothers Procopio and Ciriaco on
orders of Aguinaldo with sedition & treason before a military court of the Katipunan.
8 May: The Katipunan convicts and sentences Bonifacio brothers to death
1897 Execution 10 May: Andres Bonifacio and his brothers are executed at Mt. Buntis, Maragondon,
P Cavite.
31 May: Aguinaldo establishes a Philippine republican government in Biak-na-Bato,
San Miguel, Bulacan.
Aug 10: Aguinaldo begins negotiating with the Spaniards colonial government in
Manila with Pedro Paterno as representative.
Disaster Aug 15: A 7.9 intensity estimated earthquake hits Luzon's northwest coast
Nov 1: Constitution of Biak-na-Bato promulgated
Dec 14: Aguinaldo and Governor Primo de Rivera sign the Pact of Biak-na-Bato
Dec 27: Aguinaldo is self-exiled to Hong Kong following the Pact of Biak-na-Bato
1898 Feb 8: Emilio Jacinto & Feliciano Jocson revive the Katipunan
Apr 11: Basilio Augustín is appointed Governor-General (1898)
Apr 24: The US government promises support in exchange for his cooperation.
Aguinaldo agrees

Apr 26: The US declares war on Spain.
1 May: Commodore George Dewey attacks Manila
19 May: Aguinaldo and his companions return to the Philippines from exile
24 May: Aguinaldo proclaims a dictatorial government and issues two decrees which
show his trust and reliance in US protection
Jun 12: Aguinaldo proclaims Philippine Independence
Jun 23: Aguinaldo changes the dictatorial government to revolutionary government.
Jul 15: Aguinaldo creates a cabinet
Jul 15: The Malolos Congress in established
Jul 17: US reinforcements and troops arrive in the Philippines.
Jul 24: Fermín Jáudenes becomes acting Governor-General (1898)
Aug 13: Francisco Rizzo becomes acting Governor-General (1898)
Aug 13: Wesley Merritt is appointed Military Governor (1898)
Invasion Aug 14: The Spanish surrender to the US after at mock battle of Manila
Aug 29: Elwell S. Otis is appointed Military Governor (1898–1900)
Sep: Diego de los Ríos becomes acting Governor-General (1898)
Sep 15: The Malolos Congress meets and elects its officers.
Media Oct 11: The Manila Times releases its first issue.
Dec 10: Spain and the US sign the Treaty of Paris. Spain cedes the Philippines to the
Politics
US, the US pays 20 million dollars to Spain.
Dec 21: US President McKinley issues the Benevolent Assimilation Proclamation
1899 Jan 20: US President McKinley appoints the 1st Philippine Commission (Schurman
Commission)
Revolt 9 Jan 21: The Malolos Constitution is promulgated by Aguinaldo.
Jan 23: The Malolos Republic government is inaugurated. Aguinaldo takes his oath of
office as President.
War Feb 4: Hostilities break out between the Filipino and US forces.
Feb 6: The US Senate ratifies the Treaty of Paris with Spain
Mar 4: The Schurman Commission arrives in Manila
Revolt 10 6 May: Aguinaldo creates a new cabinet
Revolt 11 18 May: General Vicente Alvarez establishes the Republic of Zamboanga.
20 May: Aguinaldo's moves opposed by Apolinario Mabini and Antonio Luna
Jun 5: Antonio Luna killed
War Dec 2: Gregorio Del Pilar killed in the Battle of Tirad Pass
1900 Jan 21: The Schurman Commission returns to the US.
Media Feb 2: Manila Bulletin released its first issue.

Mar 16: US President McKinley appoints the 2nd Philippine Commission (Taft
Commission)
5 May: Arthur MacArthur, Jr is appointed Military Governor (1900–1901)
Jun 3: The Taft Commission arrives in Manila
Dec 23: Partido Liberal established
Table 67: The 20th Century Philippine Historical Timeline

1901 Mar 2: The Army Appropriation Act, also known as the Spooner Amendment, is
Governance
passed by the US Senate.
Revolution Mar 23: Aguinaldo is captured by US authorities.
Apr 1: Aguinaldo takes an oath of allegiance to the US.
Education Jun 17: El Colegio de San Beda established
Governance Jul 4: Adna Chaffee appointed as the last US Military Governor (1901–1902)
Jul 4: A civil government is established in the Philippines with William Howard Taft as
Governance
the first Civil Governor (1901–1904)
Governance Jul 18: The US organizes the Philippine Constabulary
Aug 28: Silliman Institute, later known as Silliman University, is established as the
Education
first American university in the Philippines
Governance Sep: The first Filipino members of the second Philippine Commission are appointed
Sep 27: Guerillas, headed by the Filipino Captain Daza, attack the US military
Revolution
barracks in Balangiga, Samar
Sep 28: Balangiga massacre occurs
Oct 20: A U.S. Marine battalion arrives on Samar to conduct the March across Samar
operation
Nov 4: The Philippine Commission enacts the Sedition Law
Dec 14: An earthquake estimated of magnitude 7.8 shakes Lucena City.
1902 Jan: The first labor union of The Country, Union de Litografose Impresores de
Filipinas, is organized.
Jan 21: The Philippine Commission calls for the organization of Public Schools in the
Philippines.
Mar 30: The US Marines leave Balangiga
Apr 16: General Miguel Malvar surrenders to the US forces
May: Governor Taft negotiates with Pope Leo XIII the sale of the friar lands in the
Philippines
May 2: Macario Sakay establishes a second Tagalog Republic.
104

Jul 1: The Philippine Organic Act is enacted.
Jul 1: Cooper Act is passed by the US Senate. Philippine Assembly is established
Jul 4: Americans proclaim the end of the Philippine–American War, however fighting
continues
Aug 3: The Foundation of Iglesia Filipina Independiente separates from Roman
Catholic Church is proclaimed by The Union Obrera Democratica withGregorio
Aglipay as The 1st Obispo Maximo
Sep 17: Pope Leo XIII formally bestows a Pontifical title on the University of Santo
Tomas
Nov 12: Bandolerism Act is passed by the Philippine Commission. All armed
resistance against US rule are considered banditry
1903 : Governor Taft enunciates the policy of The Philippines for the Filipinos
1904 Feb 1: Luke Edward Wright is appointed as Civil Governor (1904–1905)
Oct 19: The Manila Business School is founded and starts operation (1908: Philippine
School of Commerce; 1952: Philippine College of Commerce; now Polytechnic
University of the Philippines).
1905 Nov 3: Henry Clay Ide is appointed as Civil Governor (1905–1906)
1906 Sep 20: James Francis Smith is appointed as Civil Governor (1906–1909)
Dec 3: St. Scholastica's College is established by the Benedictine Missionary Sisters
of Tutzing
1907 Jun 3: Centro Escolar University is established as Centro Escolar de Señoritas.
Jun 30: First Congressional Elections are held
Sep 13: Macario Sakay is executed by hanging, ending his Tagalog Republic.
Oct 16: The First Philippine Assembly is convened.
1908 Jun 18: The University of the Philippines is established in Manila.
1911 Jan 27: Mt. Taal erupts; kills 1,334 people
Jun 16: De La Salle University-Manila is founded as De La Salle College by the
Brothers of Christian Schools.
Dec 28: Tricentennial of the Royal and Pontifical University of Santo Tomas[16][17]
1913 Sep 1: Newton W. Gilbert appointed as acting Civil Governor (1913)
Oct 6: Francis Burton Harrison appointed as Civil Governor (1913–1921)
Jul 27: Iglesia ni Cristo (largest independent church in Asia) is registered to the
1914
government.
1916 Oct 16: The Jones Law is passed establishing an all-Filipino legislature
Oct 16: Manuel Quezon elected Senate President while Sergio Osmenna is elected
as House Speaker of the House of Representatives of the Commonwealth of the
Philippines
1917 Jan 11: The first cabinet of Filipinos under the US regime is organized.

Mar 10: Ambos Camarines is dissolved, split into Camarines Norte and Camarines
Sur.
1921 Mar 5: Charles Yeater is appointed as acting Civil Governor (1921)
Oct 14: Leonard Wood is appointed as Civil Governor (1921–1927)
1927 Aug 7: Eugene Allen Gilmore is appointed as acting Civil Governor (1927)
Dec 27: Henry L. Stimson is appointed as Civil Governor (1927–1929)
1929 Feb 23: Eugene Allen Gilmore appointed as acting Civil Governor (1929)
Jul 8: Dwight F. Davis appointed as Civil Governor (1929–1932)
1930 Nov 30: The Communist Party of the Philippines is formally established
1932 Jan 9: George C. Butte is appointed as acting Civil Governor (1932)
Feb 29: Theodore Roosevelt, Jr. appointed as Civil Governor (1932–1933)
Jun 20: Adamson School of Industrial Chemistry (ASIC) later known as Adamson
University is founded by George Lucas Adamson
Oct 26: The Communist Party of the Philippines is declared illegal by the Supreme
Court
1933 Jul 15: Frank Murphy is appointed as the last Civil Governor of the Philippines (1933–
1935)
Dec 7: Gov-General Frank Murphy grants the Right of Suffrage to the Filipino women.
1934 Mar 24: The Tydings-McDuffie Law, known as the Philippine Independence Law, is
approved by US President Roosevelt.
Jul 10: 202 delegates are elected to the Constitutional Convention in accordance with
the Tydings-McDuffie Law
Jul 30: The Philippine Constitutional Convention is inaugurated
1935 Feb 8: The Constitutional Convention creates a new constitution
Feb 15: The Philippine Constitution is signed
May 2: The Sakdalista uprising
14 May: The Philippine electorate ratifies the Constitution in a referendum
Sep 17: Manuel Quezon is elected President in the first Philippine Presidential
elections
Nov 15: The Philippine Commonwealth is inaugurated
Nov 15: The Office of Civil Governor is abolished
Mar 25: President Manuel L. Quezon issues Executive Order No. 23 which provides
1936
for the technical description and specifications of the Philippine national flag.
Feb 3–7: 33rd International Eucharistic Congress is held in Rizal Park, Manila,
1937
Philippines; first in Asia.
Jul 15: DZRH (KZRH) the first commercial radio station in the Philippines is founded
1939 by Samuel Gaches, the owner of H. E. Heacock Company, a department store
company based in Escolta, Binondo, Manila.
1941 Nov 11: Manuel Quezon re-elected as President

Dec 8: Start of the Japanese Invasion of the Philippines
Dec 20: President Quezon, his family and the war cabinet move to Corregidor Island
Dec 26: General MacArthur declares Manila an open city
Dec 28: Filipino and US armies retreat to Bataan
Dec 30: Manuel Quezon takes his oath of Office at the Corregidor Island
1942 Jan 2: Japanese troops enter Manila
Jan 3: Masaharu Homma appointed as Japanese Military Governor (1942)
Jan 3: General Masaharu Homma declares the end of American Rule in the
Philippines
Jan 3: Martial Law declared
Jan 13: All forms of opposition against the Japanese forces declared subject to death
penalty
Jan 23: An executive committee, composed of Filipinos, is formed by General
Homma as a conduit of the military administration's policies and requirements.
Feb 17: The Japanese Military Government issues an order adopting the Japanese
educational system in The Country
Feb 20: President Quezon and the war cabinet leave for the US
Mar 11: General MacArthur leaves for Australia to take command of the South
Western Pacific Area
Mar 13: The Commonwealth government is moved to the US
Mar 29: The People's Anti-Japanese Army or Hukbong Bayan Laban sa Hapon
(Hukbalahap) is organized.
Apr: A pro-US resistance movement is organized, mainly to provide data to the US on
enemy positions
Apr 9: Bataan, under US commander General Edward King, is the last province that
surrenders to the Japanese armies.
May 6: Corregidor Island falls to Japanese forces
Jun 8: Shizuichi Tanaka is appointed as Japanese Military Governor (1942–1943)
Jun 14: The Commonwealth of the Philippines becomes a member of the United
Nations
Dec 30: The Kalibapi is organized by the Japanese
1943 May 28: Shigenori Kuroda is appointed as Japanese Military Governor (1943–1942)
Jun 20: Japanese Premier Hideki Tojo nominates an all Filipino 20 member
Preparatory Commission for Philippine Independence
Sep 4: The Philippine Preparatory Commission for Independence drafts a new
Constitution which provides for a unicameral national assembly
Sep 20: The 108 delegates to the National Assembly are chosen by the members of
the Preparatory Commission for Philippine Independence.
Sep: Jose P. Laurel elected President of the Philippines by the National Assembly

Oct 14: The puppet government is inaugurated. Laurel takes his oath of office
Nov: The Philippine economy collapses; the rice shortage becomes serious
1944 May: The puppet government inaugurates the Green Revolution Movement.
Aug 1: Sergio Osmena assumes the Office of the President of the Commonwealth of
the Philippines after the death of Manuel Quezon
Sep 21: US forces raids Manila
Sep 26: Tomoyuki Yamashita appointed as Japanese Military Governor (1944–1945)
Oct 20: General MacArthur lands in Palo, Leyte, accompanied by President Sergio
Osmena and US troops
Oct 23: The Commonwealth government of the Philippines is re-established in
Tacloban, Leyte
Dec 8: Pro-Japanese Philippine generals Pio Duran and Benigno Ramos organize
the Makapilis
1945 Jan 30: 121 American soldiers and 800 Filipino guerrillas free 813 American
prisoners of war from the Japanese-held camp in Cabanatuan City.
Feb 4: US troops enter Manila
Feb 22: Hukbalahap troop leaders arrested by the US forces
Feb 24: The Battle of Manila ends. The Japanese surrender to the combined US and
Filipino troops
Feb 27: MacArthur hands over Malacanang Palace to Osmena.
Mar 3: The US and Filipino troops recaptured Manila.
Mar 22: The families of pro-Japanese President Laurel and Speaker Aquino leave
The Country for Japan to seek refuge
Jun 5: The Congress elected in 1941 convenes for the first time
Jul 5: General MacArthur announces the liberation of the Philippines
Aug 6: The American forces drop an atomic bomb over Hiroshima, Japan.
Aug 9: The American forces an atomic bomb over Nagasaki, Japan.
Aug 15: The Empire of Japan accepts defeat
Aug 17: President José P. Laurel issues an Executive Proclamation putting an end to
the Second Philippine Republic, thus ending to his term as President of the
Philippines.
Sep 2The final official Japanese Instrument of Surrender is accepted by the Supreme
Allied Commander, General Douglas MacArthur, and Fleet AdmiralChester W. Nimitz
for the United States, and delegates from Australia, New Zealand, the United
Kingdom, The Netherlands, China, and others from a Japanese delegation led by
Mamoru Shigemitsu, on board the American battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay.
Sep 12: Jose P. Laurel is arrested by the US army
Oct 24: The United Nations is founded by ratification of its Charter, by 29 nations.

Dec: Manuel Roxas separates from the Nacionalista Party of Sergio Osmena Sr and
joins the Liberal Party
1946 Apr 23: Manuel Roxas wins in the last Presidential Election under the Commonwealth
Jul 4: The United States recognizes the Independence of the Republic of the
Philippines
Sep 30: The Amended Tenancy Act is promulgated.
1947 Jan 28: President Roxas issues an amnesty proclamation to collaborators
Mar 6: HUKBALAHAP declared illegal
Mar 14: The Treaty of General Relations between Philippines and United States is
signed.
Apr 15: President Roxas dies from a heart attack at Clark Air Field; Vice President
Quirino Assumes the Office of President
Apr 17: Elpidio Quirino takes his oath of office as President of the Philippines
Sep 8: The Philippine representative to the Far Eastern Commission, Carlos P.
Romulo, signs the Japanese Peace Treaty
Apr 28: Aurora Quezon (widow of Pres. Manuel Quezon) is ambushed by the
1949
Hukbalahap in Bongabon, Nueva Ecija.
1950 Aug 31: President Quirino appoints Ramon Magsaysay as Secretary of the
Department of National Defense
: The Philippines joins the Korean War, sending over 7,000 troops under the United
Nations command.
1951 Aug: The National Movement for Free Elections (NAMFREL) is established
Aug 30: The Mutual Defense Treaty between Philippines and United States is signed.
Oct 8: Nicasio ―Asiong‖ Salonga, branded as Tondo’s Public Enemy No. 1 and the
kingpin of Manila, is killed during a drinking spree when he is shot by Ernesto Reyes,
a henchman of Salonga’s rival and also-notorious gang leader Carlos ―Totoy Golem‖
Capistrano
1953 Nov 10: Ramon Magsaysay is elected President of the Republic of the Philippines
Dec 30: Magsaysay takes his oath of office
1954 Jul 21: The Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty is signed in Manila, creating
the South East Asian Treaty Organization (SEATO)
Sep 2: At least 82 people were killed in a train crash in Negros Occidental.
Dec 15: The Laurel-Langley Agreement is signed
1957 Mar 17: President Magsaysay dies in a plane crash; Vice-President Carlos P. Garcia
assumes the presidency
Nov 14: Carlos P. Garcia elected President of the Republic of the Philippines
1958 Aug 28: The Filipino first policy is promulgated
1960 Feb 8: Birth of Benigno Aquino III, President of the Philippines.
1961 Dec 7: Diosdado Macapagal elected President of the Republic of the Philippines.

Dec 30: Macapagal takes his oath of office
1962 May 12: Independence Day is changed to June 12 by Diosdado Macapagal
1963 Apr 12: Death of Felix Y. Manalo, founder of Iglesia ni Cristo at age of 76
Jul 28: Sixty people died, including 24 Filipino Boy Scouts en route to Athens, Greece
for the 11th World Jamboree, when United Arab Airlines Flight 869 crashes into the
Arabian Sea a few miles off Bombay, India.
Aug 8: Diosdado Macapagal Signed the Agricultural Land Reform Code
1965 Nov 9: Ferdinand Marcos elected President of the Republic of the Philippines
Dec 30: Ferdinand Marcos takes his oath of office
1967 Aug 8: ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nation) รs formed.
1968 Mar 18: Jabidah massacre
Dec 26: Jose Maria Sison establishes the Communist Party of the Philippines
1969 Mar 29: Jose Maria Sison formally organizes the military arm of the Communist Party
of the Philippines, The New People's Army
Jul: Miss Philippines Gloria Diaz is crowned Miss Universe 1969.
Nov 11: Ferdinand Marcos is re-elected President of the Republic of the Philippines
1970 Jan: First Quarter Storm begins in January.
Nov 17: Elections for 315 members of a Constitutional Convention held.
Nov 27: Pope Paul VI first papal visit to the Philippines; survives an assassination
attempt by Benjamín Mendoza y Amor Flores at Manila International Airport.
Feb 1–9: Diliman commune
Jun 1: The Constitutional Convention assembles to rewrite the 1935 Constitution. The
Convention elects former President Carlos Garcia as its head.
Jun 14: Garcia dies and former President Diosdado Macapagal takes over the top
1971 position at the Convention.
Aug 21: Plaza Miranda is bombed during the election campaign of the Liberal Party
Aug 22: President Marcos suspends the Writ of Habeas Corpus
Oct 10: Leonardo ―Nardong Putik‖ Manecio, notorious gangster and Cavite’s Public
Enemy No. 1 is killed in Imus by NBIagents in a highway shootout
1972 : Suspicious bombing incidents increase all over the country. The MNLF launches its
campaign for the independence of the Muslim provinces.
Sep 21: President Marcos signs the Martial Law Edict (not publicly announced).
Sep 22: Marcos places the entire country under martial law
Sep 22: Assassination attempt on Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile
Sep 23: Senator Benigno Aquino, Jr. is arrested
Sep 23: The implementation of martial law is officially announced
Sep 26: The whole country is proclaimed a land reform area and an Agrarian Reform
Program is decreed.

Oct 21: Marcos passes the Tenant's Emancipation Patent
Oct 21: The first major armed defiance of martial law takes place in Lanao del Sur
Oct 22: The battle between the MNLF and the government troops ends with the latter
regaining control of the city.
Nov 29: The Constitutional Convention passes the new Philippine Constitution
1973 : Misuari goes to Libya to solicit armed support from Muslim countries for the
Mindanao war
Jan 10: A plebiscite referendum is held among the citizens' assemblies to ratify the
new Constitution
Jan 15: Chinese drug lord Lim Seng is publicly executed by firing squad behind the
Libingan ng mga Bayani in Fort Bonifacio; the first and last in post-war history.
Apr: The National Democratic Front (NDF), the united front organization of the
Communist Party of the Philippines, is formally organized.
Jul: Miss Philippines Margarita Moran is crowned Miss Universe 1973.
Jul 27: Marcos' term as President is extended by virtue of a referendum
1974 Feb 27: Presidential appointments to local elective positions declared legal by virtue
of another referendum
Mar 11: Japanese lieutenant Hiroo Onoda, one of the longest-remaining Japanese
holdouts, formally surrenders his sword to President Marcos at Malacañang Palace
after continuing to fight for 29 years in Lubang Island
Dec 1: Jose Sison's essay entitled Specific Characteristics of Our People's War
published
1975 Oct 2: Thrilla in Manila
1976 Jan 4: New people's Army Spokesman Satur Ocampo arrested
Aug 17: An earthquake of 7.8 magnitude and a following tsunami (flood wave) kills
8,000 people on and off the coast of Mindanao.
Aug 26: Kumander Dante of the New People's Army is arrested
Oct 16: Martial Law allowed to exted by virtue of a plebiscite
Dec 23: The Tripoli Agreement is signed
1977 Jan 20: The Armed Forces of the Philippines signs ceasefire agreement with the
MNLF.
Mar 4: Pres Marcos decrees the autonomous Bangsa Moro Islamic Government
Nov 10: CPP head Jose Maria Sison is arrested
Nov 25: The Military Commission finds Benigno Aquino, Jr. guilty of all charges and
sentences him to death by firing squad; he escapes execution.
Dec 16: A referendum is held, the result of which again empowers the President to
continue in office, and to become Prime Minister as well.
1978 : Rodolfo Salas takes over the leadership of the Communist Party of the Philippines.
Apr 8: Members of the Interim Batasang Pambansa are elected.

Jul 30: Eat Bulaga!, the longest running noon-time variety show in the Philippines,
1979 premieres on RPN. It is also aired on ABS-CBN from 1989 to 1995 and on GMA
Network since 1995.
1981 Jan 18: Martial law is lifted.
Feb 17–21: Pope John Paul II visits the Philippines for his first papal visit.
Jun 16: Philippine general election and referendum, 1981 (Ferdinand Marcos re-
elected to a third term).
Jun 30: Finance Minister Cesar Virata is elected Prime Minister by the Batasang
Pambansa
Nov 17: Accident during the construction of the Manila Film Center, 169 killed.
1983 Aug 21: Benigno Aquino, Jr. is assassinated
1984 May 14: Philippine parliamentary election, 1984
Jun 12: New design banknotes released
Dec 2: Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) Chief of staff General Fabian Ver and
1985
25 others are acquitted.
Dec 9: Philippine Daily Inquirer releases its first issue.
1986 Feb 7: Philippine presidential election, 1986
Feb 16: Batasang Pambansa declares Marcos and Arturo Tolentino as President and
Vice-President, respectively. Corazon Aquino, widow of Benigno Aquino, Jr.,
expresses protest.
Feb 22–25: EDSA Revolution ousts President Marcos; Corazon Aquino becomes
president
February 22 : Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile and Philippine Constabulary Chief
General Fidel Ramos withdrew from the Marcos administration.
1987 February 23 : People supported the uprising of Enrile and Ramos and they expressed
support for Corazon Aquino as the real new president.
February 25 : Aquino is sworn in as President by Senior Associate Justice Claudio
Teehankee, and Salvador Laurel as Vice-President by Justice Vicente Abad Santos,
at Club Filipino in San Juan. Aquino appointed Enrile as Defense Secretary and
Ramos as AFP Chief of Staff.Marcos and his family left the country aboard American
plane to Hawaii at evening. Thus, the EDSA People Power Revolution ended.
Feb 11: The Philippine Star releases its first issue.
Mar 2: Mendiola massacre; 13 people are killed
May 11: Aquino adopts a new constitution by separating the House of
Representatives and the Senate from the Interim Batasang Pambansa.
Aug 28–29: Manila Standard (now The Standard) releases first issue.
Oct 18: TV Patrol, the longest-running Filipino spoken evening newscast, starts its
broadcast on ABS-CBN.
Dec 20: Philippine legislative election, 1987

Oct 17: Coup attempt takes place when rebel soldiers made a threatened reprisal
1988 against Aquino and ended in a gunfight with 50 people killed and 200 wounded as
Government troops fizzled the plot.
1989 Sep 28: Canonization of San Lorenzo Ruiz, the first Filipino saint
Dec 1–9: The passenger ferry MV Doña Paz and the oil tanker MT Vector collide and
sink in Tablas Strait, killing 4,341 passengers and crew; the deadliest peace-time
maritime disaster of the 20th century.
1990 Jul 16: Interior Bases Agreement is signed by the Philippines and United States.
1991 Jan 29: Death of Ferdinand Marcos
Jun 15: Armed Forces of the Philippines belonging to the Reform the Armed Forces
Movement (RAM) and soldiers loyal to former President Ferdinand Marcos led by
ColonelGregorio Honasan, General Edgardo Abenina, and retired General Jose Ma.
Zumel stages coup d'etat against the Corazon Aquino government
Jun 30: The Luzon earthquake; surface wave magnitude of 7.8 damage about 20,000
square kilometers Cordillera mountains and through Central Luzon
Jul 13: Merger of the Philippine Constabulary with the Integrated National Police to
form the Philippine National Police.
Sep 16: Mount Pinatubo erupts in what will be the second largest terrestrial eruption
Disaster
of the 20th century; the final death toll tops 800.
Crime Nov 4–5: The massacre of Estrellita, Carmela, and Jennifer Vizconde.
1992 Crime May 11: Hultman-Chapman murder case
1993 Sovereignty Jun 28: Philippine Senate rejects renewal of U.S military bases in the Philippines
Sep 11: Tropical Storm Uring lashes into Eastern Visayas, leaving 8,000 people dead
Disaster
as a result of widespread flooding in the coastal city of Ormoc, Leyte.
Governance Sep 24: Philippine general election, 1992 (Fidel V. Ramos is elected)
1994 Crime Mar 29: Sarmienta-Gomez Rape-slay case.
Nov 15: Ferdinand Marcos’ remains is laid to rest in Batac, Ilocos Norte.
Jan 6: Biggest corruption case in the Philippines. Former first lady Imelda Marcos is
convicted for the first time of corruption and sentenced to 24 years in prison.
Jan 10–15: The Philippines gets connected to the Internet.
1995 Mar 17: Mindoro Earthquake
Apr 30: Discovery of Bojinka plot.
Religion May 8: Pope John Paul II visits the Philippines for the World Youth Day in Manila.
Nov 27: Flor Contemplacion is executed in Singapore.
1996 Mar 18: President Ramos inaugurates the opening of Subic International Airport
(formerly a United States military base). This indicates growth after the removal of
military bases in the country.
Mar 24: Philippine general election, 1995
Aug 4: The construction of the Skyway project is initiated, the biggest infrastructure
project in the country to ease the flow of traffic inMetro Manila.

Sep 2: Fire razes Ozone Disco, killing 162 guests including college graduating
students and 95 more injured.
Nov 24–25: Marcopper mining disaster
Jul: Onyok Velasco wins silver in the semifinal round (boxing) but loses a gold at the
1997
1996 Atlanta Olympics but Velasco returns as a hero; receives over ₱10 million prize
1998 May 11: A permanent peace agreement is signed at the Malacañan Palace between
the Government of the Philippines and the Moro National Liberation Front.
Jun 12: 8th Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Economic leaders' meeting.
1999 Feb 5: Asian financial crisis
Jan 1: Philippine general election, 1998 (Joseph Estrada is elected)
Mar 15: Centennial of Philippines Independence
Apr 19: Leo Echegaray is the first Filipino to be executed by lethal injection at the
New Bilibid Prison in Muntinlupa City.
Jul 10: The Philippines celebrates the new 2000 millennium nationwide.
2000
Nov 13: President Estrada declares an "all-out-war" against the Moro Islamic
Revolution
Liberation Front (MILF).
Dec 7: Air Philippines Flight 541 Boeing 737-2H4 crashes on Samal, Davao del
Catastrophe
Norte, killing 131, the worst air disaster in the Phillippine history.
Disaster Dec 30: Payatas landslide
Adapted from ―Timeline of Philippine History, Wikipedia
Table 68: The 21st Century Philippine Historical Timeline
Year Historical Events of the 21st Century Type

Jan 16: After 11 senators vote not to open the 2nd envelope, which contains
Revolution 1
documents against President Estrada, the prosecutors walk out.
Jan 17–20: The Second EDSA Revolution lasts 4 days. Revolution 2
2001 January 17 - The historic EDSA Revolution II begins at the People Power
Revolution 3
Shrine.
January 20 - EDSA II Revolution ousts Joseph Estrada; vice-president Gloria
Revolution 4
Macapagal-Arroyo becomes president
2002 Mar 5: EDSA III Revolution 5
2003 Jul 27: Philippine general election, 2001 Governance 1
May 10: Mindanao earthquake Disaster 1
2004
Nov 16: Oakwood mutiny Revolution 6
Jun 27: General election, 2004. Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo elected to a six-year
2005 Governance 2
term)
2006 Feb 17: Hacienda Luisita massacre; 14 killed Revolution 7

Feb 24: Hello Garci scandal (Legitimacy of declared election winners
Crime 1
questioned)
2007 May 14: Southern Leyte mudslide Disaster 2
Sep 12: A state of emergency is declared in February in response to coup
Revolution 8
rumours.
Nov 29: Philippine general election, 2007 Governance 3
May 16: The Sandiganbayan convicts former president Joseph Estrada for
2008 plunder and sentences him to reclusion perpetua; he and his co-accused Crime 2
acquitted on other charges.
2009 Jan 15: Manila Peninsula mutiny Revolution 9
Aug 1: Bank robbers kill 8 employees and 1 guard of Rizal Commercial Banking
Crime 3
Corporation (RCBC) in Cabuyao, Laguna
Aug 31: Rebel group Abu Sayyaf kidnaps 3 International Committee of the Red
Revolution 10
Cross volunteers
Sep 26: Death of former president Corazon Aquino. Other
Nov 23: Death of Eraño Manalo, executive minister of the Iglesia ni Cristo. Religion 1
2010 May 10: Great flood from Typhoon Ondoy Disaster 3
Jun 9: Maguindanao massacre Revolution 11
Jun 30: The 2010 Philippine general elections Governance 4
Aug 23: Benigno Aquino III wins the presidential election Governance 5
Oct 16: Inauguration of the Benigno Aquino III as the 15th President of the
Governance 6
Philippines.
Dec 14: The hostage crisis in Manila kills eight Hong Kong holidaymakers. Crime 4
Dec 16: Typhoon Juan (Megi) hits Sierra Madre, NE Luzon; damage over
Disaster 4
Luzon (to Oct 18)
2011 Jul 26: Vizconde massacre case finished. Result Webb's Freedom Crime 5
Nov 18: Philippine new banknotes released Governance 7
Dec 12: The heroism of 12-year-old schoolgirl Janela Lelis. Other
2012 May 29: Former President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo is arrested. Crime 6
Oct 15: 188 House of Representatives members sign impeachment of Chief
Politics 1
Justice Renato Corona
Oct 21: 20 of 23 Senators vote to find Chief Justice Renato Corona guilty on
Article II of the Articles of Impeachment filed against him, removing him from Politics 2
office.
2013 May 13: Framework Agreement on the Bangsamoro is signed which seeks for
the creation of a new autonomous political entity, Bangsamoro replacing the Governance 8
Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao.
Jul 27: Canonization of San Pedro Calungsod Religion 2
Sep 28: Philippine general election, 2013 Governance 9

Sep 28: United Federated States of Bangsamoro Republik (UFSBR) declares
Revolution 12
independence from the Philippines
Oct 15: The UFSBR ceases to exists as it is defeated in the Zamboanga City
Revolution 13
crisis.
Nov 8: Miss Philippines Megan Young is crowned Miss World 2013. Pageant
2014 Mar 27: At 8:12 a.m. (PST) in the morning, the Bohol province suffers a severe
earthquake with a magnitude of 7.2 Ms. Its epicenter is at a depth of 33
kilometres (21 mi), 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) east of Carmen, Bohol, and 629
kilometres (391 mi) from Manila. The quake is felt as far as Davao in. Ninety- Disaster 5
nine are reported dead while 276 are injured. It is the deadliest earthquake in
the Philippines in 23 years. The energy of the quake is equivalent to 32
Hiroshima bombs (Cf. Japan, World War II).
May 23: Typhoon Haiyan (Yolanda) hits Regions MIMAROPA, Western
Visayas, Central Visayas, and Eastern Visayas resulting in 6,201 deaths,
Disaster 6
27,665 injured, 1,785 missing and ₱138,552,546.55 (US$3,208,322.78) total
damages.
Jul 27: The Comprehensive Agreement on the Bangsamoro is signed. Governance 10
Jul 27: The Philippines and Indonesia sign a maritime treaty that draws the
boundary of the two countries' overlapping Exclusive Economic Zone Territory 1
inMindanao and Celebes seas.
Sep 10: The Centennial Celebration of the Iglesia ni Cristo. Religion 3
Nov 20: The birth of a baby girl in a Manila hospital as the 100 millionth Filipino. Statistics
Dec 6: President Aquino III leads the handover of the draft of the Bangsamoro
Basic Law to the Senate and House leaders in a historical turnover ceremony in Governance 11
Malacaňang.
Dec 29: Ozone Disco Club fire case finished. Result 7 officials of Quezon City
Catastrophe
convicted.
2015 Jan 15–19: Typhoon Ruby (Hagupit) hits Western and Eastern Visayas;
Disaster 7
widespread damage
Jan 25: BSP announces demonetizing the old Philippine Banknotes (issued
Governance 12
1985).
Feb 25: The Papal visit of Pope Francis in the Philippines. Religion 4
Apr 14: 44 PNP-SAF Officers are killed in Maguindanao. Revolution 14
Apr 29: The AFP declares all-out offensive campaign vs MILF break away
Revolution 15
group Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters.
May 3: Death of Ameril Umbra Kato, founding leader of the Bangsamoro Islamic
Revolution 16
Freedom Fighters.
May 3: The execution convicted Filipina drug mule Mary Jane Veloso is
Crime 7
postponed.
May 13: Manny Pacquiao is defeated by Floyd Mayweather Jr. at the MGM
Sports
Grand Garden Arena, Las Vegas, Nevada.

Jun 5: Abdul Basit Usman, the most wanted bomb expert in the country, is killed
Revolution 17
by a MILF group unit in Guindulungan, Maguindanao.
Jun28: Kentex Manufacturing slippers factory fire; 72 employees killed. Catastrophe
Jul 23: President Benigno Aquino III signs Executive Order 183 creating the
Governance 13
Negros Island Region.
Jul 27: Death of Kumander Parago, the top commander of the New People’s
Revoltuion 18
Army.
Aug 27–31: The Iglesia ni Cristo expels Tenny and Angel Manalo. Religion 5
Oct 18: President Benigno Aquino III delivers the 6th State of the Nation
Governance 14
address.
Nov 18–19: Iglesia ni Cristo members stage demonstrations near the DOJ
Religion 6
office and later in EDSA.
Dec 14–19: Typhoon Lando (Koppu) hits n and c Luzon; widespread damage
Disaster 8
and floods
Dec 21: APEC Philippines 2015 concludes with the APEC Economic Leaders'
Meeting.
2016 Jan 24–31: 51st International Eucharistic Congress is held in Cebu City,
Religion 7
Philippines.
Feb 10: The National Mapping and Resource Information Authority announces
Territory 2
its documentation of more than 400 additional islands.
Table 69: Movie Ticket Sales of Two Actresses 1975-1982
YEAR NAME RANK ENTRY TICKET SALES

1975 Nora Aunor 1 Batu Bato sa Langit P 10.9 million
Vilma Santos 7 Karugtong Ang Kahapon P 4.5 million
1976 Nora Aunor 2 Minsa'y Isang Gamu-Gamo P 10.5 million
Vilma Santos 10 Makahiya at Talahib P 1.0 million
1977 Nora Aunor 2 Bakya Mo Neneng P 14.0 million
Vilma Santos 1 Burlesk Queen P 14.3 million
1978 Nora Aunor 1 Jack 'n Jill of the Third Kind P 20.3 million
Nora Aunor 2 Atsay P 14.0 million
Vilma Santos 5 Rubia Servios P 6.5 million
1979 Nora Aunor 1 Kasal-Kasalan Bahay-Bahayan P 23.8 million
Nora Aunor 2 Ina ka ng Anak Mo P 18.5 million
Vilma Santos 9 Modelong Tanso P 1.5 million
1980 Nora Aunor 3 Kung Akoý Iiwan Mo P 13.8 million
Nora Aunor 5 Bona P 13.0 million
Vilma Santos 4 Langis at Tubig P 13.5 million
1981 Nora Aunor 2 Rock n Roll P 12.8 million
Vilma Santos 9 Karma P 3.0 million
105
YEAR NAME RANK ENTRY TICKET SALES

1982 Nora Aunor 1 Himala P 35.8 million
Vilma Santos 9 Haplos P 5.0 million
Sources: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metro_Manila_Film_Festival and http://chroniclesofmyoddity.blogspot.com/2014/05/nora-versus-vilma-in-history-metro.html
Table 70: Comparative History of World Philosophy
Philosophies Philosophers
beginnings of metaphysical philosophy Uddalaka, Yajnavalkya, Heraclitus, Parmenides
beginnings of moral philosophy Confucius/Mencius, the Buddha, Socrates
Early logical relativism, skepticism, and Mahavira, Chuang-tzu, Protagoras, Gorgias, Plato
absolutism
Early rational synthesis Hsün-tzu, Aristotle
Early varieties of atomism Democritus/Epicurus/Lucretius, "Gautama"' and
nameless Buddhists
Hierarchical idealism Plotinus/Proclus, Bhartrhari
Developed skepticism Sextus Empiricus, Nagarjuna, Jayarashi, Shriharsha
Religio-philosophical synthesis Ujdayana, Chu Hsi, Avicenna, Mairnonides, Aquinas
Logic-sensitized methodological metaphysics Gangesha, Descartes, Leibniz
Immanent-transcendent holism Shankara, Spinoza
Realistic & idealistic perceptual analysis Asanga/Vasuhandu, Locke, Berkeley, Hume
Fideistic neo-skepticism Dignaga/Dhamakirti, Kant
Adapted from Scharfstein, Ben-Ami. 1998. A Comparative History of World Philosophy: From the Upanishads to Kant. Albany: State University of New York
Press.
Table 71: Typologies of Pre-Modern, Modern, and Postmodern Philosophies106
Pre-Modern Post-Modern
Typologies Theories Modern Philosophies
Philosophies Philosophies
Metaphysics Theories of Realism; Philosophy of science; Antirealism
reality Supernaturalism Realism; Naturalism
Ethics Theories of right Collectivism; Individualism Collectivism;
altruism egalitarianism
Politics Theories of good Feudalism Social philosophy; Socialism
and society Liberal capitalism
Epistemology Theories of Mysticism and/or Logic; Objectivism Social subjectivism
knowledge faith (experience and reason)
Adapted from Hicks, 2009 and Illinois State University, 2014.
Table 72: Summary of Filipino Revolts and Rebellions
Events Years Details Causes

First 1585 Some brave Pampangueño leaders connived w/ the Abuses of
Pampanga people of Manila and the Borneans. The leaders were encomenderos
Revolt arrested abd executed w/out any fair trial.
106
Resource constraints require the exclusion of the philosophy of aesthetics - theories of beauty and visual pleasure – from this discussion.

The Tondo 1587-88 This plot against Spanish colonial rule by the datus of Regain lost freedom
Maharlika Manila and some towns of Bulacan and Pampanga
conspiracy was led by Agustin de Legazpi, nephew of Lakandula,
and his first cousin, Martin Pangan. It failed when they
were denounced to the Spanish authorities by
Antonio Surabao Susabau of Calamianes
Magalat’s 1596 Magalat of Cagayan was arrested in Manila for Unjust tax
Revolt, inciting rebellion against the Spanish. Released after
Cagayan some urging by some Dominican priests, he returned
to Cagayan. He and his brother urged the country to
revolt. Spanish Governor-General Francisco de Tello
de Guzmán sent Pedro de Chaves from Manila with
Spanish and Filipino colonial troops. The rebels were
captured, some leaders executed. Magalat’s own men
assassinated him within his fortified headquarters:
Revolt of the 1601 Spaniards were determined to proselytize the Igorots. Refusal to accept
Igorots An expedition was sent to stop them from resisting to new religion
colonial subjugation
Revolt of the 1621 After the missionaries of Fray Pedro de Santo Tomas Oppression by
Irrayas, left N Isabela, Cagayan Valley, the Irrayas killed their Spanish officials
encomenderos and burned their houses. Santo
Tomas returned and promised govt. pardon and
remedy of grievances. The revolt ended w/out a fight.
Revolt of 1621-22 Tamblot, a babaylan, persuaded the natives to Return to native
Tamblot, Bohol abandon Catholicism and rise against the Spaniards. religion
They began the revolt when most Jesuits were
attending the beatification of St. Francis Xavier in
Cebu. They burned the villages and the churches.
Bancao Revolt, 1622 Bancao, the datu of Carigara, led a religious uprising Return to native
Leyte against Spanish colonial rule in the present-day religion
Carigara province of Leyte.
Ladia Revolt 1643 Ladia, a Bornean and a descendant of Lakandula, Spanish oppression
came to Malolos in 1643.He was captured, brought to
Manila, and executed.
Revolt of 1650s Controversial decree to send carpenters to the Cavite Forced labor
Dabao shipyard. The rebels who surrendered, who were relocation
promised to be pardoned, were either hanged or
enslaved.
Sumuroy 1649-50 In the today the town of Palapag in Northern Samar, Forced labor
Revolt, Samar Juan Ponce Sumuroy, a Waray, and some of his
followers rose in arms on June 1, 1649 over the polo
system being undertaken in Samar.
Maniago 1660 led by Don Francisco Maniago, initially caused by Frequent recruitment
Revolt, natives' protest against the polo and bandala, later of men to cut timber
Pampanga became a struggle against Spanish rule. The rebels in the mountains and
were weakened by Gov. de Lara's cooperation with bandala.
the Arayat chief Macapagal.

Malong Revolt, 1660-61 Malong led some natives against the Spanish and Spanish oppression
Pangasinan proclaimed himself King of Pangasinan. Later, most of & the desire to
his men abandoned him. The Spanish captured and replace Spanish
executed him. Later, Juan dela Cruz Palaris, a native rulers
of Binalatongan, led the revolt. The Spanish reviewed
the demands of the natives and required the alcalde-
mayor of Pangasinan to resign. The resistance
continued but was finally defeated in March, 1764.
Revolt of 1661 Continuation of Malong’s Revolt. Pedro Gumapos and Spanish oppression
Gumapos his troop of Zambals killed many Spaniards in Ilocos. & desire to replace
400 rebels were slain. Gumapos was hanged in Vigan Spanish rulers
Almazan January The letters sent by Don Andres Malong re his defeat Personal ambitions
Revolt 1661 of the Spaniards and urging other provinces to rise in
arms failed but for Don Pedro Almazan, illustrious and
wealthy leader from San Nicolas, Laoag, Ilocos Norte.
Don Pedro proclaimed himself King of Ilocos, but was
later captured and executed.
Revolt of 1663 Tapar attracted many followers w/ his stories about To found a new
Tapar, Panay his frequent conversations w/ a demon. They were religion under native
killed in a bloody fught against the Spanish. supervision
Revolt of 1744- Dagohoy died in a duel; and his body was left Refusal to give his
Dagohoy, 1849 decomposing for three days. He was buried with no brother a Christian
Bohol proper limosnas (church offerings) burial
Revolt of 1762-63 Silang was imprisonment for rebellion, and killed by Abusive govt.
Silang Vicos. His wife Gabriella continued the fight. She and officials, heavy
her companions were executed in Vigan, Ilocos Sur. taxation
Palaris’s Revolt 1762-65 Palaris urged the people to fight since the Spanish Tribute; Spain’s loss
were very weak. Palaris was publicly hanged. of prestige due to the
British occupation of
Manila
Basi Revolt 1807 Ilocanos were prohibited to drink homemade basi. The wine monopoly
And compelled to buy wine from the govt. stores. of 1786
Revolt in Upon knowing this, an explosion of violence in the Abolition of the
Defense of the country against the principales took place. Liberal Spanish
Spanish constitution
Constitution
Revolt of the The insulares, led by the brothers Manuel, Jose, and Feelings of distrust
Bayot Brothers Joaquin Bayot, resented the extra privillages given to between the
the penisulares. Their plan was discovered. They peninsulares and the
were imprisoned after the trial. creoles
Religious 1840-41 Hermano Pule was not accepted for a priestly Religious freedom
Revolt of vocation because he was an indio. He founded the
Hermano Pule Cofradia de San Jose and sought recognition for the
religious brotherhood. It was banned but he continued
the brotherhood. He was captured and his chopped
body was paraded from Tayabas to nearby Lucban.
Figure 2: The Laguna Copperplate Inscription

Paul Morrow, www.mts.net
Figure 3: English Translation of the Laguna Copperplate Inscription

Paul Morrow, www.mts.net
Figure 4: National Map of the Philippines

Source: http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/asia/ph.htm
Figure 5: Map of the World

Source: http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/asia/ph.htm
Figure 6: Philosophical Development Chart

Source: philosophybasic.com
Figure 7: Progression of Philosophical Development
Source: slidesharecdn.com
Figure 8: Flowchart of Schools of Modern Philosophy
Source: media.tumblr.com
Figure 9: Illustrated History of Philosophy (Part 1: Ancient Philosophy)
Source: i.imgur.com
Figure 10: Illustrated History of Philosophy (Part 2: Athenian Philosophy)

Source: i.imgur.com
Figure 11: Illustrated History of Philosophy (Parts 3 to 5: Roman to Middle Ages)

Source: i.imgur.com
Figure 12: Illustrated History of Philosophy (Part 6: The Renaissance)

Source: i.imgur.com
Figure 13: Illustrated History of Philosophy (Part 7: Modern Philosophy)

Source: i.imgur.com
Figure 14: Illustrated History of Philosophy (Part 8: Contemporary Philosophy)

Source: i.imgur.com
Figure 15: Areas of Applied Philosophy

End of document; nothing follows.

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SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES, THE PHILIPPINE COLLEGE OF HEALTH SCIENCES

Articulating Filipino Philosophies:

the Academic Requirements

for the Degree

This paper discusses the articulation of Filipino philosophy as well as the

3.1.3 Methods & Approaches .........................................................................................................................48

4.1.2 The Medieval Era ...................................................................................................................................96

Table 1: Five-Point Validity Criteria of Philosophic Statements ....................................................................................6

Table 44: Classification of Key Concepts in Modern Philosophy ...............................................................................103

Figure 1: Maslow's Hierarchy of Human Needs ...........................................................................................................26

1.1 What is Philosophy?

Filipino philosophy is defined as philosophic thoughts that are observable phenomena

1.2 Philosophic Criteria

Philosophers ask questions about ideas (concepts)…. Some thinkers

Logical consistency is a cornerstone of any acceptable theory…. (to)

In attempting to articulate Filipino philosophies, the following simplified five-point

Table 1: Five-Point Validity Criteria of Philosophic Statements

1.3 Guide Questions

 What is Filipino philosophy?

1.4 Precision of Philosophic Language

Table 2: Imprecision in Dictionary Definitions

Terms Definitions Sources

Table 3: Opinion, Belief, and Mindset

OPINION BELIEF MINDSET

Table 4: Mindset, Principle, and Philosophy

MINDSET PRINCIPLE PHILOSOPHY

Table 5: Degrees of Mindsets in the Western Tradition1

IDEA ATTITUDE OPINION MINDSET BELIEF PRINCIPLE PHILOSOPHY

A principle is a philosophy when language and imagery are most

1.5 Definition of Key Terms

1. Automaticity (n.): The Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines this as ―happening or done

1.6 Neolexia29 of Pilipino Terms

The creation of new words (neologisms) is an established tradition, particularly in the

Table 6: Originating Pilipino Terms

Pilipino English Pilipino Etymology

Pilipino English Pilipino Etymology

Table 7: Pilipino-English Glossary

Pilipino English Etymology

Pilipino English Etymology

Pilipino English Etymology

Pilipino English Etymology

Pilipino English Etymology

Pilipino English Etymology

Pilipino English Etymology

1.7 Organization of the Paper

concepts in modern Western philosophies.How foreign thought can influence indigenous

Chapter 2: ORIGINS OF FILIPINO PHILOSOPHY

2.1 What Qualifies as Philosophical?

For practical reasons, we subscribe to the imposed concept of philosophical utterances

Table 8: Basic Elements of Philosophical Tradition

Elements “What is a philosophical tradition?

Elements How is it philosophical?

what is internal to the tradition and what is external to it.

2.2 What Qualifies as National Philosophies?

A nation of islands separated by large bodies of water – as well as by a diversity of cultures,

To initially identify widespread habits of thought and behavior as national philosophies,

2.3 Defining Originality

2.4 Defining Origination

Since philosophy requires