Women's Self-Help Groups, Poverty Alleviation and Empowerment

Author(s): S. Galab and N. Chandrasekhara Rao

Source: Economic and Political Weekly , Mar. 22 - Apr. 4, 2003, Vol. 38, No. 12/13 (Mar.
22 - Apr. 4, 2003), pp. 1274-1283
Published by: Economic and Political Weekly

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 Women's Self-Help Groups, Poverty
Alleviation and Empowerment
In its strategy for poverty alleviation and women empowerment, the government of Andhra
Pradesh has provided considerable space for women's self-help groups. What are the
characteristics of the women-based group models of poverty alleviation and women
empowerment that are being implemented in the state? How are the poor women organised
into groups? How do the groups function? And what has been the contribution of these
models to poverty alleviation and women empowerment? This paper attempts to
address some of these issues.

S GALAB, N CHANDRASEKHARA RAO

ccelerating economic growth and Programme (SAPAP) with suitable im-This paper is based on the review of
creating an environment for ensur provements to develop and implement some relevant studies. The studies reviewed
ng 'spread effect of growth' have Andhra Pradesh District Poverty Initia-are excellent source to understand the
been emphasised, especially during 1990s, tives Project (APDPIP) and the Andhra
process of change, though they do not
for poverty alleviation. This macro-Pradesh Rural Poverty Reduction Project provide precise estimates of impact assess-
strategy contributes to the emergence of(APRPRP) stand as a testimony to this.
ment parameters. Formation, functioning
production indivisibilities [Rao 1994]. PoorTherefore, the contribution of these groups,
and impact are the broad issues examined
should be able to respond to these stimulispread in the length and breadth of the in the studies. The impact assessment
forpoverty alleviation [Vyas and Bhargavastate, to poverty alleviation and women covered two aspects, viz, poverty allevia-
1995]. But, the poor can internalise theempowerment needs critical examination. tion and women empowerment. Regard-
production indivisibilities in groups only.But, the APDPIP and the APRPRP spread ing women empowerment, three dimen-
Moreover, the participation of the poor inin the most backward mandals of the state sions are considered [Ranjani et al 2002].
the planning and implementation of anti-are not amenable for assessment as they They are 'power to', 'power with' and
poverty programmes is required to reduceare still under implementation. However, 'power within'. The 'power to' dimension
the chain of intermediaries between the the assessment of SAPAP, the basic model of empowerment indicates the power of
government and the actual beneficiariesof APDPIP and APRPRP, can help to women to control their lives. This includes
and to improve their bargaining powerpredict the probable impact of APDPIP power to survive, control over their
[Rao 1994]. Further, the institutions-joint-and APRPRP. On the other hand, the model labour and access to family labour, access
family system, patron-client relationshipspromoted by Cooperative Development to and control over resources, freedom to
and traditional occupation-based institu-Foundation (CDF), which is purely a micro- move and interact, access to leadership
tions, that provide social security to thefinance model, helps to assess the contri- positions, control over reproduction
poor are breaking down at the grass rootsbution of DWCRA beyond micro-finance and control over body. The 'power with'
level. Thus, there is an institutional vacuuminduced impacts. The assessment of these indicates the collective power of women
at the grass roots level to safeguard thethree models helps to identify the members to negotiate their gender, caste,
interests of the poor [Galab 1999]. In thisstrengths and weaknesses of DWCRA class and other interests vis-a-vis
context, there is substantial evidence thatgroups and thereby helps to improve the institutions of the market, the state, and
organising women around thrift and creditDWCRA programme. In this backdrop, community. This includes collecti
services is one of the most effective this paper addresses itself to the follow- interventions in the institution of
methods, not only for alleviating poverty ing issues: family, community, market organisation,
but also for empowering women [World (i) What are the characteristics of the three the state including statutory local
Bank 1995, 2000/2001]. Thus, the macro women-based group models of poverty bodies. The third dimension 'power
and micro concerns are giving rise toalleviation
the and women empowerment that within' indicates the strategic gender
demand for women-based collectives are being implemented in Andhra Pradesh? awareness. An indicator of the 'power
centred around thrift and credit services. And, how do they differ among themselves within' at the individual level is the ability
Then, the issue is how the government in their approach? of women to challenge gender related
of Andhra Pradesh has responded in this (ii) How are the poor women organised attitudes and social norms in their own
regard. into groups? And, how these groups do personal lives. Another indicator of the
The government of Andhra Pradesh has function? power, women gaining at a deeper level,
provided larger space for women self-help (iii) What is the contribution of these models is the perception of others on women's
groups in its strategy forpoverty alleviation to poverty alleviation and women empow- confidence, assertiveness, and indepen-
and women empowerment. The promo- erment? dence. This framework of empowerment
tion of women groups under development (iv) What are the improvements, if any, to is utilised to assess the empowerment in
of women and children in rural areas be made in case of DWCRA groups for all the studies.
(DWCRA) programme and adoption of the their better functioning and impact on The details on the basic characteristics
model of South Asia Poverty Alleviation poverty and women's empowerment? of these models are in order

1274 Economic and Political Weekly March 22-29, 2003

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Cooperative Development UNICEF cooperation to provide opportu- unacceptable transaction costs of a socio-
Foundation (CDF) nities of self-employment on a sustained political and financial nature for accessing
basis for the rural poor women. Women resources from the state; the poor, as
Among the three selected models, the individuals, are incapable of augmenting
living in neighbourhood with similar socio-
CDF model is the simplest model. Women economic background form groups. The their own production capacities through
thrift cooperatives (WTC) is the basic entity size of the groups ranges from 10-15enhanced savings and skill formation; and
promoted under CDF model. Any adult members. The SHGs of DWCRA are The gains made by the poor are insecure
woman, irrespective of her economic sta- federated into mahila banks under Andhra
because of the random risks emanating
tus, can become member of the WTCs. Pradesh Mutually Aided Cooperative through ill-health, old age, environmental
Members save Rs 20 per month and earn Societies Act, 1995 for the better function- factors, and social and political oppression
a monthly interest of 1 per cent. Monthly ing of SHGs and to provide more[UNDP access2000]
In the above backdrop, the SAPAP has
interest of 2 per cent is charged on the loan. to credit for the poor. The women in groups
The loanable funds are generated from take up economic activities suited to contemplated
their the process of social
member's savings only. Credit is linked to skills and local resources. Training mobilisation
in as an institutional mechanism
savings. A maximum of three times of leadership, attitudinal changes, skill for the poor into self-help groups
to mobilise
savings of a member is provided as credit. income generation is the mandate of thefor their collective empowerment
(SHGs)
The WTCs help the members, who like to DWCRA model. A lump sum grant ofgrass roots level. The collective body
at the
utilise their accumulated thrift during their Rs 25,000 is provided to the group for the poor to interact with the
facilitates
economically active life span as a social undertaking economic activities. This is a
government machinery for better access-
security during their economically inac- common fund, which is recouped ingand
of public resources and services and
tive lifespan, on the one hand and on the revolved periodically. The IRDP subsidy also acts as a pressure group to keep the
other they also help members to obtain and bank loans over and above thestate more accountable to the institutional
grant
thrift-linked credit for the economic em- can be accessed. In addition to these power
funds, of the socially mobilised poor. Thus,
powerment. Thus, the WTC is an interven- groups mobilise monthly savings forthe empowerment model of SAPAP
inter-
tion in village credit market to provide lending to meet the consumption needs includes
of three components, viz, social
safer place for thrift accumulation and the members. This programme also aims
mobilisation, capital formation and capacity
thrift linked-credit at the prevailing market to improve women's access to basic ser- of the poor which help to remove
building
interest rates at lower transaction costs vices (health, education, chid care, the
nutri-
obstacles that perpetuate poverty and
with social collateral without any externaltion, water and sanitation) and otherenable them to overcome their vulnerable
rural
funds. The WTC is organised into smalldevelopment programmes of the govern- conditions [UNDP 1998]. The SAPAP was
groups with group leaders to monitor loanment. The organising of women implemented
around in collaboration with local
repayment, savings collection and disburse-thrift and credit services should result
NGOs in and the state government. The
ment of loan. Two guarantors are requiredthe enhancement of their bargainingprogramme
power was initially implemented
for sanctioning loans. These two mecha-and the power to resist exploitation. through 18 partner voluntary organisations
nisms are adopted to mobilise savings, DWCRA 'Bazaars' and linkage with cor-
(PVOs) or NGOs and was served by a project
loan disbursement and loan repayment.porate sector are the initiatives undertaken
office backed by 22 coordinators and 121
Loan insurance fund (LIF) scheme is in-by the government to capture non-local community volunteers. The programme has
troduced to safeguard against the risk of markets for the DWCRA group products covered 66,000 households, who consti-
bad debts due to the death of any member. [GoAP 1999]. tute 34 per cent of the total households of
The repayment schedule is not specific to the project area and 64 per cent of the total
the economic status of the members. The South Asia Poverty Alleviation target group households. As high as 5,201
women thrift cooperatives are federated Programme (SAPAP) SHGs have emerged. These groups have
into association of women thrift coope- been federated into 380 village organi-
ratives (AWTC) to facilitate better func- The South Asia Poverty Alleviation sations (VOs) at the village level. The
tioning of WTCs, perform higher order Programme (SAPAP) assisted by United Mandal Mahila Samakhya (MMS), the apex
functions and inter-flow of loanable funds Nations Development Programme body (UNDP) of VOs at the manda! level, plays a
among WTCs. The CDF model is based was a response to Dhaka declarationcrucial of the supporting role in sustaining the
on the premise that lack of access and SAARC Summit held in 1993 on eradi- VOs [UNDP 2000].
higher interest rates perpetuate poverty. As cation of poverty by 2002 in all SAARC
noted earlier, both the poor and the non- countries. In India, SAPAP Pilot project Comparative Perspective
poor are the members of the WTCs. Thus, was initiated in 1995 in Andhra Pradesh. Select Models
the CDF model is a model of untargeted The programme was implemented in the
micro-finance institution (MFI) [Biswas three poverty striken-drought prone- These models are rooted in three pre
and Mahajan 1997]. This suggests the need districts, viz, Anantapur, Kurnool and mises, viz, lack of access to credit at
to examine whether poor are discriminated Mahbubnagar. Thus, SAPAP was concen-favourable terms and conditions for poor
in favour of non-poor in CDF groups. trated in 20 of the poorer mandals. Thisis resulting in perpetuation of poverty;
programme is based on two premises, viz,social capital contributes to poverty alle-
Development of Women and an elite, who appropriated public resourcesviation; and women's empowerment re-
Children in Rural Areas for their private and sectional gain hasduces general and gender poverty. Women
(DWCRA) captured the south Asian state and this SHGs are promoted as basic entities under
state is deemed to be misgoverned and all the models. The SHGs are federated to
The Development of Women and Chil- unaccountable. The misgoverned system tackle higher order functions and improve
dren in Rural Areas (DWCRA) programme has adversely affected the poor as follows: the functioning of SHGs. The SHGs of
was started in 1982-83 in the state with The poor, as individuals, are paying DWCRA are federated into Mahila Banks.

Economic and Political Weekly March 22-29, 2003 1275

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The SHGs of SAPAP are federated into to four factors, viz, the area of operation; external funds, that had often proved to
VOs and in turn the VOs are federated into the age of the models; the nature of the be a source of weakness for the coopera-
MMSs. The SHGs of CDF are called models; and the nature of the implement- tive movement [Ghosh 1998]. The govern-
women thrift cooperatives (WTCs) and The DWCRA is being imple- ment of Andhra Pradesh has promoted
ing agency.
these are federated into association of mented in the entire state, while the other DWCRA model to contain the negative
women thrift cooperatives (AWTCs).two The models are confined to a few mandals effects of the economic reforms, pursued
poor are eligible to become members in two-three districts of the state - the rigorously since 1995, on poor and harness
of the
the SHGs of DWCRA and SAPAP mod- CDF model is in two districts (Warangal the collective strength of women demon-
els, whereas all the adults of village, and Karimnagar) and the SAPAP model strated through the anti-liquor movement
irrespective of their economic status,was arein three districts (Anantapur, Kurnool of women in early 1990s. This is evident
eligible to become members of women and Mahbubnagar). The DWCRA is 20from the fact that the growth of DWCRA
thrift cooperatives of CDF model. This is old, while the CDF and the SAPAP groups (as well as other self-help
years
the reason why the size of the WTCs areof12 years and 5 years old respectively. groups) is significant only after 1995
CDF runs into hundreds at the village The CDF model is being implemented in [GoAP 1999]. The SAPAP model was
level, while it varies between 12-15 across
and around the Mulkanoor cooperative implemented in collaboration with the local
other models, on an average. The CDF (a well-functioning diversified coopera- NGOs and the state intensively as it was
model depends only on internal funds, tive) area to take advantage of the accept- an experimental model. It is striking to
ability of the cooperatives by the peoplenote that the state has focused more on
while the other models depend on internal
- both the poor as well as the non-poor. marginalised sections of the society. The
as well as external funds to generate loan-
able funds. The CDF model contemplates The Mutually Aided Cooperative Societ- size of the savings and loan per member,
no linkages of WTCs/AWTCs with ies any Act, 1995 (MACS Act 1995) of Andhra on an average, is larger under SAPAP (even
other organisations. The DWCRA model Pradesh has given impetus to the growth DWCRA) compared to CDF because the
contemplates linkages of SHGs/mahila of the cooperatives of CDF. This is evident saving contributions are related to the local
banks with the line departments (LDs) of the fact that the growth of the WTCs wage rates and the funds are accessed
from
the government, the formal financial is phenomenal after 1995 only [CDF 2001]. through multiple sources other than own
institutions and corporate sector. The The MACS Act, 1995 ensures freedom savings (Table 1). Thus, the unmet credit
SAPAP model contemplates linkages with from bureaucratic pressures as well as needs may be more pronounced among the
excessive reliance on easily available CDF groups.
the state including (line departments, local
governance bodies), civil society and the
market. The DWCRA and SAPAP models Table 1: Macro Dimensions of the Models
have child centred intervention strategy
Description of the Dimension Cooperative Development South Asia
also. The DWCRA model lies between
Development of Women and Poverty
CDF model and SAPAP model. It is a Foundation Children in Rural Alleviation

micro-finance plus model. Besides micro- (CDF) Areas (DWCRA) Programmes

Model Model (SAPAP)
finance operations, this model links the Model
DWCRA groups to the services and
Project
programmes provided by the state and also Area Warangal and Entire Ananthapur, Kurnool
Karimnagar State and
to corporate sector. This programme is Districts Mahbubnagar
being implemented by the state through Districts
out the length and the breadth of the WTCs formed (in number) 200 1,90,083 out of 5201
SHGs/
4,27,927 SHGs
state. Economic and social empowerment
VOs/MMSs/mahila banks/AWTCs (in numbers) 27 (AWTCs) NA 308 (VOs)
of poor women is the bottom line of the
Members (in numbers) 45,605 25,10,075 56,256
DWCRA model. The SAPAP model is Members per SHGs/WTCs (in number) 228 13 15
assisted by UNDP. It is also a micro-
Caste composition of members (in percentages)
Scheduled castes 12 34 28
finance plus model. But it contemplates
Scheduled tribes 2 10 7
economic, social and political empower-
Backward castes 61 40 50
Other
ment of poor women. Thus, they represent castes 13 16 15
SHGs/WTCs per habitation (in number) 1 2 4
NGO model (CDF), government model
Entry of non-poor (in percentage) NA 16.65 28.00
(DWCRA) and an international model
Savings (Rs in crores) 4.71 316.00 8.18
(SAPAP), which has been implemented in
Savings per member (in Rs) 1034 1260 1092
SAARC countries. Among the NGO
Total corpus (Rs In crore) 6.48 589 NA
Loans per member (in number)
models, the CDF has the distinction of
(during the current year) 0.68 NA NA
being non-targeting micro-finance model, Loan amount (Rs in crore)
whereas the models of other NGOs are (during the current year) 7.00 NA 77.7
being targeted micro-finance plus. So,Average
it loan size (in Rs)
(during the current year) 2248 NA 2763*
may be difficult to find only micro-finance
Grade 'A' SHGs/WTCs
centred model among the NGOs except
(in percentages) NA 18.9 47.6
that of CDF.
Notes: 1 NA indicates not available.
The rate of coverage of peoples - the 2 The figures for CDF and SAPAP relate to the year 2000 and the same for DWCRA rela
number of people covered per year, on an September 2002.
average - is the highest under DWCRA 3 Indicates estimated figures.
4 In case of CDF, the caste distribution of the members is not equal to 100 as the caste affili
model (1,25,508) followed by the SAPAP of some of the members is not known.
( 11,251) and the CDF (4,560). These varia-
Sources:GoAP (1999); GoAP (2002); UNDP (1998); UNDP (2000) ; CDF (1999); CDF (2001);
tions across the models can be attributed CESS (2001)

1276 Economic and Political Weekly March 22-29, 2003

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 The detailed analysis of the formation, coming down. The dependency of WTCs WTCs. Women also noted that as a result
functioning and impact of the models on on CDF staff also has been declining slowly of their participation in the WTCs, their
poverty and women empowerment is in order. [Ray and Vasundhara 1996 Ghosh 1998]. creditworthiness with other financial in-
The WTCs and AWTCs are able to meet stitutions and other money providers had
CDF Model the transaction costs through the interest
improved, thus giving them access to more
funds [Ray and Vasundhara 1996]. The
amount earned on the credit operations
Formation azndfunctioning of groups:[Biswas
The and Mahajan 1997]. The credit relatively low amount of both share capital
provided by the WTCs is enabling per
WTCs are untargeted micro-finance insti- the member (Rs 10 or 20) as well as
women to utilise the existing skills they
tutions (MFIs), since any woman irrespec- monthly-required thrift (typically Rs 20)
tive of her socio-economic status can possess. However, this is restrictingallows the women from across spectrum of the
become a member of WTC. The caste fuller utilisation of credit potential, asvillage
new to participate and accumulate their
composition of 37 WTCs promotedopportunities
by are not expanding in savings.
the Poor women, and sometimes
CDF in Warangal and Karimnagar reveals others, often have nowhere to keep their
villages. Moreover, due to lack of effective
that BCs, OCs, SCs and STs constitute 61,
forward linkages, some of the womenmoneyare safely. At home, their husbands
not able to generate adequate surpluses
13, 12 and 2 per cent of the total participant may take it away at any time. There are
members respectively. The landholding from the existing economic activities no to
reliable and suitable organisations to
pattern of member households showsmake that repayments of loans. As a result mobilise
of small savings to retain local
landless, marginal and small farmers,this, and women are afraid of obtaining loansurpluses within the region [Ghosh 1998].
from the WTCs. All these factors result in
other farmers (including medium and large) Local reliable self-managed WTCs filled
the reduction of utilisation of funds and
constitute 55, 41 and 4 per cent respec- this gap. Some women reported that their
tively [CDF 1999]. The relativelyloanlow repayments overtime.This may ability to save was a sign of security. Others
noted the improvement of their financial
threaten the sustainability of women thrift
amounts of both share capital per member
cooperative system in years to come, situation
(Rs 10 or 20) as well as monthly-required if and having 'money at hand' as
these trends are not countered.
thrift (typically Rs 20) allow women from their reasons for feeling secure. The pro-
Impact of the WTCs: As noted earlier, the
across the income spectrum of the village portion of borrowers from each caste is in
to participate. This has led to coverageWTCsof should provide access to credit atline with their proportion of membership.
90 per cent of village women across reasonable
all interest rates and enable the The proportion of borrowers from landless
women to undertake economic activities,
social strata in most of the villages [Ghosh is less than the proportion of their mem-
1998]. On the other hand, there arebesidesfew meeting pressing needs. This bership.
ul- Similarly, the proportion of loans
members who do not appear to be in greattimately should result in reductionreceivedin by this category, too, was lower
financial need but who are members for poverty (income poverty). These are than the the membership percentage. Further
the sake of companionship and the sense the size of the loan received is also low
intended impacts of the WTCs. However,
of solidarity with other women [Ray and compared to other category of members
there may also be unintended consequences
Vasundhara 1996]. This indicates that of the WTCs. As the intervention impacts
[CDF 1999]. This indicates the lower credit
women from all socio-economic spectrums,of WTCs do not confine to the credit
absorption capacity of this category of
transactions
except the very privileged participate in groups. and thereby economic members.
em- The cooperatives' interest rate
The proportion of leadership from SCspowerment, it may also stretch to social
of 24 per cent per annum has forced other
and STs was slightly higher than theirand political domains of empowermentlenders to lower their rates. Women re-
proportion in membership, whereas in case since they are interrelated. Further, the ex- that the interest rate outside the WTCs
ported
of the BCs, this was slightly lower. How- ternalities of WTCs may also contribute to
dropped from 36 per cent to 30 per cent per
ever, this was relatively higher from OCs annum [Ray and Vasundhara 1996]. This
the changes in credit market at village level.
than their proportion in membership. The Impact on poverty: Some of the women indicates the impact of women's thrift
landless were underrepresented in relationreported that they did not know earlier cooperatives on the village credit market.
to their proportion in membership, whereaswhere to get loan. Some others haveFurther,re- this also reveals that the cost of
credit also has come down for the members
the other categories were over representedported that they used to knock on several
in relation to their proportion in member-doors and beg for loan before joiningasthe well as non-members of WTCs. Similar
ship. This could be due to the pressure ofwomen thrift cooperatives. Others told observations
that are made in case of CDF-
daily work on the landless, and likely loss
they did not have access to loans withoutsponsored women cooperatives in Cuddapah
of wages for days spent in committeepledging or pawning articles of value or
district [Parthasarathy and Kalyani 1995].
meetings. Most WTCs are now discussingalternatively they had to pledge their pro- The pattern of utilisation of loans taken
the payment of sitting fee for directors, duce to merchants at lower than market from WTCs provides indications for as-
equal at least to the daily agricultural wagerates. Some others mentioned that they sessing the income improvements of the
in their area [CDF 1999]. Majority of the member households of WTCs. It is inter-
used to borrow at higher rates of interest
members attend meetings on a regular basis. and face lot of problems previously. Someesting to note that 50 per cent of the loans
Most women actively engage in decision-have revealed that they have to desperately have been utilised for immediate genera-
making process during the meetings. They tion of income and the rest 50 per cent of
depend on their husbands for getting money
take the responsibility to ensure that othersbefore joining the WTCs. They have the alsoloans have been utilised for creation
repay loans regularly and occasionally make reported that their ability to repay the of
loanproductive assets. Agriculture (includ-
the thrift contribution on behalf of other was low since loan has to be repaid in lump
ing irrigation), animal husbandry and small
members who may be away [Ray and sum and at a time. But all of them reported
business constitute 23, 13 and 11 per cent
Vasundhara 1996]. that they are able to obtain loan that of
canthe loans respectively. Human capital
The resistance from the husbands and be repaid in easier instalments without formation (health, education and consump-
mothers-in-law for the women to actively
collateral in timely manner whenever nec-tion) acquisition of assets (physical assets
participate in WTCs has been gradually essary at a reasonable interest rate fromincluding
the irrigation) constitutes 23 and 12

Economic and Political Weekly March 22-29, 2003 1277

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per cent, respectively [CDF 1999]. These friends outside the four walls of the family [APMAS 2002]. The mean age of mem-
observations are similar to those observed has been improved. The WTCs have ex- bers in DWCRA groups is 35 years [ORG-
in case of WTCs-sponsored by the CDFpanded avenue for women to assumeMARG 2000]. The groups are formed on
in Cuddapah district [Parthasarathy andleadership positions. Most women reportedthe basis of the income, caste and
Kalyani 1995]. Women's involvement in that they are able to spend money on their neighbourhood. Hence these groups are
economic activities has increased substan- own needs like health care, clothing and more homogeneous [ORG-MARG 2000].
tially, as they have accessed loans. Womenjewellery. Some of the women reported About 39 per cent of groups do not hold
have been able to start new business and that they are consulted by their husbands meetings and 23 per cent of the groups
expand old ones. The business, both old in regard to what crop to grow. This in- are not practising bookkeeping. There are
dicated that the role of women in decision-
and new, consist of small grocery stores, mainly two reasons for this: gross illiteracy
tea/coffee and 'paan' shops, spice grind-
making in the family has improved. There of members; and equal distribution of ex-
are collective interventions in the institu-
ing units, vegetable vendors, home-based ternal grants and funds where groups do
cut piece cloth business and tailoring,tion of family. Arbitration in a divorce case not see the need for book maintenance.
bangle selling and desilting crane. The
by one WTC is a case in point. However, Regularity on savings is observed and
access to credit at lower interest rates andthere are collective interventions vis-a-vis defaulters are found to be only 8 per cent
patterns of utilisation of credit indicatethe state and statutory local bodies. Theof the members in the last three months
that there should be improvement in theleaders of WTC were consulted about the [ORG-MARG 2000]. Seventy-eight per
incomes of the households. The husbands installation of sanitary latrines in one of cent of SHGs save regularly. It was found
of members of WTCs also reported that the villages; politicians have started com- that savings per month equal the average
their wives are adding additional income ing to the WTCs to find out how their daily wage. Savings were collected by a
to the households' income [Ray andmembers vote. Four women members door-to-door practice and not during
Vasundhara 1996]. These observations contested in elections from women re- meetings. There is nopenalty for not saving
have support from WTCs in Cuddapah served constituencies in the local govern- in time. It was observed that some groups
also [Parthasarathy and Kalyani 1995]. All ment mandal elections. Many of the discontinue hus- savings, once the revolving
these indicate the possibilities for reduc- bands reported that their wives fund are is availed by the group. Few groups
tion in income poverty of the member more independent than before joining lack the motivation to save due to the
households of WTCs. the WTCs [Ray and Vasundhara 1996, absence of external linkages, in spite of
Women have reported that they have Ghosh 1998]. functioning for a period of two years or
started non-traditional tasks and enterprises more. Interest on savings is not a common
vis-a-vis the activities they were already DWCRA Model feature in any of the districts. Additional
doing. The tasks and enterprises noted savings apart from the mandatory savings
Formation and functioning of groups:
earlier provide substantial evidence to this. are absent. Only 2 per cent of the groups
These women reported that their accessWomento carry out voluntary savings [APMAS
from all caste groups are covered
and control over savings have improved. under the programme [ORG-MARG 2000].2002]. Equal distribution of funds domi-
Another key asset for women is jewellery. However, the composition of coveragenatesis the pattern of lending. This has been
Thoughjewellery is a non-productive asset,varying across the districts [ORG-MARG
due to four factors: fear of repayment in
2000, Raju and Ali 1996, ICM 1996,
women perceive it as their own to a greater case of need-based loans; the members
Jayalakshmi 1997, Narayanaswamyfeel
extent. Besides livestock and shops, women and that every member has an equal share
members reported acquisition of other Jagannathan 1999, YFA 1996, Kanchanya in the loan amount; unwillingness to pay
physical assets. They have also reported 1998,Mahendra Dev and Rao 2002]. interest
This on internal loans (from savings)
that they have become more mobile as may
a be due to variations in the casteby the members; banking system and the
result of their WTC activities. Most of the DRDA staff together encourage equal
composition of poor across the districts.
members agreed that mobility outside theHowever, backward castes, scheduled distribution as a pattern of lending to
village has increased with travelling be-castes, and scheduled tribes put togetherinculcate cohesiveness among the group
tween villages for WTC meetings. Some constitute significant proportion of the members. Internal lending activities have
women have reported that they have trav- beneficiaries covered. Further the partici-
not developed fully in the districts.
elled for the first time outside of their pation of widows, who constitute the Idle funds as a proportion of total funds
district to attend group activities. Women available, (member's savings, grants, in-
poorest of the poor, is 9 per cent [ORG-
have reported that the members consider MARG 2000, Raju and Ali 1996]. Theterest amount, other inflows) is 33 per
the unity and solidarity among the women composition of the members according tocent. However, 78 per cent of internal
in the WTCs to be one of the most im- pre-DWCRA income status of their house-funds are in rotation [ORG-MARG 2000].
portant benefits of membership. Women holds reveals that the coverage of theSelection of leaders is democratic in 87
of different castes and classes met for a poorest of the poor is low on the one handper cent of the groups. In the SHGs, there
common purpose in the WTC. Womenand on the other the coverage of non-poor was imposed leadership and it was due to
noted that the absence of caste segregationis considerable [GoAP 1999, Raju and Ali the lack of initiative among the members
in the WTCs was an important change in1996]. The reasons for this include: the to become leader. Leadership rotation was
their villages. The solidarity in the co- absent in 94 percent of the SHGs [APMAS
poor are not sure of their savings capability
operatives has given scope to share their and hence do not join the groups; many2002, ORG-MARG 2000]. Thus develop-
problems and seek help. The cooperativesa time the initial mobilisers may excludement of leadership among other members
have become a shelter for the widows and the poorest due to their bias and under-
is lacking. Groups are over dependent on
single women who face particular pres-estimation of the capacities of the poor to the leader. The leader manages all activi-
sures in the society. Caste and class based save, avail loans and repay them; and ties regarding accounts, loans and atten-
dance. Member's involvement in
norms are slowly broken in the coopera- sometimes, the poor are indifferent to such
tives. Thus, freedom to interact and makeprogrammes and thus neverjoin the groupsmobilisation of savings is only 4 per

1278 Economic and Political Weekly March 22-29, 2003

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[ORG-MARG 2000]. In the absence of matter of fact, the DWCRA groups that spent on the health care of the family
the group leader, meetings are not held up formed with common interest in expanding/ [Kanchanya 1998]. It is not out of place
to six months or more [APMAS 2002]. strengthening their existing traditional to mention that the state has achieved im-
Eighty-four per cent of leaders and 93 per activities have been significantlysuccessful pressive reduction in the growth rate of
cent of members are not part of other [BASIX 1999]. However, a smaller pro- population from 2.42 during 1981 to 1991
institutions including local bodies. This portion of them have taken up new occu- to 1.39 per cent during 1991 to 2001
indicates the poor growth of leadership pations rather than remaining in traditional [Economic Survey 2001]. In fact, the dra-
in the groups [ORG-MARG 2000]. The activities [Raju and Ali 1996]. These matic decline in decadal growth rate of
grading of DWCRA groups according women are not able to manage these population has also been attributed to the
to their functioning by the government activities due to lack of previous experi- phenomenal growth of SHGs in the state
of Andhra Pradesh has revealed that ence. Moreover overcrowding in some of [James 2002]. Most of the eligible among
18,63,19 per cent of the groups are found the activities like vegetable vending and DWCRA members in sampled groups have
to be A,B and C categories respectively. fruit vending has forced some of the women undergone family planning. Most of the
Similarly, Andhra Pradesh Mahila to close down their activity [Raju and Ali pregnant women, similarly, had tetanus
Abivrudhi Samithi has confirmed this 1996, Kanchanyal998, ICM 1996, coverage. Majority of the children of the
grading, by and large [APMAS 2000]. Jayalakshmi 1997, Narayanaswamy andbeneficiaries are going to school as the
Thus, only 18 per cent of the groups Jagannathan
are 1999]. Thus, most of thewomen had become aware of the need for
functioning very well. enterprises (activities), which are facili-basic education. Thus, women are able to
The dependency on moneylenders among tated through DWCRA groups helped toimprove their access to health care and
members is declining due to the access to the existing skills by using the credit
utilise educational institutions to some extent.
credit from SHGs of DWCRA programme. assistance provided. The attempts of theHowever, the groups in the interior villages
As high as 61 per cent of members reported Government to impart new skills andand scheduled tribes have not been bene-
that they would have gone to moneylenders upgrade existing skills have not reachedfited to the extent of the exterior villages
had there been no SHGs. Of course, this many areas of the state. As a result, manyand other caste beneficiary households
percentage varies across districts - 90 of perthe women groups are not able to derive[YFA 1996, Kanchanya 1998].
cent in East Godavari and 69 per cent theinbenefits from the government facili-
Mahaboobnagar [ORG-MARG 2000]. The tated DWCRA 'bazaars' as marketing Impact on Women's
access to credit has enabled the women to outlet. It has been reported that some of Empowerment
undertake economic activities. Around 8 the unemployed and wage employed have
become self-employed. Interestingly, 4 per
per cent of the members of SHGs reported The women members of SHGs seem to
cent of the members who were housewives
that they might not have started the eco- have embarked on the non-traditional tasks
nomic activity, had there been no SHGs.earlier became self-employed. The diversi- like marketing and non-traditional enter-
The incidence of such members varies fication of occupation to non-agricul- prises. The women have improved control
across the districts [ORG-MARG 2000]. ture activities has enhanced the quality of over their labour to this extent. Women's
income of the households since the depen-
The economic activities undertaken by the access to and control over their savings,
members of SHGs fall under three catego-dency on risk-based agriculture has come credit and income have improved. Women
down to some extent.
ries, viz, agriculture, animal husbandry, have improved freedom to move and
and industry, service and business (ISB) The additional income accrued to the interact with the officials and other women
sectors [YFA 1996,Kanchanya 1998, Raju beneficiary women from the economic after joining the SHGs of DWCRA. The
and Ali 1996, ICM 1996, Jayalakshmi activities undertaken due to DWCRA DWCRA groups themselves have expand-
1997, Narayanaswamy and Jagannathanprogrammes varied between Rs 10-30 ed per
avenues for women to assume leader-
ship position. The adoption of family
1999]. The activities are dominantly pro-day on an average. This has contributed
to considerable improvement in the
duction oriented rather than service. They planning
in- and contraceptive methods by
the women members of SHGs indicate the
comes of the poorest of the poor and enables
are largely continuous activities rather than
seasonal. The ownership of DWCRA the near poor to cross the poverty line. It
improvement of the control of women over
sponsored enterprises (activities) is equally their
is reported that considerable proportion of reproductive choice. On the whole,
divided into individual and family beneficiary adult female family members it is clear that women are able to improve
ownership. This reveals that the enterprise has full employment under the DWCRA control over their labour, resources (sav-
is actually owned, assisted and managed scheme. At the same time, some of the ing, credit and income), freedom to move
by other members of the family also, though male family members have also derived and interact, leadership, and reproductive
the financial assistance is provided to the employment under the DWCRA scheme. choices, to some extent. Thus, there is
women members of the family. Majority A part of the income gained was spent, by improvement to some extent with regard
of the women of SHGs reported that the some of the women member households, to 'power to' dimension of empowerment.
assistance provided under DWCRA is not on nutritious food for family especially But, there is no improvement in the 'power
adequate to meet the initial requirements children [YFA 1996, Kanchanya 1998]. with' dimension of empowerment. This
in case of some activities [Raju and Ali Considerable proportion of the sampled is evident from the absence of the collec-
1996]. beneficiaries has taken up kitchen garden tive initiatives of women members to
A large proportion of women, who are activities near their homesteads. This has
negotiate their gender, caste, class and
mostly from artisan families engaged in brought changes in the quality of con-other interests vis-a-vis institutions of the
traditional occupations become members sumption that might have led to the market, the state, the community and
of the groups to further strengthen and enhancement of the nutritional status of family. The women are able to handle some
expand their ongoing economic activities.
children, pregnant and lactating mothers of the issues relating to their lives inde-
These women are continuing with their among the DWCRA families [YFA 1996].pendently. This indicates that 'power
earlier (pre-DWCRA) occupations. As a Similarly, part of the income gained alsowithin' dimension of empowerment is

Economic and Political Weekly March 22-29, 2003 1279

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impacted due to participation in SHGs to by better-educated and more affluent Occupational diversification has taken
some extent. leaders. The interest amount generated place among the members. This is evident
from their credit transactions is enabling the from the increase in the number of sources
SAPAP Model SHGs, VOs and MMSs to meet the running of livelihoods of women members and
cost [UNDP 2000]. However, the institu- their husbands and larger proportion of
tions can become unsustainable unless
The poor from scheduled castes, sched- member households shifting from agricul-
uled tribes, backward castes and otheradequate
castes attention is focused on livelihood
ture to service and trade. The strengthen-
have participated in the programme. related issues [Mahendra Dev et al 2002].
ing of skill base of members in a limited
Women constitute 90 per cent of the Thetotal
SAPAP programme has been replicatedway through providing training on tailor-
participants in the programme. Men with
groupssuitable modification in the most ing, embroidery, knitting and word pro-
backward
were also formed, but they are less in mandals of Andhra Pradesh in cessing has helped women to diversify
the form of Andhra Pradesh District
member. Women groups were dominantly their occupations to some extent. The credit
promoted. Homogeneous as well asPoverty
het- Initiatives Project (APDPIP)enabled
and the poor to make more effective
Andhra Pradesh Rural Poverty Reduction
erogeneous groups of women with respect use of skills they already possessed rather
to caste dimension of the women are Project (APRPRP). This shows the repli- than skill development induced demand
formed. Female-headed households con- cable potentiality of SAPAP for poverty for credit. Women have undertaken micro-
reduction.
stitute 17 per cent of the members. 72 per enterprises relating to petty business ac-
cent of members were very poor or poor The financial status has improved due tivities. The initiatives made, though in
to improvement in access to formal credit limited way, to reduce the transaction,
at the time of group formation. Self-help
groups (SHGs) of poor women are pro- institutions, apart from improvement in production, marketing and storage costs
their savings status. Dependency on money- by promoting appropriate collective ar-
moted at the cutting edge level, habitation
and below. The principles underlying the lenders had declined [Outreach 2001, rangements like bulk purchase of inputs,
group formation were physical proximity, Ranjani et al 2002, and Mahendra Dev et vehicles and establishing milk and agricul-
homogeneity and affinity. The number al of
2002]. The presence of moneylenders tural market societies have improved the
members in a SHG is found to be 15,and onthe interest rate charged by those who livelihoods. But there are large variations
an average, in the villages covered underare in place have declined [Ranjani et al across the groups in this regard. There was
the programme. There are four SHGs2002]. on The single most important benefit a slight improvement in the quality of
of the project is that the members are employment, i e, shift from casual/bonded
an average per each habitation in the project
area. Community coordinators, commu- relieved from the clutches of moneylend- employment to self-employment. Depen-
nity volunteers and village specialists (para-
ers whom they had to approach earlier even dency on migration as a livelihood strategy
professionals) were trained. This process
for small consumption loan of Rsl00. The has declined. Demand for higher wages
negotiations of SHGs to obtain loans from and equal wages, releasing women mem-
makes it possible for members of the SHGs
to access specialised knowledge from bank, the initiatives of MMS to obtain loan bers or members of her family from bond-
within the community. All the SHGs in from
a government (DRDA, SC Corpora- age, and also establishing 'Ammavadis'
tion, UNDP) and NGOs (BASIX and
village are federated into village organi- (baby care centres) to facilitate poor women
sation (VO) and these VOs are again
Friends of Women World Banking) for on-
with young children to work without pulling
federated into mandal mahila samakhya lending to SHGs and establishing women's their elder daughters out of school have
(MMS) at mandal level. There is no properown bank together contributed for enhanc- improved the labour market conditions in
follow-up of the periodical rotationing of the financial status of the household.
favour of poor.
leadership of SHGs, as no one is willing Each person availed on an average two The levels of income of households have
to take responsibility. Constantly, the loans.
in- The very poor members, who joined increased in all the categories of partici-
creased dependence on the existing leader groups have not been able to access as pants of the SHGs. However, the increase
much number and quantum of loans as the
may create the possibility for exploitation. was higher among relatively better off
All the members are not participatingpoor, among the poor. As high as 47 per cent
in moderately better off farmers [Ranj ani
group discussions. Micro planning for et al 2002]. The credit accessed was re- of sample households were found to be
proposing productive economic activities ported to be inadequate [Outreach 2001]. above the poverty line [Outreach 2001].
has to be strengthened among the members The possession of livestock rather thanThe wealth-ranking exercise carried out
land has increased considerably among the
[Outreach 2001 ]. 47.6 per cent of the SHGs with 83 SHGs suggests that poverty de-
are graded as 'A' category based on households.
the clined among 69 per cent of the members
A very thin scaling up of extent
functioning of the groups [UNDP 1998]. of land owned is recorded after the par- and the proportion of the very poor re-
These SHGs, VOs and MMSs have to ticipation in groups [Outreach 2001, duced from 48 per cent to 18 per cent -
interact with the state, market and civilRanjani et al 2002 and Mahendra Dev et 75 per cent of them had become poor and
society to achieve the objectives of alle-al 2002]. However, the households whothe rest become moderately poor. The re-
viating poverty and empowering women,had pledged land in the past but started duction in poverty was less pronounced
besides making the State accountable andredeeming the same are on increase among dalits and women-headed house-
transparent to poor and transforming the[Ranjani et al 2000]. The physical capital holds compared to non-dalits and male-
civil society to become more pro-poor and base has increased only due to increase inheaded households. However, some of the
markets (labour, financial and commodityconsumer durables holding status in women reported that there is a decline in
markets) to become more perfect. TheAnantapur district [Mahendra Dev et their al living conditions due to the failure
economic, caste and gender homogeneity 2002]. Possession ofdiesel orelectric motors
of the economic activities undertaken by
of the SHG, VOs and MMSs lends itself has not improved [Outreach 2001]. But, them afterjoining the groups. Further, they
to collective action. Moreover, because of there is evidence that the purchase of equip-
have also reported that the distress events
exclusive character of the SHGs, there is ment and setting up of shops is dominant they have experienced, in the absence of
less scope for the groups to be captured among the households [Ranjani et al 2002]. insurance coverage, also hurt them badly.

1280 Economic and Political Weekly March 22-29, 2003

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The gender poverty measured in terms of setting of wages. Women have intervenedwell as their families (when the other family
gender bias with respect to norms of eating, collectively in several institutions, viz,
members also participated in the activity
male preference in distribution of food and undertaken by the women) is enhanced.
family, community, markets (labour, com-
access to clothing has not declined signifi- All these indicate that the incomes of the
modity and financial), and state including
cantly. Interestingly, gender poverty is poor have increased and as a result the
local self-government institutions. Within
lower among the dalits compared to other the family, higher collective achievement
intensity of poverty (poverty gap) among
communities despite relatively higher the poor has come down. The women ac-
has been with respect to girl child educa-
levels of poverty among the dalits [Ranjani quired some non-land assets; health, nu-
tion followed by release of bonded labour.
et al 2002]. Food security has improved At the community level, women groups trition
at and education status of children has
after the participation in groups. On the various levels are changing attitudesimproved.
on This indicates that the inter-
other hand, there is evidence that there had girl child education and caste-based generational transmission of poverty has
been no significant change in food security discrimination. The interventions in labour reduced. The women have met their basic
status among the households in Anantapur and commodity markets have to be strength- needs to some extent. The reduction of
district [Mahendra Dev et al 2002]. Cut- ened, though the interventions in financial gender inequalities is also recorded to some
ting down consumption as a coping market are impressive. Linkages with extent. However, failure of the economic
strategy when households faced with food government departments are stronger with activities undertaken coupled with theeffect
shortage has come down. However, women those departments that deal with women's of distress events brought a decline in the
and girl children mostly bear the brunt of reproductive tasks or women managed living conditions of some of the poor women.
food shortage. Acute malnutrition among These are the changes observed across
productive activities and weaker with those
children, infant and child mortality/pre- activities which are controlled by men. the models considered for the analysis.
mature adult death have declined. The This has resulted in accessing the govern- Then, the issue in question is whether these
ment services and resources [Mahendra changes are varying across models and/or
school enrolment and regularity in attend-
Dev et al 2002]. However, the women
ing school by children have improved. across different socio-economic groups
groups have to begin to play their role in among of the poor? And whether the pro-
Gender disparities were much lower among
the member households with respect to gram panchayats function more cess of reduction in poverty as well as
making
nutrition, child/adult premature deathtransparently.
and The women members' hus- reduction in intergenerational transmis-
bands feel that their wives are more inde-
ability of women to sign. Gender differ- sion of poverty is sustainable? The evidence
ences in children's education and infant pendent. Lesser degree of son preference available reveals that some of the afore-
mortality have declined moderately. Youngshown by women members and breaking mentioned changes vary across models.
children using government child-care ser-of caste norms within the group indicate However, there are also some similar
vices have increased. Drainage facilities,
that women in their own lives also pursue changes across the models. A considerable
gender specific concerns. Thus, a consid- proportion of the poorest of the poor are
toilet facilities and access to pucca houses,
electricity and gas have improved. The erable and balanced impact in all three not included at all in the process of poverty
levels of empowerment - power to (indi- alleviation under the DWCRA and SAPAP
improvements in the access to productive
vidual), power with (collective) and power models. On the other hand, there are in-
assets, improved livelihoods and control
within (consciousness) was achieved [for dications that non-poor have entered the
over all aspects of life of women have
details see Ranjani et al 2002].
contributed to the decline of disparities DWCRA and SAPAP groups. Entry of
[Ranjani et al 2002]. non-poor itself might have hindered the
The women of SHGs have improved Conclusions and entry of the poorest of the poor. The poorest
their control over their lives. More specifi- Policy Implications of the poor, who are in the groups have
cally, women have improved access and/ absorbed relatively lower volume of credit
or control over power to survive, their Participation in SHGs has improved thethe poor covered under SAPAP and
among
labour/family labour, resources, freedom access of women to credit. This hasCDF. This is due to low asset base includ-
helped
women in reducing their dependence
to move and interact, leadership positions, on The profile of economic activi-
ing skills.
reproduction, and body. Thus there is moneylenders.
all The interest rates inties
infor-
undertaken by the members under
round improvement with regard to control mal credit sector have declined. This has SAPAP, DWCRA and CDF also support
to be confirmed with further evidence as
over their lives. However, there are varia- this. The activities undertaken with low
the interest rates are generally declining level of credit and existing skills, given the
tions with regard to improvement in access
and/or control over the different aspectsover time due to the penetration of formaldemand, may not generate adequate sur-
of this dimension of improvement. Highestbanking system in the village economies. plus to repay the loans. As a matter of fact,
achievements are made with respect The to access to credit has helped women to a few among them opted out of these
their mobility, breaking of gender division
meet their consumption as well as produc-activities as the existing demand is inade-
of productive labour, access to their owntion needs. The women have invested the quate. This has led to decline in the living
credit obtained from SHGs in new eco-
savings, access to friendship outside their conditions in case of SAPAP group mem-
family and access to leadership positionsnomic activities and/or strengthening the bers. But, the poor who could withstand
in gram panchayat; moderate achievements old activities. They have contributed to the
competition have improved their incomes.
occupational diversification at the house-
are made with respect to reproductive rights Some of the members, mostly the poorest
and body rights (freedom from violence); hold level. The non-agricultural activitiesof poor from SAPAP groups are repaying
and lower achievements are made with undertaken by the women helped the the loans taken from groups by resorting
respect to extent of access of womenhouseholds
to to obtain income from low risk to reduction in consumption and/or bor-
husband's labour (productive and repro- activities. Thus, the quality of income of rowing from informal credit sources. These
ductive), rights of women to land and the households has gone up. The quality are the two escape routes available to
of employment, indicated by shift from comply with peer monitoring for repay-
house, their ability to control male alcohol
wage to self-employment, of women as
consumption and their ability to influence ment of loans. These processes make the

Economic and Political Weekly March 22-29, 2003 1281

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poorest of the poor much worse than before. detailed and systematic examination issavings and income), mobility and inter-
This indicates that the poorest of the poor required in this regard. action, leadership positions, reproduction
should stay out of these groups at least to The other issue is whether widening thechoices (to some extent) under all the
maintain their earlier welfare levels. Does skill base of the poor can improve incomes models. There is no evidence to conclude
this mean that the micro-credit alone cannot of the poor. The skill base of women has that the women have improved their con-
address the problems of poverty of thenot been broadened at all either through trol over their body (free from domestic
poorest of the poor? This problem can beimparting new skills or upgrading existing violence and violence in work place and
tackled to some extent by adopting repay-skills to take up new activities or refiningpublic) in case of DWCRA and CDF
ment schedule suitable to the poorest ofthe quality of old product under CDF. But, models. However, the women under
the poor. The improvement in skill base, this was done in a limited way in case of SAPAP model have achieved access and
given the other assets base, can also be aSAPAP and DWCRA, given the spread ofcontrol over all the aspects of individual
solution to tackle the problems of theDWCRA across Andhra Pradesh. The re- dimension of women empowerment
significantly compared to the other two
poorest. Proper livelihood planning, bulk cent initiatives of the government of Andhra
purchases of inputs and collective market-Pradesh in the form of DWCRA bazaars models. But, the access and control over
land-based assets and control over body
ing of outputs help the poorest of the poorand linking SHGs with the corporate sector
to organise their economic activity effec-to capture the non-local markets besideshas not been achieved much by women
tively. Thus interventions in commoditylocal markets is an indication that the local even under SAPAP model. This indicates
markets help the poorest of the poor. Then,markets are not adequate to absorb the that the existing property relations (with
how about the aged and migrant agricul-products emanated as a result of widening respect to non-movable properties) and the
tural labours that constitute larger share ofthe skill base of the poor. However, the poor deep-rooted patriarchal value system may
the poorest? The welfare programmes forwho are in this process have gained con- be hindering this process. The involve-
the aged and wage employment and landsiderably. But the SCs and women headed ment of men in this process of handling
rights including usufruct rights on com-households have not improved considerably the problems relating to women may
mon property resources to arrest migrationcompared to non-SCs and male-headed facilitate decline in gender inequalities.
coupled with micro-credit for migranthouseholds under SAPAP. The DWCRA and CDF models did not
agriculture labour may be the solution. The rise in incomes, to whatever extent facilitate power for women to intervene as
Thus micro-credit has to augment otherit may be, coupled with the conscious a group into family, community, state in-
programmes to address the concerns of theefforts to enable the poor to access publiccluding local governance institutions and
poorest of the poor. services has facilitated the poor womenmarket
to to address strategic and livelihood
Further, some of the poor are not takingimprove their own health status and concerns. However, the women of SAPAP
loan from the SHGs with the apprehension children's health and educational status have achieved improvement in regard to
that they may not be able to repay the loan,under all the models. However, the interior
strategic and livelihood concerns through
given the peer monitoring for the repay-villages and the tribals have not benefited interacting with the civil society, state and
ment of loans. This is ultimately resultingto the extent others had from the efforts market to some extent. The women have
in lower utilisation of loanable funds in of the state. This is evident in case of become more confident, assertive and
case of DWCRA and CDF. This in turn DWCRA groups. The women could independent also under all the models. But, the
may threaten the very sustainability meet
of their basic needs in terms of water practice of strategic gender concerns in the
SHGs of DWCRA and CDF. Thus low tap and LPG gas connections and sanita-personal lives is only pronounced among
levels of self-employment opportunities tion facilities under all the models. Then, the women who are in the SHGs of SAPAP.
available in the local economies are con- the issue is whether the process of reduc- This is completely absent in case of
tion in poverty as well as reduction inDWCRA and CDF. Thus, there is consider-
straining the poor to avail credit from SHGs.
Thus, there may not be a change in the intergenerational transmission of poverty able and balanced impact in all three levels
income of some of the poor who are can in be sustained. The enhancement in the of empowerment - power to (individual),
SHGs. The attempts to reduce the tran- asset-base of the poor provides evidencepower with (collective) and power within
saction costs of production and marketing to the fact that the reduction in poverty as(consciousness) under SAPAP model
well as reduction in intergenerational trans-compared to DWCRA and CDF models.
by resorting to collective purchase of inputs
(bulk purchases),collective storage missionof of poverty can be sustained at leastThis is due to the fact that comprehensive
in case of some of the poor, may be betterprocesses of change with regard to stra-
output to sell the product at right time and
marketing collectively has definitely im- off among the poor, under all the models.tegic and general concerns of gender are
proved the income levels of the poor. ThisThus, it is evident that the poverty reduc- institutionalised under SHGs of SAPAP.
tion is varying across different socio-eco-Thus, the issues relating to strategic and
is evident from the initiatives of the poor
under SAPAP. However, this is confined
nomic classes given the low level of self-general concerns of gender cannot be
employment opportunities in the localaddressed effectively unless the processes
to a very few groups. Thus, there is a need
economies. Similarly, the reduction inin this direction are institutionalised under
to replicate these initiatives under all the
models. At the same time, there was re- gender inequalities is highly pronouncedthe models. In this context, lessons have to
in case of SAPAP model.
sistance from the upper caste landlords and be drawn from SAPAP model to improvise
employers to such type of initiatives by theThere is improvement in the empower- the DWCRA model. The achievements in
poor. Does this mean that the benefits ment
of of women. Then, the issue is whether
empowerment varied across different social
the improvement in empowermentgroups
social capital are constrained in the context of since the issues of women empower-
of existing class relations? Or does this
women is varying across models and/or ment are interlocked with caste, religion
mean that the micro-process of poverty across different socio-economic classes. and headship of the households and age of
The women could establish their access
generation that emanate from the existing the women. The women headed house-
class relations cannot be arrested with the
and/or control over their labour (to some
holds, the aged women (those who are above
strength of social capital? However, a extent), access to resources (credit, 45 years) and dalits, on the whole, have

1282 Economic and Political Weekly March 22-29, 2003

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in the process of women empowerment. bers. Otherwise, the potential benefits of
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Economic and Political Weekly March 22-29, 2003 1283

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