Module 5

Refrigeration: Unit of refrigeration, reversed Carnot cycle, COP, vapour compression cycle
(only description and no problems); Definitions of dry, wet & dew point temperatures, specific
humidity and relative humidity, Cooling and dehumidification, Layout of unit and central air
conditioners; Description about working with sketches of: Reciprocating pump, Centrifugal
pump, Pelton turbine, Francis turbine and Kaplan turbine. Overall efficiency, Problems on
calculation of input and output power of pumps and turbines (No velocity triangles);
Description about working with sketches of: Belt and Chain drives, Gear and Gear trains,
Single plate clutches.

Refrigeration
Refrigeration is the process of maintaining a system at a temperature below the temperature
of its surroundings. Refrigeration means the cooling of or removal of heat from a system. It
can be accomplished by removing heat from the system.

The equipments employed to maintain the system at a lower temperature is termed as

refrigerating system and the system which is kept at lower temperature is called refrigerated
system. The working fluid used in a refrigerating system is known as refrigerant.

Refrigeration is generally produced in one of the following three ways :

• by melting of a solid
• by sublimation of a solid and
• by evaporation of a liquid.

Refrigeration may be obtained by adopting either natural methods or artificial methods. Natural
methods include melting of ice. When ice melts, the heat from its surroundings flows into the
ice and the surrounding space gets cooled. Now, with the development of artificial means of
refrigeration (mechanical refrigeration) the application of natural methods becomes
insignificant.

Most of the commercial refrigeration is produced by the evaporation of a refrigerant.

Mechanical refrigeration depends upon the evaporation of liquid refrigerant and its circuit
includes the equipments naming evaporator, compressor, condenser and expansion valve.

The applications of refrigeration can be broadly classified into three groups as

• Industrial processes which includes processing of food stuffs, farm crops,

photographic materials, petroleum and other chemical products, treatment of concrete
for dams, processing in textile mills, printing works etc.
Preservation of perishable goods which includes storage and transportation of food
stuffs (eg. Fish, fruits, vegetables, meats, dairy products, poultry products etc).
 • Providing comfortable environment which includes comfort air conditioning of
residences, hospitals, theatres, offices etc.

The major applications of refrigeration systems

1. Ice making
2. Transportation of foods above and below freezing
3. Industrial air conditioning.
4. Comfort air conditioning
5. Chemical and related industries
6. Medical and surgical aids
7. Processing food products and beverages
8. Oil refining and synthetic rubber manufacturing
9. Manufacturing and treatment of metals
10. Freezing food products
11. Miscellaneous applications:
– Extremely low temperatures
– Building construction etc.

Refrigeration Systems – Classifications

1. Ice refrigeration
2. Air refrigeration system
3. Vapour compression refrigeration system
4. Vapour absorption refrigeration system
5. Special refrigeration systems :
a. Adsorption refrigeration system
b. Cascade refrigeration system
c. Mixed refrigeration system
d. Vortex tube refrigeration system
e. Thermoelectric refrigeration
f. Steam jet refrigeration system.

Unit of refrigeration
The capacity of a refrigerating machine is generally expressed in tons of refrigeration
(TR). The rate of heat absorbed from a body or space to be cooled is termed as refrigerating
effect. The rating of a refrigeration machine is obtained by refrigerating effect or amount of
heat extracted in a given time from a body. The standard unit of refrigeration is ton refrigeration
or simply ton.

“A ton of refrigeration is defined as the amount of refrigeration effect produced by the

uniform melting of one ton (1000kg) of ice from and at 0∘ C in 24 hours.”

Or
“The rate of heat absorbed by the system from the body to be cooled, equivalent to the latent
heat of fusion of one ton of ice from and at 0°C in 24 hours is called one ton refrigeration.”
One ton of refrigeration(1TR) is equivalent to 210KJ/min or 3.5KW.

Coefficient Of Performance (COP)

The effectiveness of a refrigerator is expressed by a term known as coefficient of performance.
It is the ratio of desired refrigerating effect to the work spent to produce the refrigerating
effect. It is defined as the ratio of heat absorbed by the refrigerant while passing through e
evaporator to the work input required to compress the refrigerant in the compressor.

C.O.P = (Desired refrigeration effect)/ (Work spent in producing the effect)

If, Rn = net refrigerating effect and W = work expanded in by the machine during the same
interval of time,then

C.O.P = Rn/W
C.O.P of a refrigerator will be greater than unity (C.O.P > 1).

Reverse Carnot Cycle

Carnot cycle can also be used for getting the refrigeration effect upon its reversal. If a
machine working on reversed Carnot cycle is driven from an external source, it will work or
function as a refrigerator. Since it is a reversible cycle, all four processes can be reversed.

A refrigerator or heat pump that operates on the reversed Carnot cycle is called a Carnot
refrigerator.

Here, the refrigerated space/body is to be maintained at low temperature Tl for

which heat Ql should be removed at constant rate and rejected to surroundings
at high temperature, The Amount of heat rejected to surroundings is Q h while the
net work done upon refrigerator is W.

Reverse Carnot cycle consists of two isentropic processes and two isothermal
processes. They are;

• 3–4 Reversible adiabatic expansion (isentropic expansion)

• 4–1 Reversible isothermal heat absorption, Ql at temperature, Tl
• 1–2 Reversible adiabatic compression (isentropic compression)
• 2–3 Reversible isothermal heat rejection, Qh at temperature, Th
P-V and T-S diagrams of reversed Carnot cycle are shown below.

Starting from point 3, the clearance space of the cylinder is full of air, the air is then expanded
adiabatically to point 4 during which its temperature falls from T3 (Th) to T4 (Tl), the cylinder
is put in contact with a cold body at temperature T4 (Tl). The air is then expanded isothermally
to the point 1, as a result of which heat is extracted from the cold body at temperature T4 (Tl).
Now the cold body is removed; from 1 to 4 air undergoes adiabatic compression with the
assistance of some external power and temperature rises to T2 (Th). A hot body at temperature
T2 (Th) is put in contact with the cylinder. Finally the air is compressed isothermally during
which process heat is rejected to the hot body.
For cyclic process;

Net work W = Qh – Ql

Qh = Th (S2 – S3) and Ql = Tl (S1 – S4)

Since S2 = S1 and S3 = S4 ; Qh = Th (S1 – S4)

W = Th (S1 – S4) – Tl (S1 – S4) => W = (S1 – S4) (Th – Tl)

The coefficient of performance of refrigerator depends upon the two temperature values
i.e. low temperature Tl and high temperature Th. For COP value to be high the low
temperature Tl should be high while higher temperature Th should be small.

The reverse Carnot cycle is the most efficient refrigeration cycle operating between two
specified temperature levels. It sets the highest theoretical COP.

Practically the reversed Carnot cycle cannot be used for refrigeration purpose as the
adiabatic process requires very high speed operations, whereas isothermal process requires
very low speed operations.

Practically, the lower temperature requirement is decided by the user while higher temperature
is generally fixed by the atmospheric temperature value. Thus, it could be said that for certain
low temperature to be maintained, COP of refrigerator shall be more during cold days as
compared to hot days.

COPcold days > COPhot days because Th, cold days < Th, hot days.

VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

In this system, a liquid refrigerant is used which is alternately evaporates and condenses
for absorbing heat from the refrigerated space and for rejecting heat to the surroundings.
During the evaporation process it absorbs heat and gets converted from liquid to vapour. During
the condensing process it rejects heat and gets converted from vapour to liquid.

A simple vapour compression system of refrigeration consists of the following basic

components:

1. Compressor
2. Condenser
3. Expansion valve
4. Evaporator
The processes are

• 1- 2 Isentropic compression in compressor

• 2-3 Condensation(Constant-pressure heat rejection in a condenser)

• 3-4 Isenthalpic expansion process (Throttling in an expansion device )

• 4-1 Evaporation (Constant-pressure heat absorption in an evaporator)

The line diagram of the arrangement is shown in fig.5.1. The vapour at pressure p 1 and
temperature T1 is drawn into the compressor is compressed isentropically to pressure p2, and
temperature T2. This process is shown by line 1 -2 in the P-H diagram as well as in the T-S
diagram. At the end of compression the vapour is in a superheated state. The vapour at this
condition passes to the condenser in which cooling water is circulated to remove heat from the
vapour. The vapour is first cooled to the saturation temperature and further removal of
latent heat of condensation it condenses to liquid till point 3 is reached. The high pressure liquid
is expanded in an expansion valve (constant enthalpy expansion process) (throttle valve). The
pressure of liquid is lowered to p1 (p1 = p4) and the condition obtained after theis shown by
point 4. During expansion in expansion valve (throttling) the liquid partlyevaporates and after
throttling we get wet vapour at the low temperature T1, and low pressure p1. This wet vapour
passes through the evaporator coils. The wet refrigerant vapour absorbs latent heat of
vaporisation from the refrigerated space and evaporates. After evaporation the vapour reaches
the condition given by point 1. This completes one cycle of operation.

AIR CONDITIONING
The science of air conditioning, deals with supplying and maintaining a desired internal
atmospheric condition irrespective of external Conditions.

“Air conditioning is the process of controlling and maintaining the internal atmosphere in
a confined space. It involves the control of temperature, humidity, motion of air and purity
of atmosphere in the space of interest”.

This involves the simultaneous control of air purity, air motion, temperature and humidity of
the air inside an enclosed space.

• Air temperature is controlled by cooling or heating the air.

• Humidity is controlled by adding or removing water vapour to or from the air.
• Air motion is controlled by appropriate air distribution equipment
• Air purity is controlled by filtering and removing undesirable contaminants from the
air.

Air conditioning applications are two types: comfort and industrial.

Any air conditioning application having the primary intention of human health and
comfort is called comfort air conditioning. Any air conditioning which is not primarily
meant for human comfort is industrial air conditioning. Basically, the equipment and
process involved in both types of air conditioning is the same. The difference lies in the required
inside conditions.

Applications of air conditioning are

• Domestic applications
• Industrial applications
• Commercial applications
• Transport applications
PSYCHROMETRY

The properties, of moist air are called psychrometric properties and the subject which
deals with the behaviour of moist air is known as psychrometry. Several special terms used
in the study of psychrometry are defined below:

1. Dry air: Dry air is a mixture of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon - dioxide, hydrogen, argon, neon,
helium etc with oxygen and nitrogen as its major constituents. The volumetric composition of
air is 79 % nitrogen and 21 % oxygen.

2. Moist air: It is ordinary atmospheric air which is a mixture of dry air and water vapour.

3. Saturated air: It is the air which contains maximum amount of water vapour which the air
can hold at a given temperature and pressure. The maximum quantity of water vapour that can
be present in the air depends up on the temperature and pressure of air.

4. Specific or absolute humidity or humidity ratio: It is defined as the ratio of the mass of
water vapour to the mass of dry air in a given volume of moist air. It is generally expressed as
grams of water per kg of dry air.

5. Relative humidity: It is the ratio of mass of water vapour in a given volume of moist air at
a given temperature to the mass of water vapour contained in the same volume of moist air at
the same temperature when the air is saturated.

6. Dry bulb temperature: It is the temperature of air

measured by an ordinary thermometer.

7. Wet bulb temperature: It is the temperature recorded by a

thermometer, when its bulb is covered by a wet cloth and is
exposed to a current of moving air.

The difference between the dry bulb temperature and wet bulb
temperature is known as wet bulb depression If relative
humidity is high, the rate of evaporation from the wet cloth is
low and hence wet bulb depression will be low. When air is dry
saturated the DBT and WBT are the same.

8. Dew point temperature: It is the temperature at which the condensation of moisture begins
when the air is cooled at constant pressure. The difference between dry bulb temperature and
dew point temperature is known as dew point depression.

9. Sensible heat of air: It is the heat that changes the temperature of a substance when added
to or abstracted from it.

10. Latent Heat: It is the heat that does not affect the temperature but changes the state of
substance when added to or abstracted from it.
11. Total heat: The total heat of moist air is the sum of sensible heat of dry air and sensible
plus latent heat of water vapour present in it.

Psychrometer is an instrument containing dry bulb thermometer arid wet bulb thermometer.
The difference in the reading of these two thermometers gives measure of relative humidity of
air surrounding the psychrometer.

Psychrometric chart
A psychrometric chart is the graphical representation of the various thermodynamic properties
of moist air. The chart enables the properties of moist air to be read off directly.

Fig. shows a typical psychrometric chart. The vertical scale of the chart is the specific
humidity and the horizontal scale is the dry bulb temperature. In addition, it contains the
following lines.

• Dry bulb temperature lines

• Specific humidity lines
• Wet bulb temperature lines.
• Relative humidity lines
• Specific volume lines
• Dewpoints temperature lines
The various basic process involved in air conditioning are:

1. Sensible Heating(C): Increase the dry bulb temperature of air without change in its
specific humidity(moisture content), using heating coil.

2. Sensible Cooling(G): Decreases dry bulb temperature of air without change in its specific
humidity(moisture content), using cooling coil.

3. Humidification(A): Increase the specific humidity without change in dry bulb

temperature, using humidifier.

4. Dehumidification(E): Decreases the specific humidity without change in dry bulb

temperature, using dehumidifier.

5. Heating with Humidification(B): Increases both dry bulb temperature and specific
humidity of air, using high temperature steam.

6. Heating with Dehumidification(D): Increases the dry bulb temperature and decreases the
specific humidity of air, using silica gel or alumina.

7. Cooling with Humidification(H): Decreases the dry bulb temperature and increases the
specific humidity of air, using cold water.

8. Cooling with Dehumidification (F): Decreases both dry bulb temperature and
specific humidity of air, using cooling coil with very low temperature “

Whenever air is made to pass over a surface or through a spray of water that is at a temperature
less than the dew point temperature of the air, condensation of some of the water vapour in air
will occur simultaneously with the sensible cooling process.
Air conditioning system
Factors affecting comfort air conditioning

1. Temperature of the air – A human feels comfortable when the air is at 220C – 260C.
This is maintained by cooling or heating process.

2. Humidity of the air - Increasing or decreasing the humidity during winter and summer
A/C system respectively. Relative humidity should not be less than 60% during summer air
conditioning system whereas in winter air conditioning not less than 40 %.

3. Purity of air - People donot feel comfortable if the air is contaminated.

4. Motion of air - Equi-distribution of air throughout the room

Comfort air-conditioning
The comfort air conditioning intends to provide a comfortable environment for human
beings round the year. Human beings are comfortable in wide range of relative humidity
varying from 30 to 70%. The temperature range for human comfort is 22 to 260C. The factors
which determine the effectiveness of air conditioning for human comfort are

• Air purity
• removal of moisture emitted by occupants,
• removal of heat emitted by occupants,
• sufficient air motion and uniform air distribution,
• Supply of oxygen and removal of Carbon dioxide,
• Control of moisture content of air.
 Classification of air conditioning system
1. According to purpose
a. Comfort air conditioning
b. Industrial air conditioning
2. According to the season of the year
a. Winter air conditioning system
b. Summer air conditioning system
c. Year round air conditioning system
3. According to the arrangements of equipment's
a. Unitary air conditioning system
b. Central air condition system

Unitary systems. (Unit air conditioners)

The components of unitary air conditioned system are assembled in the factory itself. These
assembled units are usually installed in or immediately adjacent to a zone or space to be
conditioned. The package units are available in the size ranges of greatest usage to obtain
economics of factory production.

Window air conditioner is a type of unit air conditioner. Window Air-Conditioner is also
called as room air conditioner, which is installed on the window of a room or wall opening. It
works on principle of vapour compression refrigeration system. The refrigerant used is
Freon-12(R -12) or Freon 22(R-22). A package unit is a self-contained unit because the
complete unit including evaporator and condensing unit is all incorporated in a common
enclosure. The normal capacity of such a unit is 1 and 1.5 TR. There are window mounting
models which are normally capable of cooling, heating, cleaning and circulating the air.
Working: Low pressure vapour refrigerant from the evaporator is sucked by compressor and
is compressed to a high pressure & is delivered to the condenser. In the condenser, the
refrigerant vapour is condensed to liquid by releasing latent heat of condensation to the
surrounding air. Hot air formed is driven out using a fan. High pressure liquid refrigerant enters
the capillary tube where the pressure is reduced. This low pressure liquid-vapour refrigerant
enters the evaporator. Liquid refrigerant evaporates by absorbing latent heat of vaporization
from the surrounding air. This cold air is delivered to the room using a fan. Direction of air
flow can be changed using a damper. Low pressure vapour refrigerant is again sucked by
compressor. Thus one cycle of operation is completed.

Advantages of unitary system:

• There is saving in the installation and assembly labour charges.

• Zoning and duct work eliminated.
• In unitary system exact requirement of each separate room is met whereas in central
system the individual needs of separate rooms cannot the met.
• Failure of the unit puts off conditioning in only one room whereas the failure of the
central plant off-sets all the rooms to be served.
• Only those rooms which need cooling will have their units running, whereas the central
plant will have to run all the time for the sake of only a few rooms.
• The specific feature of a unitary system is that there in Individual room-temperature
control,

Central Air conditioning system

Central air conditioning systems are suitable for air conditioning large space such as big factory
spaces, theatres, cinemas, exhibition halls, restaurants etc. where no sub division exists. The
central systems are generally employed for the loads above 25TR and 2500 m3/min of
conditioned air. In this system, equipments such as fans, coils, filters and their encasement
are designed for assembly in the field. A central system serves different
rooms, requires individual control of each room. The condenser, compressor, dampers,
heating, cooling and humidifying coils and fan are located at one place. The conditioned
air is carried to different rooms by means of supply ducts and returned back to the control plant
through return ducts.

Working: Outdoor air enters from a intake and the air after passing through damper passes
through filters. Filters may be of a mechanical cleaned type, replaceable cell type or may be
electrostatic. The cleaned air then passes to the conditioning equipment in the following order:
Tempering (Preheater) coil, Cooling coil, Humidifier (Air washer), Heating coil and finally
fan. Tempering coil is used to preheat the cleaned air. Cooling and dehumidification is achieved
by using cooling with chilled water. Air washer controls the humidity in the air. Eliminator is
used to remove water droplets from the air and final reheating coil is used to heat the air to the
required temperature.

Advantages of central system

• Low investment cost as compared to total cost of separate unit.

• Space occupied is unimportant as compared to a room unit conditioner which must be
placed in the room.
• Better accessibility for maintenance.
• The running cost is less per unit of refrigeration.
• Noise and vibration troubles are less to the people in air conditioned places as the air
conditioning plant is far away from the air-conditioned places.
• The exhaust air can be returned and partly reused with obvious saving in heating and
refrigeration.

Disadvantages of central system

• It results in large size ducts which are costly and occupy large space.

Hydraulic machines are machinery and tools that use liquid fluid power to do simple work,
operated by the use of hydraulics, where a liquid is the powering medium.

Hydraulic Pumps
Pumps are hydraulic machines which convert the mechanical energy into hydraulic
energy. Pump is generally used for raising liquid from low level to high level. Hydraulic
pumps can be classified into two

1) Centrifugal pump

2) Reciprocating pump
1) Centrifugal pump
A centrifugal pump is a roto dynamic pump that uses a rotating impeller to create flow by
the addition of energy to a fluid.

The main parts of a centrifugal pump are

• Impeller: Rotating solid disc with curved blades.

Impeller is mounted on a shaft connected to theshaft
of an electric motor. As the impeller rotates, fluid is
drawn into the impeller inlet(eye of pump) is
accelerated as it is forced radially outwards
• Casing: Air tight passage around the impeller
• Suction pipe and delivery pipe: Pipe whose one end
is connected to the inlet of pump and other end
dipped in a sump is known as suction pipe. Pipe
whose one end is connected to the outlet of thepump
and the other end delivers the working fluidat a
required height is known as delivery pipe.

Working of a centrifugal pump

Working fluid enters the pump at the centre of a rotating impeller. Impeller imparts centrifugal
force on the liquid entrapped in the impeller and throws the liquid towards the outer periphery
of the impeller. Outward movement of liquid in the impeller creates a partial vacuum near the
eye of the impeller. Consequently, liquid from the sump is sucked in towards the impeller eye
and enters through the inlet tip of impeller vanes. Thus, there is a continuous flow of liquid
from the sump to the casing. The liquid leaving the impeller vanes is at a higher pressure and
velocity. The velocity head is converted to pressure head in the casing.

2) Reciprocating pump
Reciprocating pump is a
positive displacement pump. It
creates the lift and pressure by
displacing the liquid using a
moving mechanical element
called plunger (piston) inside a
cylinder.
The main parts of a reciprocating pump are

• Cylinder with valves at inlet and delivery: Suction and delivery pipes with suction
valve and delivery valve are connected to the cylinder. The suction and delivery valves
are one-way valves or non-return valves, which allow the water to flow in one direction
only.
• Plunger or piston: Piston reciprocates in the closely fitted cylinder.
• Connecting rod and crank mechanism: Crank and connecting rod mechanism is
operated by a power source.
• Suction and delivery pipe with one way valve: One end of suction pipe remains dip in
the liquid and other end attached to the inlet of the cylinder. One end of delivery pipe
attached with delivery part and other end at discharge point.

Working of Reciprocating pump

Working of reciprocating pump is similar to that of reciprocating engines. Piston moves from
left to right (crank moves from A to C) creates a vacuum inside the cylinder and atmospheric
pressure forces the liquid up through the suction pipe (suction valve is opened when crank is
at B) into the cylinder. Delivery valve will be closed during this stroke. During the return

stroke (crank moves from C to A), the pressure developed in the fluid opens the delivery valve
(when crank is at D), closes the inlet valve and pushes the fluid through the delivery valve.
This pump is suitable for high heads and low discharge.

HYDRAULIC TURBINES
A hydraulic turbine is a rotary machine that converts kinetic energy and potential energy
of water (hydraulic energy or hydro-potential) into mechanical work. Mechanicalenergy
developed by turbines is used to run electric generators coupled to the shaft of turbines.
Hydroelectric power is the cheapest source of power generation.

Flowing liquid, mostly water, when pass through the Hydraulic Turbine it strikes the blades
of the turbine and makes the shaft rotate. There are different forms of Hydraulic Turbines in
use depending on the operational requirements. For every specific use a particular type of
Hydraulic Turbine provides the optimum output.

Classification of turbines
Turbines can be classified on the basis of:

1. Head and quantity of water available

a) High head turbine: Head is more than 250m, low discharge, eg. Pelton turbine

b) Medium head turbine: 60m to 250m, medium discharge types, eg. Francis turbine
 c) Low head turbine: Head will be below 60m, high discharge, eg. Kaplan turbine

2. Action of water on moving blades

a) Impulse turbine: Water possess only kinetic energy at the inlet of the turbine, eg.
Pelton turbine.

b) Reaction turbine: Water possess both kinetic energy and pressure energy at the
inlet, eg. Francis and Kaplan turbine.

Pelton Wheel
A Pelton wheel is an impulse-type water turbine invented by Lester Allan Pelton in the
1870s. The Pelton wheel extracts energy from the impulse of moving water. Nozzles direct
forceful, high-speed streams of water against a series of spoon-shaped buckets, also known as
impulse blades, which are mounted around the outer rim of a drive wheel - also called a runner.

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Main Parts of a Pelton Turbine

Nozzle and flow regulating arrangement

• Runner and buckets: Runner is a circular disc on the periphery of which a number of
buckets are fixed.
• Casing: Prevent the splashing of water.
• Breaking jet: Used to stop the runner.
Working

Nozzle directs the water against buckets mounted around the runner. When the water jet strikes
the bucket, the impulse energy of the water jet exerts torque (pressure) on the bucket- and-
wheel system, spinning the wheel (runner). In the process, the water jet's momentum is
transferred to the wheel and hence to a turbine. The runner shaft is connected with the
generator, thus the electricity is produced.

Francis Turbine
The Francis turbine is a type of water turbine
that was developed by James B. Francis. It is
an inward-flow reaction turbine that
combines radial and axial flow concepts.
Francis turbines are the most common water
turbine in use today. They operate in a water
head from 40 to 600 m (130 to 2,000 ft) and are
primarily used for electrical power production.

Main parts of Francis Turbine

• Spiral casing: Maintain a uniform

velocity around the guide vanes.
• Guide vanes: Around the circumference
of the runner. It acts like a nozzle to
increase the velocity of water. It also
regulates the amount of water inlet to the
turbine.
• Runner and runner vanes: Runner vanes have aerofoil like structure. Pressure
difference on the blades causes the rotation.
• Draft tube: Water flows from runner outlet to tail race through draft tube.

Working

The Francis turbine is a type of reaction turbine, a category of turbine in which the working
fluid comes to the turbine under immense pressure and the energy is extracted by the turbine
blades from the working fluid.

The water is allowed to enter the spiral casing of the turbine, which lead the water through the
stay vanes and guide vanes. Water enters the runner from the guide vanes towards the centre
in radial direction and discharges out of the runner axially. The impulse and reaction force of
water rotates the runner and the runner shaft is connected with the generator, thus the electricity
is produced.
Kaplan turbine
The Kaplan turbine is a propeller-type
water turbine which has adjustable
blades. It was developed in 1913 byAustrian
professor Viktor Kaplan. Kaplan turbines
are now widely used throughoutthe world in
high-flow, low-head power production.
They cover the lowest head hydro sites and
are especially suited for high flow
conditions. The design combines features of
radial and axial turbines.

Main parts of a Kaplan Turbine

• Scroll casing
• Guide vanes: Used to turn the water through 900
• Hub and vanes: Vanes are fixed to hub. Vanes are adjustable. Vanes are adjusted
according to the flow rate. Vanes are aerofoil shaped profile
• Draft tube

Working

The Kaplan turbine is an inward flow reaction turbine, which means that the working fluid
changes pressure as it moves through the turbine and gives up its energy. Power is recovered
from both the hydrostatic head and from the kinetic energy of the flowing water. The inlet is a
scroll-shaped tube that wraps around the turbine's guide vane. Water is directed tangentially
through the guide vane and spirals on to a propeller shaped runner, causing it to spin. The
runner rotates the generator producing power. The outlet is a specially shaped draft tube that
helps decelerate the water and recover kinetic energy.

TURBINE EFFICIENCIES

The following efficiencies are generally used.

1. Hydraulic efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of the power produced by the turbine runner
and the power supplied by the water at the turbine inlet.

where Q is the volume flow rate and H is the net or effective head. where Q is the volume flow
rate and H is the net or effective head.
2. Volumetric efficiency: It is possible some water flows out through the clearance between
the runner and casing without passing through the runner. Volumetric efficiency is defined as
the ratio between the volume of water flowing through the runner and the total volume of water
supplied to the turbine.

Indicating Q as the volume flow and ΔQ as the volume of water passing out without flowing
through the runner.

3. Mechanical efficiency: The power produced by the runner is always greater than the power
available at the turbine shaft. This is due to mechanical losses at the bearings, windage losses
and other frictional losses.

4. Overall efficiency: This is the ratio of power output at the shaft and power input by the
water at the turbine inlet.

Power Output of the hydraulic turbine

Where

P = electric power in kVA

Q = flow rate in the pipe (m3/s) ρ = density (kg/m3) g = Acceleration of gravity (m/s²)

H = waterfall height (m) η = global efficiency ratio

PUMP Performance
The input power “P” of a pump is the mechanical power in kW or Watt taken by the shaft or
coupling. So the input power of the pump also called Break Horse Power (BHP). Pump input
BHP is the power delivered to the pump shaft and is designated as brake horsepower. so pump
input power also called as pump shaft power

Pump output power is called as Water Horse Power (WHP) or Hydraulic power and it is useful
work delivered by the pump and is usually expressed by the formula
 where η is in percentage (e.g. 75%)

Pump Efficiency

The overall efficiency of a pump is defined as

where, Q is the volume flow rate of the fluid through the pump, and P is the shaft power, i.e.
the input power to the shaft. H is the differential head.

Methods of Power Transmission

Mechanical power can be transmitted from one shaft to another by following methods

• Belt drive
• Rope drive
• Chain drive
• Gear drive

The shaft from which power is transmitted is called driver shaft and the shaft to which power
is transmitted is called driven shaft

Belts
A belt is a thin inextensible band made of leather, rubber, steel, canvas or balata. Belts are used
to transmit power between two parallel shafts, which are at a considerable distance apart (large
distance).

“A belt is a continuous band of flexible material passing over pulleys to transmit motion
from one shaft to another.”

Belts are made endless to run over the pulleys mounted on the shafts. Friction between the belt
and the pulley is responsible for transmitting power from one pulley to other. Belt driveis a
friction drive and it is not a positive drive, since there is always some possibility of slipping
between the belt and pulley.

Amount of power transmitted depends on

• Velocity of the belt

• The tension with which the belt is placed under the pulleys
• The arc of contact between the belt and the smaller pulley
Classification of belts (Type of belts)

Belts are generally classified into two;

1. Flat belts
2. V-belts
3. Timing belts
4. Round belt

1. Flat belts

Flat belts are belts with a narrow rectangular cross section and they run on flat pulleys.
Flat belts are used for their simplicity and because they are subjected to minimum bending
stress on the pulleys. The load capacity of flat belt is varied by varying their width and only
one belt is used in each drive. They are used for moderate power transmission and are used in
sawmills, conveyors, electrical generators etc.

Advantages

• Simple in construction, smooth operation, low maintenance and long life

• Flexible

Disadvantages

• Not positive drives Figure 1 Cross

• Less efficient section of Flat belt
• Not suitable for short distances
Figure 2 Cross
section of a V-
2. V-Belts Belt

A V-belt is a belt of trapezoidal cross section running on pulleys with grooves cut to match
the belt (V- grooved pulleys). The normal angle between the sides of the groove is 40 deg.
They are usually made of fabric coated with rubber. They are silent and resilient.They are
used when the distance between the shafts is too short for flat belt drives. Due to the wedge
between the belt and the sides of the grooves in the pulley action (shape of belt and grooves in
pulley), the V-belts are less likely to slip, hence more power can be transmitted for the same
belt tension. Multiple V belts are used when the power to be transmitted is large for a single
belt

• V belts are used in automotives and in agricultural purposes

Advantages

• Transmits higher torque than flat belts

• Suitable for short distance
• Easily installed and removed
 • Slip is negligible
• Operation is quiet
• Suitable for large speeds
• No possibility of belt coming out of grooves
• Capable of absorbing high shock.

Disadvantages

• Not suitable for large distances

• Costly
• V belts cannot be repaired Construction is complicated

Comparison between V-Belt and Flat Belt

3. Timing Belt: Timing belts are toothed belts that use their teeth for power
transmission, as opposed to friction. This configuration results in no slippage, and
therefore, the driving and driven shafts remain synchronized. It’s more expensive to
manufacture due to complexity of the belt and pulley shapes.
4. Round belts: Round belts are are generally made of rubber. This type of belt is
generally used for light loads, such as in a sewing machine or a vacuum cleaner.
(VERY IMPROTANT) Belt Drives
A belt drive consists of the driving and driven pulleys and the belt which is mounted on
the pulleys with a certain amount of tension and transmits power by frictional force
between belt and pulleys.

Belt drives can be categorised into;

1) Open belt drives

2) Cross belt drives
3) Belt drives with Idler pulleys
4) Compound belt drives
5) Stepped or Cone pulley drives

1. Open belt drives

It is used to transmit power when the distance between the shafts is large and both shafts are
parallel. In open belt drives both the shafts rotates in the same direction. When the driver rotates
in the clockwise direction, the lower side of the belt is tight and the upper side is slack. Upper
side of the belt is called the slack side and the lower side of the belt is called the tight side.

2. Cross belt drives

In cross belt drives the power is transmitted between parallel shafts rotating in opposite
direction. Since the angle of contact in this type of drive is more, it can transmit more power
than open belt drives. At the point where the belt crosses, it rubs against itself and wear and
tear occurs. The drive should operate at low velocity.
3. Belt drives with Idler pulleys

In this drive, a small pulley called idler pulley is placed on the slack side of the belt and nearer
to the driven pulley. Idler pulley increases the angle of contact between belt and driver & driven
pulleys. The shafts arranged in parallel and rotating in same direction and this drive is provided
to deliver high velocity. Idler pulley reduces slip and increases the power transmission
efficiency, but reduces belt life.

4. Compound belt drives

It is used when power is transmitted from one shaft to another through a number of pulleys. A
single intermediate shaft may contain more than two pulleys.

As shown in Figs. 9.8(a) and 9.8(b), for A-B combination, A is the driving pulley and B is the
driven pulley. For C-D combination, C is the driving pulley and D is the driven pulley. When
it is desired to have maximum reduction in the speed, the compound belt drive assembly is
considered to be the most important method. It eliminates the larger driven pulley. In this
combination, pulley B and C are the compound pulleys, i.e., pulley C is keyed on the same
shaft on which pulley B is. D is another pulley. A belt runs over A-B and another belt runs over
C-D.

5. Stepped or Cone pulley drives

In case of a stepped pulley system, a single pulley is made in three steps as shown in Fig. 9.6(a).
It is made of cast iron. Two such pulleys are mounted on two parallel shafts as shown in Fig.
9.6(b). It is used for changing the speed of driven shaft while the driving shaft is maintained at
constant speed.
Applications of Belt drives
(i) To transmit power from low or medium capacity electric motors to operative
machines.
(ii) To transmit power from small prime movers (IC Engines) to electric generators,
agricultural and other machinery.

Advantages of Belt Drives

(i) They are simple and economical.
(ii) They can transmit power over a medium distance.
(iii) They give smooth operation (Noise and vibrations are damped out)
(iv) They can operate at high speeds of rotation.
(v) They are lubricant free and their maintenance cost is relatively low.

Disadvantages of Belt Drives

(i) Their considerable overall size, usually several times larger than toothed gearing.
(ii) Slip occurs in the belt drives.
(iii) The necessity of belt tensioning devices.
(iv) The necessity to keep oil from getting on the belt.
(v) The relatively short service life in high speed drives.
(vi) Heat build-up occurs. Speed is limited to usually 35 meters per second. Power
transmission is limited to 370 kilowatts.
(vii) Operating temperatures are usually restricted to –35 to 85°C.
(viii) Stretching of belt after some time

Chain drives
Chain drive is a way of transmitting mechanical power from one
place to another using chains and sprocket. It is often used to
convey power to the wheels of a vehicle, particularly bicycles
and motorcycles. Chain drive consists of an endless chain
running over special profile toothed wheels called sprockets.
One of the sprockets will be the driver and the other
driven. Smaller sprocket is called pinion and the bigger one is called wheel.

Applications of chain drives

Chain drives are used for

1. Medium centre to centre distances which, in the case of a gear drive, would require
idle gears
2. Drives with strict requirements as to overall size or ones requiring positive
transmission without slippage.

Main applications of chain drives are; (i) Motor cycles (ii) Bicycles (iii) Conveyers
(iv) Agricultural machinery (v) Machine tools (vi) Automobiles etc.

There are two principal types of chain drives :

1) Roller chain drive, and

2) Inverted tooth or silent chain drive.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Chain Drive

Advantages:

1) Efficiency of transmission is very high (upto 98%).

2) More durable.
3) Can carry heavy loads.
4) Can be used where exact timing in-movement is desired.
5) No slip takes place.
6) No initial tension required for operation.
7) A single chain can be used for transmitting motion to several shafts.
8) Smaller overall size than a belt drive.
9) Small forces acting on the shafts since no initial tension is required.
10) Easy replacement of the chain.
11) These permit high speed ratio upto 8 in one step.
12) These can be operated under adverse temperature and atmospheric conditions.

Disadvantages

1) Chain drive requires housing.

2) It needs careful maintenance and accurate mounting.
3) The velocity of the chain, especially with small numbers of teeth on the sprockets, is
not constant leading to non-uniform rotation of sprockets.
4) The chain gets stretched and requires a tensioning device.
5) Cost is high comparatively.
GEAR DRIVE
A gear is simply a toothed wheel. It is a wheel provided with teeth which mesh with the teeth
on another wheel, or on to a rack, so as to give a positive transmission of power from one
component to another. One gear is mounted on the driving shaft and another one on the driven
shaft and their teeth is meshing with each other.

Gear drive is a positive drive (no slip) and the axes of the shafts may be parallel or non-
parallel. When two gears of different sizes mesh, the smaller one is called pinion and the
larger one is called gear. When pinion (smaller gear) is the driver, output speed (driver speed)
decreases and torque increases. When the gear (larger gear) is the driver, output speed (driver
speed) increases and torque decreases.

Gears constitute the most commonly used device for power transmission or for changing
power-speed ratios in a power system. They are used for transmitting motion and power
from one shaft to another when they are not too far apart and when a constant velocity
ratio is desired. Gears also afford a convenient way of changing the direction of motion.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Gear drives

Advantages:

1) High efficiency
2) Long service life.
3) High reliability.
4) More compact.
5) Can operate at high speeds.
6) Can be used where precise timing is required.
7) Large power can be transmitted.
8) Constant speed ratio owing to absence of slipping.
9) Possibility of being applied for a wide range of torques, speeds and speed ratios.
10) The force required to hold the gears in position is much less than in an equivalent
friction drive. This results in lower bearing pressure, less wear on the bearing surface
and efficiency.
Disadvantages:

1) Special equipment and tools are required to manufacture the gears.

2) When one wheel gets damaged the whole set up is affected.
3) Noisy in operation at considerable speeds.
4) Needs lubrication
5) Maintenance cost is high
6) Production cost is high

Classification of gears

Gears are classified into;

1) Spur gears
2) Helical gears
3) Double helical gears
4) Bevel gears
5) Worm gears
6) Rack and pinion

1. Spur gears

SPUR gears are those which have teeth cut parallel to the axis of
the shaft. Spur gears are used to transmit power between parallel
shafts. They are used in high speed and high load applications.
This is the simplest form of geared drive.

2. Helical gears

In helical gear, the teeth cut on the

periphery are of helical screw form.
Helical tooth is inclined at an angle to
the axis of the shaft. Helical gears are
used to transmit power between parallel shafts and the shafts rotate in opposite
directions.

3. Herringbone Gear or Double-Helical Gears

Herringbone gears have opposing

helical teeth which nullify two axial
thrusts. Load carrying capacity is
very high and these gears are used to
transmit power between two
parallel shafts at high speeds. The two shafts rotate in opposite
directions.
4. Bevel Gear

Bevel gears are used to connect two non-parallel shafts with

intersecting axes. Teeth of these gears are formed on a conical surface.
These gears are used to transmit power between two shaftsat any
angle, generally the shafts are at right angles. They are used to slow
speed applications.

5. Worm Gear

Worm gears are used for power transmission between non-

intersecting shafts that are generally at right angles to each other.
Worm gearing consists of worm and worm wheel. Worm is a threaded
screw and is used as the driver and worm wheel is a toothed wheel.
Teeth of the worm wheel remain engaged with the threads of the
worm. Worm gearing is smooth and quiet.

6. Rack and Pinion

A rack is a spur gear of infinite diameter, thus it assumes the shape

of a straight gear. Rack and pinion gears are used to convert rotation
(pinion) into linear motion(rack) or vice versa.

.Types of Gear Trains (VERY IMPORTANT)

A gear train is a power transmission system made up of two or more gears. The gear to
which the force is first applied is called the driver and the final gear on the train to which the
force is transmitted is called the driven gear. Any gears between the driver and the driven gears
are called the idlers. Conventionally, the smaller gear is the Pinion and the larger one is the
Gear. The gear trains are of the following types;

1. Simple gear train 2. Compound gear train 3. Planetary or Epicyclic gear train

Simple Gear Train - Simple gear trains have only one gear per shaft. The simple gear train
is used where there is a large distance to be covered between the input shaft and the output
shaft.
Compound Gear Train - In a compound gear train at least one of the shafts in the train
must hold two gears. Compound gear trains are used when large changes in speed or power
output are needed and there is only a small space between the input and output shafts.

Planetary Gear Train - A planetary transmission system (or Epicyclic system as it is also
known), consists normally of a centrally pivoted sun gear, a ring gear and several planet
gears which rotate between these. This assembly concept explains the term planetary
transmission, as the planet gears rotate around the sun gear as in the astronomical sense the
planets rotate around our sun.

Clutch
Clutch is mechanical device which is used to transmit rotating motion or torque from one
shaft to another shaft when required. Clutch provides a temporary connection between input
and output shaft. Clutch lies between the engine and the gear box. In the simplest application,
clutches connect and disconnect two rotating shafts. In these devices, one shaft is typically
attached to an engine or other power unit (driving member) while the other shaft (the driven
member)
When clutch is in engaged position, the engine power flows to the gear box through clutch and
from gear box power flows to the wheels. When clutch is in disengaged position, the engine
power does not reach to gear box.

Purpose
A clutch is designed with the following requirements

• Allow the vehicle to come to a stop while the transmission remains in gear
• Allow the driver to smoothly take off from a dead stop
• Allow the driver to smoothly change gears
• Must be able to transmit power and torque without slipping

Clutches mainly classified into

1) Positive clutches
2) Friction clutches

Single Plate Clutch

Single plate clutch is a friction clutch in which Single plate with friction surface is
connected to a driven shaft. It consists of

1) a driving member,
2) a driven member, and
3) an operating member

Driving member has a flywheel

which is mounted on the engine
crankshaft. The driven member is a
disc called clutch plate. This plate
can slide freely to and fro on the
clutch shaft. The operating member
consists of a pedal or lever which
can be pressed to disengaged the
driving and driven plate.

Working

When the clutch is engaged, the clutch plate is gripped between the flywheel and pressure plate.
The friction linings are on both sides of clutch plate. Due to friction between flywheel, clutch
plate and pressure plate, the clutch plate revolves with the flywheel. As clutch plate revolves
the clutch shaft also revolves. Thus, engine power is transmitted to the clutch shaft.
When the clutch pedal is pressed the pressure plate moves back against the spring force and
clutch plate becomes free between flywheel and pressure plate. Thus flywheel remains rotating
as long as the clutch pedal is pressed, the clutch is said to be disengaged and clutch shaft speed
reduces slowly and finally it stops rotating.

Advantages:

• The working of the single plate clutch is smooth i.e. the engagement and
disengagement is very smooth in operation.
• Less slip occurs in it.
• Power losses are very less.
• Less heat generates because only single plate is used.
• Single plate clutches have quick operation and respond fast.
• No requirement of coolant because less is generated therefore they are called dry
clutches.
Disadvantages:
• It has less torque transmitting capacity
• It has bigger in size even for transmitting less torque.
• It requires high maintenance because they are dry clutches and it is necessary to
prevent them from moisture or any leakage of lubricant/oil in machinery.

Problems on calculation of input and output power of pumps and turbines

Pumps
Q1. Estimate the shaft power and motor power requirement to pump 200,000 kg/hr of water
available at 250C and atmospheric pressure from a storage tank. The rated differential head
requirement is 30 m.

Assume the mechanical efficiency of the pump to be 70%.

Assume the motor efficiency to be 90%.

Ans:

Flow rate (Q) = 200000kg/hr = 0.055m3/s

Differential head (H) = 30m

Efficiency of pump = 70% = .7

Efficiency of motor = 90% = .9

Shaft power P in watt = pgQH / efficiency of pump

= 1000x9.81x0.055x30/(.7)
 = 23123.57W = 23.12kW

Motor power requirement = Pump shaft power / motor efficiecny

= 23123.57/.9

= 25692W = 25.69kW

Q.2 A centrifugal pump using 1kw of electric motor of pumping water against 3m suction head
and 7m delivery head. The discharge of the pump is 100litres/minute. Find the efficiency of
pump?

Ans:

Electric power supplied, P = 1kw =1000W

Total head, H = suction head + delivery head = 3m+7m =10m

Discharge of the pump, Q =100L/min =0.1/60m3/s

Density of water, ρ = 1000kg/m3

Efficiency of the pump, η = ρgQH / P

= (1000 x 9.81 x 0.1 x 10) / (1000 x 60)

= 0.1635 = 16.35%

Turbine

Q1. Installing a hydraulic turbine generator at a site 70 m below the free surface of a large
water reservoir that can supply water at a steady rate of 1500 kg/s. If the mechanical power
output of the turbine is 800 kW and the electric power generation is 750 kW, determine the
turbine efficiency and the combined turbine generator efficiency of this plant. Neglect losses
in the pipes.

Ans:

Effective head = 70m

Volume flow rate Q = 1500kg/s = 1.5m3/s

Mechanical Power Output (Power available at the turbine shaft) (PT) = 800kW = 800000W

Electric power output (P) = 750kW = 750000W

Density of water (p) = 1000kg/m3

Acceleration due to gravity (g) = 9.81 m/s2

Turbine efficiency = Power available at the turbine shaft / water power

 = (PT)/pgQH

=800000/(1000x1.5x9.81x70)

=.7766 = 77.66%

Combined Turbine generator efficiency = Global efficiency ratio = Electric power /

water power

= P/pgQH

= 750000/(1000x9.81x1.5x70)

=.7281 = 72.81%

To find the power that can be developed by the hydraulic turbine of input power
1000kw,assume an overall efficiency of 0.85

Ans:

Overall efficiency of turbine = 0.85 Input power = 1000*103 W= 106 W

Efficiency = output power/input power

Output power = 0.85*106W

= 850kW

A turbine is working at a head of 250m and the discharge through the penstock is
2m3/s.If the efficiency of the turbine is 55%, find the power developed by the
turbine?

Head of the turbine, H = 250m Discharge of water, Q = 2m3/s

Efficiency of the turbine, η = 0.55 Density of water, ρ = 1000 kg/m3

Efficiency of the turbine, η = Power available at the turbine shaft / ρgQH

Power developed by the shaft = ρgQH x η

= 1000 x 9.81 x 2 x 250 x 0.55

= 2697750W = 2697.750kW