CHAPTER 12

THEORIES OF DEMOCRACY :LIBERAL AND MARXIST

sufficient
Liberal Theory of Democracy separation of powers provide d
dictatorship.
Liberals claim that the tate is to prornge safeguds against the grow thof
the interests of the individual. the índividual The utiltarians. in general. laidemphasis
is the end. and the state is the means. participation
on the importance of people 's held that the
According to them. the freedomn of the in the political process. They
individual shruld rt be unduly restrained by 20vernTnent whose main objective was lo
number
the state.The essence of dernocrcy for them provide "greatest good of the greatest
hes in rmaximísing the freedom of the should encourage increased poitical
individusal.The bctter off an individual is. the participation on the part of individuals. Jeremy
rore free he is. So to say. the interests of Bentharn. the proponent of the 'pleasure and
indivíduals are iderntícal with their freedoms. pain theory. advocated universal adult
Lxke who saíd that the state had to ensure franchise while J.S. Mill, the son of his
the safety of the life. líberty and property of illustrious friend. James Mill. emphasized the
the individual is generally regarded as the need of enhancing the quality of democracy
most influential and respected liberal by increasing the quality of political
philosopher. participation. Mill. the reluctant democrat'.
The liberal theory of democracy has focussed on the moral aspect of democracy.
passed through three phases and in each phase He believed that political participation would
it has ot a different narne. As a result, we help the individual in fashioning hisdescribed
all-round
have got the classieal iberal theory of developmnent. Hence Mill has been
dermocracy, the elitist theory of democracy. by Macpherson as the propounder of the
and the pluralist theory of demcracy. "developmental theory of democracy".
Classical Liberalism Salient Features
The main proponents of the classical 1. Man is at the centre ofdemocracy.
liberal theory of democracy are John Locke, Democracy aims at defending and promoting
Montesquieu, Rousseau, Bentham and the interests of man. The government is the
J.S.Mill. Locke said that the individual had instrument for this, the state is not a sanctified
the right to resist the state and revolt against entity. It is neither endowed with any
itif the latter failed to discharge its basic duty supernatural quality nor invested with any
of safeguarding the life, liberty and property supreme power unrelated to the realisation of
of the former. He cmphasized that the its basic aim of serving the individuals
government, based on the consent_of the. belonging to it.
individual. was limited in its authority. 2. The government is
Montesquieu who propounded the theory of limited and responsible. It is constitutional.
based upon the
 In Is
aringin chs pinpe cONSENt en Thories
individuae
mangovernment: the cannot LoIS
dw rights: preparçthe taking These and them the
debates,
compronise highly
eglet its who
legislature abiraily. implicit
NOVI
separation SIo ns
arfed dw very negoiations 3.
responsibility ther oner govemneN The
powe. The Asi
building-of
is 3. arf 4. debatesdifference to
pensable accomplish highiy
Democracy in contribute
away reach Democracy regulariy o
respected and words. l
govenment to
whie lons of of
Democracy men. particular. its executive in of of the the
Liberais ground discussions. ignore later. and functOns o
univesal
men are ISepected the th
fDrAYLibral
e casting
it said a some betweenwhich and elect poweS sweet
the is valued.jAny lot
potentially in to the are the RONAl: whrhrople
also woáld
J.S. any towards consensusS. th em. the them
assume totality is the of
for compromise. help democracies.
isgovemment. responsibie members constitution
is
constitution. desines in is his adult
for a MilI. respects
effecting adversanes and
way not big soonfreedom heat in the Publicpeople. accountable at not confomity noN vOle expressed he are
uthat of lessening arguments art to check suttrage.
mocratic ofonly things state conflict-reducers. and narrowing regular ofrun ma®es bused
the realise
fundamental It ofopinionwould some
alife/lt compromises.
of Discussions to ofxtillegally Because a nd whimsically And
democratic life which
a with expression anger, andencourages because the the itself. The upon
tensions. reaching to
with
balance persons rational through
aims form
of that seldisomintervals.peoplelatter.
state:
enabledown and
such tries and thus the and the ofthe
man the Marvist
the at it of
considerations
whicof
h
(elected
the aftairs, fostering democralic
ocalism)
nalism andguided serve Strategy
med ASsumes
of respected.
Criticisms should be
evinced
strongly ride
should capacities
According
principles
government
recognition leading attairs
"participation
intellectual. through decision realise
through theòry
andof complementary
development which
of
government
parochial
factors Cxperi
swayedhaience constitutional broad
determining 1.(The rational Davis.
their by roughshod form govemment and a of seeks
in that argued keen of
collective democracy to his
for
towards WOuldmajority
other the the of to of decisions whopolicygenerally
their suggests
interests classical by emotional., sum moral go
of individual in to sOCIely and
promoting his man interest
that government.
government, IiberalPeter the serve the delegate active to
like
ethnk he
over discussion, questions
recognized up, helps the hand
vital the officials)
vote. initiation, personality. promote each
politicat that is minority ful
management reached observes
best. theory inthe H. as assumes
existen
the
citizens individual
rational.
interests views and r) in
individuáls devel
Merkel, o pment a authority other.
hand,)
Castism. the
minority. the
to
(They them) but
democracy human moral vital He conceming
of Themajority further by common
cary discussion that mocra de
behavioul Heof mithne ority it
rights, the who Democra
the all-rou 1hey
and is should th ebeings educameans of to
tend are Bu ca democrerest throusaroct
peogyemo agefen pub seek lih ay
the. miJ.norS.Moperl major
fo an of pubi Say go
0 tnmor
Aliber mma ther ru.
avolvompl arcnd s onse The F choc 134
onPub pears mber the 4. nould Derate teres 3.ano hat hortc
be gnora erio charaeSOcie sOme formpeop inwil
13 Political Theory :
said,
Democracyissaidito be reflecting the
Concept s , Issues and
alic 2 people.A democratic government, the nal ofwell as ? ldeologes
natiovoice as
Miloftheis based uponthe Consent of the vast majoritytheof masspromedia
vincial?WhatDoes it mean
acy
theory. legitimacy beecause it is of peopl e who about the
und
in
ople.I t
bythe
claims
people through their fre
involves effectexpressi
iv ely ng
)
theIt VIews have litle
Do the massarticulately and
chunce
(Freechoice' of the people
ormed
togovernmentál and others media - both
S In
choice.
people reallyfree in a be free - which are supposed
dificulties.
c Are ward) and is mirOr the views
Deral Some (poor, back illiterate and
oiety which ineuality and dominatio)? lot of evidenceunorgani
is sed
of these poor.
masses ?There is a
encetoaracierised to the
k freedom of the people is often developed countries effect
ood tepolitical by of the thatWest,evenit isin the
andseriously undermined and crippled by governments which often make and mould
Elections are public opinions, and not vice
poverty and fear.
ablic ignorance, muscle-power and time, on the question of the versa. For along
money, Vietnam War, the
gents often won by countries the American government, through subtle and
Even in developed
ugh ochialism.process of these powerful
copleemocratic is not free propaganda, misled its people and
Thus it is criticised made them support the government's Vietnam
ays. shortcomings and flaws. from policy. In India, the vast expansion of
ublik at the democratic egitimacy derived television todifferent parts of the country in
is more of a myth
s of consent' and 'free choice` last few years seems to have provided to the
ation an of areality. government an effective instrument for
f the 3. Democracy is meant to
serve the
gs"erests of all. But it is not so easy a game as
creatinga public opinion in its favour.
6.(The classical liberal theory of
four anbe played by allof them. Both(he process democràsy overlooks its economic dimension.
are:Borganisation of democracy are quite
rule. mplex and complicated) Democracy Democracy offers 'equal opportunity' to all
and olves many laws and pYinciples, and people to participate in the political process.
opportunity to rich and
oriyrales at several levels.(An ordinary man But the offer of equal advantages to them.
dno ould find it difficult to grasp all these things poor willgive differential
-Miperly and successfully.) In other words,the rich would pocketwouldmost of
be
. 4."Common good' which is a key concept these advantages while the poor
morie liberal theory of democracy is not easy helplessly watching the rich men's game)The
er to define or to determine. Is it the SO-called free election is really meant forîhose
mation of the good of all have the monopoly over resourceswho like
who
bers of asociety ?Is it identicalindividual
with the money, education, leisure. The poorwonder.
-crest
upabi of the majority
Ears to be us ?(Common good mostly lack in these resources are,
no
e hs
nebulous and at the receiving end. They are used as pawns
non will, another vague as board of democratic pol1tiCs.
ilberal theory of important concept ot inthe chessexcessive laid uponthe
eofie
hardD(A democracy) it 1s
ned, is democratic
The emphasis
Unrestrained freedom of the individual by the
publie legitimate government,
because it is meant to
classical liberals was apparentlyeconomic
opinion.
Mlon' 2Whose But wha is governed Prevent state intervention in the
A\s it the'public
opinion isofit legislatures
elected members voice pursuits of the rich. Mucpherson has
typically
observed:Liberal democracy has
 Marvist
Theories of Democray:Liberal And
democratic Ligns' and 'Foxes' Cireulate
heen designed to fit ascheme ofsociety: that (Vilfredo Pareto (I848-1923). and
government into a class-divided in theory or GaeTano Mosca (I858-194D. two Italtan
this fit was not attempted. either century: and sociologists. were the first to systematically
until the nineteenth
in practice. develop the elite theory'. Pareto provided a
that therefore. earlier models and visions of broad as well as a narrow definition of elte
democracy should not be counted as models His broad definition of elite is : "By elite is
of liberal democracy." individuals. who in
meant asmall number of
succeeded and
Elite Theory each sphere of activity. have professional
theory states that the society is arrived at ahigher echelon in the there
(The elite
superi0r
who are Mosca hierarchy." According to this definition
always ruled by a minority
elite theorists like are several elites in each sphere of political
activity.
others. The earlier military elites.
to
that the elites were superior For example, there areand academic elites. In
and Paretosaid the other hand, the elites, business elites
On elite. he means only the
toothers in quality.like C.W. Mills and Floyd the narrOW sense, by
later elite theorists so-called superiority of which is that small number
the "governing elite have succeeded" andi who
Hunterstated that from their family and social of individuals who and
elites was derived
hierarchical organization exerciseruling functions politically
backgrounds and the socially") possess
ofthe society) Pareto believes that elites others
liberal theory truly reflected
(The classicalnew middle class of the 18th superior psychological attributes than
society(Following Machiavelli. another
the needs of the emerged.) in the
and 19th centuries during which it of eminence, he says that
talian theorist
he
The new middle class
was then tighting lion' and/or fox' qualities.)
monarchical and feudal
decaying elites possess
strength and
the
against bourgeoisie, through democratisa (Lion' qualities include
qualities comprise
orders. The feudal control over courage while fox'
the cunningNS)
tion, sought to curbHence the emphasis in intelligence, shrewdness and tend to decay.
power structures. the unrestrained elites
Paretoobserves thatruling
classical liberal theory on
political elites, due to
and
freedom of the individualthe problemsand Whet one group of luxury. neglect its
century indulgence in pOwer and changing
equality(By the 20thbourgeoisie had greatly duty or fails tocope withthe removed
prioritiesof the entrencheditselfin
primary
situations, it is likelyto be take its
changed. Having strongly timnesand another group may
feudal lordsfrom it, from poer and themselves in
banishing he
power by monopolisejtby preventing other elites may put
it wanted to place. 'Fox' of'lion' elites, and vice versa)
elements of the _ocietý from competing with its powerinplace strength and bravery, but
possess
itfor power.(The eliteliberaltheory, like Lion elites intelligence and manipulative
predecessor thoclassical theory - was they lack in cunning and shrewd, but
of the skill. Fox elites are courage.(lf both
developed to serve the interests and
dominant class, the bourgeoisie.)It was in strength
lackand are not properly
existingpolitical theylions' 'foxes'
structure, there is
designed to rationalise the 20th elite
order prevailing in the early part of
the represented in the vulnerable to decadence
it is
Century - the domination of power-structures danger to it and
by elites.
 136 Political Theory: Concepts, Issues and ldeologies

and replacement. Pareto has succinctly and dealing with things of complex nature,
observed that history is. and always will be. organizations need persons of specialized
a graveyard of aristocracies". He describes knowledge. In other words. as organizations
the
this process of power-shiting from onegroup growinsize and complexity, there arises
to anather as circulationof elites.) increased need of bureaucracy. As a result.
(Mosca says that in all societies it is the the bigger the organization, the more
dependent the rank and file members become
organised minority, which rules over the leaders.On the basis of this analysis
unorganised majority) To quote him, "In all upon theirconcludes that each organization
societies....(wo classes of people appear Michels
'oligarchic' and that the society is
class that rules and a class that is ruled. The tends to be
always the less numerous, perfons subjected tothe oligarchical control ofa few
trst class,
all political functions. monopolizes power and leaders.Wright Mills, an eminent sociologist,
enjoys the advantages that power brings, C.
has pointed out that the United States of
whereas the second, the more numerous class,
is directed and controlled by the first... The America is ruled by a mololithic elite structure
domination of an organized minority.... over called 'Power elite'. Power elite consists of
elites and political
the unorganized majority is inevitable". military elites. business these elites are
According to Mosca, elites are distinguished elites. The interests of
from the masses by qualities which give them complementary to one another, and they have
material. intellectual or even moral similar values, beliefs and orientations due to
superiority. Pareto argues that the qualities of similar socio-economic backgrounds, and
elites are the same in all societies. On the other exposure to similar learning process. They
hand, Mosca claims that these qualities would occupy all 'Command Posts' of the society'.
differ from society to society. Another study of this nature was conducted
(Mosca does not have faith in the capacity by Floyd Hunter in the American city of
of massesfor self-government. He asserts that Atlanta. He points out that it is the econQmic
elite rule in any society is inevitable. To elites who have the monopoly of power
Mosca, democracy is government of the As contrasted with C.W. Mills and
people, it may even be government for the Hunter, some other American scholars have
people, but it can never be government by the stated that elites are not a monolithic structure;
people.) He was opposed to the extension of they have serious clash of interests, and
franchfse to all sections of people.He wanted through completion and conflict for power
it tobe confined to the middle ctá_s only. He
thus, remained 'elitist' to the last. among themselves, they contain and balance
one another. The most famous of these
Another early elite theorist is Robert scholars is' Robert Dahl who, in his well
Michëls (1876- 1936)who has formulated the known study of New Haven, provided a
principle of iron law of oligarchy'. Michels pluralistic perspective to power analysis".
says that democracy is inconceivable without According Dahl, C.W. Mills, by his study
to
organization. He argues that individuals, for of power elite. has shown that elites have the
effectively expressing their views und 'potential for control, but the potential for
promoting their interes1s, need to join togethercontrol is not equivalent to actual control.
and form organisations. But. for coordination Dahlclaims to have found out that New Haven
Theories of Democrucy :Liberul And Marust
Elements of Elite Theor:
contained several elhtes whose interests often
collided and who seldom worked unitedly. . All need not be
These elites. by balancing one another. equally
democracy. It is enough that
some actareive IR
prevented the concentraion of powers in the active and involved in the
hands of any elite group Dahi described this than others. In other words. political moe
elite structure. based dpon bargaining and its success, requires
the democracpryoof.cesior
compromise, as 'Polyarchy' which, he claims.
Is suppotive of democracy.
gradation
political involvement of citizens
2. Elites should be drawn from
Some of the recent elite theorists have of the people as much as possible. all
sought to explain the elite rule by arguing that 3. Elites should not sectons
though democracy is a government for the
people to whom they neglect are
the
commona
people. it is seldom a government by the
people. The common man. being very much
regular intervals. accountable
4. The elite
vulnerable to manipulation. is not expected
the
structure should be open. and
to be rational in his thinking and action. As a deserving people from below
result of his exposure to strong media encouraged and enabled to enter it. should
Otheri
he
it will gradually lose its
campaigning and propaganda offensive by vitality. and decav.
different agencies. he tends to develop a will 5. In democracy. there should not be
which, in reality . is not his own: it is rather much stress on ideology'. It is better that tothe
the reflection of the influencing agency. In ideological polarisation among political elites
other words, the so-called public will is the parties reduced to the minimum. The end
is
manufactured will'10. In view of this of ideology' is a recent feature of democracies
development, it would not be a great loss, it The one ideology to which all of them shouid
is argued, if the common man does not have a be committed is the maintenance and stability
yoice in the day-to-day functioning of a of the system. None of them should see radk:a
democratic government. It isenough if he has change in it.
sorme control over the ruling elites by holding
thern ultimately accountable through periodic 6. The government is a mechanism of
elections. In ademocracy, the voter is required mediating between the competing elhtes a
only toelect the leaders, not to decide policies. establishing compromise and conseisu
It is the leaders who will
decide issues and among them. It should aim at minimiin!
policies. Democracy is there so long as the conflict among them.
leaders have fears that they Can be removed Ruling Class Vs Poltical Elite
from power in the nextelection if they do not Both Marxists and elitists agree tha u
serve the people. Thus, it is argued, the Butthey
byelite is not the negation of control society is dominated by a minority.theidentily
elite domination of a democracy. The differ from each other inregardtothattheelie
beencharacterised as democratic system has of this minority. Bottomore says bourgeos
has been succintly 'democratic elitism.' It
by jdeao
observed that the elite theory was originally conceived Marxist
theorists regard democracy as 'simply intellectuals to Oppose the arethe
main

market mechanism; the voters are thea social classes.! The following
Consu imers: differences between them. ruling
the politicians are the Marxists.
the
entrepreneurs'!. 1. According to dominance fromits
minority derives its
 Polutical Theory:Concepts, Issues and
means of production. On theadding afew new
ldeologies
mans
elngetheonsts holdthat
telites of ruling elites. elites tothe existing group
tn
others because their superior revolution no
of They maintain that by
qualities Some other fundamental
elitists in the elite structure -the
change is effected
that ruling elites derive their society by elites. domination ofthe
trom their social background and
Aian
bierarchica! nature of the society. Classical Liberalism vs Elite Theory
he
Rmorehas
said -The elitists also oppose Some significant differences
in a more generalway. By classical liberal theory of democracybetween
andthe
Susotingfornotionof class which rules by elite theory are stated below :
onomic and military power. the 1.Classical liberalism is
of rules because of the
elite which members! people-oriented.
It has great faith in the capacity of the people
EiKqualtiesof
its to properly play their role in the social and
Mansaidthat
communism would be political processes. I views the man as a
2
ctaraterised bythe. absence of class. Elitists raional actor capable enough of makingright
with the thesis of classless political choice. Elitists. on the other hand,
S They assertthat there willalways be are leader-oriented. They have agreat deal of
othersin the society. confidence in the ability of elites lo deliver
aruíng class dorminating
3According to Marxists. each society is goods - to help maintain the system.
of
vided into two classes. namely. the class 2. The classical liberal theory of
t a the ciass of poor. and they are always democracy treats 'common good' and 'public
pciedin hostility. There is no question of opinion` as vital elemerts of democracy. But
cOKOise and harmony between these two the elite theorists do not accord much
Czsses. they assert. Elitists, on the contrary, importance to these objectives. According to
liene that the conflict between elites and them it is difficult to define common good,
TSSes is DOt inevitable. and they can live in and worse still.,public opinion can be invented
aCE 2nd cooperation. and manipulated.
4.The Marxist thinkers point out that 3. The elite theorists value democracy as
t is itle mobility between the ruling class. an agency of making compromise
and
2ers. nO poor man can join the class of consensus by mediating among conflicing
Ihe elite theorists, on the other hand, elites. and as an agency of system
teiese thati iS possible for the members of maintaining. However, classical liberalists
Rsesto be elevated to the group of ruling regrded democracy as an agency of building
tises. Any elite structure which does not moral men. They believed that democracy
adit of sOcial mobility from below is helpedin effectingthe all-round development
esined to de sooner or later. Macpherson has rightly observed :
the man.
5.For Marxists. revolution would bring of"The traditional theory of Mill - gave
A
radica
erh charges sin the society::iti is likely democracy a moral imension:
it saw
as a matter ofthe
ela it by írom power one ruling class and democracy as development,The
another class. The elite theorists Improvement of mankind. treatsSchumpeter
2Ccept thisis aview
en. tevckuton normalof thing, replacing
revolution. as aaxis,
For Dahl on the contrary,
mechanism, demoCracy
the essential function of
by another elite is to maintain an equilibrium""
group. which
 Democracy : Liberal And Marxist
Theoresof
of clash of interests these political and semni
Criticisms anti-democratic in political organisations often act against one
ufThe elite theory is another. Because of this, no single group can
has littie faith It pins
in the people.man
nature It
The common is beable toemerge dominant for along perod
elites. The groupwhich manages to gain doinance
its hopes on elites are overvalued.
devalued. while at a particular point of time,or on a particular
Elitists are primarily concerned with issue. would have to mnect with strong
2.
the stability of the system. challenge from others for continuing to stay
the maintenance of
much sy mpathy for any effort at that position. Further, despite their internal
They have not system. They are thus competitions hd tensions, these groups would
or modify the
(o reform even reactionary. to
highly conservative and contain the tendency of the governnent
writings of atening the
3. Moral man misses
in the grow very powerful thre
The governnent.
theorists. For them the utility of the democratic ife of the state
elite
its function asthe voter. powers. But in a
no doubt, wields a lot of allowed
common man lies in to grow
at regular lenocracy it is seldom
requiredtoelect ruling elites development of dictatornal, completely eclipsng other groups
intervals. The all-round in tthe state
individual is of ittle concern
to elitists. and associations existing either
Sovereignty does not lie exclusively
Democracy
Phe Pluralist Theory ofelitists
organizations
with the state or with the various
marxists and hold that within it. ns shared
(Both minority: the and groups fupctioning persective.
powers rest in the hands of a are
the society
among then( From the plural1st
conpetition and
majority of the members of structure. The politics is a process of organizations and
excluded from the power maintain that bargaining among these
pluralists. on the other hand, a process of
concentrated; these are groups, and government is them.
powers are not medjation and cornprormise among
dispersed. These are shared among all sections Robert Dahl, in his study of New
Haven.
different
of people primarily through
articulate their claims to have found out that power
is
organizations formed to dispersed among various interest groups, aid
interests. These groups and associations make the plurality of elites of the city does not for
Tegular and intense efforts to influence cormmon interestsj He
government policies and decisions) Some of aunified group with is a busineds of
says that local politics
them are overtly political while m¯ny others
are Poentially so. The latter, though bargainingand cormprornise with no one group
Ppentlmeant to serve some socio-cultural/ dominating the process of takin2 em
econoric interess
cConomic purposes, are, when need ariseS, He rejects the thesis that decision-making
politically mobilised and activised. have the dorminance over notables. far
While political parties seek to promote According to him, "Econornic
broader interests. different service from being a ruling group. are sirnpBy one ot
and which individuals
Occupational associations have, as their main many groups out of the pohcie
objective. defence and promotion of sectional sporadically emerge to influenceanyth1ng ore
Interests. These associations are Almost
and acts of cityoffictals. of ecoc
affiliated to different ppolitical parties. mosty
Because might say ahout the infiuence
 Political Theory :Concepts, Issues and ldeologies
notables couldbe said with equaljustice about Acloser look at the dynamics of political
hall a dozenother groups in New
Haven." and seni-political associations would reveal
Another American seholar who agrees that these are dominated by asmall group of
with Dahl and supports the pluralist view of leaders who tend to mnonopolise powers. AS
democracy is Anold M Rose. In The Power (Lipset has observed in relation to (radeunions,
Stucture, he rejects the C.W. Mills' eadership tends to beoligarhic.|This means
hypothesis of unified Power elite. and that to a great extent the compeition among
advocates instead a 'muli influence different organizations for power-sharing is
Ihypothesis, He argues that the society consists the competition among the leaders of these
ot many elites representing diflerent
interests
und they, through bargaining, often reach
orpanizations. Itis thus apparent that there is
agreat deal of overlapping between the Dahl
compromises, Roseclaims to have discovered Schumpeter version of the elite theory, and
that the economic and political clites do not he pluralist theory of democracy. In the
work as allies and tlhat they do not form a ultimae analysis it is the elites who dominate
single ruling elite. political parties and interest groups, and who
The government itsell consists of several seem to be having close links with the ruling
branches which share its powers among then clites çontrolling the governmental structure.
and which are empowered to balance one
another: ln democratic set-ups no branch of Elements of Pluralism
the governnent cangain total dominance over J.Powers are fragmented and dispersed.
other branches. This provision of The state is required to share powers with
of powers is a safety valve against separation
the rise of several political parties, interest groups,
dictatorship. private groups and individuals.
Apart fronm political parties and interest 2Because of the
of powerS, and check provision of separation
groups, many intluential individuals also share and balance at several
power with the stale. The latter exercise points, there is not much possibility of the rise
intluence either in their of dictatorship. Neither any
or as leaders of individual capacities government nor
any
branch of the
oganisations. different political likely to emerge other organization is
pont out
However, it may be relevant
that the individual status and the lo over-dominant for a long
time. These actors, through
associational status of these leaders tend to another, would prevent anycontaining one
one of them
reintorce cach other, though not in equal having monopoly of power.
degree. The individual status of aman is likely 3/Sovereignty is not
to e more
strengthened by his the
of either the state or exclusive
linkagethan the other way rounda_ociational possession
group or association. lt is, in fact, any other
to Presthus,
"pluralism is a syste According
in which nong them. The distributed
political power is fragmented aniong
branches of govemment, il is, the sovereignty
limited by the powers of of the state is
moreover, contain i. other actors to
sharcd between thestate and a
pnate gtOups and ndividuals ultitude
of 4.
v Political organizations and othe
groups,
their secking to articulate the
menmbers, help in establishidemands of
ng contact
 Liberal And Marxist
Theories ofDemocracy :
14|
Through their Further, in pursuance of their
between them and the state. the distance
mediation. they help in bridging
the people.
can
interests,
They tend to pressurise theunfair pract,tihcee,y
indulge in illegal and
pr
between the government and improving the
Further. they contribute to decisions by
favour them even at the expense of
interests ofthe community/nation.
goermment
the vita
h the
vei

quality of governmental
mi

supplying their skill and

experiences. politics has the potential to Pres urande pf
weaken
immobilise the government, and serious plu
Criticisms
discovered a
damage the important interests of the nation. stai
th¿
1/ Dahl claims to have 4! No doubt, each society
plurality of elites competing with one
another consists of gaior
many òrganizations - political, semi-politica
making of
for power by examining theis, however, and private. But all of them are not equall the
decisions on some issues. It important; nor are they equally activein the of
examined
argued by some critics that Dahl has political process. Some of these represent the psy
only 'safe decisions'. In any power structure interests of the rich people while many others oft
some crucial issues do not come for decision represent the interests of poor, It is wrong to the
making: these are settled outside the policy assume, as the pluralists do, that these to Se
making structure. The powerful elites bring organizations with opposite objectives would
He
only those issues to the decision-making
moi
enter into mutual consultation and reach some
structure on which they are sure of getting consensus. It is the organisations of the rih
favourable decisions)or if they are not to lose which would be able to influence goverm
much even if the decisions are not up to their
satisfaction. Thus the examination of safe mental policies and decisions while those o
den
decisions would fail to prove the existence of the poor would be kept atadistance from th
power-centre(s). This suggests that in class thei
plurali_t power structures. divided societies pluralism is confined onl bou
2<Pluralists argue that the govenment is toa few organizations represeníng the rch
not decisively controlled by economic elites politics on t
5 Another result of pluralist
and that it enjoys 'autonömy'. The critics do declint jn individualism. Organizations, Ddem
not reject the contention that the government dominance. I e81
nature, give rise to elite politic Peo
enjoys some amount of autonomy. But they leaders of these organizations
argue that it is in the interests of ruling elites and private groups legis
including economic elites that the government parties, interest groups and benefits. SCho
should have some amount of autonomy.) tend to monopolise powersand file membesdem
interests of rank servet lisat
Autonomy would help it in dealing effectivelý neglect thethese to
organizations, not theirou Mar
and flexibly with the members of the subject They use Of de
class. By making some token concessions it original purposes, but to promote
Common man
can dissuade them from making interests. In the process, the
Teatu
serious
challenges to the dominance of ruling elites. forgotten and lost. argu
3/ Pluralism is criticised on the
Bove
ground Concusion differe ajo
of
that it encourages 'pressure politics'. The
interest groups are hardly expected to rise Varieties The preceding discussion 0
democra
it
defer
the
Varieties of the liberal theory o
above their narrow interests and arnalysis
perspectives. Suggests that in the ultimate
 Political Theor:Concepts, Issues
and ldeologies
of elites which this
the
interests
While its classical Marxists do not regard
to promoe.
further the cause of the new
political system.
values and a They view democracy
il as a
as a
system of
vgrSaniedto form of society. In thelatter
Contan1ng the interverntion democracy does not have a final pointsenseof
feudalism. its
behalt of fad1ng
e stsl2 on also sought to contain the achievement.
process. Thus
It is a
continuously growing
and prevent statism so
that democracy goes on struggling
to go beyond itself. in the
name of respective its essence and improvisingprocess retaining
it further.
aguisainsand groups. could The elite
prosper. and As apolitical system, democracy is aclass
mare powers and prvileges. the rule organism. It is meant to serve the interests of
Egn
is also an aftempt to legitimise aparticular class. Lenin distinguishes working
fear
felites on the ground of their superior class democracy from bourgeois democracy.
Thus aclose scrutiny
choiogicalattributes. The latter serves the interests of the
of democracy reveals that bourgeoisie
fte literal theory whose interests it professes the former -promotes
a smallthe
minority - whefeas
interests of the
democratic svstems.
seTNe is 2great loser In legitimacy and
proletariat. the vast majority of the society.
E iS DSed to help elites gain When socialism the transitional phase -
TMYE POWers. matures into communism, democracy as a
MARXIST THEORY OF political system will cease to exist, but
DEMOCRACY democracy as a system of values willflourish.
Acommunist society is a democratic society
Marxists. in principle. do not oppose because it nourishes democratic values like
eoCTacy. On the other hand. they claim that socio-economic equality and the absence of
er democracy' is genuine whereas the exploitation of one class by another.
-ourpeois denocracy is 'fake' and a 'sham'. According to Lefebvre, Marx regards
The Western model of democracy insistS democracy "not as a system but as a process
the maintenance of some institutions. A which comes down essentially to a struggle
eCTatic state must have a duly elected never completed
for democracy. The latter isalways be carried
saure periodically accountable to the because democracy can
p. an executive responsible to the purpose of
forward or forced back. The
-ure. and an impartial judiciary. Western to go beyond democracy
and
Sors znd statesmen argue. In their opinion, struggle isdemocratic state, to build asociety
beyond the
IS characterised by decentra-
without state powerl9," According to Marxists.,
dispersion and separation of power. bourgeois democracy, the state is controlled
Maxists n¡t accept this institutional view In economic elites -the finance capital.
do
dermscrderacyn. ocracy
EAure of For them.
ue that yis
the most important by the
the majority rule. They The members of this class, by occupying
branches of the
key
power
in Communist posts in different
erment states the government to promnote the
aori ty really serves the interests of the Structure, usetheir class. Some other Marxists
the
Eiend andwthpromote
ereas thethebobourgeois
interestsgovernments
of only afew take of
a slightly
interests different view. They do not
-he ulng elites. think that the organs of the government
are
Theres Demar Lu 4 Mur

workers t t r e s ther poittal

OOuSTESS Thus ugevse t r V
heheve thu th lae t retem D

shows that
UNsteoutOE [ s

poitcal
Whie provtìng
wIEW-poiDtS-C2Dtalists coitrollig the Qwt Overtitruw

ncatt uTeSS
tha the gverment

MarUSS cm that the ctutorship

The
bourgens dmT3ES They gue thut piintsmuch better mTAY th¡n
in huriy ot ot
poliica parbesa in bourgeS Stes e i o u r i s demrCr The thtatorsh1p established
nco runstional phus is
difier fromone pruieturt. a
aganst the rch
ideoiogs o all of the rr a e d poor mjonty
The RO eip the
Rie As
buttress the inerets ofcatQeSimort Though it
isbeter demury, it
t tree oe
result the por pepie of Ot tre of ss charater Nor s
Whcher prt e ve iS demNraYfO the
have huie chomce represve endeny It is a majority of the
bourgs eploted who torm the for the ichwho
h in detship
Maxiss furrtr rgr pensVe ks pguanvn nda ain tuntion of the
munority. The
demaraies j s is geesintheir re in prleanat is to vntain and
wtoc gt ot
rship counter-revolutivnary tores
onlythe ict justice with mey. By
favour. Thev buy exRTiNute the
bak with all strength at
who will be fighting
courtOtherc n s previous
ciose thevs of
he
it nt their disposal to regain their
will contnue to
misde The poot. evea haveictie dounant posation. The stae
other courts They as class ontradctions
have not
puisted by jutiy. eust so kong
wouldbe jutiry.The classes
viG-S the been completely eliminated When the
leverage antagonistie interests ctse to e0St,
the
manned bv the with
charzcter. It is
class and o state willwither away. Thìs transitional phase
class
of the nh
representatives socialist demOcrACY Would be
the
WOnder. seves its
interesS
bourgeois charateriseiby the
eruption ot violene. Only
spite of these flaws.
soe with the use of tore can the opposition by
In totallv ba t has The bourgeoisie be suppressed. Lenin said. "The
democracy isDot people
benefits for the exploited dietatorship of the proletariat is a most
imied making use of the determined and most ruthles war waged by
parties.
Working class bourgèois demorN.
conditions under organieani mobiis the new class against a more powerful enemy.
Strengthenthemselves
 144
Political Theory:Concepts, Issues and ldeologies
the bourgeoisie, whoseresistance is increased democracy. They argue that democracy 1S a
tentold by its overthrow. The dictatorship of government of the whole people of the
the proletariat is a stubborn society.
and bloodless, violent and
struggle -bloody Democracy is not a government of one group
andeconomic, educational and
peaceful, military to be used by it against another. But the
administrative socialist democracy, which represents the
against the forces and traditions of the old interests of one class only - though it is the
SOCiety . To quote him again, "The majority group - fails to satisfy the main
suppression of the bourgeois state by the criterion of democracy mentioned above. The
proletarian state is impossible without a liberals charge that the dictatorship of
VIolent revolution.°" It is wrong on the part proletariat, far from being the
of Marxiststo claim as Russians did in 1961, democracy tor
the proletariat, is a dictatorship over
that they can establish a 'state of the whole them. n
socialist
people.' State is always a class organism; it becomes growinglydemocracy the party bureaucracy
would always represent the interests of the powerful and the common
ruling class. The Russian view of the state as man becomes increasingly alienated from the
representing the 'whole people' was criticised system. Sartori describes it as a "dictatorship
by China in June 1963 as pure and simple," while Popper describes it
fundamentals of Marxism. violation of the as a 'closed society' in
which there is neither
Before we make a critical freedom nor democracy0," Benn and Peters
of the examination have observed : marxists can equate the
Marxist theory of democracy, we may "dictatorship of the
bring to an end the preceding discussion by democracy' because theyproletariat" with
quoting Lenin from his State and exclude any but the
Revolution. workers from the 'people'.. But this is
He said :
what is meant by the people in not
The dictatorship of the the context
proletariat the we have in mind. We should say
organization of the vanguard of the was just as undemocratic if it that a system
oppressed as the ruling class for the votes because they were denied people
purpose of suppressing the them rich, as if it denied
for the first time oppressors votes because they were poor."
becomes
the poor, democracy for the democracy for 2. Bloody and Heartless : Some
not democracy for the people, and differences among minor
them
money-bags. The Marxists, in general, agree that the
dictatorship of the proletariat
series of restrictions on
the imposes a revolution as well as the notwithstanding.
socialist
the
oppressors, the freedom are
of
predominantly violent
socialist
democracy
capitalists.. exploiters, the in nature.
advocates 'bloody' overthrow ofLenin
the
Criticism bourgeois government. the
The Marxist theory of upon violence
makes Excessive emphasis
the
been criticised on the democracy has
following grounds.
democracy working
cultures theunacceptable many. men
in to
1. Negation of
Democracy The Liberals
:
Manyor
give a very lowworld either hate violence
criticise that the socialist because of its openplace to it. No
democracy at all: it is democracy
the
is not
Marxist support to wonder.
violence,
opposite of cultures. democracy is not welcome the
to these
 AndMarxist
Liberal
Democracy:
Theornes of Conclusion
: Many
ParliamentarySocialism goodgoal, The Marxist democracies
3. socialism, a
people belicve thatthrough parliamentary
China and other Communist pract1sc
can be achievednot resortto violence and showing litle respect for
Couniries
political fred
peace. One need Important reforms with of individuals. The political
this.
revolutionfor the mass can
be movements and expressions of the choclat er [bi
helping and
the objective legislations. The peoplecan severely constrained
of
limited. Poli pet
pushedthrough groups and power monopolised by
pressure
is asmall
minor Chu
make use of elections,
instruments at their ruling from above. The systerm is characten CB
other democratic force - by intense centralisation and bureaucr Deir
- if necessary,
disposal to influence measures. sation. Politicaldemocracy is conspicuou; GM
to adopt 'welfare'
the govemment feeling ofthe its absence. However, seems that
it VPa
example, the strong
Thisis for
of Western Europe who proletarian democracy there is much Mich
Communist parties social and economic equality than in lihe Pers
'Euro-Communism' to
have evolved In the former, the gan bet CW
Some democracies.
represent their point of view. poor is not quite wide. It is anu York
democratic countries of the third world are rich and
that in Marxist democracies, the individ loye
also of this opinion. It is important to note (New
1nitiat1ve, a valuable factor of econon
that this view won support even in Moscow Robe
at a time when Russia was a very strong development, is largely absent. Of late. New
military power. In 1956 Khrushchev, the leaders of these systems seem to have real Rulin
General Secretary of the Soviet Communist this deficiency and are trying to slowly re eds.
Party, declared that there are two roads to it. The 'capitalist reforms' slowly introd Schu
socialism :one is revolution, and the other in China in recent times are a pointer in'mani
IS parliamentary road. However, China direction. The atmosphere of freedom onfro
bitterly attacked Khrushchev for this. relaxation created in the Soviet Union Sarg
The wi
4. Not a Pure
Dem0cracy : Some result of the Gorbachev experimet' a Inotive
revisionists like Bernstein and Kautsky have illustrated this. The encouragement gv
criticised socialist democracy on the ground the private sector and the high inciden:
that is not a 'pure Student activism in China in the pos
democracy.' Kautsky
charged that the dictatorship of proletariat, period are important de velopments Th
established in Russia after the 1917 in China's "People's democracy.
revolution, did not grant liberties to citizens. developments in former Soviet Union
While Bernstein criticised the socialist Mau
China suggest that the model ofencoU
democracy of Russia for democracy is likely to adopt andconfor
German Marxist,attackedRosait forunnecessarily
indulging in violence, some innovations which are not iinCounth
grant Luxemberg,
its
a
failure to with orthodox Marxism. The
freedoms
opinion, the
to the press and
people. In her concerned are aWare of this. But theofs
dictatorship of
Russia had become the proletariat of perhapsthinking that the acceptance
wouldi
politicians,. dictatorship of some doses of 'capitalist innovations
long run, make proletarian democracies
stable and secure.