Fiber Optics Measuring Systems

History of Fiber Optics

John Tyndall’s demonstration in 1870

Total Internal reflection is the basic idea of fiber optics

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 What are optical fibers
▪ Allowing transmission of information using pulses of
light
▪ Thin strands of glass.
▪ Can carry much data.
▪ Carry data over long distances.
▪ Very high speeds.
▪ Immune to electromagnetic noise
▪ Fiber optic cables can be bent or twisted.

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Fiber Optic System Components

Input Optical Fibre Optic Optical Output

Signal Transmitter Cable Receiver Signal

Sources
▪ Lasers and Light Emitting Diodes

Receivers
▪ Photodiodes and phototransistors
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 Fiber Construction
The center of the fiber is a cylindrical core with
refractive index (1), surrounded by a layer of
material, called the cladding, with a lower refractive
index (2). The light waves are restricted by the
cladding within the core and propagate along the fiber.
The outer jacket layers protect the fiber from moisture
and abrasion and also provide the required strength.
Information is transmitted by means of the
propagation of electromagnetic waves along the core
of the optical fiber. To minimize the transmission loss,
the electromagnetic wave must be restricted within the
fiber core, and not be allowed to leak into the
cladding. 5
Fiber Construction

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Fiber Construction

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Fiber Waveguides
The basic principle of light transmission through an
optical fiber can be explained as total internal
reflection at the boundary between the core and
the cladding. Consider a glass plate with a cone of
light launched from one end. If the refractive index
of the glass is (), all light rays with an incident
angle () greater than the critical angle (c) will be
totally reflected back into the glass and will be
guided along the glass plate.
air

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air
Snell’s Law
𝟐
𝜼𝟐

𝟏 𝜼𝟏 𝟏 . 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝟏 = 𝟐 . 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝟐

𝟐 = 𝟗𝟎𝒐
air
𝟏 . 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝑪 = 𝟐 . 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟗𝟎
𝜼𝟏
𝐂 −𝟏 𝜼𝟐
𝜽𝑪 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏
𝜼𝟏
air Threshold condition for 9
Total Internal Reflection
Fiber Waveguides (Cont.)
Optical fibers can be considered as cylindrical
waveguides. There are two boundaries to be
considered: one at the core-cladding interface, and
the other at the cladding-air (or cladding-jacket)
interface. The core always has a higher refractive
index than the cladding.

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Fiber Waveguides (Cont.)
If the incident angle of a light ray at the end of the fiber
core (0) is less than the angle of acceptance (a) it will
be totally reflected at the core-cladding boundary and
will be guided along the fiber core. Light rays at
greater incident angles may be guided by the cladding.
However, since the loss in the cladding material is
much higher than that of the core, those rays will
diminish due to absorption after a very short distance.
1: Refraction angle inside fiber
  2 − 2 
 a = sin −1  1 2 
 0 
 

 = − 1
2
: Incident angle at core- 11
cladding interface
Losses in Optical Fibers
Attenuation loss
Attenuation is the reduction in power of the light signal as it is
transmitted. It is defined as the ratio of optical output power to
the input power in a length (L).
The losses in the cable are due to:
▪ Absorption
Usually absorption of light occurs due to imperfections of the
atomic structure of the cable.
▪ Scattering
The disordered structure of glass will make some variations
in the refractive index inside the fiber. As a result, if light is
passed through the atoms in the fiber, a portion of light is
scattered.
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Losses in Optical Fibers (Continued)
▪ Dispersion
When an optical signal or pulse is sent into the fiber the
pulse spreads /broadens as it propagates through the fiber.

▪ Bending
Changing the angle of incidence
Microbending
forces light rays to reflect at
angles that prevent further
reflection, causing them to be
lost in the cladding and
absorbed. Macrobending 13
Types of Optical Fibers
▪ Single Mode
▪ Only one signal can be transmitted
▪ Very thin core about 5-10 micrometers in diameter.

▪ Multi Mode
▪ Several signals can be transmitted.
▪ Each optical fiber in a multi-mode cable is about 10 times
bigger than one in a single-mode cable.

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Multiplexing

▪ Transmitting several signals over a single

communications channel.
▪ Multiplexing technologies:
▪ Frequency Division Multiplexing (modulating data into
different carrier frequencies)
▪ Wavelength Division Multiplexing
▪ Time division Multiplexing (dividing available time among
various signals)

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Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
▪ Example is radio broadcast
▪ FDM involves simultaneously transmitting multiple
signals on different frequencies.
▪ These different frequencies, called channels, share
non-overlapping portions of the total frequency
band being used.
▪ Signals from different data sources are fed into a
multiplexer that modulates each signal and
transmits them at different frequencies.
▪ These signals are separated at the destination into
individual data signals using a demultiplexer.

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Time-division multiplexing
▪ Time division multiplexing is a technique where
several optical signals are combined, transmitted
together, and separated again based on different
arrival times.

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Wavelength Division Multiplexing
▪ Wavelength division multiplexing is a kind of
frequency division multiplexing.
▪ Using different frequencies of light, it is possible to
send multiple signals in different channels down
the same optical fiber.
▪ Requires a wavelength division multiplexer in the
transmitting equipment and a demultiplexer in the
receiving equipment.

Same principle as
refraction through
a prism

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Applications
Communication
Optical fibres transmit energy in the form of light
pulses. Optical fibres can handle tens of thousands of
signals simultaneously.
• Telecommunications
• Networking (LANs and WANs)
• Industrial and Commercial
– Wiring (Especially where Electromagnetic Interference
EMI is an issue).
– Sensory Devices (Temperature, Pressure, etc.).

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Applications
Medical
They can be made in extremely thin, flexible strands
for insertion into the blood vessels, lungs, and other
hollow parts of the body.

• Sensors
• Imaging (Endoscopes), endoscopes can have three
sets of fibers:
– Outer bundle of that supplies the light.
– Inner bundle that transmits the image.
– A third set of fibers transmits a laser beam, which can be
used to perform small-scale operations.
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Fiber Sensors
Most fiber sensors can be classified into two
categories:
• Intensity attenuation fiber sensors
The environmental variations (such as temperature
fluctuations) change the optic characteristics of the
fiber, and thus the intensity of the light wave that
passed through the fiber is modulated.
• Interferometric fiber sensors
The phase of the light wave propagation along the
fiber is modulated by environmental changes. Such a
phase modulation is then detected interferometrically
by comparing the modulated phase with the initial
phase. 21
Mach-Zehnder Interferometric Fiber Sensor
The light from the source is launched into a
polarization preserving fiber. An optical fiber
coupler splits the wave into two fibers: a reference
fiber and a sensing fiber. The light passing through
both fibers is then combined by another coupler,
and their interferometric intensity is detected by a
photodetector. The length of the sensing fiber is
sensitive to changes in the environment and
therefore the phase of light passing through it.

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Michelson Interferometric Fiber Sensor
A collimated laser beam is launched into the
input fiber and is then splitted into the two arms
by a fiber coupler. Reflection mirrors are placed
at the ends of both the reference and the sensing
fibers. The reflected light from both arms is
combined again by the fiber coupler and their
interference intensity is detected by the
photodetector.
The sensitivity of the Michelson sensor is higher
than that of the Mach-Zehnder because the light
traverses through the sensing fiber twice in the
Michelson sensor.
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Mach-Zehnder Interferometric Fiber Sensor

Schematic diagram of a Mach-Zehnder interferometric fiber sensor

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Michelson Interferometric Fiber Sensor

Schematic diagram of a Michelson interferometric fiber sensor

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