Pillar_2A_Ecology_Ecosystem_Biome By

Sudarshan Gurjar
Ecology & Ecosystem 70
Introduction 70
What is the Environment ? 71
Levels of Ecological Organization 71
Ecology, Ecosystem and Environment 74
Ecosystem:Concept, Types & Functions 74
Components of an ecosystem 75
Abiotic components (Nonliving) 75
Biotic components 77
Ecotone 78
Edge effect 79

Functions of an Ecosystem 79
Introduction 79
Energy Flow 79
Food chain 80
Food web 80
Ecological Pyramids 82
Pyramid of numbers 82
Pyramid Of biomass 82
Pyramid of energy 83
Limitations of pyramids 84
Ecological Succession 86
Orderly sequence of primary succession 86
Process of Ecological succession 87
Different types of Succession 90
Biotic Interactions 90
Some characteristics of Interaction: 94
Biogeochemical cycles 95
Water cycle/hydrological cycle 95
Carbon cycle 96
Phosphorus cycle 98
Nitrogen cycle 99

Biome 102
Introduction 102

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 Factors affecting biomes 102
Tundra Biome 103
Taiga or Boreal Biome 104
Temperate Deciduous Biome (North-Western Europe – British Type Climate) 104
Sub-Tropical Deciduous Biome in Eastern China, South Eastern USA 104
Temperate Deciduous Biome (Mediterranean Climate) 105
Tropical Deciduous Biome (Monsoon Climate) 105
Tropical RainForest Biome 105
Desert Biome 105
Grasslands 107

Ecology & Ecosystem

Introduction

● The term ‘ecology’ was first coined in 1869 by the German biologist Ernst Haeckel.
● It was derived from two Greek words, ‘Oikos’, meaning home or estate and ‘logos’ meaning
study.
● Ecology may be defined as the scientific study of the relationship of living organisms with
each other and with their environment.
● It studies the interactions among organisms and their environment.
● Study of interaction between populations and intraspecific relationships.
● Study of structure and composition of the community and interspecific interactions between
members of the community.

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What is the Environment ?

● The environment may be defined as the

surroundings or conditions in which an organism
lives or operates.
● The environment broadly includes living and
non-living components ie. biotic and abiotic
components.
● All organisms depend on their environment for
survival.
● Every living organism is constantly interacting
with its environment comprising air, light, water,
land or substratum and the various kinds of living
organisms.

Levels of Ecological Organization

1. Individual/ Organism
● An individual (organism) is a living being that has the ability to act or function independently.
● Individuals make the basic unit of study in ecology.
● The organisms of a similar type have the potential to interbreed and produce fertile offspring,
which are called species.
● An organism is fully adapted to its environment.It has a definite series of stages like birth,
hatching, growth, maturity, aging, and death.
Autecology the ecological study of a particular species.
2. Species
● A group of similar organisms which is capable of interbreeding and producing offspring are
referred to as species.
● Interbreeding and reproduction are possible only for organisms belonging to the same species.
⇒ Habitat of an organism
● The physical environment in which an organism lives is called its habitat.
● Each organism has specific needs for its survival and lives wherever the surroundings provide
for those wants.

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 I. Space
II. Food
III. Water
IV. Shelter
⇒ Keystone species
A keystone species is a species which has a disproportionately large effect on its natural
environment relative to its abundance, a concept introduced in 1969 by the zoologist Robert T.
Paine. Indicator species, organisms—often a microorganism or a plant—that serves as a measure
of the environmental conditions that exist in a given locale.
Species !जाित
● A group of similar organisms which is capable of interbreeding and producing offspring are
referred to as species.
● Interbreeding and reproduction are possible only for organisms belonging to the same species.
⇒ Niche
● It refers to the functions that a species performs in its habitat.
● In other words, a niche can be considered as the ‘occupation’ of the species while habitat refers
to its ‘address’.
• A niche cannot be shared by two species as sharing would lead to competition between the
species until one of the species gets displaced.
• Types of Niche
1. Habitat niche- place where an organism lives
2. Food niche-includes consumption, decomposition, and competition for food
3. Reproductive niche-mode and time of reproduction of organisms
4. Physical & chemical niche- temperature, land shape, land slope, humidity & other
requirements.
⇒ Adaptation
helps it to survive in its environment.
● Some examples are gills in fishes which help them to survive in water, thick fur of animals which
enable them to survive cold environments, etc.

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• Desert plants have thick cuticles on their leaf surfaces and stomata arranged in deep pits to
minimize water loss; a special photosynthetic pathway that keeps the stomata closed during day
time; spines instead of leaves
• Crassulacean Acid Metabolism Plants. In some plants adapted to very dry (desert) conditions,
the stomata are closed during the daytime and open at night. These plants are said to show the
crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) pathway
• Mammals in cold climates have short ears and limbs to minimize heat loss.
• Chaperone (protein)
• kangaroo rat adaptations
⇒ Evolution
• Evolution is the change which gives rise to new species.
• It happens in order to make the organism better suitable to the present environment Evolution
• Evolution involves the processes of natural selection, adaptation, variation etc
Speciation is the process by which new species are formed, and evolution is the mechanism by
which speciation is brought about. Geographic isolation leads to speciation.
Extinction
• The primary reason behind extinctions is environmental change or biological competition.
• Extinction occurs when species cannot evolve fast enough to cope with the changing
environment.
• At present, the 6th Mass Extinction (Anthropogenic Extinction– human induced) is in progress.
3 Community समदुाय
● Many populations having different kinds of organisms sharing the same environment constitute
a community.
● The organisms that survive in an environment have adaptations and variations to suit their
surroundings.
● Climate plays an important role in deciding the community of a region as it influences the
environment of the region. Synecology the ecological study of whole plant or animal communities.
4 Ecosystem
● An ecosystem is the structural and functional unit of the biosphere.
● It includes the community of living beings along with their physical environment, both
interacting and exchanging materials between them.

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● All organisms in an ecosystem are dependent on all other species and the components which
are part of that community.
5 जीव-म
● Biomes are divisions of the terrestrial part of the biosphere.
● A biome is characterized by its climate, vegetation, animal life,and general soil type.
● Every biome differs from each other.
● The boundaries and abundance of flora and fauna in a biome are determined by the climate in
the biome.
6. Biosphere
● The biosphere is a part of the earth where life exists.
● It is a zone comprising the atmosphere (air), hydrosphere (water), and lithosphere (land).
● It forms a narrow layer around the surface of the earth.
● The Sun is the source of energy for life within the biosphere.
● Air, water, and soil supply the nutrients required for living organisms.

Ecology, Ecosystem and Environment

● Ecosystem is a unit which has living and nonliving components and their interactions while
being dependent on one another.
● Ecology is the study of ecosystems. It studies the organisms and their relations with each other
and the environment.
● Environment usually refers to the physical surroundings in which an organism lives. An
ecosystem functions with the environment to make a big unit.

Ecosystem:Concept, Types & Functions

● The term ‘ecosystem’ was coined by A.G. Tansley in 1935.

● An ecosystem is the structural and functional unit of the biosphere.
●An ecosystem consists of a community of living beings and their physical environment, which
interact and exchange materials between them. (Open System)
It has many interconnected habitats.

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Components of an ecosystem

● The components of an ecosystem are broadly classified into

○ Biotic or living components
○ Abiotic or non-living components

Abiotic components (Nonliving)

Physical factors Sunlight, temperature,rainfall, They sustain and limit the

humidity and pressure growth of organisms in an
ecosystem

Inorganic substances Carbon dioxide, oxygen, They play an important role in

nitrogen, phosphorus,sulfur, the growth of living
water, rock, soil and other organisms.
minerals

Organic compounds Carbohydrates, proteins,lipids They form the building blocks

and humic substances of living organisms.
Therefore, they interlink the
biotic and abiotic components

Sunlight

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● Plants use solar energy directly for photosynthesis and food production.
● Animals cannot use solar energy directly. Therefore, they obtain it indirectly by eating plants
or animals or both.
● Sunlight determines the temperature of all places which in turn decides the flora and fauna of a
region
● Energy also determines the distribution of organisms in the environment.
Temperature
Organisms can tolerate only some ranges of temperature and humidity.
● The levels of thermal tolerance of different species determine to a large extent their geographical
distribution.
● Eurythermal organisms - organisms which can tolerate and thrive in a wide range of
temperatures. Plants- Roses, daisies, some vegetables and fruits etc. Animals- Cat, tiger, dog etc.
● Stenothermal organisms - organisms which are restricted to a narrow range of temperatures.
polar bear, frog, lizards, coconut,
▪Homeothermic animals are warm-blooded and maintain a constant body temperature, for
example birds and mammals.
▪Heterothermy is a physiological term for animals that vary between self-regulating their body
temperature, and allowing the surrounding environment to affect it.example- Cold Blooded
animal.
Thermal stratification is the phenomenon in which lakes develop two discrete layers of water of
different temperatures: warm on top (epilimnion) and cold below (hypolimnion). These layers are
each relatively uniform in temperature but are separated by a region of rapid temperature change
(the metalimnion or thermocline).

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Water
● Water is essential for all living beings.
● It not only facilitates and provides a
medium for the majority of biochemical
reactions but also regulates the body
temperature of most of the living
organisms.
● Also, water bodies are the habitat for
many aquatic plants and animals.
● Euryhaline- organisms that tolerate a wide range of salinities. green crab
● Stenohaline- organisms restricted to a narrow range of salinities. plants and animals most
often found in the brackish waters of estuaries
Soil
● Soil provides water and nutrients in the form of organic and inorganic substances which are
tapped by the roots of plants which grow through the soil.
● The soil of a place is dependent on the climate, the weathering process, whether soil is
transported or sedimentary and how soil developed.
Atmosphere
● All gasses essential for living organisms are present in the atmosphere.
● Plants use carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, oxygen for respiration and nitrogen for nutrition.
● Human beings and animals use oxygen for respiration.
● The amount of gasses present in the atmosphere are regulated through biogeochemical cycles.

Biotic components

Producers (autotrophs): उ/पादक

● Producers are mainly the green plants and some bacteria and algae.
● They are also known as autotrophs/ self-nourishing organisms.
● The food for the entire ecosystem is provided by plants through the process of photosynthesis.
● Plants utilize sunlight, water, CO2 and nutrients for photosynthesis.
Consumers (Heterotrophs/ phagotrophs): macroconsumers उपभो4ा

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● They are called heterotrophs as they are incapable of producing their own food. They consume
food synthesized by the autotrophs.
● They can be grouped into three broad categories based on food preferences:
○ Herbivores - feed directly on plants, e.g. cow, deer and rabbit etc.
○ Carnivores - animals which eat other animals, eg. lion, cat, dog etc.
○ Omnivores - organisms which feed on both plants and animals, e.g. humans, pigs and sparrows,
etc.
Consumers can also be classified as:
1. Primary consumers: herbivores which feed mainly on plants e.g. cow, rabbit, deer, etc.
2. Secondary consumers: organisms who feed on primary consumers e.g. wolves, tigers, etc.
3. Tertiary consumers: organisms which feed on secondary consumers e.g. lions eating wolves,
humans, etc.
Decomposers(saprotrophs):
● Decomposers are bacteria and fungi which obtain energy and nutrients by decomposing dead
organic substances (detritus) of plants and animals.
● The products in the decomposition process are reused and recycled by the producers.
● Earthworms, nematodes, and arthropods etc. are also known as detritus feeders.
● They help in the decomposition of organic matter and are called detritivores.

Ecotone

● Ecotone = transition zone of two or more diverse ecosystems.

● For e.g. the mangrove forests is a transition zone between marine and terrestrial ecosystem
● Ecotone is referred to as the zone of tension-because it inherits the conditions intermediate to
the adjacent ecosystems, and therefore has more
competition among species for available resources.
● Example-Wetlands.
● An ecotone can have a sharp vegetation transition,
with a distinct line between two communities.
● For example, a change in colors of grasses or plant
life can indicate an ecotone.

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● Also, a change in physiognomy (physical appearance of a plant species) can be a key indicator.

Edge effect

● Sometimes in an ecotone, the number and population density of some of the species is much
greater than either community. This is called the edge effect.
● The organisms which occur primarily or most abundantly in this zone are known as edge species.
● In terrestrial ecosystems, the edge effect is especially applicable to birds.
● For example, the density of birds is greater in the mixed habitat of the ecotone between a forest
and a desert.
● Areas with small habitat fragments exhibit pronounced edge effects.
● As the edge effects increase, the ecotone allows for greater biodiversity.

Functions of an Ecosystem

Introduction

● Ecosystems are complex dynamic systems. They perform certain functions.These are:
(i) Energy flow through food chain
(ii) Nutrient cycling (biogeochemical cycles)
(iii) Ecological succession or ecosystem development

Energy Flow

● Energy helps organisms in their functioning and metabolic

activities.
● Energy flows from the producers to the consumers in a
unidirectional way.
● Food chains and food webs show the energy flow in an
ecosystem.
● The biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem are
linked through them

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Food chain

● A chain of interdependence of plants and animals for

food is called a food chain.
● A food chain also shows the transfer of energy from
plants to other organisms. Energy transfer is always
unidirectional.
● Based on the source of their nutrition or food,
organisms occupy a specific place in the food chain that
is known as their trophic level.

● The energy transferred decreases through each successive trophic level.

Types of food chains
There are two types of food chains in nature:
1. Grazing food chain:
● It starts from the green plants at the base of the food chain.
● Herbivores are at the next trophic level and then carnivores and so on.
● A grazing food chain (GFC)has
Grass (Producer) ---> Goat (Primary consumer) ---> Man (Secondaryconsumer)
2. Detritus food chain:
● It starts from dead organic matter of plants and animals.
● Microorganisms, detritus feeders, carnivores form the next trophic levels.
● The Detritus food chain derives its initial energy from the waste materials and dead organic
matter from the grazing food chain.

Food web

● It is a network of interconnected food chains in an ecosystem.

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● This interconnection of food chains happens when one of the consumers is a member of many
food chains at a time.
● Food webs provide more realistic models of
energy flow through an ecosystem.
● A food web has all possible transfers of
energy and nutrients among the organisms in
an ecosystem, whereas a food chain traces
only one pathway of the food.
● More complex the web, the more stable the
ecosystem is.
⇒ GPP vs NPP Gross Primary Production Net
Primary Production
● The total rate at which the solar energy is
stored by the process of photosynthesis in the
green plants is called Gross Primary
Production(GPP).
● GPP is also known as total photosynthesis.
● A part of the gross primary productivity is utilized by plants for its own metabolism.

● The remaining amount is called Net Primary Production (NPP). It is stored by the plant and is
made available to the consumers.

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Ecological Pyramids

● Ecological pyramids are the diagrammatic representation of trophic levels in an ecosystem.

● Producer forms the base whereas the top carnivore forms the tip of the pyramid.
● There are three types of ecological pyramids:
1. Pyramid of numbers
2. Pyramid of biomass
3. Pyramid of energy or productivity

Pyramid of numbers

● This pyramid represents the total number of individuals at each trophic level in an ecosystem.
● Depending upon the size and biomass, the pyramid of numbers can be either upright or inverted.
● Upright pyramids are generally seen in a grassland ecosystem where grasses are in abundance
and top carnivores are the least in numbers.
● Inverted pyramid: In a forest, trees (producers) form the base and provide food to herbivore
birds. Parasites and hyperparasites form the widertipof pyramid.

● Pyramid of numbers is not a good representation of the trophic structure of an ecosystem as

counting the numbers of organisms in each level is a difficult task.

Pyramid Of biomass

● In the pyramid of biomass, individuals in each trophic level are weighed (total dry weight)instead
of being counted.
● It represents the total standing crop biomass at each trophic level.
● Standing crop biomass is the amount of the living matter at any given time. It is expressed as the
gm/unit area or kilo cal/unit area.

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● Upward pyramids of biomass are mostly found in terrestrial ecosystems where the biomass of
producers (autotrophs) is maximum and therefore they have a wide base.
● Inverted pyramids are generally found in aquatic ecosystems where producers are small
phytoplanktons who grow rapidly but have the least biomass therefore a small base.

Pyramid of energy

● Energy pyramid is the most common parameter to compare the functional roles of the trophic
levels in an ecosystem.
● An energy pyramid reflects the conversion of
solar energy to chemical energy and heat energy
at each trophic level.
● As there is loss of energy at each trophic level,
the pyramid is always upward, with a large energy
base at the bottom.
● Energy pyramid concept helps in explaining the
phenomenon of biological magnification, the
tendency for toxic substances to increase in
concentration progressively at higher levels of the
food chain.
● The amount of energy decreases at each subsequent trophic level due to two reasons:
1.At each trophic a part of the available energy is lost in respiration or used up in metabolism.
2.A part of energy is lost at each transformation, i.e. when it moves from lower to higher trophic
level as heat.

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⇒ Ecological efficiency

● It is defined as the efficiency of transfer of energy from one trophic level to the next trophic
level.
● Lindman in 1942 defined these ecological efficiencies for the 1st time and proposed a 10%
rule.
● E.g. If autotrophs produce 100 cal, herbivores will be able to store 10 cal. and carnivores 1 cal.

Limitations of pyramids

● It does not take into account the same

species belonging to two or more trophic
levels.
● It assumes a simple food chain, which never
exists in nature.
● It does not accommodate a food web.
● Moreover, saprophytes are not given any
place in ecological pyramids even though
they play a vital role in the ecosystem.
⇒ Bioaccumulation is the gradual
accumulation of pollutants, chemicals
(chronic poisoning) or other substances in an
organism. Bioaccumulation occurs when the
rate of loss of the substance from the body of the organism through catabolism (breakdown of
complex molecules in living organisms), or excretion is lower than the rate of accumulation of the

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substance. As persistent organic pollutants like DDT are long lasting, the risk of bioaccumulation
is high even if the environmental levels of the pollutant are not high.
⇒ Biomagnification refers to progressive bioaccumulation (increase in concentration) at each
trophic level with the passage of time. In order for biomagnification to occur, the pollutant must
have a long biological half-life (long-lived), must not be soluble in water but must be soluble in
fats. E.g. DDT. If the pollutant is soluble in water, it will be excreted by the organism. Pollutants
that dissolve in fats are retained for a long time.
Polychlorinated biphenyl

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Ecological Succession

● It is a process by which one community is

replaced by another community over a period
of time.
● The changes are brought about by both the
biotic and abiotic components in the
community.
● The extent of change is influenced by the
physical environment.
● The first plant to colonize an area is called the
pioneer.
● The final stage of the succession is called the
climax community.
● A climax community is stable, mature, more
complex and long lasting.
● The stage leading to the climax community is called the successional stage or serre.
● Each transitional community that is formed and replaced during succession is called a stage
in succession or seral communities.

Orderly sequence of primary succession

➔ Pioneer stage: Pioneer species / community; High growth rate but short life span; Ex-Bare
rock & Lichens.
➔ Intermediate stage: Seral community/ temporal community. Ex- grasses, shrub
➔ Climax community: Terminal or final community; stable, mature and more complex and
long lasting. Ex- Shade tolerant trees.

Types of serre Explanation

Hydrosere Succession in aquatic habit

Xerosere Succession in dry habit

Lithosere Succession on bare rock surface

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Psammosere Succession initiating on sandy areas

Helosere Succession starting in saline soil or water

Senile Succession on microorganism on dead matter

Eosere Development of vegetation in an era

Process of Ecological succession

1. Nudation: the development of bare areas is the initial prerequisite. The cause of nudation
may be topographic (soil erosion, landslide, volcanic activity etc.), climatic and
biotic(human being and pathogen)
2. Invasion: This is the successful establishment of a species in a bare area. The species
actually reaches this new site from any other area.
3. Competition and coaction: After aggregation of a large number of individuals of the
species at the limited place, there develops competition mainly for space and nutrition.
Individuals of a species affect each other’s life in various ways and this is called coaction.
The species, if unable to compare with other species, if present would be discarded.
4. Reaction: This is the most
important stage in succession.
The mechanism of the
modification of the
environment through the
influence of living organisms
on it, is known as reaction. As
a result of reaction, changes
take place in soil, water, light
conditions, temperature etc of
the environment. Due to all these the environment is modified, becoming unsuitable for
the existing community which sooner or later is replaced by another community (seral
communities). The whole sequence of communities that replaces one another in the given
area is called s sere, and various communities constituting the sere as seral communities.

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 5. Stabilization (climax): This is the final stage of development, climax community is nearly
stable and will not change so long as the climate and physiography remain the same.
However, the environment as well as community are in a dynamic state. Some ecologists
(Gleason,1929) have talked of retrogressive succession in which continuous biotic
influences have some degenerating influence on the process. Due to destructive effects on
organisms, sometimes the development of disturbed communities does not occur and the
process of succession instead of progressive becomes retrogressive. For example, forests
may change to shrubby or grassland communities. This is called retrogressive succession.
⇒ Ecological succession is characterized by the following;
● Increased productivity,
● The shift of nutrients from the reservoirs,
● Increased diversity of organisms with increased development of niche, and
● A consequent increase in the complexity of food webs.
● Succession occurs faster in areas existing in the middle part of a large continent.
● This is because, here all communities and seeds of plants belonging to the different species
would reach much faster, establish, and ultimately result in the climax community.
● During succession, some species colonize an area and their populations become more
numerous, whereas populations of other species decline and even disappear.
● There are two types of successions such as;
1. Primary succession
2. Secondary succession
★ Primary succession:
● It takes place in a region where a community never existed previously.
● Such regions include emerging islands, newly formed deltas, newly created ponds,
reservoirs etc.
● The species that invade a bare area are called pioneer species.
● A pioneer species has a short lifespan though it may have a high growth rate.
● The collection of pioneer species that form in a bare region is called the pioneer
community.
★ Secondary succession:

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 ● When an existing community is destroyed, another community forms at the same
place. Such a process through which a community develops after the destruction of
an existing community is called secondary succession.
● The removal or destruction of the existing community takes place due to natural
disasters like forest fires, volcanoes etc. pr due to human activities like tilling or
harvesting.
● In secondary succession, the species that invade depend on the condition of the soil,
availability of water, the environment as also the seeds or other propagules present.

★ Primary vs Secondary Succession

● It is difficult to observe primary succession, unlike secondary succession. This is
because there are very few places on Earth that do not already have communities
of organisms.
● Primary succession is very slow as compared to secondary succession. This is
because soil formation takes a long time in primary succession while secondary
succession starts on soil that is nutritious.
★ Seral community
● In the succession process, the pioneer community after some time gets replaced by
another community with different species combinations.
● This second community gets replaced by a third community and so on.
● This process continues sequentially in which a community is replaced previously
by another community.

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 ● Each transitional (temporary) community that is formed and replaced during
succession is called a stage in succession or a seral community.
● The entire sequence of communities that successively change in a given area is
called sere(s).
★ Climax community
● The final community which is established by ecological succession and is in near
equilibrium with the environment is the climax community.
● The climax community that is established is stable, mature, more complex and
long-lasting.
● As long as it is undisturbed, a climax community remains relatively stable in
dynamic equilibrium with the prevailing climate and habitat factor.

Different types of Succession

● Autogenic and Allogenic:

➔ When succession is caused by living inhabitants of that community itself, the
process is called autogenic succession, while change is brought about by external
forces known as allogenic succession. An allogenic succession can be brought
about in a number of ways which can include: Volcanic eruptions; Meteor or comet
strike; Flooding; drought.
● Xerarch and Hydrarch
➔ Succession that occurs on land where moisture content is low for example on bare
is known as Xerarch.
➔ Succession that takes place in a water body, like ponds or lakes is called Hydrarch.
● Autotrophic and Heterotrophic
➔ Succession in which the green plants (initially) are much greater in quantity is
known as autotrophic succession and the ones in which the heterotrophs are greater
in quantity are known as heterotrophic succession.

Biotic Interactions

● The individuals in a biological community of an area or ecosystem interact with one

another in a number of ways.

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● The interactions that occur among different individuals of the same species are termed as
Intraspecific interaction.
● The interactions among individuals of different species in a community are called
Interspecific interaction.

1. Amensalism: It is a type of negative association. In amensalism, one species is harmed by

the other species which remains unaffected by the
presence of the other species. For example, the
bread mold fungus Penicillium produces
penicillin, an antibiotic substance that inhibits the
growth of a variety of Bacteria. Penicillium
benefits apparently by having greater availability
of food when the competition because of the
bacteria is removed. Ex- Black walnut trees produce chemicals which prevent other trees
from growing near them.

2. Predation: Predators act as conduits for transferring energy from one trophic level to
another. They keep prey populations under control. The introduction of an exotic species
into an area may become invasive if there are no natural predators. Predators also help in
maintaining species diversity in a community, by reducing the intensity of competition

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 among competing for prey species. Prey species (plants and animals) are adopted in various
ways to prevent being captured by the predator.

3. Parasitism: One species is harmed and the other benefits. The parasite lives in/on another
living species called the host from which the parasite gets its nourishment and often shelter.
The parasite is benefited and the host is harmed. Parasites have special adaptations to
counteract and neutralise the mechanisms of the host species. Eg. The cuscuta plant has no
leaves. Tapeworm, roundworm,
malarial parasite, many bacteria,
many bacteria, fungi, and viruses
are common parasites of humans.
Ex- fleas and mosquitoes feed on
blood from other organisms. In this
type of parasitic relationship, the
host needs to stay alive and it is not
damaged greatly. Ectoparasites-
Parasites that feed on the external surface of the host organism are called ectoparasites.
Eg.- lice on humans and ticks on dogs. Endoparasites- Endoparasites are those that live
inside the host body at different sites such as a tapeworm that lives inside
its host. Brood Parasitism- Brood parasitism in birds is fascinating.
⇒ example of parasitism in which the parasitic bird lays its eggs in the
nest of its host and lets the host incubate them. Eg.- cuckoo and crow.
4. Competition: This is an interaction between two populations in which
both species are harmed to some extent. Competition occurs when two
populations or species, both need a vital resource that is in short supply. The vital resource

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 could be food, water shelter, nesting site mates or space. For instance, in some shallow
south American lakes visiting flamingos and resident fishes compete for their common
food, the zooplankton in the lake. Two closely related species competing for the same
resources cannot coexist indefinitely and the competitively inferior one will be eliminated
eventually. This may be true if resources are limited, but not otherwise. It can not be ruled
out the occurrence of interspecific competition in nature, but species facing competition
might evolve mechanisms that promote coexistence rather than exclusion. Eg.- resource
partitioning. If two species compete for the
same resource, they could avoid
competition by choosing, for instance,
different times for feeding or different
foraging patterns.
⇒ Resource partitioning- Species with similar
resource requirements can coexist because they use
limited resources: at different times, in different
ways, in different places.

5. Commensalism: The interaction where one species is benefitted and the other is neither
nor harmed is called commensalism. Some species benefit by utilizing the shelter or
transport of another species. For example, epiphytes live on the surface of other plants like
ferns, mosses and orchids and use the surface of trees for support and for obtaining sunlight
and moisture. The tree does not benefit from this relationship and is not harmed as well.

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 Other examples- barnacles growing on the back of a whale, cattle egret and grazing cattle
in close association, sea
anemone and clownfish
etc.
6. Mutualism: Both the
species are benefitted in
this interaction. In some
interactions, mutualism
is so strong that the species involved in the
interaction cannot survive without each other.
Such an association is called a symbiotic
relationship. Some examples are, such as, Lichens-algae and fungus; Mycorrhizae-
fungus and roots of higher plants; Plants and animals- animals help in pollination and
plants provide food. The ants obtain food and shelter, and the acacia depends on the ants
for protection from browsing animals.

Some characteristics of Interaction:

1. Both the species benefit in mutualism and both lose in competition in their interaction
with each other.

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 2. In both parasitism and predation, only one species benefits (parasite and predator,
respectively) and the interaction is detrimental to the other species( host and prey,
respectively).
3. Predation, parasitism, and commensalism share a common characteristic-the
interacting species live closely together.

Biogeochemical cycles

● The movement of nutrients from the environment into plants and animals and again back to the
environment is known as nutrient cycling.
● Nutrients are absorbed from the soil by green plants which are passed onto primary consumers
and thereafter to secondary and tertiary consumers.
● When the producers and consumers die, nutrients are released back into the soil by detritivores
from the dead remains of organisms.
● Nutrient cycle can be of two types
1. Gaseous - atmosphere or the hydrosphere is the main reservoir
2. Sedimentary - earth's crust is the main reservoir.

Water cycle/hydrological cycle

● Water is essential for life.

● It not only provides transportation for nutrient cycling, but also acts as a solvent medium for the
uptake of nutrients by various organisms.
● Precipitation (rain, snow, slush dew etc.) is the only source of water on the earth.
● Water received from the atmosphere on the earth returns back to the atmosphere as water vapor
resulting from direct evaporation and through evapotranspiration.
● This continuous movement of water in the biosphere is called the water cycle (hydrological
cycle).
● The driving forces for the water cycle are solar radiation and gravity.
● Evaporation and precipitation are two main processes involved in the water cycle. These two
processes alternate with each other.
● Water from oceans, lakes, ponds, rivers and streams evaporates by the sun's heat energy. Plants
also transpire huge amounts of water.

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● Water remains in the vapor state in air and forms clouds which drift with wind.
● Clouds meet with the cold air in the mountainous regions above the forests and condense to form
rain precipitate which comes down due to gravity

Carbon cycle

● Almost all the carbon in nature is derived from carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere.
● It is highly soluble in water. Therefore, oceans also contain large quantities of dissolved carbon
dioxide.
● It is vital for the production of carbohydrates through photosynthesis by plants.
Steps in global Carbon cycle
1. Photosynthesis:
● Green plants in the presence of sunlight utilize CO2 in the process of photosynthesis.
● A part of the food made is used by plants for their own metabolism.
● Rest of the food is stored as their biomass which is available to various herbivores, heterotrophs,
including human beings and microorganisms as food.
● Forests act as reservoirs of CO2 as carbon fixed by the trees remain stored in them for long due
to their long life cycles.

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● A very large amount of CO2 is released through forest fires.
2. Respiration:
● Respiration is a metabolic process where food is oxidized to liberate energy, CO2 and water.
● The energy released from respiration is used for carrying out life processes by living organisms
(plants, animals, decomposers etc.).
● Thus CO2 is released into the atmosphere through this process.
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), an energy-carrying molecule found in the cells of all living
things. ATP captures chemical energy obtained from the breakdown of food molecules and
releases it to fuel other cellular processes.

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3. Decomposition:
● All the food assimilated by animals or synthesized by plants is not metabolized by them
completely.
● A major part is retained by them as their own biomass which becomes available to decomposers
on their death.
● The dead organic matter is decomposed by microorganisms and CO2 is released into the
atmosphere by decomposers.
4. Combustion: Burning of biomass releases
carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
5. Impact of human activities: Since the
industrial era, large scale deforestation and ever
growing consumption of fossil fuels by growing
numbers of industries, power plants
and automobiles are primarily responsible for
increasing the emission of carbon dioxide.
6. Storage in long term cycle:
● Some carbon accumulates as un-decomposed
organic matter in marshy soil or as insoluble carbonates in ocean bottom where it remains buried
for millions of years.
● The carbonate rocks may be uplifted geologically and exposed to erosion, releasing the carbon
compounds into streams and rivers.
● When fossil fuels such as coals, oil and natural gas etc. are burned, the carbon stored in them is
released back into the atmosphere as carbon-dioxide.

Phosphorus cycle

● Phosphorus is a major constituent of biological membranes, nucleic acids and cellular energy
transfer systems.
● Many animals also need large quantities of this element to make shells, bones and teeth.
● The natural reservoir of phosphorus is rock, which contains phosphorus in the form of
phosphates.

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● When rocks are weathered, minute amounts
of these phosphates dissolve in soil solution
and are absorbed by the roots of the plants .
● Herbivores and other animals obtain this
element from plants.
● The waste products and the dead organisms
are decomposed by phosphate solubilizing
bacteria releasing phosphorus.
👉Differences between carbon cycle and
phosphorus cycle
● Unlike the carbon cycle, there is no respiratory release of phosphorus into the atmosphere.
● Atmospheric inputs of phosphorus through rainfall are much smaller than carbon inputs.
● Gaseous exchanges of phosphorus between organism and environment are negligible.

Nitrogen cycle

● Nitrogen is an essential component of protein required by all living organisms including human
beings.
● Our atmosphere contains nearly 78% of nitrogen but it cannot be used directly i.e in its elemental
form by the majority of living organisms.
● Therefore, the atmospheric nitrogen needs to be fixed i.e converted to ammonia, nitrites and
nitrates so that it is taken by various organisms.
● Like carbon dioxide, nitrogen also cycles from gaseous phase to solid phase then back to gaseous
phase through the activity of a wide variety of organisms.

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Agents of nitrogen fixation Atmospheric nitrogen is fixed mainly by three agents:
1. Bacterial fixation: There are two types of bacteria. Symbiotic bacteria e.g. Rhizobium in the
root nodules of leguminous plants. b. Free Living e.g.
I. Nostoc
II. Azotobacter Cyanobacteria
2. Industrial activities e.g. manufacture of nitrogenous fertilizers
3. Atmospheric phenomena such as thunder and lightning
Processes in nitrogen cycle
● Nitrogen fixation: This process involves conversion of gaseous nitrogen into Ammonia, nitrites
and nitrates.
● Nitrification:
○ It is a process by which ammonia is converted into nitrates or nitrites by Nitrosomonas and
Nitrococcus bacteria respectively.

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○ Another soil bacteria Nitrobacter can convert nitrite into nitrate.
●Assimilation:
● In this process, nitrogen fixed by plants is converted
into organic molecules such as proteins, DNA, RNA etc.
● These molecules make the plant and animal tissue.
●Ammonification:
● Living organisms produce nitrogenous waste products
such as urea and uric acid.
● These waste products as well as dead remains of
organisms are converted back into inorganic ammonia
by the bacteria. This process is called ammonification.
● Ammonifying bacteria help in this process. Examples
of ammonifying bacteria contain bacillus, proteus,
clostridium,
●Denitrification:
● Conversion of nitrates back into gaseous nitrogen is called denitrification.
● Denitrifying bacteria (e.g. pseudomonas) live deep in soil near the water table as they like to live
in an oxygen free medium.
● Denitrification is the reverse of nitrogen fixation.

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Biome

Introduction

● Biome is an abbreviation for biological home.

● Biome means an assemblage of plant and animal communities with minimum common
characteristics.
● All the areas of biomes are characterized by more or less uniform environmental conditions such
as climate, soil etc.

Factors affecting biomes

(i) Day and night hours which are responsible for the duration of photosynthesis.
(ii)Mean temperature as diurnal and annual variation which decides the extreme conditions.
(iii) Length of growing season.
(iv) Precipitation, its total amount and spatio-temporal variation
(v) Wind speed, direction, duration and frequency.
(vi) Soil types
(vii) Slope
(viii) Drainage Types of biomes Biomes are classified in various ways.
There are five major biomes in the world.
1. Forests
2. Grasslands
3. Deserts
4. Tundra
5. Aquatic
⦁ Forest
• Taiga or Boreal Biome (Evergreen Coniferous forests)
• Temperate Deciduous Biome (North Western Europe – British Type Climate)
• Sub-Tropical Deciduous Biome in Eastern China, South Eastern USA
• Temperate Shrub Biome (Mediterranean Climate)
• Tropical Deciduous Biome (Monsoon Climate)
• Tropical RainForest Biome

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⦁ Tundra
• Arctic and Alpine Tundra Biome
⦁ Grassland
• Steppe or Temperate Grassland Biome
• Savanna or Tropical Wet and Dry Biome
(Tropical Shrublands and Grasslands)
⦁ Desert
Tropical and Mid Latitude Desert Biome

Tundra Biome

• There are two types of tundra – arctic

and alpine.
• Alpine tundra occurs at high mountains
above the treeline. E.g. High ranges of the Himalayas, Andes, Alps etc.
• There are no trees in the tundra (due to permafrost).
• The lowest form of vegetation like mosses, lichens are sparsely found on bare rocks.
• Animals like the reindeer, arctic fox, wolves, musk-ox, polar bear, lemming, arctic hare, arctic
willow live in the tundra region.
• Reptiles and amphibians are almost absent.

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• Mammals have a large body size and small tail and ear to avoid the loss of heat from the surface.
● It occupies the northern fringe of Canada, Alaska, European Russia,Siberia and the island group
of ArcticOcean.
Climate: 1. Long winters with little daylight.
2. Short summers with long daylight hours.
3. Precipitation is less (25 cm or less per year), that too mostly in the form of snow

Taiga or Boreal Biome

• Boreal forest soils are characterized by thin podzols and are rather poor. This is because:

✓ The weathering of rocks proceeds slowly in cold environments

✓ The litter derived from conifer needles (leaf) decomposes very slowly and is not rich in

nutrients (humus content is low).

• conifers do not shed their leaves frequently. The predominant vegetation is an evergreen coniferous
forest with species such as spruce, fir and pine.
• The conifers require little moisture and are best suited to this type of subArctic climate.
• The productivity of boreal forest is lower than those of any other forest ecosystem.
• Animals found in this region include Siberian tiger, wolverine, lynx, wolf, bear, red fox, squirrel,
and amphibians like Hyla, Rana, etc.

Temperate Deciduous Biome (North-Western Europe – British Type Climate)

• Soils of temperate forests are podzolic and fairly deep.

• The natural vegetation of this climatic type is deciduous.
• The trees shed their leaves in the cold season.
• This is an adaptation for protecting themselves against the winter snow and frost.
• Shedding begins in autumn, the ‘fall’ season. Growth begins in spring.
• Some of the common species include oak, elm, ash, birch, beech, and poplar.

Sub-Tropical Deciduous Biome in Eastern China, South Eastern USA

• Supports luxuriant vegetation.

• The lowlands carry both evergreen broad-leaved forests and deciduous trees (hardwood).

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• On the highlands, various species of conifers such as pines and cypresses are important.
• Perennial plant growth is not checked by either a dry season or a cold season.

Temperate Deciduous Biome (Mediterranean Climate)

• Trees with small broad leaves are widely spaced and never very tall.
• Regions with adequate rainfall are inhabited by low, broad-leaved evergreen trees (mostly
evergreen oaks).
• Fire is an important hazardous factor in this ecosystem, and the adaptation of the plants enables
them to regenerate quickly after being burnt.
• Plants are in a continuous struggle against heat, dry air, excessive evaporation and prolonged
droughts.
• They are, in short, xerophytic (drought tolerant).

Tropical Deciduous Biome (Monsoon Climate)

• Tropical Monsoon Forests are also known as a drought-deciduous forest; dry forest; dry deciduous
forest; tropical deciduous forest. Teak, neem, bamboos, sal, shisham, sandalwood, khair, mulberry
are some of the important species

Tropical RainForest Biome

• High temperature and abundant rainfall support a luxuriant tropical rainforest.

• The equatorial vegetation comprises a multitude of evergreen trees, e.g. mahogany, ebony,
dyewoods etc.
• In the coastal areas and brackish swamps, mangrove forests thrive.
• All plants struggle upwards (most epiphytes) for sunlight resulting in a peculiar layer arrangement
(canopy).
• Epiphyte (commensalism – epiphyte benefits without troubling the host): An epiphyte is a plant
that grows harmlessly upon another plant (such as a tree) and derives its moisture and nutrients from
the air, rain, and sometimes from debris accumulating around it.

Desert Biome

• The predominant vegetation of both hot and mid-latitude deserts is xerophytic or drought-resistant.
• This includes the cacti, thorny bushes, long-rooted wiry grasses and scattered dwarf acacias.

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• Most desert shrubs have long roots and are well spaced out to gather moisture, and search for
ground water.
• Plants have few or no leaves, and the foliage is either waxy, leathery, hairy or needle-shaped to
reduce the loss of water through transpiration.
• The seeds of many species of grasses and herbs have thick, tough skins to protect them while they
lie dormant.
● Almost 33% of the earth’s surface area is desert, getting less than 25 cm precipitation (OverallIt
include both hot and cold desert, not necessarily as a continuous belt like Taiga)
● Around 20% of these are sandy deserts located between 25-30 degree north and south latitude.
● The desert biome is characterized by very low rainfall (usually less than 25 cm per year) that
comes as short, hard showers.
● This biome covers almost 20% of the earth.
● True Desert~ 14%, another ~ 15 % earth land surface possesses some desert-like characteristics.
Hot vs cold deserts
● Deserts that receive rain as the main form of precipitation are called hot deserts while those which
receive snow as their main form of precipitation are called cold deserts.
● The hot deserts of the world are located in the south-west U.S.A., Mexico, Chile, Peru, Africa
(Sahara desert), Asia (Rub’Al Khali, Thar etc) and central and Western Australia (Tanami Desert,
Gibson Desert, Great Victoria Desert, Simpson Desert etc).
● Cold deserts are found in the Antarctic, Greenland, Iran, Northern and Western China.
● Some famous cold deserts are: – Antarctica, Atacama, Gobi, GreatBasin, Namib, Iranian,
Taklamakan, Patagonia etc.
Hot desert Climate:
● Hot and dry summers, warm temperatures throughout the year.
● Average temperature: 20-25 degrees Celsius.
● The extreme maximum temperature for the Hot Desert ranges from 43.5 to 49° C.
Flora:
● Plant life is rare in hot and dry deserts; mostly small trees and shrubs.
● The plants must adapt themselves for harsh conditions and be able to obtain and conserve water.
● The examples of important desert plants are—yuccas, acacias, euphorbias, cacti, many other
succulents and hardy grasses.

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● Many of the small plants are annuals.
Plant adaptations include-
● Small or no leaves
● reduced leaf surface area to reduce evaporation from the plants,
● loss of leaves during long dry spell,
● small hairs on the leaf surfaces,
● Succulent leaves and stems
● Ability to store large amounts of water.
● Well developed root system
● Annuals germinate, bloom and reproduce only during the short rainy season
● Waxy/Thick skin to prevent water loss

Grasslands

● Grasslands are characterized as lands dominated by grasses rather than large shrubs or trees.
● There are two main divisions of grasslands:
(1) tropical grasslands or savannas
(2) temperate grasslands
● A savanna or savannah is a mixed woodland grassland ecosystem.
● They are also known as tropical grasslands and found in a wide band on either side of the equator
on the edges of tropical rainforests.
● Savannah can also be said to be a transitional zone between forest and desert or grassland.
● Primarily they are situated in South America, Africa andAustralia.
Tropical Grassland (Savannah)
Distribution
● African Savannah- West African Region surrounding Sudan.
● South American Savannah- Called Cerrado (Brazil), Llanos (Colombia and Venezuela) and
Campos (Southern Brazil).
● Australian Savannah- Situated adjacently southward to the Northern monsoon line of
Australia.
● Indian Savannah- Parts of North Karnataka, Telangana and South Maharashtra region
temperate grasslands

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Distribution:
● They are also called Granaries of the world.
● The temperate grasslands in different regions are called by different names. They are
○ The US prairies.
○ Russian steppes,
○ Veldts of Africa,
○ Pampas of South America (mostly located in Argentina andUruguay),
○ Steppes of Eurasia
○ Downs of Australia
○ Pustaz of Hungary
○ Canterbury of New Zealand Deserts

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