[e]

The September 11 attacks, commonly known as 9/11, were four coordinated Islamist suicide
terrorist attacks carried out by Al-Qaeda against the United States on September 11, 2001. That
morning, 19 terrorists hijacked four commercial airliners scheduled to travel from the East Coast to
California. The hijackers crashed the first two planes into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center
in New York City, two of the world's five tallest buildings at the time, and aimed the next two flights
toward targets in or near Washington, D.C., in an attack on the nation's capital. The third team
succeeded in striking the Pentagon, the headquarters of the U.S. Department of Defense in
Arlington County, Virginia, while the fourth plane crashed in rural Pennsylvania during a passenger
revolt. The September 11 attacks killed 2,977 people, making them the deadliest terrorist attack in
history, and instigated the multi-decade global war on terror, fought in Afghanistan, Iraq, and
elsewhere.
The first impact was that of American Airlines Flight 11, which ringleader Mohamed Atta flew into the
[f]
North Tower of the World Trade Center complex in Lower Manhattan at 8:46 a.m. Seventeen
[g]
minutes later, at 9:03, the World Trade Center's South Tower was hit by United Airlines Flight 175.
[h]
Both 110-story skyscrapers collapsed within an hour and forty-one minutes, bringing about the
destruction of the remaining five structures in the WTC complex and damaging or destroying nearby
buildings. A third flight, American Airlines Flight 77, crashed into the Pentagon at 9:37 a.m., causing
a partial collapse. The fourth and final flight, United Airlines Flight 93, flew in the direction of the
capital. Alerted to the previous attacks, the passengers fought for control, forcing the hijackers to
nosedive the plane into a Stonycreek Township field, near Shanksville, at 10:03 a.m. Investigators
determined that Flight 93's target was either the United States Capitol or the White House.
That evening, the Central Intelligence Agency informed President George W. Bush that its
Counterterrorism Center had identified the attacks as having been the work of Al-Qaeda under
Osama bin Laden's leadership. The United States formally responded by launching the war on terror
and invading Afghanistan to depose the Taliban, which rejected the conditions of U.S. terms to expel
Al-Qaeda from Afghanistan and extradite its leaders. The U.S.'s invocation of Article 5 of the North
Atlantic Treaty—its only usage to date—called upon allies to fight Al-Qaeda. As U.S. and NATO
invasion forces swept through Afghanistan, bin Laden eluded them by disappearing into the White
Mountains. He denied any involvement until 2004, when excerpts of a taped statement in which he
accepted responsibility for the attacks were released. Al-Qaeda's cited motivations included U.S.
support of Israel, the presence of U.S. military bases in Saudi Arabia and sanctions against Iraq. The
nearly decade-long manhunt for bin Laden concluded on May 2, 2011, when he was killed during a
U.S. military raid after being tracked down to his compound in Abbottabad, Pakistan. The war in
Afghanistan continued for another eight years until the agreement was made in February 2020 for
American and NATO troops to withdraw from the country, and the last members of the U.S. armed
forces left the region on August 30, 2021, after which the Taliban returned to power. Ayman al-
Zawahiri, another planner of the attacks who succeeded bin Laden as leader of Al-Qaeda, was killed
[14]
by U.S. drone strikes in Kabul, Afghanistan on July 31, 2022.
Excluding the hijackers, the attacks killed 2,977 people, injured thousands more and gave rise to
substantial long-term health consequences while also causing at least $10 billion in infrastructure
and property damage. It remains the deadliest terrorist attack in history as well as the deadliest
incident for firefighters and law enforcement personnel in US history, killing 343 and 72 members,
respectively. The loss of life stemming from the impact of Flight 11 secured its place as the most
lethal plane crash in aviation history followed by the death toll incurred by Flight 175. The destruction
of the World Trade Center and its environs seriously harmed the U.S. economy and induced global
market shocks. Many other countries strengthened anti-terrorism legislation and expanded their
powers of law enforcement and intelligence agencies. Cleanup of the World Trade Center site
(colloquially "Ground Zero") took eight months and was completed in May 2002, while the Pentagon
was repaired within a year. After delays in the design of a replacement complex, construction of the
One World Trade Center began in November 2006; it opened in November 2014. Memorials to the
attacks include the National September 11 Memorial & Museum in New York City, The Pentagon
Memorial in Arlington County, Virginia, and the Flight 93 National Memorial at the Pennsylvania
crash site.

Background
Further information: Fatawā of Osama bin Laden and Political views of Osama bin Laden

Al-Qaeda
Main article: Al-Qaeda
Further information: Jihad
[15]
Al-Qaeda's origins can be traced to 1979, when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan. Soon after
the invasion, Osama bin Laden traveled to Afghanistan and helped organize Arab mujahideen (the
"Afghan Arabs") to resist the "Communist invaders" (Soviets) until their exit from the country in 1989.
[16][17]
In 1984, bin Laden, along with Islamic scholar Abdullah Azzam, formed the Maktab al-
Khidamat (MAK), an organization to support Arab mujahideen who came to join the jihad in
[15][18]
Afghanistan.
The U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) funnelled several billion dollars worth of weapons to the
[19]
indigenous Afghan mujahideen resistance, a portion of which bled to the Arab volunteers.
[20]
However, no direct evidence of U.S. aid to bin Laden or any of his affiliates was ever uncovered.
In 1996, bin Laden issued his first fatwā, which declared war against the United States and
[21]
demanded the expulsion of all American soldiers from the Arabian Peninsula. In a second 1998
fatwā, bin Laden outlined his objections to American foreign policy with respect to the State of Israel,
[22]
as well as the continued presence of American troops in Saudi Arabia after the Gulf War. Bin
Laden maintained that Muslims are obliged to attack American targets until the aggressive policies
of the U.S. against Muslims were reversed. According to bin Laden, Islamic jurists had "throughout
Islamic history unanimously agreed that the jihad is an individual duty if the enemy destroys the
[22][23]
Muslim countries".
The Hamburg cell in Germany included Islamists who eventually came to be key operatives in the
[24]
9/11 attacks. Mohamed Atta; Marwan al-Shehhi; Ziad Jarrah; Ramzi bin al-Shibh; and Said Bahaji
[25]
were all members of Al-Qaeda's Hamburg cell. Bin Laden asserted that all Muslims must wage a
defensive war against the United States, and combat American aggression. He further argued that
military strikes against American assets would send a message to the American people, attempting
[26]
to force the U.S. to re-evaluate its support to Israel, and other aggressive policies. In a 1998
interview with American journalist John Miller, bin Laden stated:

[W]e tell the Americans as people and we tell the mothers of soldiers and American mothers in
general that if they value their lives and the lives of their children, to find a nationalistic government
that will look after their interests and not the interests of the Jews. The continuation of tyranny will
bring the fight to America, as [the 1993 World Trade Center bomber] Ramzi [Yousef] yourself and
others did. This is my message to the American people: to look for a serious government that looks
out for their interests and does not attack others, their lands, or their honour. My word to American
journalists is not to ask why we did that but to ask what their government has done that forced us to
defend ourselves.
 [27]
— Osama bin Laden, in his interview with John Miller, May 1998,

Osama bin Laden

Main article: Osama bin Laden

Osama bin Laden in 1997–1998

Bin Laden orchestrated the September 11 attacks. He initially denied involvement, but later recanted
[28][29][30]
his denial. Al Jazeera broadcast a statement by him on September 16, 2001: "I stress that I
have not carried out this act, which appears to have been carried out by individuals with their own
[31]
motivation". In November 2001, U.S. forces recovered a videotape from a destroyed house in
Jalalabad, Afghanistan. In the video, bin Laden, talking to Khaled al-Harbi, admitted foreknowledge
[32]
of the attacks. On December 27, 2001, a second video of bin Laden was released in which he,
[33]
stopping short of admitting responsibility for the attacks, said:

It has become clear that the West in general and America in particular have an unspeakable hatred
for Islam. ... It is the hatred of crusaders. Terrorism against America deserves to be praised because
it was a response to injustice, aimed at forcing America to stop its support for Israel, which kills our
people. ... We say that the end of the United States is imminent, whether Bin Laden or his followers
are alive or dead, for the awakening of the Muslim ummah [nation] has occurred. ... It is important to
hit the economy (of the United States), which is the base of its military power...If the economy is hit
they will become reoccupied.

— Osama bin Laden

Shortly before the 2004 U.S. presidential election, bin Laden used a taped statement to publicly
[28]
acknowledge Al-Qaeda's involvement in the attacks. He admitted his direct link to the attacks and
said they were carried out because:
The events that affected my soul in a direct way started in 1982 when America permitted the Israelis
to invade Lebanon and the American Sixth Fleet helped them in that. This bombardment began and
many were killed and injured and others were terrorised and displaced.

I couldn't forget those moving scenes, blood and severed limbs, women and children sprawled
everywhere. Houses were destroyed along with their occupants high rises demolished over their
residents, rockets raining down on our home without mercy...As I looked at those demolished towers
in Lebanon, it entered my mind that we should punish the oppressor in kind and that we should
destroy towers in America so that they taste some of what we tasted and so that they be deterred
from killing our women and children.

And that day, it was confirmed to me that oppression and the intentional killing of innocent women
and children is a deliberate American policy. Destruction is freedom and democracy, while
[34]
resistance is terrorism and intolerance.

[35]
Bin Laden personally directed his followers to attack the World Trade Center and the Pentagon.
[36]
Another video obtained by Al Jazeera in September 2006 showed bin Laden with one of the
attacks' chief planners, Ramzi bin al-Shibh, as well as hijackers, Hamza al-Ghamdi and Wail al-
[37]
Shehri, amidst making preparations for the attacks. Bin Laden had been on the FBI's Most
[38][39]
Wanted List since 1998 for the 1998 bombings of the U.S. embassies in Tanzania and Kenya.
Khalid Sheikh Mohammed and other Al-Qaeda members

Main article: Khalid Sheikh Mohammed

Khalid Sheikh Mohammed after his 2003 capture in Rawalpindi, Pakistan

Journalist Yosri Fouda of the Arabic television channel Al Jazeera reported that in April 2002 Al-
Qaeda member Khalid Sheikh Mohammed admitted his involvement in the attacks, along with Ramzi
[40][41][42]
bin al-Shibh. The 2004 9/11 Commission Report determined that Mohammed's animosity
towards the United States, the principal architect of the 9/11 attacks, stemmed from his "violent
[43]
disagreement with U.S. foreign policy favoring Israel". Mohammed was also an adviser and
financier of the 1993 World Trade Center bombing and the uncle of Ramzi Yousef, the lead bomber
[44][45]
in that attack. In late 1994, Mohammed and Yousef moved on to plan a new terrorist attack
called the Bojinka plot planned for January 1995. Despite a failure and Yousef's capture by U.S.
[46]
forces the following month, the Bojinka plot would influence the later 9/11 attacks.
In "Substitution for Testimony of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed" from the trial of Zacarias Moussaoui,
five people are identified as having been completely aware of the operation's details. They are bin
Laden; Khalid Sheikh Mohammed; Ramzi bin al-Shibh; Abu Turab al-Urduni; and Mohammed Atef.
[47]

Motives
Main article: Motives for the September 11 attacks
Further information: Fatwa of Osama bin Laden
Osama bin Laden's declaration of a holy war against the United States, and a 1998 fatwā signed by
[22][48]
bin Laden and others that called for the killing of Americans, are seen by investigators as
[49]
evidence of his motivation. During his interview with Hamid Mir in November 2001, Bin Laden
defended the September 11 attacks as retaliatory strikes against American atrocities against
Muslims across the world. He also maintained that the attacks were not directed against women and
children, asserting that the targets of the strikes were symbols of America's "economic and military
[50][51]
power".
In bin Laden's November 2002 "Letter to the American people", he explicitly stated that al-Qaeda's
motives for the attacks included:
[52][53]
● U.S. support of Israel
[54][55][56][57]
● Bin Laden's strategy to support and globally expand the Al-Aqsa Intifada
● Attacks against Muslims by U.S.-led coalition in Somalia
● U.S. support of the government of Philippines against Muslims in the Moro conflict
● U.S. support for the Israeli occupation of Southern Lebanon
● U.S. support of Russian atrocities against Muslims in Chechnya
● Pro-American governments in the Middle East (who "act as your agents") being against
Muslim interests
● U.S. support of Indian oppression against Muslims in Kashmir
[58]
● The presence of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia
[52]
● The sanctions against Iraq
[59][60][61]
● Environmental destruction
After the attacks, bin Laden and Ayman al-Zawahiri released additional videotapes and audio
recordings, some of which repeated the above reasons for the attacks. Two relevant publications
[62] [63]
were bin Laden's 2002 "Letter to the American people" and a 2004 videotape by bin Laden.

[...] those young men, for whom God has cleared the way, didn't set out to kill children, but rather attacked the
biggest centre of military power in the world, the Pentagon, which contains more than 64,000 workers, a military
base which has a big concentration of army and intelligence ... As for the World Trade Center, the ones who were
attacked and who died in it were part of a financial power. It wasn't a children's school! Neither was it a residence.
The consensus is that most of the people who were in the towers were men who backed the biggest financial
force in the world, which spreads mischief throughout the world.

[64]
— Osama Bin Laden's interview with Tayseer Allouni, 21 October 2001

As an adherent of Islam, bin Laden believed that non-Muslims are forbidden from having a
[65]
permanent presence in the Arabian Peninsula. In 1996, bin Laden issued a fatwā calling for
American troops to leave Saudi Arabia. In 1998, Al-Qaeda wrote "For over seven years the United
States has been occupying the lands of Islam in the holiest of places, the Arabian Peninsula,
plundering its riches, dictating to its rulers, humiliating its people, terrorizing its neighbours, and
turning its bases in the Peninsula into a spearhead through which to fight the neighbouring Muslim
[66]
peoples".
In a December 1999 interview, bin Laden said he felt that Americans were "too near to Mecca", and
[67]
considered this a provocation to the entire Muslim world. One analysis of suicide terrorism
suggested that without U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia, Al-Qaeda likely would not have been able to get
[68]
people to commit to suicide missions.
In the 1998 fatwā, Al-Qaeda identified the Iraq sanctions as a reason to kill Americans, condemning
the "protracted blockade" among other actions that constitute a declaration of war against "Allah, his
[66]
messenger, and Muslims". The fatwā declared that "the ruling to kill the Americans and their allies
– civilians and military – is an individual duty for every Muslim who can do it in any country in which it
is possible to do it, in order to liberate the al-Aqsa Mosque and the holy mosque of Mecca from their
grip, and in order for their [the Americans'] armies to move out of all the lands of Islam, defeated and
[22][69]
unable to threaten any Muslim".
In 2004, bin Laden claimed that the idea of destroying the towers had first occurred to him in 1982
when he witnessed Israel's bombardment of high-rise apartment buildings during the 1982 Lebanon
[70][71]
War. Some analysts, including political scientists John Mearsheimer and Stephen Walt, also
[53][67]
claimed that U.S. support of Israel was a motive for the attacks. In 2004 and 2010, bin Laden
again connected the September 11 attacks with U.S. support of Israel, although most of the letters
expressed bin Laden's disdain for President Bush and bin Laden's hope to "destroy and bankrupt"
[72][73]
the U.S.
Other motives have been suggested in addition to those stated by bin Laden and Al-Qaeda. Some
authors suggested the "humiliation" that resulted from the Islamic world falling behind the Western
[74][75]
world – this discrepancy was rendered especially visible by globalization and a desire to
provoke the U.S. into a broader war against the Islamic world in the hope of motivating more allies to
support Al-Qaeda. Similarly, others have argued the 9/11 attacks were a strategic move to provoke
[76][77]
America into a war that would incite a pan-Islamic revolution.
Documents seized during the 2011 operation that killed bin Laden included a few notes handwritten
by bin Laden in September 2002 with the heading "The Birth of the Idea of September 11". In these
notes, he describes how he was inspired by the crash of EgyptAir Flight 990 on October 31, 1999,
which was deliberately crashed by co-pilot Gameel Al-Batouti. "This is how the idea of 9/11 was
conceived and developed in my head, and that is when we began the planning" bin Laden
continued, adding that no one but Abu Hafs and Abu al-Khair knew about it at the time. The 9/11
Commission Report identified Khalid Sheikh Mohammed as the architect of 9/11, but he is not
[78]
mentioned in bin Laden's notes.
Planning
Main article: Planning of the September 11 attacks

Map of the attacks on the World Trade Center

The attacks were conceived by Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, who first presented it to Osama bin
[79]
Laden in 1996. At that time, bin Laden and Al-Qaeda were in a period of transition, having just
[80]
relocated back to Afghanistan from Sudan. The 1998 African embassy bombings and bin Laden's
[81]
February 1998 fatwā marked a turning point of Al-Qaeda's terrorist operation, as bin Laden
became intent on attacking the United States.
[82]
In late 1998 or early 1999, bin Laden approved Mohammed to go forward with organizing the plot.
Mohammed, bin Laden, and Mohammed Atef, bin Laden's deputy, held a series of meetings in early
[83]
1999. Atef provided operational support, including target selections and helping arrange travel for
[80]
the hijackers. Bin Laden overruled Mohammed, rejecting potential targets such as the U.S. Bank
[84][85]
Tower in Los Angeles for lack of time.
[86]
Bin Laden provided leadership and financial support and was involved in selecting participants.
He initially selected Nawaf al-Hazmi and Khalid al-Mihdhar, both experienced jihadists who had
fought in Bosnia. Hazmi and Mihdhar arrived in the United States in mid-January 2000. In early
2000, Hazmi and Mihdhar took flying lessons in San Diego, California. Both spoke little English,
[87][88]
performed poorly in flying lessons, and eventually served as secondary "muscle" hijackers.
In late 1999, a group of men from Hamburg, Germany, arrived in Afghanistan. The group included
[89]
Mohamed Atta, Marwan al-Shehhi, Ziad Jarrah, and Ramzi bin al-Shibh. Bin Laden selected
these men because they were educated, could speak English, and had experience living in the
[90]
West. New recruits were routinely screened for special skills and Al-Qaeda leaders consequently
[91]
discovered that Hani Hanjour already had a commercial pilot's license. Mohammed later said that
he helped the hijackers blend in by teaching them how to order food in restaurants and dress in
[92]
Western clothing.
[93]: 6–7
Hanjour arrived in San Diego on December 8, 2000, joining Hazmi. They soon left for Arizona,
[93]: 7
where Hanjour took refresher training. Marwan al-Shehhi arrived at the end of May 2000, while
[93]: 6
Atta arrived on June 3, 2000, and Jarrah arrived on June 27, 2000. Bin al-Shibh applied several
times for a visa to the United States, but as a Yemeni, he was rejected out of concerns he would
 [93]: 4, 14
overstay his visa. Bin al-Shibh stayed in Hamburg, providing coordination between Atta and
[93]: 16
Mohammed. The three Hamburg cell members all took pilot training in South Florida at
[93]: 6
Huffman Aviation.
[94]
In the spring of 2001, the secondary hijackers began arriving in the United States. In July 2001,
Atta met with bin al-Shibh in Tarragona, Catalonia, Spain, where they coordinated details of the plot,
including final target selection. Bin al-Shibh also passed along bin Laden's wish for the attacks to be
[95]
carried out as soon as possible. Some of the hijackers received passports from corrupt Saudi
[96]
officials who were family members or used fraudulent passports to gain entry.
There have been a few theories that 9/11 was selected by the hijackers as the date of the attack
because it resembled 9-1-1, the phone number used to report emergencies in the United States.
However, Lawrence Wright wrote that the hijackers chose the date when John III Sobieski, the King
of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, began the battle that turned back the Ottoman Empire's
Muslim armies that were attempting to capture Vienna (present-day capital of Austria) on 11
September 1683. During 1683, Vienna was the seat of the Holy Roman Empire and Habsburg
monarchy, both major powers in Europe at the time. For Osama bin Laden, this was a date when the
West gained some dominance over Islam, and by attacking on this date, he hoped to make a step in
[97]
Islam "winning" the war for worldwide power and influence.
Prior intelligence
Main article: September 11 intelligence before the attacks
In late 1999, Al-Qaeda associate Walid bin Attash ("Khallad") contacted Mihdhar and told him to
meet in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; Hazmi and Abu Bara al Yemeni would also be in attendance. The
NSA intercepted a telephone call mentioning the meeting, Mihdhar, and the name "Nawaf" (Hazmi);
while the agency feared "Something nefarious might be afoot", it took no further action.
The CIA had already been alerted by Saudi intelligence about the status of Mihdhar and Hazmi as
Al-Qaeda members and a CIA team broke into Mihdhar's Dubai hotel room and discovered that
Mihdhar had a U.S. visa. While Alec Station alerted intelligence agencies worldwide about this fact, it
did not share this information with the FBI. The Malaysian Special Branch observed the January 5,
2000, meeting of the two Al-Qaeda members and informed the CIA that Mihdhar, Hazmi, and
Khallad were flying to Bangkok, but the CIA never notified other agencies of this, nor did it ask the
State Department to put Mihdhar on its watchlist. An FBI liaison to Alec Station asked permission to
[98]
inform the FBI of the meeting but was told: "This is not a matter for the FBI".
By late June, senior counter-terrorism official Richard Clarke and CIA director George Tenet were
"convinced that a major series of attacks was about to come", although the CIA believed the attacks
[99]
would likely occur in Saudi Arabia or Israel. In early July, Clarke put domestic agencies on "full
alert", telling them, "Something spectacular is going to happen here, and it's going to happen soon".
He asked the FBI and the State Department to alert the embassies and police departments, and the
[100][101]
Defense Department to go to "Threat Condition Delta". Clarke later wrote: "Somewhere in
CIA there was information that two known al Qaeda terrorists had come into the United States.
Somewhere in the FBI, there was information that strange things had been going on at flight schools
in the United States ... They had specific information about individual terrorists from which one could
have deduced what was about to happen. None of that information got to me or the White House".
[102]

[...] by July [2001], with word spreading of a coming attack, a schism emerged among the senior leadership of al
Qaeda. Several senior members reportedly agreed with Mullah Omar. Those who reportedly sided with bin Ladin
included Atef, Sulayman Abu Ghayth, and KSM. But those said to have opposed him were weighty figures in the
 organization-including Abu Hafs the Mauritanian, Sheikh Saeed al Masri, and Sayf al Adl. One senior al Qaeda
operative claims to recall Bin Ladin arguing that attacks against the United States needed to be carried out
immediately to support insurgency in the Israeli-occupied territories and protest the presence of U.S. forces in
Saudi Arabia.

[103]
— 9/11 Commission Report, pp. 251

On July 13, Tom Wilshire, a CIA agent assigned to the FBI's international terrorism division, emailed
his superiors at the CIA's Counterterrorism Center (CTC) requesting permission to inform the FBI
[104]
that Hazmi was in the country and that Mihdhar had a U.S. visa. The CIA never responded.
The same day in July, Margarette Gillespie, an FBI analyst working in the CTC, was told to review
material about the Malaysia meeting. She was not told of the participant's presence in the U.S. The
CIA gave Gillespie surveillance photos of Mihdhar and Hazmi from the meeting to show to FBI
counterterrorism but did not tell her their significance. The Intelink database informed her not to
share intelligence material at the meeting with criminal investigators. When shown the photos, the
FBI refused more details on their significance, and they were not given Mihdhar's date of birth or
[105]
passport number. In late August 2001, Gillespie told the INS, the State Department, the Customs
Service, and the FBI to put Hazmi and Mihdhar on their watchlists, but the FBI was prohibited from
[106]
using criminal agents in searching for the duo, hindering their efforts.
Also in July, a Phoenix-based FBI agent sent a message to FBI headquarters, Alec Station, and FBI
agents in New York alerting them to "the possibility of a coordinated effort by Osama bin Laden to
send students to the United States to attend civil aviation universities and colleges". The agent,
Kenneth Williams, suggested the need to interview all flight school managers and identify all Arab
[107]
students seeking flight training. In July, Jordan alerted the U.S. that Al-Qaeda was planning an
attack on the U.S.; "months later", Jordan notified the U.S. that the attack's codename was "The Big
[108]
Wedding" and that it involved aeroplanes.
On August 6, 2001, the CIA's Presidential Daily Brief ("PDB"), designated "For the President Only",
was entitled Bin Ladin Determined to Strike in US. The memo noted that FBI information "indicates
patterns of suspicious activity in this country consistent with preparations for hijackings or other
[109]
types of attacks".
In mid-August, one Minnesota flight school alerted the FBI about Zacarias Moussaoui, who had
asked "suspicious questions". The FBI found that Moussaoui was a radical who had travelled to
Pakistan, and the INS arrested him for overstaying his French visa. Their request to search his
[110]
laptop was denied by FBI headquarters due to the lack of probable cause.
The failures in intelligence-sharing were attributed to 1995 Justice Department policies limiting
intelligence-sharing, combined with CIA and NSA reluctance to reveal "sensitive sources and
[111]
methods" such as tapped phones. Testifying befor