Unit 1

Chidanand Jadar 10CV64
Asst. Prof
UNIT-1
SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION
1.1 Introduction
Earthwork forms the largest activity of a Civil Engineer. It is well understood that irrespective
of the type of civil engineering structure on earth – • It has to be rested either in soil (e.g.,
foundations)
• Rested on soil (e.g., pavements) or
• The structure is itself constructed making use of soil (e.g., Earthen dams). This
implies that a better knowledge of the spatial variation of the soils encountered is essential.
Therefore, before construction of any civil engineering work a thorough investigation of the
site is essential. Site investigations constitute an essential and important engineering program
which, while guiding in assessing the general suitability of the site for the proposed works,
enables the engineer to prepare an adequate and economic design and to foresee and provide
against difficulties that may arise during the construction phase. Site investigations are
equally necessary in reporting upon the safety or causes of failures of existing works or in
examining the suitability and availability of construction materials.
Site investigation refers to the methodology of determining surface and subsurface features of
the proposed area.
Information on surface conditions is necessary for planning the accessibility of site, for deciding
the disposal of removed material (particularly in urban areas), for removal of surface water in
water logged areas, for movement of construction equipment, and other factors that could affect
construction procedures.
Information on subsurface conditions is more critical requirement in planning and designing the
foundations of structures, dewatering systems, shoring or bracing of excavations, the materials of
construction and site improvement methods.
Civil Engg Dept. AIT-Bengaluru

Asst. Prof
1.2 Soil Exploration
The knowledge of subsoil conditions at a site is a prerequisite for safe and economical design of
substructure elements. The field and laboratory studies carried out for obtaining the necessary
information about the surface and subsurface features of the proposed area including the
position of the ground water table, are termed as soil exploration or site investigation.
1.3 Objectives of soil exploration program
The information from soil investigations will enable a Civil engineer to plan, decide, design, and
execute a construction project. Soil investigations are done to obtain the information that is
useful for one or more of the following purposes.
1. To know the geological condition of rock and soil formation.
2. To establish the groundwater levels and determine the properties of water. 3. To select the
type and depth of foundation for proposed structure
4. To determine the bearing capacity of the site.
5. To estimate the probable maximum and differential settlements.
6. To predict the lateral earth pressure against retaining walls and abutments.
7. To select suitable construction techniques
8. To predict and to solve potential foundation problems
9. To ascertain the suitability of the soil as a construction material.
10. To determine soil properties required for design
11. Establish procedures for soil improvement to suit design purpose
12. To investigate the safety of existing structures and to suggest the remedial measures.
13. To observe the soil the soil performance after construction.
14. To locate suitable transportation routes.
The objectives of soil investigations from various requirements point of view is summarized in
Table 1.1

Asst. Prof
Table 1.1 Objectives of soil investigations
Design requirements • define stratigraphy/geology
• to determine soil properties required for design
• aid material selection

• to determine the type and depth of
foundation
Construction • to select suitable construction techniques

requirements
• define equipment and techniques needed
• to locate suitable transportation routes
Auditing • checking a site prior to sale/purchase

• to establish procedures for soil
improvement to suit design purpose
Monitoring
•
construction
• determine reasons for poor behaviour
• document
reference
to observe the soil performance after
performance for future

Asst. Prof
1.4 Scope of soil investigation
The scope of a soils investigation depends on the type, size, and importance of the structure, the
client, the engineer's familiarity with the soils at the site, and local building codes. Structures that
are sensitive to settlement such as machine foundations and high-use buildings usually require a
thorough soils investigation compared to a foundation for a house. A client may wish to take a
greater risk than normal to save money and set limits on the type and extent of the site
investigation. If the geotechnical engineer is familiar with a site, he/she may undertake a very
simple soils investigation to confirm his/her experience. Some local building codes have
provisions that set out the extent of a site investigation. It is mandatory that a visit be made to the
proposed site.
In the early stages of a project, the available information is often inadequate to allow a detailed
plan to be made. A site investigation must be developed in phases.
1.5 Phases of a Soils Investigation

The soil investigation is conducted in phases. Each preceding phase affects the extent of the next
phase. The various phases of a soil investigation are given below:
Phase I. Collection of available information such as a site plan, type, size, and importance of the
structure, loading conditions, previous geotechnical reports, topographic maps, air photographs,
geologic maps, hydrological information and newspaper clippings.
Phase II. Preliminary reconnaissance or a site visit to provide a general picture of the
topography and geology of the site. It is necessary that you take with you on the site visit all the
information gathered in Phase I to compare with the current conditions of the site. Here visual
inspection is done to gather information on topography, soil stratification, vegetation, water
marks, ground water level, and type of construction nearby.
Phase II. Detailed soils exploration. Here we make a detailed planning for soil exploration in
the form trial pits or borings, their spacing and depth. Accordingly, the soil exploration is
carried out. The details of the soils encountered, the type of field tests adopted and the type of
sampling done, presence of water table if met with are recorded in the form of bore log. The soil
samples are properly labeled and sent to laboratory for evaluation of their physical and
engineering properties.

Asst. Prof
Phase IV. Write a report. The report must contain a clear description of the soils at the site,
methods of exploration, soil profile, test methods and results, and the location of the
groundwater. This should include information and/or explanations of any unusual soil,
waterbearing stratum, and soil and groundwater condition that may be troublesome during
construction.
1.6 Soil Exploration Methods

1) Trial pits or test pits
2) Boring
3) probes (in situ test) and geophysical methods
Specific recommendations are made by Indian standards regarding the type, extent and details of
subsurface explorations and the number, depth and spacing of boreholes for the following civil
engineering works. Following is the list of various codes specified for the said purpose:
Foundations of Multi-storeyed Buildings (IS: 1892, 1979)
Earth and rockfill Dams (IS: 6955, 1973)
Power House Sites (IS: 10060, 1981)
Canals and Cross Drainage Works (IS: 11385, 1985)
Ports and Harbours (IS: 4651 – Part 1, 1974)
1.6.1 Trial pits or test pits
Applicable to all types of soils
Provide for visual examination in their natural condition

Disturbed and undisturbed soil samples can be conveniently obtained at different
depths
Depth foinvestigation: limited to 3 to 3.5 m.
Advantages
i) Cost effective ii) Provide detailed
information of stratigraphy

Asst. Prof
iii) Large quantities of disturbed soils are available for testing iv) Large blocks of
undisturbed samples can be carved out from the pits v) Field tests can be conducted at
the bottom of
the pits
Disadvantages
i) Depth limited to about 6m ii) Deep pits uneconomical iii) Excavation below groundwater
and into rock difficult and costly iv) Too many pits may scar site and require backfill soils.
Limitations
i) Undisturbed sampling is difficult ii) Collapse in granular soils or below ground water table
1.6.2 Exploratory borings

Boring is carried out in the relatively soft and uncemented ground (engineering ‘soil’) which
is normally found close to ground surface. The techniques used vary widely across the
world.
1.6.2.1 Location, spacing and depth of borings

It depends on:
i) Type of structure ii) Size of the structure iii) Weight coming from the
1.6.2.2 General guidelines for location and depth of bore holes
Boreholes are generally located at The building corners
The centre of the site

Where heavily loaded columns or machinery pads are proposed.
At least one boring should be taken to a deeper stratum, probably up to the bedrock if
practicable
Other borings may be taken at least to significant stress level.

Asst. Prof
1.6.2.3 Spacing of Bore Holes – Codal Recommendations
According to IS 1892 (1979) Code of practice for subsurface investigation:
For a small building one bore hole or test pit at the centre can give necessary data
For a building covering not more than 4000 sq.m, one bore hole or test pit at each corner and one
at centre is adequate.
For a large project, the number will depend on its geological features and variation of strata.
Generally a grid of 50 m spacing should be used with a combination of bore holes and sounding
tests.
1.6.2.4 Borehole Spacing- Guidelines
Table 1.2 gives the general guidelines for the spacing of boreholes
Type of project Spacing (m) Spacing (ft)
Multi-storey building 10-30 30-100
Industrial plant 20-60 60-200
Highway 250-500 800-1600
Residential 250-500 800-1600

subdivision
Dams and dikes 40-80 130-260
1.6.3 Depth of Investigation

The depth of investigation depends on The size and type of proposed structure Sequence of
proposed strata.
The depths of boreholes should cover the zone of soil that will be affected by the structural
loads. There is no fixed rule to follow. In most cases, the depths of boreholes are governed by
experience based on the geological character of the ground, the importance of the structure, the
structural loads, and the availability of equipment
1.6.3.1 Guidelines for depth of investigation:

Asst. Prof
1. At least one boring should be taken to deeper stratum, probably up to the bedrock if
practicable.
2. Borings should penetrate at least 3 m into rock.
3. Other borings may be taken at least to significant stress level.
4. In compressible soils such as clays, the borings should penetrate at least between I and 3
times the width of the proposed foundation or until the stress increment due to the
heaviest foundation load is less than 10%, whichever is greater.
5. In very stiff clays, borings should penetrate 5-7 m to prove that the thickness of the
stratum is adequate.
6. Borings must penetrate below any fills or very soft deposits below the proposed
structure.
7. The minimum depth of boreholes should be 6 m unless bedrock or very dense material is
encountered.
1.6.4 Significant depth

The investigation shall be carried out to the point at which the vertical stress due to proposed
structure is equal to or less than 10% of original effective stress at the point before the
structure is constructed – significant depth
1.6.5 Methods of borings

i) Auger boring – preferred for shallow depths , low ground water table ii) Wash boring:
high water table, deeper soil deposit iii) Rotary drilling: high quality boring, also for rock
drilling iv) Percussion drilling: fast drilling, not taking samples, gravel
1.6.5.1 Hand Auger

Enables quick assessment of the soils present in the top few metres of the profile. It is
limited by depth of water table in sandy soils and the presence of strong layer

Asst. Prof
Fig. 1.1 Augers Manual

boring
It is suitable up to depths of 6 to 8 m.
The soil samples obtained from
auger borings are highly disturbed. In
some non-cohesive soils or soils having
low cohesion, the wall of the bore holes will not stand unsupported. In such circumstance, a
metal pipes is used as a casing to prevent the soil from caving in
Plate 1 Manual auger boring

Asst. Prof

Asst. Prof
Plate 2 Mechanical boring
Plate 3 Helical Auger Boring
1.6.6 Wash Boring

Asst. Prof
Wash boring relies on relatively little drilling action and can form a hole primarily by
jetting. This can be undertaken with light equipment without the need for a drilling rig.
Fig.1. 2 Wash Boring set up

1.7 Soil Sampling
1.7.1.1 Need for sampling
Sampling is carried out in order that
soil and rock description, and
laboratory testing can be carried
out.
Laboratory tests typically consist of:
i). Index tests (for example, specific gravity, water content) ii). Classification tests (for
example, Atterberg limit tests on clays); and iii) Tests to determine engineering design
parameters (for example strength, compressibility, and permeability).
1.7.1.2 Factors to be considered while sampling soil
i) Samples should be representative of the ground from which they are taken.
ii) They should be large enough to contain representative particle sizes, fabric, and
fissuring and fracturing.
iii) They should be taken in such a way that they have not lost fractions of the in situ
soil (for example, coarse or fine particles) and, where strength and

Asst. Prof
compressibility tests are planned, they should be subject to as little disturbance
as possible.
1.7.1.3 Type of soil samples

1.7.1.4Non-Representative samples
Non-Representative soil samples are those in which neither
-situ the
soilstructure,
in
moisture content nor the soil particles are preserved.
Asst. Prof
They are not representative
They cannot be used for any tests as the soil particles either gets mixed up or some
particles may be lost.
e.g., Samples that are obtained through
ring
wash
or percussion
bo drilling.
•
•
1.7.1.5 Disturbed soil samples

Disturbed soil samples are those in which the in-situ soil structure and moisture content
are lost, but the soil particles are intact.
• They are representative
• They can be used for grain size analysis, liquid and plastic limit, specific gravity,
compaction tests, moisture content, organic content determination and soil
classification test performed in the lab
• e.g., obtained through cuttings while auguring, grab, split spoon (SPT), etc.
1.7.1.6 Undisturbed soil samples

Undisturbed soil samples are those in which the in-situ soil structure and moisture
content are preserved.
• They are representative and also intact
• These are used for consolidation, permeability or shear strengths test (Engineering
properties)
• More complex jobs or where clay exist
• In sand is very difficult to obtain undisturbed sample
• Obtained by using Shelby tube (thin wall), piston sampler, surface (box), vacuum,
freezing, etc.,

Friction between the soil and the sampling tube
The wall thickness of the sampling tube
Chidanand Jadar
The sharpness of the cutting edge 10CV64
Asst. Prof
Care and handling during transportation of the sample tube
To minimize
friction
The sampling
tube should be
pushed instead of
1.7.2Design Features affecting the sample disturbance driven into the
ground
Sampling tube
that are in common use have been designed to minimize sampling disturbances.
Area ratio
Inside Clearance
Outside Clearance
Recovery Ratio
Inside wall friction
Design of non-return value Method of applying force
sizes of sampling tubes
1.7.2.1 Area ratio
A0 D22D12D12 100 !!" #!
Where, D1 = inner diameter of the cutting edge D2 = outer diameter of the cutting edge
D4

Asst. Prof
tube.
It helps in reducing the frictional drag on the sample, and also helps to retain the core.
For an undisturbed sample, the inside clearance should be between 0.5 and 3%.
1.7.2.3 Outside Clearance
D2 D4 100
A0  
D4
Where D4 = outer diameter of the sample tube
Outside clearance facilitates the withdrawal of the sample from the ground.

Asst. Prof
For reducing the driving force, the outside clearance should be as small as possible.
Normally, it lies between zero and 2%.
Co Should not be more than Ci
1.7.2.4 Recovery Ratio
Where
L = length of the sample within the tube and
H = Depth of penetration of the sampling tube
Rr = 96 – 98 % for getting a satisfactory undisturbed sample
1.7.2.5 Inside wall friction
• The friction on the inside wall of the sampling tube causes disturbances of the sample.
• Therefore the inside surface of the sampler should be as smooth as possible.
• It is usually smeared with oil before use to reduce friction.
1.7.2.6 Design of non-return value

• The non – return value provided on the sampler should be of proper design.
• It should have an orifice of large area to allow air, water or slurry to escape quickly when
the sampler is driven.
• It should close when the sample is withdrawn.
1.7.2.7 Method of applying force

The degree of disturbance depends upon the method of applying force during sampling and
depends upon the rate of penetration of the sample.
For obtaining undisturbed samples, the sampler should be pushed and not driven
Numerical Example on sampling disturbance
1. Following sizes of sampling tubes are used to collect the samples
Outer Dia 50
75 110
(mm)
Inner Dia 35
72 107
( mm )
Length 600
600 600
(mm)

Asst. Prof
1.8 Type of Soil Samplers
Fig. 1.5 Type of samplers
1.8.1.1 Split Spoon Sampler

Has an inside diameter of nd
35mm
an outside
a diameter of 50mm.
Has a split barrel which is held together using
-on driving
a screw
shoe at the bottom end and a
cap at the upper end.
The thicker wall of the standard sampler permits higher driving stresses than the Shelby tube
but does
so at the expense of higher levels of soil disturbances.
Split spoon samples are highly disturbed.
They are used for visual examination and for classification tests.
Source: www.geo.sunysb.edu/.../abstracts06/moss-06.htm
Fig.1.6 Split spoon sampler
1.8.1.2 Shelby Tube Sampler

Thin-walled seamless steel tube of diameter 50 or 75mm and length of 600-900mm.
The bottom end of the tube is sharpened.
The tubes can be attached to drilling rods.

Asst. Prof
The drilling rod with the sampler attached is lowered to the bottom of the borehole and
the sampler is pushed into the soil.
The soil sample inside the tube is then pulled out.
The two ends of the sampler are sealed and sent to the lab. The samples can be used for
consolidation or shear tests.
Fig.1.7 Shelby tube sampler

Chidanand Jadar Plate 1.1 Shelby tube sampler 10CV64
Asst. Prof
1.8.1.3 Piston Sampler
When sampling very soft or larger
than 76.2mm in diameter to get high
quality undisturbed samples, they tend to fall out of the sampler. Then piston samplers are
used.
They consist of a thin wall tube with a piston.
Initially, the piston closes the end of the thin wall tube. The sampler is lowered to the bottom
of the borehole and then the thin wall tube is pushed into the soil hydraulically past the
piston.
Later the pressure is released through a hole in the piston rod. To a large extent, the presence
of the piston prevents distortion in the sample by not letting the soil squeeze into the
sampling tube very fast and by not admitting excess soil.
Consequently, samples obtained in this manner are less disturbed than those obtained by
Shelby tubes.

Asst. Prof
Fig.1.8 Piston sampler
1.9 Rock Coring

It may be necessary to core rock if bedrock is encountered at a certain depth during drilling. It
is always desirable that coring be done for at least 3 m. If the bedrock is weathered or irregular,
the coring may need to be extended to a greater depth. For coring, a core barrel is attached to the
drilling rod. A coring bit is attached to the bottom of the core barrel. The cutting element in the
bit may be diamond, tungsten, or carbide. The coring is advanced by rotary drilling. Water is
circulated through the drilling rod during coring, and the cuttings are washed out. Figure shows
a diagram of rock coring by the use of a single-tube core barrel.

Asst. Prof
Rock cores obtained by such barrels can be fractured because of torsion. To avoid this problem,
one can use double-tube core barrels.
On the basis of the length of the rock core obtained from each run, the following quantities can
be obtained for evaluation of the quality of rock:
1. Recovery ratio = Length of rockcore recovered

Length of coring
Lengths of intact pieces of core 100 mm

2. Rock quality designation(RQD) =
Length of coring
Table 1.3 Classification of rocks

based on RQD (%) Rock quality RQD
<25 Very poor
25-50 Poor
50-75 Fair
75-90 Good
>90 Excellent
1.10 Bore Hole

Support or Stabilization of Bore Hole
This necessary to prevent cohesion less soils against caving while drilling bore hole.
Either of the following is used for bore hole support
• Steel casing – hydraulically pushed
• Drilling mud – Circulation bentonite slurry

Asst. Prof
1.10.1.1 Stabilization of bore holes using drilling mud
Bentonite mud or Drilling mud’ is a thin mixture of water and bentonite clay, which can be
mixed in powder form to the drilling water to create higher density suspension.
Advantages
• It is advantages over water.
• Firstly, it is more viscous and can therefore lift cuttings adequately at a lower velocity.
• Secondly it will cake the edges of the borehole, and the outside of the core, and will
largely eliminate the seepage of water out of the borehole, thus reducing problems of
loss of return.
• Hence, smaller volumes of flush fluid will be required and the fluid may he recirculated
via a settling tank (where the cuttings are allowed to drop out of suspension).
• The cake formed on the outside of the borehole has the effect of considerably improving
Borehole stability and the prevention of softening of weak rock cores Disadvantages
• The bentonite mud-soil cakes are difficult to dispose of, at the end of drilling a borehole.
The mud cannot simply be tipped on the site, and it cannot be discharged into nearby
sewers.
• Bentonite mud must be properly mixed, using appropriate equipment, in order to ensure
that it is of the correct consistency and does not contain unmixed dry bentonite lumps,
capable of clogging flush ports in the core barrel.
1.11 In Situ Testing

There is a wide variety of different tests that can be used for evaluating the properties of
the ground
It is often preferable to do an in situ test in an attempt to measure a particular parameter,
rather than obtain a sample and do a laboratory test

Asst. Prof
o sampling results in disturbance (reduces strength and stiffness) o sometimes only
best (strongest) material is recovered, and is not representative of overall in situ
material
1.11.1.1 Parameters obtained from In Situ Testing

Typical parameters that may be obtained either directly, or indirectly from in situ tests:
o strength o stiffness o permeability o relative density
1.11.1.2 In-situ Tests
In situ testing is a division of field testing corresponding to the cases where the ground is tested
in-place by instruments that are inserted in or penetrate the ground. In-situ tests are normally
associated with tests for which a borehole either is unnecessary or is only an incidental part of
the overall test procedure, required only to permit insertion of the testing tool or equipment. The
role of specialized in-situ testing for site characterization and the research and development of
in-situ techniques have received considerable attention over the last 15 years or so. The use of
specialized in-situ testing in geotechnical engineering practice is rapidly gaining increased
popularity. In Europe, specialized in-situ testing has been commonly used for more than 25
years. Improvements in apparatus, instrumentation, and technique of deployment, data
acquisition and analysis procedure have been significant. The rapid increase in the number,
diversity and capability of in-situ tests has made it difficult for practicing engineers to keep
abreast of specialized in-situ testing and to fully understand their benefits and limitations. Table
below summarizes the primary advantages and disadvantages of in-situ testing
Table 1.4 Summary of advantages and disadvantages of in-situ testing

Advantages Disadvantages

• Tests are carried out in place in the • Samples are not obtained; the soil tested
natural environment without sampling cannot be positively identified.
disturbanceJadar
Chidanand , which can cause detrimental The exception to this is the SPT in which10CV64
a
effects
Asst. Profand modifications to stresses, sample, although disturbed, is obtained. The
strains, drainage, fabric and particle • fundamental behaviour of soils during
arrangement testing is not well understood.
Continuous profiles of stratigraphy and
• Drainage conditions during testing are not
• engineering properties/characteristics can
known
be obtained.
• Consistent, rational interpretation is often
Detection of planes of weakness and • difficult and uncertain
defects are more likely and practical • The stress path imposed during testing may
Methods are usually fast, repeatable,
bear no resemblance to the stress path
• produce large amounts of information and induced by full-scale engineering structure
are cost effective • Most push-in devices are not suitable for a
Tests can be carried out in soils that are
wide range of ground conditions
• either impossible or difficult to sample
• Some disturbance is imparted to the ground
without the use of expensive specialized
by the insertion or installation of the
methods
instrument
A large volume of soil may be tested than
• There is usually no direct measurement of
• is normally practicable for laboratory
engineering properties. Empirical
testing. This may be more representative
correlations usually have to be applied to
of the soil mass.
interpret and obtain engineering properties
and designs
The in-situ tests that are most commonly used in practice are:
(i) Standard penetration test (SPT) (ii) Cone – penetration test (CPT)
(iii) Piezo-cone penetration test (CPTU)
(iv) Field vane shear test (FVT)
(v) Pressure meter test (PMT)
(vi) Dilatometer test (DMT)
(vii) Becker Penetration Test (BPT) and
(viii) Iowa Bore hole shear test (BHST) (ix) Plate load test
1.11.2 Standard Penetration Test (SPT):
One of the most common in-situ tests is the standard penetration test or SPT. This test
which was originally developed in the late 1920s, is currently the most popular and economical
means to obtain subsurface information (both inland and offshore).
It offers the advantage of low cost, applicability to many soil types, samples are obtained
(although disturbed) and a large database from which many useful correlations have been
developed.
Procedure:

Asst. Prof
The standard penetration test is conducted in a borehole using a standard split-spoon
sampler.
(i) When the borehole (55 to 150 mm in dia) has been drilled to the desired depth, the
drilling tools are removed and the split-spoon sampler, attached to standard drill rods of
required length is lowered to the bottom of the borehole and rested at the bottom.
(ii) The split-spoon sampler is then driven into the soil for a distance of 450 mm in three
stages of 150 mm each by blows of a drop hammer of 63.5 kg mass falling vertically and
freely through a height of 750 mm at the rate of 30 blows per minute (IS 2131 – 1981).
The number of blows required to penetrate every 150-mm is recorded while driving the
sampler. If full penetration is obtained, the blows for the first 150 mm is retained for
reference purposes, but not used to compute the SPT value because the bottom of the
boring is likely to be disturbed by the drilling process and may be covered with loose
soil that may fall from the sides of the boring. The number of blows required for the next
300 mm of penetration is recorded as the SPT value. The number of blows is designated
as the
“Standard Penetration Value” or “Number” N.
(iii) The slit-spoon sampler is then withdrawn and is detached from the drill rods. The split
barrel is disconnected from the cutting shoe and the coupling. The soil sample collected
inside the split barrel is carefully collected so as to preserve the natural moisture content
and transported to the laboratory for tests. Sometimes, a thin liner is inserted within the
split-barrel so that at the end of the SPT, the liner containing the soil sample is sealed
with molten wax at both its ends before it is taken away to the laboratory.
Usually SPT is carried out at every 0.75-m vertical interval or at the change of stratum in
a borehole. This can be increased to 1.5 m if the depth of borehole is large. Due to the presence
of boulders or rocks, it may not be possible to drive the sampler to a distance of 450 mm. In
such a case, the N value can be recorded for the first 300-mm penetration. The boring log shows
refusal and the test is halted if:
(i) 50 blows are required for any 150 mm penetration
(ii) 100 blows are required for 300 penetration
(iii) 10 successive blows produce no advance

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Plate 1.2 Standard Penetration testing

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Fig.1.9 Stages of Standard Penetration testing

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Some of the precautions to be observed to avoid some of the pitfalls o
a) Donut hammer b)Safety Hammer c) Automatic hammer

Fig. 1.10 Types of SPT hammers
Precautions:
f the test are as follows: (i) The drill rods should be of standard specification and should not be in
bent condition
(ii) The split spoon sampler must be in good condition and the cutting shoe must be free
from wear and tear
(iii) The drop hammer must be of right weight and the fall should be free, frictionless and
vertical.
(iv) The height of fall must be exactly 750 mm. Any change in this will seriously affect the N
value.

Asst. Prof
(v) The bottom of the borehole must be properly cleaned before the test is carried out. If this
is not done, the test gets carried out in the loose, disturbed soil and not in the undisturbed
soil.
(vi) When a casing is used in borehole, it should be ensured that the casing is driven just
short of the level at which the SPT is to be carried out. Otherwise, the test gets carried
out in a soil plug enclosed at the bottom of the casing.
(vii) When the test is carried out in a sandy soil below the water table, it must be ensured that
the water level in the borehole is lower than the ground water level in the borehole is
always maintained slightly above the ground water level. If the water level in the
borehole is lower than the ground water level, ‘quick’ condition may develop in the soil
and very low N values may be recorded.
In spite of all these imperfections, SPT is still extensively used because the test is simple
and relatively economical. It is the only test that provides representative soil samples both for
visual inspection in the field and for natural moisture content and classification tests in the
laboratory. Because of its wide usage, a number of time-tested correlations between N value and
soil parameters are available, mainly for cohesionless soils. Even design charts for shallow
foundations resting on cohesionless soils have been developed on the basis of N values. The use
of N values for cohesive soils is limited, since the compressibility of such soils is not reflected
by N values.
SPT values obtained in the field for sand have to be corrected before they are used in
empirical correlations and design charts. IS: 2131 – 1981 recommends that the field value of N
corrected for two effects, namely,
(a) effect of overburden pressure, and (b) effect of dilatancy
(a) Correction for overburden pressure:

Several investigators have found that the overburden pressure influences the penetration
resistance or the N value in a granular soil. If two granular soils possessing the same relative
density but having different confining pressures are tested, the one with a higher confining
pressure gives a higher N value. Since the confining pressure (which is directly proportional to
the overburden pressure) increases with depth, the N values at shallow depths are
underestimated and the N values at larger depths are overestimated. Hence, if no correction is

Asst. Prof
applied to recorded N values, the relative densities at shallow depths will be underestimated and
at higher depths, they will be overestimated. To account for this, N values recorded (N R) from
field tests at different effective overburden pressures are corrected to a standard effective
overburden pressure. The corrected N value is given by
N 'c = CN NR
Where, N′c = corrected value of observed N value

CN = correction factor for overburden pressure
NR = Recorded or observed N value in the field
The correction proposed by Peck, Hanson and Thornburn (1974) is given by the equation:
CN = 0.77log10 2000σ′
Where, σ′ = Effective overburden pressure at the depth at which N value is recorded, in
kPa
(b) Correction for dilatancy:
Dilatancy correction is to be applied when N′c obtained after overburden correction, exceeds 15
in saturated fine sands and silts. IS: 2131 – 1981 incorporates the Terzaghi and Peck
recommended dilatancy correction (when N′c > 15) using the equation
Nc = 15 + 0.5 (N′ − 15)

Where Nc = final corrected value to be used in design charts.
N′c > 15 is an indication of a dense sand, based on the assumption that critical void ratio occurs
at approximately N′c = 15. The fast rate of application of shear through the blows of a drop
hammer is likely to induce negative pore water pressure in saturated fine sand under undrained
condition of loading. Consequently, a transient increase in shear resistance will occur, leading to
a SPT value higher than the actual one.

Asst. Prof
Note: The overburden correction is applied first. This value is used as observed N value and
then the dilatancy correction is applied.
Correlation of ‘N’ with engineering properties:
The value of standard Penetration number depends upon the relative density of the cohesionless
soil and the UCC strength of the cohesive soil.
The angle of shearing resistance (ϕ) of the cohesionless soil depends upon the number N. In
general, greater the N-value, greater is the angle of shearing resistance. Table below gives the
average values of ϕ for different ranges of N
Table 1.5 Correlation between N value and

angle N Denseness ϕ of shearing resistance
0-14 Very loose 25o – 32o 27o

4-10 Loose
– 35o
10-30 Medium
30o – 40o
30-50 Dense
>50 Very dense 35o – 45o
> 45o
The consistency and the UCC strength of the

cohesive soils can be approximately
determined from the SPT number N. Table
gives the approximate values of UCC strength
for different ranges of N.
Table 1.6 correlation between N value and UCC strength

N Consistency qu (kN/m2)

Asst. Prof
0-2 2-4 4-8 Very soft < 25
8-15 Soft 25 – 50
15-30 Medium 50 – 100
>30 Stiff 100 – 200
Very stiff 200 – 400
Hard > 400
It can also be determined from the following relation qu = 12.5 N

Where, qu = UCC strength (kN/m2)
1.11.3 Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
(a) Dynamic Cone Penetration Test (DCPT)
In this test, a cone, which has an apex angle of 60 o and attached to drill rods is driven
into the soil by blows of a hammer of 63.5 kg, falling freely from a height of 750 mm. The blow
count for every 100-mm penetration of the cone is continuously recorded. The cone is driven till
refusal or upto the required depth and the drill rods are withdrawn, leaving the cone behind in
the ground.
The number of blows required for 300-mm penetration is noted as the dynamic cone resistance,
Ncd. The test gives a continuous record of N cd with depth. No sample, however, can be obtained
in this test.
Dynamic cone penetration tests are performed either by using a 50 mm diameter cone without
bentonite slurry (IS: 4968 – Part I – 1976) or a 65 mm diameter cone with bentonite slurry (IS:
4968 – Part II – 1976). When bentonite slurry is used, the set-up has an arrangement for the
circulation of slurry so that friction on the drill rod is eliminated.
The dynamic cone test is a quick test and helps to cover a large area under investigation rather
economically. It helps in identifying the uniformity or the variability of the subsoil profile at the
site and reveals local soft pockets, if any. It can also establish the position of rock stratum, when
required. The test is much less expensive and much quicker than the SPT. If the tests are carried
out close to a few boreholes, the data from DCPT can be compared with the SPT data and
correlation between the two established for the particular site conditions. The correlation can
then be used to obtain N values from Ncd values.
Some approximate correlations between N cd and N, applicable for medium to fine sands are
given below:

Asst. Prof
When a 50 mm diameter cone is used,
Ncd = 1.5 N for depths upto 3 m
Ncd = 1.75 N for depths from 3 m to 6 m
Ncd = 2.0 N for depths greater than 6 m
(b) Static cone penetration test (CPT)

The static cone penetration test, simply called the cone penetration test (CPT), is a
simple test that is presently widely used in place of SPT, particularly for soft clays and fine to
medium sand deposits. The test was developed in Holland and is, therefore, also known as the
Dutch cone test.
The test assembly is shown in Fig. 1.12 . The penetrometer that is commonly used is a cone
with an apex angle of 60o and a base area of 10 cm2.

Asst. Prof
(a) (b)
Fig.1.11 Cone penetration set up
The sequence of operations of the penetrometer is as follows:

1. Position 1: The cone and the friction jacket is in a stationary position.
2. Position 2: The cone is pushed into the soil by the inner drill rod/sounding rod to a depth ‘a’,
at a steady rate of 20 mm/s, till a collar engages the cone. The tip resistance q c called the
cone or point resistance, can be calculated by the force Qc read on a pressure gauge.
The tip resistance, qc = Qc / Ac
Where Ac is the base area

Asst. Prof
Normally the value of a = 40 mm
Fig. 1.12 Sequence of operations of CPT

3. Position 3: The sounding rod is pushed further to a depth ‘b’. This has the effect of pushing
the friction jacket and the cone assembly together. The total force Q t required for this is
again read on the pressure gauge. The force required to push the friction jacket along,
Qf is then obtained as Qt – Qc
The side or the skin friction, fs = Qf / Af
Where, Af is the surface area of the friction jacket.
Normally the value of b = 40 mm
4. Position 4: The outside mantle tube is pushed down to a distance (a+b), bringing the cone
and the friction jacket to position 1.
The procedure illustrated above is continued till the proposed depth of sounding is reached.
CPT gives a continuous record of variation of both cone resistance and friction resistance with
depth. Unlike the SPT and the DCPT, this test measures the static resistance of the soil. From

Asst. Prof
CPT soil sample is not obtained. The test is not suitable in gravels and very dense sands owing
to the difficulty experienced in pushing the cone and the anchorage system.
Data from CPT is often used to estimate the point
bearing resistance of a pile foundation. In
granular soils, correlations have been
established between qc and N. table below
shows the correlations
Type of soil qc / N (kPa)
a) Sandy gravels and gravels 800 to 1000
b) Coarse sands 500 to 600
c) Clean, fine to medium sands and slightly silty sands 300 to 400
d) Silts, sandy silts, slightly cohesive silt-sand mixtures 200
Table 1.7 Correlations between qc and N
c) Piezo-cone Penetration Test

The piezo-cone penetration test (CPTU) is an example of improved in-situ techniques that have
been developed for site investigations. It is an extension to the standard cone penetration test
(CPT). The standard cone penetrometer consists of a 35 – mm diameter rod with a 60 o
conicalshaped tip equipped with electronic sensing elements to measure tip resistance and the
local side friction on a sleeve. The piezo-cone penetrometer in addition incorporates a
transducer to measure pore water pressure. The penetrometer is pushed at a constant rate of 2
cm/s into the ground. In general, no pre-boring is required. In addition to the standard three-
channel piezo-cone penetrometer, new penetrometers have been developed that include
additional sensing elements for measurement of temperature, inclination, lateral stress and
seismic waves. In particular, the seismic cone penetrometer (CPTS), which houses an
accelerometer, has proven itself most beneficial in the assessment of liquefaction and
determining dynamic soil properties.
The CPTU is one of the most commonly used specialized in-situ tests and is ideal for use in
sands, silts, clays and mine-tailings materials. A reliable, continuous stratigraphic profile,
together with important engineering properties, can be interpreted from its results. Further,

Asst. Prof
because the data are collected on a continuous basis, detection of thin, weak layers and /or more
pervious layers is possible. This is important because these weaker zones ultimately control the
behaviour and performance of the soil mass and, in particular, are significant to slope stability
and seepage considerations, liquefaction and dynamic stability analysis, and foundation design.
These weaker layers often go undetected by conventional borehole drilling and sampling
operations. The CPTU also avoids the disturbance effects commonly encountered when drilling
boreholes and sampling below the water table. Thus, CPTU greatly enhances the quality of data
gathered in a sub-surface investigation. In addition, because of its relative simplicity, ease of
operation and high rate of production in terms of depth of soil investigated, the CPTU has
proven itself to be very costeffective.
The interpreted data provide information on: stratigraphy in terms of thickness, gradation and
soil type; density (void ratio) and /or state (state parameter) of the more sandy or coarser
materials; friction angle (strength) of the more sandy or coarser materials; undrained strength
and stress history (OCR) of the more clayey or fine-grained materials; and liquefaction potential
evaluation and cyclic resistance. Further, as the cone penetrometer is pushed through the
ground, excess porewater pressure is induced, the magnitude of which is controlled by the
hydraulic conductivity of the material. If the pushing of the cone is interrupted and the cone is
held stationary for a sufficient period of time, the porewater pressure measured by the cone will
stabilize to the in-situ piezometric pressure at the cone tip. Monitoring the rate of porewater
pressure change to this stabilized pressure provides data from which the in-situ hydraulic
conductivity can be calculated. From the above operations, the piezometric pressure, gradients
and hydraulic conductivity within the ground can also be obtained.
1.12 Geophysical Methods
It is a non-intrusive method of “seeing” into the ground. Unlike direct sampling and
analysis, such as obtaining a soil or water sample and sending it to a laboratory, the
geophysical methods provide non-destructive, in situ measurements of physical, electrical or
geochemical properties of the natural or contaminated soil and rock.
Geophysical methods encompass a wide range of surface and down-hole measurement

techniques which provide a means of investigating subsurface hydrogeologic and geologic

Asst. Prof
conditions. These methods have also been applied to detecting contaminant plumes and
locating buried waste materials.
All of the geophysical methods, like any other means of measurements, have advantages
and limitations. There is no single, universally applicable geophysical method, and some
methods are quite site specific in their performance. Thus, the user must select the method
or methods carefully and understand how they are applied to specific site conditions and
project requirements.
1.12.1 Usefulness of geophysical methods
i) To provide a greater volume of measurement
Data obtained from borings or monitoring wells come from a very localized area and are
representative of material conditions at the bore-hole. Geophysical methods, on the other
hand, usually measure a much larger volume of the subsurface material ii) As anomaly
detectors
As a result of geophysical measurements being relatively rapid, a larger number of
measurements can be taken, for a given budget. With a greater number of measurements
plus the fact that the measurement encompasses a larger volume of subsurface material,
the geophysical methods can detect anomalous areas which may pose potential
problems, and thus are essentially anomaly detectors.
Once an overall characterization of a site has been made using geophysical methods and
anomalous zones identified, drilling and sampling programmes are made more effective
by:
locating boreholes and monitoring wells to provide samples that are representative
of both anomalous and background conditions;
minimizing the number of borings, samples, piezometers and monitoring wells
required to characterize accurately a site;
reducing field investigation time and cost; and significantly improving the
accuracy of the overall investigation.
This approach yields a much greater confidence in the final results, with fewer
borings or wells, and an overall cost savings.
It makes good sense to minimize the number of monitoring wells at a site while
optimizing the location of those installed.

Asst. Prof
If the wells are located in the wrong position, they do not provide representative data
and a large amount of relatively useless data would accrue.
Using the geophysical method in a systematic approach, drilling is no longer being
used for hit-or-miss reconnaissance, but is being used to provide the specific
quantitative assessment of subsurface conditions.
Boreholes or wells located with this approach may be thought of as smart holes
because they are scientifically placed, for a specific purpose, in a specific location,
based on knowledge of site conditions from geophysical data.
1.12.2 Geophysical measurements
a) Mechanical Wave Measurements
b) Electromagnetic Wave Techniques
Mechanical Wave Measurements

– Crosshole Tests (CHT)
– Downhole Tests (DHT)
– Spectral Analysis of Surface Waves
– Seismic Methods(Reflection and Refraction)
– Suspension Logging
Electromagnetic Wave Techniques
– Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
– Electromagnetic Conductivity (EM)
– Surface Resistivity (SR)
– Magnetometer Surveys (MT)
1.12.3 Seismic Methods – Principle Involved
It is based on fact that compression waves or shear waves travel at different speeds in
the ground, and that waves reflect off at interfaces between materials of different density
or stiffness.
There are two methods based on seismic waves. They are:
Seismic Reflection Method
Seismic Refraction Method

Asst. Prof
1.12.4 Seismic Reflection
It is well know that reflections of sound waves (compression waves) from the subsurface
arrive at the geophones at some measurable time after the source pulse. If we know the
speed of sound in the earth and the geometry of the wave path, we can convert that
seismic travel time to depth. By measuring the arrival time at successive surface
locations we can produce a profile, or cross-section, of seismic travel times. In practice,
the speed of sound in the earth varies enormously. Dry sand might carry sound waves at
250 m/s or less. At the other extreme, unfractured granite might have a velocity in
excess of 6,000 m/s. More is the number of layers between the surface and the layer of
interest, more complicated is the velocity picture. Various methods are used to estimate
subsurface velocities including refraction analysis, borehole geophysical measurements,
estimates from known lithologic properties, and analysis of reflection times at increasing
offsets. Generally, a combination of velocity estimation methods will give the best
results.
Fig. 1.13 Seismic Reflection method
1.12.5 Seismic Refraction

When a sound wave crosses an interface between layers of two different velocities, the
wave is refracted. That is, the angle of the wave leaving the interface will be altered
from the incident angle, depending on the relative velocities. Going from a low-velocity
layer to a high-velocity layer, a wave at a particular incident angle (the "critical angle")
will be refracted along the upper surface of the lower layer. As it travels, the refracted
wave spawns upgoing waves in the upper layer, which impinge on the surface
geophones. Sound moves faster in the lower layer than the upper, so at some point, the
wave refracted along that surface will overtake the direct wave. This refracted wave is
then the first arrival at all subsequent geophones, at least until it is in turn overtaken by a
deeper, faster refraction. The difference in travel time of this wave arrival between
geophones depends on the velocity of the lower layer. If that layer is plane and level, the
refraction arrivals form a straight line whose slope corresponds directly to that velocity.

Asst. Prof
The point at which the refraction overtakes the direct arrival is known as the "critical
distance", and can be used to estimate the depth to the refracting surface.

Asst. Prof
Seismographb) Spectrum Analyzer
c) Portable Analyzer d) Velocity Recorder

Asst. Prof
Plate 1.3 Geophysical Equipment
Plate 1.4 Geophones

Asst. Prof
Fig.1. 14 Seismic refraction method
Fig. 1.15 Seismic refraction method
Fig. 1.16 Plot of Travel time versus distance obtained from seismic refraction method
Now at critical distance d1(or dc), both the primary wave and refracted wave arrive
simultaneously. Therefore,

Asst. Prof
Time taken by primary wave to travel distance d 1 = time taken by refracted wave to
travel distance (2H1+ d1)

(1.1)
Chidanand----------
Jadar 10CV64
Asst. Prof
are produced by sinusoidal force and not by impact.

When impact loads are used the following empirical relation gives more reliable results:
H1 = d2 1 v 22 −−v 11 --------
----(1.2)
v v
1.12.6Applicability of Seismic refraction method
This equation gives reliable results when the waves
The seismic refraction method is commonly applied to shallow investigations up to

about 100m.
However, with sufficient energy, surveys to several hundred meters are possible.
1.12.7 Limitations of Seismic Methods

The Method cannot be used where a hard layer overlies a soft layer, because there will be
no measurable refraction from a deeper soft layer. Test data from such an area would
tend to give a single-slope line on the travel-time graph, indicating a deep layer of
uniform material.
The method cannot be used in an area covered by concrete or asphalt pavement, since
these materials represent a condition of hard surface over a soft stratum.
A frozen surface layer also may give results similar to the situation of a hard layer over a
soft layer.

Asst. Prof
If the area contains some underground features, such as buried conduits, irregularly
dipping strata, discontinuities such as rock faults or earth cuts, irregular water table, and
the existence of thin layers varying materials, the interpretation of the results becomes
very difficult.
The method require sophisticated and costly equipment.
For proper interpretations of the seismic survey results, the services of an expert are
required.
1.13 Surface Resistivity Methods These methods make use of Electromagnetic Wave
Geophysics. These are nondestructive methods, non-invasive and are conducted across
surface. Here measurements of electrical & magnetic properties of the ground namely,
resistivity (conductivity), permittivity, dielectric, and magnetic fields are measured. They
cover wide spectrum in frequencies (10 Hz < f < 1022 Hz).
The popular and most widely used surface resistivity methods are:
Electrical Profiling Method
Electrical Sounding Method
1.13.1 Electrical Resistivity

“Electrical Resistivity is the physical property of a material, which is defined as the resistance
of the material to the passage of electrical current”. It is expressed as:
ρ= RA
L
Where R = Electrical Resistance (Ohms)
A = area of cross section (m2)
L = Length of Conductor (m)
= Electrical Resistivity (Ohm-m)
1.13.2 Electrical Profiling Method

Asst. Prof
1.13.2.1 Test Procedure
Four electrodes are placed in a straight line at equal distances as shown in Fig. 1.17. The
two outer electrodes are known as current electrodes and the inner electrodes are known
as potential electrodes. The mean resistivity of the strata is determined by applying a
direct current of 50 to 100 milli amperes between the two inner electrodes (here a null-
point circuit is used that requires no flow of current at the instant of measurement).
Fig. 1.17. Wenner arrangement
In a semi-infinite homogeneous isotropic material, the electrical resistivity, is given by
the formula: ρ= 2πa ∆iV
Where, a = distance
between electrodes (m)
V = potential drop between the inner electrodes i = current flowing between
the outer electrodes (Amps) a = Mean resistivity (Ohm-m)
The calculated value is the apparent resistivity, which is the weighted average of all
materials within the zone created by the electrical field of the electrodes. The depth of
material included in the measurement is approximately the same as the spacing between
the electrodes. The electrodes are moved as a group, and different profile lines are run

Asst. Prof
across the area. The test is repeated after changing the spacing (‘a’) and again
determining the mean resistivity with the new spacing.
It is necessary to make a preliminary trial on known formations, in order to be in a

position to interpret the resistivity data for knowing the nature and distribution of soil
formations.
1.13.2.2 Applications of Electrical Profiling method
This method is useful for establishing boundaries between different strata.
The method is generally used for locating sand and gravel deposits (or ore deposits)
withing a fine-grained soil deposit.
1.13.3 Electrical Sounding Method

1.13.3.1 Test procedure
In this method a centre location for the electrodes is selected. A series of resistivity
readings is obtained by gradually increasing the electrode spacing. As the depth of the
current penetration is equal to the electrode spacing, the changes in the mean resistivity
is correlated to the changes in strata at that location.

Asst. Prof
Fig. 1.18. Electrode

arrangement for electrical sounding method Table 1.8 Representative Resistivity
values (after Peck, et. Al., 1974)
SL.No Material Resistivity,

(Ohm-cm x 103)
1 Clay and saturated silt 0-10

Asst. Prof
2 Sandy clay and wet silty sand 10-25
3 Clayey sand 25-50

and saturated
sand
4 Sand 50-
150
5 Gravel 150-
500
6 Weathered rock 100-

200
7 Sound rock 150-

4000
1.13.3.2 Applications of Electrical Sounding method

This method is useful in studying the layering of materials.
The method is capable of indicating sub-surface conditions where a hard layer
underlies a soft layer and also the situation of a soft layer underlying a hard layer.
1.13.4 Limitations of Electrical Resistivity Methods

The methods are capable of detecting only the strata having different electrical resistivity.
The results are considerably influenced by surface irregularities, wetness of the strata and
electrolyte concentration of the ground water.
As the resistivity of different strata at the interface changes gradually and not abruptly as
assumed, then the interpolation becomes difficult.
The services of an expert in the field are needed
1.14 Boring Log
During soil exploration all suitable details are recorded and presented in a boring log.
Additional information consisting mainly of lab and field test result is added to complete the
boring log.

Asst. Prof
1.14.1 Details of Boring Log
The ground conditions discovered in each borehole are summarised in the form of a bore
log. The method of investigation and details of the equipment used should be stated on each
log.
The location, ground level and diameter of the hole should be specified. The names of the
client and the project should be mentioned.
1.14.2 Other Details of Boring Log

The soil profile with elevations of different strata.
Ground water level.
Termination level of the bore hole.
The depth at which samples were taken or at which in-situ tests were performed.
The type of soil samples.
N-values at the
measured elevation.
The results of important
laboratory tests

Asst. Prof
1.14.3 Typical Bore Log
Fig.1.19 Typical Boring Log

Asst. Prof
1.15 Soil Exploration Report
At the end of the soil exploration program, the soil and rock samples, collected from the field
are subjected to visual observation and laboratory tests. Then, a soil exploration report is
prepared for use by the planning and design office. Any soil exploration report should contain
the following information:
1. Scope of investigation
2. General description of the proposed structure for which the exploration has been
conducted
3. Geological conditions of the site
4. Drainage facilities at the site
5. Details of boring
6. Description of subsoil conditions as determined from the soil and rock samples
collected
7. Ground water table as observed from the boreholes
8. Details of foundation recommendations and alternatives
9. Any anticipated construction problems
10. Limitations of the investigation
The following graphic presentations also need to be attached to the soil exploration
report:
1. Site location map
2. Location of borings with respect to the proposed structure
3. Boring logs
4. Laboratory test results
5. Other special presentations
The boring log is the graphic representation of the details gathered from each borehole. Fig.
1.18 shows a typical boring log.

Asst. Prof
1.16 Typical past VTU Exam questions
1. What are the objectives of soil exploration [8 M – VTU – July/Aug 2002]
2. Distinguish between undisturbed, disturbed and representative sample of soil. What are
the tests conducted on these samples in the laboratory?
[8 M – VTU – July/Aug 2002]
3. Distinguish between undisturbed, disturbed and representative sample of soil. List the
category of lab tests for which each sample type is acceptable?
[8 M – VTU – Dec 08/Jan 09 – 1998 Scheme]
4. Explain briefly spacing and depth of boring adopted for various civil engineering
structures. [8 M – VTU – July/Aug 2003]
5. 2. List the methods of soil exploration . Describe with a neat sketch wash boring method
of soil exploration. [10 M – VTU –July 2006]
6. 3. Indicate number and depth of boring adopted for various civil engineering structures.
[6 M – VTU – Dec/Jan 2007]
7. List and explain various types of samplers.

[8 M – VTU – July/Aug 2003]
8. Determine the area ratios of the samplers of the following data and comment on the
values.
Diamete D Di
r o (mm)
(mm)
Split spoon 5 35
sampler 0
Drive tube 10 90
0
Shelby tube 5 47
0
Where, Do = Outside diameter of sampling tube
Di = Inside diameter of sampling tube [4 M – VTU – July/Aug 2003]

Asst. Prof
9. Explain with reference to soil samplers: Area ratio, Inside clearance ratio, outside
clearance ratio and recovery ratio. Indicate the recommended values of them for getting
good undisturbed soil samples. [8 M – VTU –Aug 2001]
10. Explain with respect to a sampling tube
i) Area ratio ii) Recovery ratio
iii) Outside clearance iv) Inside clearance
[6 M – VTU – Feb 2002] & [6 M – VTU –July/Aug 2005]
11. Describe Standard penetration test and its application in foundation engineering
[6 M – VTU – Feb 2002]
12. Write Short notes on SPT test
[5 M – VTU – July 2006; Dec/Jan 2007; July 2007]
13. Explain Standard penetration test [4 M – VTU – Dec 08/Jan09- 2002 Scheme]
14. In a seismic survey the following readings were obtained

Time (s) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55
Distance (m) 40 80 120 160 200 240 280
Geophones are fixed at 40 m in a straight line. Determine:
i) Wave velocity in soil layers ii) Thickness of top stratum

[8 M – VTU – Feb 2002]
15.

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Chidanand Jadar 10CV64

Civil Engg Dept. AIT-Bengaluru

1.3 Objectives of soil exploration program

Civil Engg Dept. AIT-Bengaluru

• aid material selection

Construction • to select suitable construction techniques

• to locate suitable transportation routes

Auditing • checking a site prior to sale/purchase

• determine reasons for poor behaviour

to observe the soil performance after

performance for future

Civil Engg Dept. AIT-Bengaluru

1.5 Phases of a Soils Investigation

Civil Engg Dept. AIT-Bengaluru

1.6 Soil Exploration Methods

Foundations of Multi-storeyed Buildings (IS: 1892, 1979)

Earth and rockfill Dams (IS: 6955, 1973)

Power House Sites (IS: 10060, 1981)

Canals and Cross Drainage Works (IS: 11385, 1985)

Ports and Harbours (IS: 4651 – Part 1, 1974)

1.6.1 Trial pits or test pits

Applicable to all types of soils

Provide for visual examination in their natural condition

Depth foinvestigation: limited to 3 to 3.5 m.

i) Cost effective ii) Provide detailed

Civil Engg Dept. AIT-Bengaluru

1.6.2 Exploratory borings

1.6.2.1 Location, spacing and depth of borings

The centre of the site

Other borings may be taken at least to significant stress level.

Civil Engg Dept. AIT-Bengaluru

According to IS 1892 (1979) Code of practice for subsurface investigation:

Multi-storey building 10-30 30-100

Industrial plant 20-60 60-200

Highway 250-500 800-1600

Residential 250-500 800-1600

1.6.3 Depth of Investigation

1.6.3.1 Guidelines for depth of investigation:

Civil Engg Dept. AIT-Bengaluru

2. Borings should penetrate at least 3 m into rock.

3. Other borings may be taken at least to significant stress level.

1.6.4 Significant depth

1.6.5 Methods of borings

1.6.5.1 Hand Auger

Civil Engg Dept. AIT-Bengaluru

Fig. 1.1 Augers Manual

Plate 1 Manual auger boring

Civil Engg Dept. AIT-Bengaluru

Civil Engg Dept. AIT-Bengaluru

Plate 2 Mechanical boring

Plate 3 Helical Auger Boring

1.6.6 Wash Boring

Civil Engg Dept. AIT-Bengaluru

Fig.1. 2 Wash Boring set up

Civil Engg Dept. AIT-Bengaluru

1.7.1.3 Type of soil samples

Civil Engg Dept. AIT-Bengaluru

1.7.1.5 Disturbed soil samples

1.7.1.6 Undisturbed soil samples