Prepared by:

Ridwan Abrar
B.Sc. in EEE (BUET)
Assistant Engineer R &D (Energypac Engineering Ltd.)

© All rights reserved

Note: Mark schemes from many different years have been combined
to produce a better answer where necessary

Salient features of this note:

* It is always updated with questions from recent past papers
* It deals mainly with questions from past papers and leaves out
unnecessary details
* List of difficult questions from past papers which will help you
with last minute revision
* Detailed explanation of the difficult questions

Syllabus changes:

Excluded from Old syllabus: Doppler effect

Added to new syllabus: Band theory

** Note that the Pulse echo technique is still in the new syllabus. It
frequently came along with the Doppler effect in the past, so make
sure you don’t leave that part out!

Waves

Longitudinal Wave
Prepared by Ridwan Abrar
The vibrations/ oscillations/ movement of the molecules is parallel
to/ along same line as energy/ wave travels/ in the same direction as
the wave travels.

To remember the different regions of the electromagnetic spectra:

Rich Man in London use xtra gold
I wait on dance floor

The waves slow down in a denser medium like water or glass.

Sometimes when a wave travels through a medium, different
wavelengths travel at different speed, this is called dispersion because
the waves spread out.

Displacement is the distance from the center of oscillation to the rope.

It is a vector so a trough is negative. The maximum displacement
occurs at a peak or a trough of the wave. It is called the amplitude of
the wave

Bigger amplitude waves carry more energy. The energy is directly

proportional to amplitude2

A ray is a very narrow band of waves and is drawn as a straight line in

the direction of movement of the wave.

Light is refracted because it slows down or speeds up.

One medium to another: relative refractive index; vacuum to another

medium: absolute refractive index

A refractive index of less than 1 means that light is speeding up, so it is

refracting away from the normal.
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Frequency: Number of cycles/ oscillations/ waves per second/ per
unit time OR number of cycles/ oscillations/ waves passing a point
per second

Refraction:
change in direction/ wavelength (of wave/ ray/ light) (1)
(when entering a medium where) the wave has a different velocity
OR (when entering a medium where) the density is different (1)
the light travels at a lower speed in the air than in a vacuum (1)

Critical angle:
It is the smallest angle of incidence for which light travelling from a
denser medium to less dense medium, is not refracted or travels along
the edge of the surface.
Or, It is the angle beyond which total internal reflection occurs

Conditions for Total internal reflection

● When light travels from a denser to less dense medium
● the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, then total
internal reflection takes place.
● No light is refracted, all light is reflected back into the denser
medium.

The student increases the angle x in glass and finds that eventually
the light does not pass into the air. Explain this observation.
● As x increases, y increases
● OR At a certain angle or critical angle, y = 90o./ the light travels
along the boundary (do not allow reflects at 90o)
● For angles greater than the critical angle in glass, total internal
reflection occurs

Prepared by Ridwan Abrar

Changes in density or concentration will change the refractive index

Two rays have same frequency/ come from same source/ are
coherent
Path difference (between the two reflected rays)
They superpose when they meet/ constructive and destructive
interference occurs
If they meet in phase, constructive interference/ bright fringe
If they meet in antiphase, destructive interference/ dark fringe

Coherent
It means the two sources emit waves of:
i) Same frequency
ii) Zero or constant phase difference

Standing wave
No net transfer of energy or pattern of nodes/antinodes or points of
maximum displacement and zero displacement

Superposition along PQ [central maxima in Young’s double slit]

Constructive interference/ reinforcement/ waves of larger amplitude
Crests from S1 and S2 coincide
Amplitude is the sum of individual amplitudes

Node
Zero (or minimum) vibration/ amplitude because of destructive
interference

Antinode
Maximum amplitude because of constructive interference

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Difference between progressive waves and stationary waves
1. Progressive waves transfer energy at all points. Stationary waves
have nodes/ energy trapped between nodes
2. Progressive: all points have same amplitude, Stationary: points
between successive node and antinode have different amplitudes
3. Progressive: neighbouring points are not in phase, Stationary:
points between successive nodes are in phase

Explanation of refraction taking place

Change in speed/ density/ wavelength

How do sound waves travel through air?

Sound waves are longitudinal waves
Air molecules vibrate
Parallel to the direction of travel of the wave
In a series of compressions and rarefactions

State what happens to the following properties as the light goes from
the air into the glass.
● Frequency unchanged
● Wavelength decreases
● Speed decreases

About 100 years ago X-rays were used in hospitals. At that time, many
of the doctors who worked with X-rays died young. Explain why this
occurred and the implications it has for the use of new technology
today.
● It was known that X-ray penetrated
● it was not known that X rays were harmful
● Doctors died because of too much exposure
● lack of shielding

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 ● new treatments may have unknown side effects
● treatments need to be tested/ time allowed for side effects to
appear

From Student Book

Describe how a student could use a graph to verify the equation.

Plot a graph of v against √ ❑
Graph should be a straight line through origin
Statement of what gradient equals (consistent with what has been plotted)
(For this experiment μis a constant. A graph using the variable μcan score max 1 mark for the correct
gradient)

Animals detect infrasound/ lower frequencies than humans/ vibrations through the ground.
Infrasound travels faster than the tidal wave.

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The answer is B.

When the incident angle is greater than the critical angle, all light is
reflected back into the semi-circular block. When the incident angle is
less than the critical angle, some light is reflected and some is
refracted (i.e. transmitted to the air)

Why microwaves are reflected

Wave is reflected when passing from one medium to another/ when
density changes/ when speed changes

Varying amplitude

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Varying differences in density of the two mediums produce different
intensities of signal
Different distances travelled give different amplitudes
Following a reflection there is less energy available

Varying time
Different thicknesses of medium

Superposition/ Interference
Ready Meals that can be prepared in a microwave oven always have
the instruction that the food should be stirred properly before eating.
This is because ‘hot and cold spots’ within the oven lead to uneven
heating of the food. A microwave source within the oven emits
coherent waves in all directions. The waves are reflected off the walls
and so the microwaves arrive at one spot by several different routes.
The waves interfere with each other and set up standing waves.
(b) The diagram shows the path of two microwaves arriving at point S.

The wavelength of the two microwaves is 12 cm.

Explain why S is a ‘cold’ spot. Assume that no other microwaves
arrive at this point. (4)
● Calculation to show a path of 24 cm or 42 cm OR paths of 2 λ and
3.5 λ
1
● path difference is 1 2 λOR divide path difference by 12

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 ● Waves at X in antiphase/ 180o out of phase/ π radians out of
phase/ destructive interference

Example of answer
One path length = 18 cm + 6 cm = 24 cm
Other path length = 30 cm + 12 cm = 42 cm
Path difference = 42 cm - 24 cm = 18 cm
Number of wavelengths = 18/12 = 1.5

(c) Uneven heating can be reduced by placing the food on a rotating

turntable. Explain why this will reduce the uneven heating of the food.
Food moves through cold and hot spots
● Over time period all parts of food receive similar amount of
energy

Noise cancelling headphones were first invented to cancel the noise in

aeroplane and helicopter cockpits. They work using the principle of
superposition of waves. Sound waves enter and pass through the
headphone and are detected by a microphone. An electronic circuit
sends a signal to the loudspeaker so that it produces an ‘opposite
wave.’
Compare the properties of the two sound waves necessary to produce
complete cancellation of the two waves that reach the ear.
Waves must have the same frequency/ wavelength (1)
Waves must have same amplitude (1)
Waves must be 180o, ½ wavelength, half a cycle, π radians apart / in
antiphase (1)

In practice the incoming sound is reduced in volume rather than

cancelled completely. Noise-cancelling headphones work well when

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the noise is from a jet engine. They are not very effective at
cancelling speech or music. Explain why.
Noise of a vibrating object has a constant pitch/ frequency (1)
Speech/ sound varies in pitch and/or amplitude (1)
The idea of the difficulty of matching a changing signal (1)

Resonance in a tuning fork

For loud sound, resonance must occur which takes place when natural
frequency of the air column is equal to the frequency of the tuning
fork or the driver. When length is altered, natural frequency changes
and resonance does not occur.

Diffraction

Diffraction is the spreading of waves;

As it passes through an aperture/ around an obstacle

Diffraction is the change in direction of a wave or shape or wavefront

(1) when the wave passes an obstacle or gap (1)

Why do electrons go through substantial diffraction?

The wavelength of electrons = the spacing or gap between atoms

Photon: Photon is a discrete package/packet/ quantum of

(electromagnetic) energy or particle of light

Meaning of superposition
When vibrations/ disturbances/ waves from 2 or more sources
coincide at same position
Resultant displacement = sum of displacements due to individual
waves

Prepared by Ridwan Abrar

Explanation of formation of a standing wave
Or Standing wave due to a loudspeaker and a metal sheet
Or How nodes and antinodes are produced
Superposition of incident and reflected waves
Interference (pattern) produced/ superposition occurs/ standing
wave formed
Maxima related to constructive interference/ antinode or minima
related to destructive interference/node
Maxima/antinode formed when waves are in phase or path difference
= n*(lambda)
Minima/nodes formed when waves are in antiphase or path
difference= (n+½)*lambda
(out of phase is not sufficient)

Why does minima never have a 0 value?

(Minima never zero) because there is no complete cancellation/
overall displacement is not zero/ not total destructive interference
Because the waves have different amplitude/ amplitude decreases
with distance
Or, Energy loss due to reflection or spreading out
Or, Reflection off other surfaces

As the microphone is moved towards the metal plate, the amplitude

of minima gradually decreases. Why?
As the microphone moves towards the plate, the path difference
decreases.
Amplitude (of waves) get smaller

Why sitting at a node is such a big problem.

Prepared by Ridwan Abrar

Reflected wave not as strong as incident wave or walls are covered to
reduce reflections or waves arrive from elsewhere
(reflections/different speakers) Or such positions depend on
wavelength/ frequency

Condition for diffraction

The atoms are ordered and the gaps between layers are approximately
equal to the wavelength of the electron beam. (2)

If electrons can diffract, it shows that electrons behave as waves.

Polarisation

What is unpolarised light and polarised light

Unpolarised light oscillates/ vibrates in many planes/directions while
polarised light oscillates or vibrates in one plane/ direction only

Polarised light
vibrations/oscillations(1)
In one plane only (1)

Explain with the help of a diagram why transverse waves can be plane
polarised but longitudinal waves cannot.
Transverse waves oscillate in any direction perpendicular to wave
direction;
Longitudinal waves oscillate in one direction only OR parallel to wave
direction;
Polarisation reduces wave intensity by limiting oscillations and wave
direction to only one plane OR limiting oscillations to one direction
only

State why sound waves cannot be polarised.

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Sound is a longitudinal wave/ sound is not a transverse wave/
oscillations in one direction already/ only transverse waves can be
polarised.

Explain how polaroid sunglasses can enable the fish to be seen under
water.
Filters at 90 degrees to the polarised/ reflected light
Sunglasses cut out the reflected/ polarised light
But not the light from the fish/ the light from the fish is unpolarised

When a ray of light from the Sun is incident on a block of ice, most of
the light is refracted into the ice. Some of it is reflected. The light that
is reflected is partially plane polarised. Describe a test to confirm that
the reflected ray is partially plane polarised.
Reflected light or light from ice is partially polarised
Polarising filters are at right angles to the plane of polarisation of light

A student looks at the sunlight reflected off a puddle of water. She puts
a polarising (polaroid) filter in front of her eye. As she rotates the filter,
the puddle appears darker then lighter. Explain this observation.
Reflected light is polarised
Polarised light vibrates/ oscillates in one plane/direction
Polaroid filter only allows vibrations/ oscillations in one direction to
pass through
When planes are parallel, puddle appears light or when perpendicular,
puddle appears dark

Polaroid experiment/ Describe with the aid of a diagram how you

could demonstrate that light can be polarised.
● Named light source + polaroid (OR polariser OR polarising
filter) /Laser/ Named light source and suitable reflector e.g.
bench

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 ● 2nd polaroid plus means to detect the transmitted light (i.e. eye
or screen or LDR or light detector or instruction to e.g. look
through polaroids)
● Rotate one polaroid
● Detected intensity varies/ no light when polaroids are at 90
degrees
● Maxima and minima 90 degrees apart/ no light when polaroids
are at 90 degrees

Polarisation by chemical solutions

The amount of concentration of the sugar solution depends on the
angle to which it rotates the polarisation of the light. We can use
polaroid filters to analyse the strength of the sugar solution, by
measuring the angle at which the light polarisation emerges after
passing through the solution.

The degree of polarisation of a particular wavelength (colour) depends

on the concentration of the solution, and how far the light had to pass
through it. This gives rise to changing colours seen along the length of
the tube of sugar solution.

When oil floats on water, coloured interference patterns are often

seen. The interference patterns are formed because of the thin film of
oil. A thin film of oil can also produce interference patterns with
monochromatic light. The diagram shows light from a monochromatic
source, incident on a thin film of oil.
Explain why interference patterns may be seen. (5)

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 ● Identifies two rays of light
● Two rays have same frequency / come from same source/ are coherent
● Path difference (between the two reflected rays)
● They superpose when they meet / constructive and destructive interference occur
● If they meet in phase/ n λ / λ path difference, constructive interference/ bright fringe
● If they meet in antiphase / (n+½ λ ¿ / ½ λ path difference, destructive interference/ dark fringe

If you look into a fish pond on a bright sunny day, you sometimes cannot see the fish because of
the glare of light reflected off the surface. When the sunlight is reflected off the surface of the
water it is partially plane polarised.

SOUND
Describe how sound waves travel through air.
● Sound waves are longitudinal waves
● Air molecules vibrate
● Parallel to the direction of travel of the wave
● In a series of compressions and rarefactions

Measuring the speed of sound

Measure separation between adjacent nodes/antinodes and double to
get wavelength
Frequency known from/ produced by signal generator or measure on
CRO/ by digital frequency meter
Details on measurement of wavelength or frequency e.g. measure
several (if a number specified, then greater than or equal to 3) node
spacings and divide by the number (not one several times) or several
periods on the CRO and divide by the number Or adjust CRO so only
full wave on screen

Explain why ultrasound is transmitted in pulses.

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One pulse must return before the next is sent
Or So that time interval between transmitted and received pulses can be measured
Or No overlap between pulses
Or Allow time for reflection before next pulse to be transmitted
● To prevent interference between transmitted and reflected signals
● A continuous signal can’t be used for timing
● Can’t transmit/receive at the same time

High pulse rate (This question was probably about a bat detecting its prey. When the bat comes
closer to the prey, it increases the pulse rate.)
Greater accuracy in detection of prey’s motion/ position/ continuous monitoring/ more frequent monitoring

Give one property of X-rays which makes them more hazardous to use than ultrasound.
X ray causes ionisation Or can damage DNA/ cells/ tissues

Suggest one reason why ultrasound rather than X-rays is now used to scan expectant mothers.
X ray damages cells/ tissues/ foetus/ baby but ultrasound does not

Infrasound: Frequencies below the audible range for humans is called infrasounds. Infrasound is
produced by earthquakes.

In 2004, a huge earthquake produced a very large tidal wave which swept across the Indian Ocean
towards Sri Lanka. Many large animals in Sri Lanka moved away from the coast before the tidal
wave hit. Suggest a reason for the animals behaving this way.
Animals detect infrasound/ lower frequencies than humans/ vibrations through the ground
Infrasound travels faster than the tidal wave

State two other differences between X-rays and ultrasound

1. X rays transverse, US longitudinal; or X rays can be polarised, US

can’t
2. X rays travel in vacuum, US doesn’t
3. X rays electromagnetic, US mechanical
4. X rays have much higher f / shorter wavelength/ higher speed

Why can’t sound waves be polarised?

Sound is a longitudinal wave or Sound is not a transverse wave Or
Oscillations in one direction already Or Only transverse waves can be
polarised

Prepared by Ridwan Abrar

Compare the properties of two sound waves necessary to produce
complete cancellation of the two waves that reach the ear.
Waves must have same frequency or wavelength
Waves must have same amplitude
Waves must be 180 degrees apart or in antiphase

X-rays treatment
It was known that X-ray penetrated
It was not known that X-rays were harmful
Doctors died because of too much exposure
Lack of shielding
New treatments may have unknown side effects
Treatments need to be tested/ time allowed for side effects to appear

Ultrasound
High frequency sound/ sound above human hearing range/ sound above
20kHz/ sound too high for humans to hear

The diagram shows an experiment with sound waves.

A loudspeaker is connected to a signal generator. A microphone is connected to an oscilloscope.

Sound waves reach the microphone directly from the loudspeaker and after reflection from the
metal plate.

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As the microphone is moved towards the loudspeaker, the amplitude of the wave displayed on the
oscilloscope varies through a series of maxima and minima.
(a) Explain why the amplitude of the sound varies in this way. (4 marks)
● Interference pattern produced/ superposition occurs/ standing wave formed
● Maxima related to constructive interference/ antinode and/or minima related to destructive
interference/ node
● Maxima/ antinode formed when the waves are in phase/ path difference n λ
1
● Minima/ nodes formed when the waves are in antiphase/ path difference = (n+ λ)
2
● [out of phase is not sufficient]

(c) The microphone is placed close to the loudspeaker and is gradually moved towards the metal
plate. The graph shows how the amplitude of the wave displayed on the oscilloscope varies with
the position of the microphone.

(i) Explain why the minima never have a zero value.

● minima never zero because there is not complete cancellation/ overall displacement is
not zero/ not total destructive interference
● Because the waves have different amplitudes. amplitudes decrease with distance
● OR energy loss due to reflection or spreading out
● OR reflection off other surfaces
● as the microphone moves towards the plate, the path difference decreases
● amplitude of waves get similar

Prepared by Ridwan Abrar

Pulse echo technique

A sonic tape uses ultrasound to measure distances in buildings. It sends pulses of ultrasound
towards a distant wall and records the time interval between a pulse being sent and its return.
speed × time
To measure distance, distance =
2

The time interval before the echo returns from the interface D is 250 s. Suggest why this time
interval will make reflections from D difficult to interpret and what could be done to overcome this
problem.
● Time for pulse to return greater than pulse interval
● All reflections need to reach transducer before next pulse is sent
● Will result in an accurate image
● Need to decrease the frequency of the ultrasound

Particle nature of light

Particle theory
1. Reference to E=hf or quanta of energy/packet of energy
2. Increased f means more energy of photon
3. Release of electron requires minimum energy/work function
4. One photon releases one electron
5. Greater energy of photon means greater KE of electrons
6. More intense light means more photons, therefore more
electrons

Wave Theory

1. Wave energy depends on intensity

2. More intense light should give greater K.E. of electrons
3. Energy is spread over the whole wave
4. If exposed for long enough photons eventually released, doesn’t
happen

Work Function

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Minimum amount of energy that a surface electron needs to break
free/ be released

How did considering light as a photon explain why electrons could be

emitted instantly from a metal surface?
The energy of the wave is concentrated into a photon
One photon gives all its energy to one electron.

Why does this effect only happen when light is above a certain
frequency?
● Energy of photon increases as frequency increases or E=hf
● Electrons require a certain amount of energy to break free and
this corresponds to a minimum frequency

Explanation of absorption line

Light of this wavelength is absorbed by hydrogen
In the outer part of Sun or Sun’s atmosphere
Absorbed radiation is re-emitted in all directions
Transition from B to C

Meaning of stopping potential

Minimum potential difference between C and A/ across the
photocell(1)
Which reduces current to zero OR stops electrons reaching A/
crossing the gap/ crossing photocell(1)

Photocell when Vs is applied to it

Light (Or radiation Or photons) release electrons from cathode
● Photon energy is greater than work function/ frequency of light>
threshold frequency/wavelength of light is shorter than the
threshold wavelength

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 ● PD slows down the electrons (OR opposes their motion OR
creates creates a potential barrier OR means they need energy to
cross the gap)
● Electrons have a range of energies/ With the PD, fewer (Or not at
all) have enough (kinetic) energy (Or are fast enough) to cross the
gap
● Fewer electrons reach anode/ cross the gap

Why is the current 0 at Vs??

● (At or above Vs) no electrons reach the anode/ cross the gap
● Electrons have a maximum kinetic energy/ no electrons have
enough energy (OR are fast enough) to cross

Explain how vapour emits light

● Electrons excited to higher energy levels
● As they fall they emit photons/electromagnetic
radiation/waves/energy

Meaning of spectral lines

● (when the light is split up) each frequency/ wavelength/ photon
energy is seen as a separate/ discrete line (of a different colour)

Explanation of different colours

● Different colours = different freq/ wavelengths/ photons of
different energies
● Photon energy/ frequency/ wavelength depends on difference
between energy levels
● Diff atoms have diff energy levels/ diff difference in levels

Energy level
● Specific allowed energy/ energies (of electron in an atom)

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Photon
● Quantum/ packet/ particle of energy/ radiation/ light/
electromagnetic wave

Explanation of ‘excited’
● Electrons/ atoms gain energy
● And electrons move to higher (energy) levels

Explanation of how radiation emitted by mercury atoms

● Electrons (lose energy as they) drop to lower energy levels
● Emit photons/ electromagnetic radiation

Explanation of why only certain wavelengths are emitted

● Wavelength of photon depends on energy
● Photon energy depends on difference in energy levels
● Levels discrete/ only certain difference/ photon energies possible (and therefore certain
wavelengths)

Why threshold frequency is needed

● Electron requires certain amount of energy to escape from the surface
● This energy comes from one photon of light
● E = hf

What eVs tells us?

● Maximum
● Kinetic energy of the electrons

Example of light behaving as a wave

● Diffraction
● Refraction
● Interference
● polarisation

Explanation of black lines in the absorption spectrum

● (the atoms) of gases in the atmosphere contain electrons

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 ● electrons absorb photons from the sunlight
● electron moves to higher energy level
● the energy levels (of electrons) are discrete
Or only certain energy levels are possible
● The energy of the photons must be equal to the difference in
energy levels
Or hf = E2 - E1
● There are only a limited number of energy differences and only a
corresponding number of black lines

Photoelectric experiment using gold leaf electroscope:

● Photons of ultraviolet light
● results in electrons being emitted from surface of zinc
● So electroscope loses charge and leaf falls
Wave model and intensity claims
● Wave energy depends on intensity
● Energy is spread over whole wave
● The wave model suggests that if exposed for long enough
electrons would eventually be released but this does not happen

Electricity

P.D.

P.d. is electrical energy transferred between two points/ electrical

energy transformed/ converted to other forms

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Potential difference between two points is defined as the work done to
move 1 Coulomb charge between the two points.

EMF

Emf is the energy supplied to the circuit/ given to a charge/ energy

output of the cell

EMF as a source of electrical energy and potential difference as a sink

of electrical energy

EMF is the energy conversion or work done per unit charge

n = number of charge carriers per unit volume

v= drift velocity of electrons

Ohm’s Law
● Current through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference/voltage
across it
● Provided that the temperature of the conductor remains constant/ external conditions
remain constant

The filament of a lamp is made of metal. Explain why the lamp does not demonstrate
Ohm’s Law.
● Filament lamp works at high temperatures Or As temperature of filament increases Or
As Lamp heats up
● Resistance of the conductor changes or the ions vibrate more
{You may go for a more detailed explanation using I = nAvq}

State and explain what happens to the resistance of a sample of silicon as the
temperature increase.

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Its resistance decreases because as temperature increases, n increases

Resistivity is a constant for the material/metal

Resistance depends on (resistivity) and length/area

Temperature of a wire increases. Explain what happens to the drift

velocity of the electrons if the pd remains constant.

Increase lattice/ ions/ atomic vibrations

Causing resistance to increase or increased collisions with ions/
atoms
This leads to a reduction in the drift velocity

Fluorescent vs filament lamp

Fluorescent lamp much more efficient or filament lamp(ager din er

yellow lights :v) less efficient
Sensible attempt to process the values given
Indication that less than 25% of national power used for lighting
Reduction in wasted energy as thermal energy
Reduction in CO2 emission or preserves fossil fuel resources

Uses of Diode or LED (Light Emitting Diode)

1. Rectification/ AC to DC
2. Preventing earth leakage
3. Stabilising power output
4. To protect components
5. A named use of LED if LED is linked to a component in a) (e.g.
calculator display or torch)
6. A voltage controlled switch (allows current in only one direction)

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Ideal voltmeter
Ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance or extremely high resistance or
highest possible R or much larger resistance than that of component it
is connected across

Current through voltmeter is zero (negligible) or doesn’t reduce

resistance of the circuit or doesn’t reduce the p.d. It is meant to be
measuring

Voltmeter in parallel or across component or it provides alternative

path

Ideal Ammeter
Resistance of the ammeter is zero.
Current passes through ammeter or ammeter in series with circuit
P.d. or power loss across ammeter needs to be zero or negligible or
very small or it does not reduce the current it is measuring

We usually assume that ammeters have negligible resistance and

voltmeters have infinite resistance.

The determination of ϵ and r is not affected by using an ammeter

with non-negligible resistance but is affected by using a voltmeter
with low resistance.

Explain why. (4 marks) (GCE June 13 Q17)

Ammeter explanation:
If ammeter has resistance, current decreased (1)

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but doesn’t affect the determination because current through cell/ r is
measured
Or
doesn’t affect the determination because the voltmeter measures the
terminal p.d. for that current

OR
The resistance of the ammeter contributes to the load/ circuit/ total
resistance (1)
Values of p.d. corresponding to given values of current will be
unchanged (1)

Voltmeter explanation:
If voltmeter has smaller resistance, it would draw current (1)
measured current not current through cell/ r (1)

Filament lamp

Graph:
+I, +V quadrant; curve through origin with decreasing gradient
-I, -V quadrant; reasonably accurate rotation of +I, +V quadrant

Shape of graph:
As current and voltage increases, temperature of the lamp increases/ lamp heats up
Leading to increase in resistance of lamp
Rate of increase in current decreases or equal increase in V leads to smaller increase in I

Graphs of current against voltage versus voltage against current

If I against V graph is plotted, then the gradient of the graph = 1/R
If V against I graph is plotted, then the gradient of the graph = R.

Two pieces of wire A and B are made of the same material but have different diameters.
They are connected in series with each other and a power supply. (i) Which terms from
the equation I = nAvq will be the same for both wires?

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N, I and q

Resistivity drop advantage:

Less heating/ less energy lost/ greater efficiency/lower voltage needed/ less power lost

Filament in a filament lamp, and how it reacts to high temperature during switching on
● Initially the temperature is low, so current is high
● Resistance of filament increases as temperature increases
● Current falls to steady value when temperature is constant
● Maximum heating is when lamp is switched on/ when current is highest
● Filament breaks due to melting caused by temperature rise

For the lamp

● Increased atomic vibrations reduce the movement of electrons
● So drift velocity of electrons decreases
● According to I = nAvq, current through the lamp decreases
● So resistance of the lamp increases with increase in temperature

For thermistor/ light dependent resistor (any semiconductor material basically)

● Increased atomic vibrations again reduce the movement of electrons
● Drift velocity, v decreases
● But increase in temperature leads to a large increase in n
● This is because more electrons from the valence band move to the conduction band
● The decrease in drift velocity, v is offset by the large increase in n
● So according to I = nAvq, current increases. A & q remains constant
● So overall the resistance of the thermistor decreases with increase in temperature, provided the
pd remains constant

** For LDR, use energy from light instead of temperature as a point

Heater and cooler using the concepts of potential divider:

Prepared by Ridwan Abrar

Make sure you’re not confused with ‘n’ and ‘N’:

Prepared by Ridwan Abrar