Combined RM

1
Module Name: Research Methodologies

Module Leader: Dr Roshni Paul
RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES
A Demonstrate an understanding of research methodology and frameworks relevant to the conduct
of business research.
B Assess the suitability of research tools and techniques and the limitations of quantitative and
qualitative research
C Understand the use of research and its applications to business needs

D Interpret research reports and output derive insights from them
E Prepare a sample questionnaire, collect data and communicate the analysis via a research report
F Plan and coordinate work independently and in teams, to meet deadlines, delivery styles and
specified quality standards.
G Prepare a sample research proposal responsibly and with due consideration of various ethical
principles of research
RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES 2
§B
SECTION 1
Business research is defined as
‘the systematic and objective
process of generating information
for aid in making business
decisions.’
§ Research information is neither intuitive nor haphazardly gathered.
§ Literally, research (re-search) -“search again”
§ Business research must be objective
§ Detached and impersonal rather than biased

§ It facilitates the managerial decision process for all aspects of a business.
I don’t know!
What
decision
should
I make?
§B
SECTION 2
§ First step
§ Problem, opportunity, or monitor operations

§ Discovery before definition
§ Problem means management problem

Albert Einstein
10
SECTION 3
§ The indication of a specific business decision area that will be clarified by
answering some research questions.
Defining Problem Results in
Clear Cut Research Objectives
Symptom Detection
Analysis of
the Situation
Exploratory
Research
(Optional)
Problem Definition
Statement of
Research Objectives
The Process of
Problem Definition
Ascertain the Determine unit of
decision maker’s analysis
objectives
Understand Determine
background of relevant variables
the problem
Isolate/identify State research

the problem, not questions and
the symptoms objectives
§ Decision makers’ objectives
§ Managerial goals expressed in measurable terms.
14
§ The principle indicating that the dangerous part of many
business problems is neither visible to nor understood by
managers.
§ Exercising judgment
§ Situation analysis - The informal gathering of background information to familiarize

researchers or managers with the decision area.
16
§ Symptoms can be confusing
17
Twenty-year-old neighborhood swimming association:
§ Membership has been declining for years.
§ New water park -residents prefer the expensive water park????
§ Demographic changes: Children have grown up

Problem Definition
Organization Symptoms Based on Symptom True

Problem
Twenty- Membership Neighborhood Demographic

year-old has been residents changes:
neighborho declining for prefer the Children in this
od years. New expensive 20-year-old
swimming water park with water park neighborhood
association wave pool and and have have grown up.
in a major water slides negative Older residents
city. moved into image of no longer swim
town a few swimming anywhere.
years ago. pool.
TOTI
EMUL
ESTO
TOTI
EMUL
ESTO
22
The Process of
Problem Definition
Ascertain the Determine unit of
decision maker’s analysis
objectives
Understand Determine
background of relevant variables
the problem
Isolate/identify State research

the problem, not questions and
the symptoms objectives
Broad research Statement of Exploratory
objectives business problem research
(optional)
Specific Specific Specific

Objective 1 Objective 2 Objective 3
Research Design
Results
§ Artemus Ward
27
SECTION 3
BASIC RESEARCH
APPLIED RESEARCH
EVALUATION RESEARCH
PERFORMANCE-MONITORING
RESEARCH
§ Attempts to expand the limits of knowledge.
§ Not directly involved in the solution to a pragmatic problem.
§ Is executive success correlated with high need for achievement?
§ Are members of highly cohesive work groups more satisfied than members of less
cohesive work groups?
§ Do consumers experience cognitive dissonance in low-involvement situations?
"The secret of success is to know
something nobody else knows. "
Aristotle Onassis
§ Conducted when a decision must be made about a specific real-life problem
§ Should McDonalds add Italian pasta dinners to its menu?
§ Business research told McDonald’s it should not?
§ Should Procter & Gamble add a high-priced home teeth bleaching kit to its product
line?
§ Research showed Crest Whitestrips would sell well at a retail price of $44
§ Evaluation research is the formal, objective measurement and appraisal of the
extent to which a given activity, project, or program has achieved its objectives.
§ Research that regularly provides feedback for evaluation and control
§ Indicates things are or are not going as planned
§ Research may be required to explain why something “went wrong”
TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT (TQM)
§ A business philosophy that embodies the belief that the management process
must focus on integrating customer-driven quality throughout the organization.
§ Stresses continuous improvement of product quality and service.
§ Managers improve durability and enhance features as the product ages.

§ Managers strive to improve delivery and other services to keep their companies
competitive
§ Business Research is increasingly global
§ Market knowledge is essential
§ General information about country - economic conditions and political climate
§ Cultural and consumer factors

§ Market and competitive conditions - demand estimation
CAUSAL OR COMPLETELY ABSOLUTE EXPLORATORY
DESCRIPTIVE CERTAIN AMBIGUITY
§ Exploratory
§ Descriptive
§ Causal
CAUSAL OR COMPLETELY ABSOLUTE EXPLORATORY
DESCRIPTIVE CERTAIN AMBIGUITY
Exploratory Research Descriptive Research Causal Research
(Unaware of Problem) (Aware of Problem) (Problem Clearly Defined)
“Our sales are declining and “What kind of people are buying “Will buyers purchase more of
possible situation
we don’t know why.” our product? Who buys our our products in a new package?
competitor’s product?”
“Would people be interested “Which of two advertising
in our new product idea?” “What features do buyers prefer campaigns is more effective?”
in our product?”
Exploratory Research
Secondary data
Experience survey
Pilot studies
44
§ Initial research conducted to clarify and define the nature of a problem
§ Does not provide conclusive evidence

§ Subsequent research expected
§ Describes characteristics of a population or phenomenon
§ Some understanding of the nature of the problem

I keep six honest serving men, (they taught me all I
knew), their names are
what, and why, and when, and how,

and where and who.”
--Rudyard Kipling
47
§ Weight Watchers average customer
§ Woman about 40 years old

§ Household income of about $50,000
§ At least some college education

§ Trying to juggle children and a job
§ Men’s fragrance market
§ 1/3 size of women’s fragrance market

§ But growing at a faster pace
§ Women buy 80 % of men’s fragrances

§ Conducted to identify cause and effect relationships
§ A causal relationship is impossible to prove.
§ Evidence of causality:
§ 1. The appropriate causal order of events
§ 2. Concomitant variation--two phenomena vary together
§ 3. An absence of alternative plausible explanations
52
SECTION 4
§ The analysis and interpretation of empirical evidence (facts from observation or
experimentation) to confirm or disprove prior conceptions.
§ Identifying problems and opportunities
§ Diagnosis and assessment
§ Selecting and implementing a course of action

§ Evaluating the course of action
§ Time constraints
§ Availability of data
§ Nature of the decision
§ Benefits versus costs
Benefits vs.
Time Constraints Availability of Data Nature of the Decision Costs
Is the infor- Does the value
Is sufficient time Is the decision Conducting
Yes mation already Yes Yes of the research Yes
available before of considerable
a managerial
on hand
strategic
information Business
inadequate exceed the cost
decision
for making
or tactical
of conducting Research
must be made? importance?
the decision? research?
No No No No
Do Not Conduct Business Research
57
SECTION 5
There is a relationship between research and business decisions.
Businesses of all sizes engage in research to improve and expand themselves.
For small businesses, and startups, research is an important step toward their long-
term success.
Research is important for managerial decision making.
§ Business research helps in overall business decision making and business strategy. .
§ Assessment about competitors
§ Adopting a suitable marker approach for a product
§ Research is also possibly applied to develop strategies for marketing, finance, IT,
and Human resources.
§ Therefore, research becomes a necessity at all stages and phases of business
operations.
§ General Business Conditions and Corporate Research
§ Financial and Accounting Research
§ Management and Organizational Behavior Research
§ Sales and Marketing Research
§ Information Systems Research
§ Corporate Responsibility Research
§ Potential Value of a Business Research Effort Should Exceed Its Estimated Costs
Costs
Value •Research
expenditures
•Decreased certainty •Delay of business
•Increased likelihood decision and
of a correct decision possible disclosure
•Improved business
of information to
performance and rivals
resulting higher •Possible erroneous
profits research results
§ Cross-functional teams are composed of individuals from various organizational
departments such as engineering, production, finance, and marketing who share a
common purpose.
§ Increased globalization
§ Growth of the Internet and other information technologies
64
SECTION 6
§ Business research helps to identify opportunities and threats.
§ It helps identify research problems, and using this information, wise decisions can be made
to tackle the issue appropriately.
§ It helps to understand customers better and hence can be useful to communicate better with
the customers or stakeholders.
§ Risks and uncertainties can be minimized by conducting business research in advance.
§ Financial outcomes and investments that will be needed can be planned effectively using
business research.
§ Such research can help track competition in the business sector.
§ Business research can enable a company to make wise decisions as to where to spend and
how much.
§ Business research can enable a company to stay up-to-date with the market and its trends,
and appropriate innovations can be made to stay ahead in the game.
§ Business research helps to measure reputation management
§ Business research can be a high-cost affair
§ Most of the time, business research is based on assumptions
§ Business research can be time-consuming
§ Business research can sometimes give you inaccurate information because of a

biased population or a small focus group.
§ Business research results can quickly become obsolete because of the fast-
changing markets
§ Business research is one of the most effective ways to understand customers, the
market, and competitors.
§ Research will help businesses reduce costs and create solutions or products that are
targeted to the demand in the market and the correct audience.
§ In-house business research can enable senior management to build an effective team
or train or mentor when needed.
§ Business research enables the company to track its competitors and hence can give
you the upper hand to stay ahead of them.
§ Failures can be avoided by conducting such research as it can give the researcher an
idea if the time is right to launch its product/solution and also if the audience is right.
§ It will help understand the brand value and measure customer satisfaction which is
essential to continuously innovate and meet customer demands.
§ This will help the company grow its revenue and market share. Business research also
helps recruit ideal candidates for various roles in the company.
§ Bougie, R., & Sekaran, U. (2019). Research methods for business: A skill building approach.
John Wiley & Sons.
§ Zikmund, W. G., Babin, B. J., Carr, J. C., Adhikari, A., & Griffin, M. (2013). Business Research
Methods A South-asian Perspective: Cengage Learning.
§ Bhat, A. (2018, November 14). Business Research: Methods, Types & Examples |
QuestionPro. QuestionPro. https://www.questionpro.com/blog/business-research/
§ Research Limitations - Research-Methodology. (n.d.). Research-Methodology.
https://research-methodology.net/research-methods/research-limitations/
1

3
SECTION 1
§ Research process includes the way in which research is conducted.
§ Selection of research area to formulating the research aim, objectives, and research
questions are the initial steps in the process.
§ Conducting the review of the topic from the existing information, called literature
review, the process also involves selection of data collection methods and further
collecting data based on those methods.
§ Collecting the data, and the analysis of it leads to reaching conclusions and to the
completing the research.
The Business Research Process
Problem Selection of
Discovery Sample Design
Exploratory Collection of the

Research Data
Selection of the
Basic Research
Method
The Research Process (cont.)
Editing and Report

Coding
Data Processing
Interpretation of
the Findings
§B
SECTION 2
Stages of the Research Process
Problem Discovery Discovery and
and Definition Definition
Research and so on
Design Conclusions and
Report
Sampling
Data Processing
and Analysis
Data
Gathering
§ Cyclical process - conclusions generate new ideas
§ Stages can overlap chronologically

§ Stages are functionally interrelated
§ Forward linkages
§ Backward linkages
Problem Discovery Problem Selection of
and Definition discovery exploratory research
technique
Sampling
Selection of
exploratory research
technique Probability Nonprobability
Secondary
Experience Pilot Case Collection of
(historical)
survey study study Data data
data
Gathering (fieldwork)
Editing and
Problem definition coding
(statement of data
research objectives)
Data
processing
Selection of Data
Research Design basic research Processing
method and Interpretation
Analysis of
findings
Experiment Survey
Secondary
Laboratory Field Interview Questionnaire Observation
Data Study Conclusions Report
and Report
§ Problem Discovery and Problem Definition
§ Research Design
§ Sampling
§ Data Gathering
§ Data Processing and Analysis
§ Conclusions And Report
Albert Einstein 13
§ First step
§ Problem, opportunity, or monitor operations

§ Discovery before definition
§ Problem means management problem

§ Problem discovery and defining it leads to the defining of research objectives and
formulating research questions.
Research questions
Forming a research question can be difficult but integral to research.
The research questions should contribute to solving the research problem identified.
Research questions should be :-
§ Feasible
§ Specific
§ Relevant and
§ Original.
Research objectives
§ They describe what the research intends to accomplish
§ The objectives summarise the approach and purpose of the project and helps focusing your
research.
Defining Problem Results in
Clear Cut Research Objectives
Symptom Detection
Analysis of
the Situation
Research
Problem Definition
Statement of
Research Objectives
§ A statement that can be refuted by empirical data
§ Hypotheses should be logically derived from and linked to research objectives.
§ A research strategy is a plan that will guide the
research activities further to achieve the research
goals.
§ Strategy introduces the main components of a research
project such as the research topic area and focus, the
research perspective, the research design, and the
research methods.
§ It refers to how you propose to answer the research
questions set and how you will implement the
methodology.
§ Master plan
§ Framework for action
§ Specifies methods and procedures
§ It is argued that there is no single best research design.
§ A research design is the master plan that specifies the methods and procedures for
collecting and analyzing the needed information.
§ Example:- Consider the researcher who has to forecast the sales for the upcoming
year. Research design could include surveying executive opinion, collecting sales
force composite opinions, surveying user expectations, projecting trends, and
analysing environmental factors.
§ A written statement of the research design that includes a statement explaining the
purpose of the study.
§ Detailed outline of procedures associated with a particular methodology
Experience Case
Secondary Pilot Study
Survey
(historical) Study
Data
Exploratory
Research
§ Secondary data (historical data)
§ Previously collected
§ Census of population
§ Literature survey
§ Pilot study
§ A number of diverse techniques
§ It can also include focus group interviews.
§ Surveys
§ Experiments
§ Secondary data
§ Observation
SAMPLE
Sample: subset
of a larger population.
POPULATION
§ Who is to be sampled?
§ How large a sample?
§ How will sample units be selected?
§ The data gathering stage begins once the sampling plan has been formalized.
§ Data gathering is the process of gathering or collecting information.
§ Data may be gathered by human observers or interviewers.
§ They may also be recorded by machines too.
§ After the data collection is complete, the data must be converted
into a format that will answer the research questions. This entails
data processing.
§ Data analysis is the application of reasoning to understand the
data that have been gathered.
§ Analysis involves determining the consistent patterns, and
summarizing the relevant details revealed in the investigation.
§ The appropriate analytical technique for data analysis will be
determined by management’s information requirements, the
characteristics of research design, and the nature of the data
gathered.
§ Effective communication of the research findings
§ This is the final stage of the research where it consists of interpreting the research
results, describing the implications, and drawing the conclusions for managerial
decisions.
§ These conclusions should fulfil the deliverables promised in the research proposal.
§ Research is only good as its applications.

§ Researcher should consider the varying abilities of people to understand the
research results.
§ Research Process - Research-Methodology. (n.d.). Research-Methodology.
https://research-methodology.net/research-methodology/research-process/
§ What is a research objective? (n.d.). Scribbr. https://www.scribbr.com/frequently-asked-

questions/what-is-research-objective/
John Wiley & Sons.
1

Research Theme
Problem Discovery Problem Selection of

and Definition discovery exploratory research
technique
Sampling
Selection of
exploratory research
technique Probability Nonprobability
Secondary
Experience Pilot Case Collection of
(historical) Data
survey study study Gathering
data
data
(fieldwork)
Data
Editing and
Problem definition Processing
and coding
(statement of data
Analysis
research objectives)
Data
Selection of processing
Research Design basic research
method Conclusions
Interpretation
and Report
of
findings
Experiment Survey
Secondary
Laboratory Field Interview Questionnaire Observation
Data Study Report
§ Research is about:-
§ Exploring answers for a question

§ Searching possibilities for a scenario
from different resources and
viewpoints
§ Therefore,
§ ‘To do research is to expand the

knowledge base of a certain subject,
and to a new knowledge or
§ Even benefit the society.’
§ Choosing a research topic starts with § To choose a research topic, you can:-
formulating a research theme.
§ Search through the available
§ The theme could be:- information in the literature (i.e.,
journals and books)
§ Relevant to your course of study
§ Ask and discuss with the subject
§ Where your interests are
experts
§ Or you are resonating with your work.
§ Find relevance in the news.
§ Or even ask for peer guidance
§ Examples of a research theme could § However, research topics are more
be like:- specific such as:-
§ The development of COVID vaccine § Analysis of online shopping
consumer behaviour to predict high
§ Slavery system in the US in the 19th
street shopping patterns in the UK.
Century
§ Examining the differences between
§ The analysis of consumer behaviour
male and female psychologies
§ Challenges of remote work contributing to the challenges of
remote work
§ Workplace diversity
Developing the research theme>leads to research topic>which leads to developing research questions.
§ Research design is a vital part of the business research.
§ It is a plan, framework, blueprint, or methodology explaining how a business should

conduct research.
§ Moreover, it outlines how the research will be conducted, what data will be collected,
and how it will be analyzed to answer the research question or hypothesis.
In a business environment,
§ it refers to how a business research project should be carried out to solve managerial or
organizational issues related to finance or human resources.
§ Furthermore, it focuses on the research topic, mode of research, types of data required
for research, how that data can be collected, and the period and budget for the research.
§ Descriptive - This is used for descriptive research
propositions to describe or observe a phenomenon. E.g.,
“What is the current state of the market?” Descriptive
§ Experimental - It tests relationships between variables in a
business environment. E.g., Does this marketing campaign
lead to increased sales?
§ Correlational - This design identifies relationships between
Experimental
variables without manipulating them. E.g., it can help
analyze the relationship between customer satisfaction and
loyalty or employee engagement and productivity.
§ Case Study - It involves an in-depth investigation of a
Correlational
particular individual, group, or organization. Therefore,
businesses use this to test theories or understand a
complex business phenomenon.
Case study
METHODOLOGY
§ Section used to JUDGE the validity of results and
conclusions
§ This section of your proposal has multiple parts

§ Data collection methods
§ Data analysis methods
§ Justify your method choice

§ Show you understand the principles
§ Prove feasibility of your study
RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES 05/04/2024 9

Data collection methods Data analysis methods
§ Good research entails collection of § In the data analysis step, the data
data from multiple sources and gathered are analysed statistically to
through multiple data collection see whether if the hypotheses that
methods. were generated have been
supported.
§ Such research though, is more costly
and time consuming! § Data analysis also include
interpreting the meaning of the
§ All data collection methods have results in its initial form.
some bias associated with it so
collecting data through multiple
methods and sources lends rigor to
research!

§ The mode of research is very important in the data collection stage of the research
§ The modes will depend upon the research theme and topic.
§ The mode will be crucial to achieve the research objectives especially if the topics are
involving a sensitive subject or a sensitive population.
§ The data collection mode will also be determined by:-
§ The sampling frame,
§ survey location,
§ Geographic location of research
§ Respondent characteristics and competencies
§ Research budget and
§ Time constraints.
§ Data informs research. Data can be defined as a systematic record of a particular
entity. When arranged in an organized form, can be called information.
§ There are generally 2 types of data based on the source of data. They are primary and
secondary data.
§ These are the data that are collected for the first time by an investigator for a specific
purpose. Primary data are ‘pure’ in the sense that no statistical operations have been
performed on them and they are original.
§ E.g., Census data
§ Secondary data is the data that has already been collected by some researchers or
investigators in the past and is available either in published or unpublished form. This
information is impure as statistical operations may have been performed on them
already.
§ E.g., Internet data
§ ‘Primary sources’ are first-hand narratives, original documents/objects or factual
accounts that were written or made during or close to the event or period of time.
§ They have a direct connection to a person, time, event or place.
§ Primary sources have not been subject to processing, manipulation, analysis or

interpretation.
§ Historical records, texts and original manuscripts;
§ theatrical works;
§ government records (if they have not been
processed, interpreted or § film/video;
§ analysed); § published results of laboratory

experiments;
§ company/organization records (if they have not
been processed, § published results of clinical trials;
§ interpreted or analysed); § published results of research studies;
§ personal documents (diaries, journals and memoirs, § conference and seminar proceedings
for example); that report up-to-date, original
§ recorded or transcribed speeches or interviews; § and ongoing research;
§ raw statistical data (if they have not been processed, § patents;
interpreted or analysed);
§ technical reports.
§ works of literature;
§ works of art;
§ ‘Secondary sources’ interpret, analyse and critique primary sources. They can
provide a second-hand version of events or an interpretation of first-hand accounts.
§ They can tell a story one or more steps removed from the original person, time,
place or event.
§ scientific debates
§ analyses of clinical trials;
§ analyses/interpretations/critiques of previous research;
§ datasets and databases that have been processed,

analysed or
§ interpreted;
§ texts and books that use a variety of primary sources as

evidence to
§ back up arguments and/or conclusions;
§ book and article reviews;
§ biographies;
§ critiques of literary works;
§ critiques of art;
§ television documentaries or science programmes;
§ analyses of historical events
§ Data can also be quantitative or qualitative.
§ Qualitative Data: They represent some characteristics or attributes. They depict

descriptions that may be observed but cannot be computed or calculated.
§ E.g., Attributes such as intelligence, honesty, wisdom, cleanliness, and creativity
collected using the students of your class a sample would be classified as qualitative.
§ Qualitative data is more exploratory than conclusive in nature.
§ Quantitative Data: These can be measured and not simply observed. They can be
numerically represented, and calculations can be performed on them.
§ E.g., Data on the number of students playing different sports from your class gives an
estimate of how many of the total students play which sport.
§ Quantitative data is numerical and can be classified as quantitative.
§ Business organizations must collect data on product demand, customer preferences,
and competitors before launching a new product.
§ Organizations collect data with various data collection methods to make better
decisions.
§ These methods can range from simple self-reported surveys to more complex
experiments and can involve either quantitative or qualitative approaches to data
gathering. This will be detailed while discussing qualitative and quantitative
research.
§ You can categorize data collection methods into primary methods of data collection
and secondary methods of data collection. Some common data collection methods
include surveys, interviews, observations, focus groups, experiments, and
secondary data analysis.
§ Data collection methods play a crucial role in the research process as they
determine the quality and accuracy of the data collected.
§ From the data collected, it is important to understand different variables and find the
relevant one.
§ Variables can be anything that may assume different numerical values
§ The different types of variables could be:-
§ There are two types of quantitative variables: discrete and continuous.
§ Categorical – Data that are grouped with some kind of category. E.g., species, colours,
brands, etc.
§ Continuous – Data representing measurement of continuous values. (e.g., age, distance,
volume, etc.)
§ There are two types of experimental variables: dependent and independent.
§ Dependent – The variable that is measured which could be the effect
§ Independent – The variable that can be manipulated, which could be the cause.
§ Control – The variables that can be held constant in an experimental research.
ANTICIPATED OUTCOMES
§ What do you expect the results to be?
§ Measurable
§ Qualitative
§ Contribute understanding to subject / new technology / application

RESEARCH TIMELINE
§ Helps you keep your research design in the
correct order
§ Avoids “dead” time
§ Mostly expressed in Gantt charts in a research
proposal.

§ Period of the research § Research Budget
§ Period of research can crudely mean § A research budget will help a
the time commencing the research until researcher to determine any expenses
the end of it. It will crucially include the that are required to successfully
duration of the start of data collection execute the research project.
and till the end of the data collection
process. § Budget expenses are organized to
expense categories.
§ With business research, research
Period means the period commencing § Costs of research can be direct or
on the Commencement Date and indirect costs such as research related
ending on the Completion Date or such travel, specialized equipment, and
later date as may be agreed between supplies, or insurance costs and library
the Parties unless otherwise computer fees, etc.
determined in accordance with the
Terms of the Contract.
§ Several issues are associated with collecting primary data.
§ This pertain to who sponsor the research, those who collect the data, and those who
offer them.
§ The confidentiality of the researcher and the data obtained should be respected
mutually.
§ Whatever the nature of the data collection method, the self-esteem and self-respect
of the subjects should never be violated.
§ No one should be forced to participate in a research.
§ There should be no misinterpretation or distortion in reporting the data collected

during the study.

24
SECTION 5
RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES 05/04/2024

PLAGIARISM
§ Reference immediately after mentioning
§ Not end of paragraph
§ ALWAYS identify source
§ Summarise useful points

• Provides a systematic approach: Research design in business offers a structured and
systematic approach to conducting research. It helps the researchers organize their

thoughts, select appropriate research methods, and develop a plan to collect and analyze
data.
• Ensures better documentation: Research design reduces the risk of errors and deviation
from the project as all the research steps and activities are documented.
• Supports evidence-based decision-making: Research design in business helps

managers and decision-makers to make informed choices based on data-driven insights.
• Preparing a research design can be time-consuming.
• It can be costly as businesses must consider various factors and require resources.
• Correlation research design does not consider the cause-and-effect relationship
between various components, and this can lead to inaccuracy.
§ Research plays an integral part in business growth; however, the effectiveness of your
research is highly dependent on the research design.
28
SECTION 2
§ What is the purpose of the study?
§ How much is already known?
§ Is additional background information
necessary?
§ What is to be measured? How?
§ Can the data be made available?
§ Should research be conducted?
§ Can a hypothesis be formulated?
§ What types of questions need to be answered?
§ Are descriptive or causal findings required?

§ What is the source of the data?
§ Can objective answers be obtained by asking people?

§ How quickly is the information needed?
§ How should survey questions be worded?
§ How should experimental manipulations be made?
§ Who or what is the source of the data?
§ Can the target population be identified?
§ Is a sample necessary?
§ How accurate must the sample be?
§ Is a probability sample necessary?
§ Is a national sample necessary?
§ How large a sample is necessary?
§ How will the sample be selected?
§ Who will gather the data?
§ How long will data gathering take?

§ How much supervision is needed?
§ What operational procedures need to be followed?
§ Will standardized editing and coding procedures be used?
§ How will the data be categorized?
§ What statistical software will be used?
§ What is the nature of the data?
§ What questions need to be answered?
§ How many variables are to be investigated simultaneously?
§ Performance criteria for evaluation?
§ Who will read the report?
§ Are managerial recommendations requested?

§ How many presentations are required?
§ What will be the format of the written report?
§ How much will the study cost?
§ Is the time frame acceptable?

§ Is outside help needed?
§ Will this research design attain the stated research objectives?

§ When should the research be scheduled to begin?
§ Dummy tables
§ Representations of the actual tables that will be in the findings section of the final
report; used to gain a better understanding of what the actual outcomes of the
research will be.
§ A written statement of the research design that includes a statement explaining the
purpose of the study
§ Detailed outline of procedures associated with a particular methodology to
research the topic.
§ E. (2023, March 21). What is Research Design? Is it Relevant for Business Growth? Emeritus Online Courses.
https://emeritus.org/blog/research-design/
§ Data collection modes. (n.d.). Ined - Institut National D’études Démographiques.
https://www.ined.fr/en/resources-methods/survey-methodology/methodological-choices/data-
collection-modes/
§ Data: Types of Data, Primary Data, Secondary Data, Solved Examples. (2018, February 23). Toppr-guides.
https://www.toppr.com/guides/maths/statistics/data/
§ Aurora Research Institute. (2020, September 1). Aurora Research Institute. https://nwtresearch.com/
§ Bhat, A. (2019, June 27). Data Collection Methods: Sources & Examples | QuestionPro. QuestionPro.
https://www.questionpro.com/blog/data-collection-methods/
§ Bevans, R. (2022, September 19). Types of Variables in Research & Statistics | Examples. Scribbr.
https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/types-of-variables/
§ Bougie, R., & Sekaran, U. (2019). Research methods for business: A skill building approach. John Wiley &
Sons.
§ Zikmund, W. G., Babin, B. J., Carr, J. C., Adhikari, A., & Griffin, M. (2013). Business Research Methods A
South-asian Perspective: Cengage Learning.
1


3
SECTION 1

WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROPOSAL?
§ It is a statement of intent
§ Academically prepared to complete the research
§ Audience: peers, supervisors, examiners
When writing a research proposal, think about what are

you going to do to contribute new knowledge / findings /
applications to a scientific field.

WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROPOSAL?
§ A research proposal is your PLAN
§ It describes in detail about your study
§ Decisions about your study are based on the
quality of the proposal

§ Business research can be described as …
a systematic and organized effort to investigate a

specific problem encountered in the business setting
which seeds a solution.

§B
SECTION 2

IMPORTANCE OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL?
Research proposal is a detailed plan. In the research proposal,
For example, before you get in the car. You describing research area you’re working in.
You need to know 3 things. How do you show that you are academically
prepared?
qWhat you know (driving skills & about
the car), PLAN- Your proposal in every possible detail.
qWhere you want to go and qResearch problem/Research topic
qHow are you going to get there. qKnowledge base /Literature review
qTechnical skill / Methods & Data collection
qInfrastructure Support to pull this plan off
/Research design
Proposal has to get approved for you to get started
on the full research and the report.

WHAT ARE THE ESSENTIAL INGREDIENTS?
§ Issue/ Purpose The Issue
This should be an original and What problem does
relevant research problem your research
§ Research Design address?
This should be a comprehension of Research
important literature related to your
research. You need to map an Design Benefit
understanding of proposed How will the What will the
methodology and the technical research achieve research contribute?
skills required its objective?
§ Benefit
This is the petrol/financing for the Figure adapted from MIT OCW
research project.
RESEARCH PROPOSALS MAKE YOU:
Outline: Clarify
Thoughts and Develop
OUTLINE steps in your proposed research
Ideas ---- Beginning to
end– See the whole
picture.
Teach yourself: Figure
Provide yourself with intellectual CONTEXT
out and find what is
important to know.
JUSTIFY your Be CREATIVE
Aspect creativity: No research
one is telling you what
you need to know.
Justify: Why is this THINK through your experiments
work important. If your
work doesn’t matter to Anticipate Anticipate a
you, it shows.
Experiments: What do potential realistic
you need to do?
PROBLEMS TIMETABLE
Figure adapted from MIT OCW
11
SECTION 3

GETTING STARTED
Rule of thumb: Find out what your departments expects!!
§ Title § Title
§ Outline § Background
§ Literature Review § Problem statement
§ Methodology § Aim and objectives
§ Methods of data collection and analysis § Rationale and context
§ Methodology
§ Ethical Issues
§ Plan of work
§ Timeline
§ Resources / Support
§ Resources
§ Outcomes
§ Outcomes § Reference list
§ Reference list
Know the requirements BEFORE you start
§ Title § Time frame of the study, including
information on when the report will be
§ Background of the study submitted.
§ The problem statement: § Ethical considerations
a. The purpose of the study § Research Budget
b. Research questions § References and bibliography.
§ The scope of the study
§ The relevance of the study
§ Research Design
a. Type of study – exploratory/descriptive
b. Data collection methods
c. Sampling design
d. Data analysis

TITLE
§Clear §The title of your research report should
§Concise present the first idea of your study.
§Subject 1st
The title is like the §Your title should be descriptive so that it
address you type into
your TomTom. accurately reflects the contents of your
Everything is positioned research and/or the methodology used in the
according to it!
research.
§E.g., “Compulsive buying: An exploration into
self esteem and money attitudes.”

§ An executive summary or an abstract of your research report is placed on the page
immediately after the title page.
§ The abstract is brief and is usually restricted to one page or less in length.
§ It is a brief account of the entire research study.
§ It should provide an overview and highlights of the following important information:-
§ The problem statement
§ Sampling design,
§ Data collection methods used
§ Data analysis results
§ conclusions
§ Recommendations with suggestions for their implementation.

§ An abstract is a short summary of your (published or unpublished) research paper,
usually about a paragraph (c. 6-7 sentences, 150-250 words) long.
§ Abstracts contain most of the following kinds of information in brief form.
§ Your abstract should be intelligible on its own, without a reader’s having to read
your entire paper. And in an abstract, you usually do not cite references—most of
your abstract will describe what you have studied in your research and what you
have found and what you argue in your paper.
§ Although you might be tempted to write your abstract first because it will appear
as the very first part of your paper, it’s a good idea to wait to write your abstract
until after you’ve drafted your full paper, so that you know what you’re
summarizing.

§ Before the introduction, you can start with the preface.
§ Preface will be used to primarily mention the background of the research. It can
also include the customary brief expression of the author’s appreciation of help
and guidance received in the research.
§ The introduction section of the research proposal should contain the following:-
§ Short introduction providing information on why and how the study was initiated.
§ Reason for the research (background of the research)
§ Brief account of the scope of the study, research method, are also mentioned in the
introductory section.
§ The last section offers an overview of the structure and division of the chapters in
the research report (outlines).
§ Academic Phrasebank | Introducing work (manchester.ac.uk)

PROBLEM STATEMENT
§ Short SO WHAT statement
§ A problem statement is unambiguous, specific, and focused and
that the problem is addressed from a specific academic
perspective.
§ A good problem statement includes both a statement of
research objectives and the research questions.
§ Purpose
§ Blueprint for your literature review
§ Focus your committee at the beginning
§ Keep them on track throughout your proposal
Get everyone on the same page…

PROBLEM STATEMENT
§An example of a problem statement would look like this.
Malaria remains the most devastating infectious disease, particularly in Africa. One
reason is that the parasite causing the disease is resistant to all clinically useful
antimalarial drugs. We therefore have to devise alternative strategies to target the
parasite.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
The purpose of this research is to……
§ Aims
- short but general statement of intent
§ Objectives
- very specific statements that define the practical steps you will take to
achieve your aim(s) (i.e., explaining why the study is being done)
The statement of the objectives should be brief and communicate clearly the
focus of the project.

§ Once the purpose of the study is identified then comes the formulating of the
research questions.
§ The inclusion of the research questions in the problem statement further clarifies
the issue to be resolved.
§ The research questions specify what you will learn through the topic.
§ They guide and structure the process of collecting and analysing the purpose of
the study.
§ In other words, research questions, are the translation of the problem of the
organization into a specific need for information.
§ E.g., What are the factors that affect the perceived waiting experience of airline
passengers and to what extent do these factors affect the perception of waiting
times?

LITERATURE REVIEW
This is NOT just a summary of literature q Literature review is an opinionated document
Show how your project: convincing that you know your research,
qLiterature SUPPORTS your hypothesis interpret and synthesize your own thoughts
qEXTENDS previous work
q Makes you understand why your research
qAVOIDS previous mistakes
matters
qIS UNIQUE to previously followed
paths q Why is your study important?
q Describes the significance of the research
question or problem
q Answers the “so what?” question

THE NARRATIVE OF A GOOD LITERATURE REVIEW
Reader
knows The introduction should lead the
reader step by step, sentence by
sentence, through a chain of
connected sentences that leads
to the most important sentence
in the entire thing: the research
gap.
This should be at the end. If the

gap is not at the end, then you're
not writing a funnel-shaped
Reader review.
doesn't
know
Malaria Epidemiology Introduce the

‘field’
i.e.,
Broad focus

Start narrowing
Life cycle down.
Current control Focus on certain
aspects in field of
interest

Resistance End with gap

analysis
SUPPORT THE HYPOTHESIS
For your literature Malaria Epidemiology

review,
q You should use
current reviews
(past 3-5 years)
q Insert your Life cycle
referencing as you
write your lit review Current control
Resistance
30
Hypothesis 05/04/2024
INTERNET SOURCES & REFERENCING
§Narrow down your search terms
§Peer-reviewed articles
§Current literature
§Review vs primary literature
Synthesize recent literature into coherent

narrative (within the past 5 years)

PURPOSE
§ Funnel point is your purpose:

§ The purpose can be framed as a research question
or hypothesis
§ BE CONCISE!!
§ Should be linked into Aims and Objectives!

§ A hypothesis can be defined as …
§ a tentative, yet testable statement which predicts what you expect to find in your
empirical data.
Example:
Workforce diversity has a positive effect on organisational effectiveness.

34
SECTION 4

METHODOLOGY
§ Section used to JUDGE the validity of results and
conclusions
§ This section of your proposal has multiple parts

§ Data collection methods
§ Data analysis methods
§ Justify your method choice

§ Show you understand the principles
§ Prove feasibility of your study

Data collection methods Data analysis methods
§ Good research entails collection of § In the data analysis step, the data
data from multiple sources and gathered are analysed statistically to
through multiple data collection see whether if the hypotheses that
methods. were generated have been
supported.
§ Such research though, is more costly
and time consuming! § Data analysis also include
interpreting the meaning of the
§ All data collection methods have results in its initial form.
some bias associated with it so
collecting data through multiple
methods and sources lends rigor to
research!

ANTICIPATED OUTCOMES
§ What do you expect the results to be?
§ Measurable
§ Qualitative
§ Contribute understanding to subject / new technology / application

RESEARCH TIMELINE
§ Helps you keep your research design in the
correct order
§ Avoids “dead” time
§ Mostly expressed in Gantt charts in a research
proposal.

§ Several issues are associated with collecting primary data.
§ This pertain to who sponsor the research, those who collect the data, and those who
offer them.
§ The confidentiality of the researcher and the data obtained should be respected
mutually.
§ Whatever the nature of the data collection method, the self-esteem and self-respect
of the subjects should never be violated.
§ No one should be forced to participate in a research.
§ There should be no misinterpretation or distortion in reporting the data collected

during the study.

40
SECTION 5

PLAGIARISM
§ Reference immediately after mentioning
§ Not end of paragraph
§ ALWAYS identify source
§ Summarise useful points

42
SECTION 6

REVISE AND EDIT
qBack-up proposal every day!
qAlways edit if need be.
qUse standard font
qNumber your pages
qRead out loud

q Forget to include table of contents
q Not connecting the proposed research to the
literature review
q Not enough detail about methods
q Jargon & sweeping generalities
q Relying solely on one source

IMPROVING YOUR ODDS
qKnow what the evaluation criteria will be and CHECK
that you meet these
qStart with an outline
qRead approved proposals
qOnce “finished” ask others to proofread
qUse diagrams to illustrate models

EVALUATION OF PROPOSALS
§ The aims/objectives are likely to be achievable in
the given time period
§ The rationale for the proposed study is reasonable
§ The scientific design is described and adequately
justified

§ Research proposal presentation. (n.d.). Research Proposal Presentation | PPT.
https://www.slideshare.net/sadafbatool2/research-proposal-presentation-42082802
John Wiley & Sons.

§ Nundy, S., Kakar, A., & Bhutta, Z. A. (2021, October 24). How to Write an Abstract? How to
Write an Abstract? | SpringerLink. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5248-6_15
§ How to write an introduction. (2021, June 24). University of Technology Sydney.
https://www.uts.edu.au/current-students/support/helps/self-help-resources/academic-
skills/how-write-introduction

1
Research Methodologies 05/04/2024

Research Methodologies 05/04/2024 2

§ A hypothesis can be defined as …
§ a tentative, yet testable statement which predicts what you expect to find in your
empirical data.
Example:
Workforce diversity has a positive effect on organisational effectiveness.

LITERATURE REVIEW
This is NOT just a summary of literature q Literature review is an opinionated document
Show how your project: convincing that you know your research,
qLiterature SUPPORTS your hypothesis interpret and synthesize your own thoughts
qEXTENDS previous work
q Makes you understand why your research
qAVOIDS previous mistakes
matters
qIS UNIQUE to previously followed
paths q Why is your study important?
q Describes the significance of the research
question or problem
q Answers the “so what?” question

Reader
knows The introduction should lead the
reader step by step, sentence by
sentence, through a chain of
connected sentences that leads
to the most important sentence
in the entire thing: the research
gap.
This should be at the end. If the

gap is not at the end, then you're
not writing a funnel-shaped
Reader review.
doesn't
know
Organisational Introduce the

effectiveness ‘field’
i.e.,
Broad focus

Start narrowing
Factors affecting down.
Organisational
effectiveness Focus on certain
aspects in field of
interest

End with gap

Effect of Workforce
diversity analysis
Is it positive or
Research Methodologies
negative? 05/04/2024 8
INTERNET SOURCES & REFERENCING
For your literature
§Narrow down your search terms review,
q You should use
§Peer-reviewed articles current reviews
(past 3-5 years)
§Current literature q Insert your
referencing as you
§Review vs original research paper write your lit review
Synthesize recent literature into coherent

narrative (within the past 5 years)

PURPOSE
§ Funnel point is your purpose:

§ The purpose can be framed as a research question
or hypothesis
§ BE CONCISE!!
§ Should be linked into Aims and Objectives!

§ In Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary
(8th Edition), literature means “pieces of
writing or printed information on a § It is a comprehensive review of the available literature,
particular subject”. Also, Longman
Dictionary of Contemporary English defines which clearly reveals that research has already been
literature as “all the books, articles, etc. on a
particular subject”. carried out in relation to any given or particular subject.
§ Hence, a literature could be a book, journal § Literature review reveals “what has been done and
article, conference proceedings, previous
thesis or dissertation, and so on. what needs to be done” in a particular research area. In
§ “To review” means to “carefully examine or other words, it identifies gaps in knowledge and areas
consider something again, especially so that
you can decide if it is necessary to make that have only been partially studied.
changes”.

§ Searching: This deals with searching § Writing: This is aimed at explaining
for reliable, accurate and up-to-date what one finds out as the literature
material on the topic or subject of reviewer.
interest.
§ So, in any literature being reviewed, the
§ Critical appraisal: This is about focus could be on the aims and
reading and summarizing the key objectives of the research or study,
points from the literature; synthesizing outcomes of the research,
these key ideas, theories and concepts approaches/methods/strategies that
into a summary of what is known; were used, the context the research was
discussing and evaluating these ideas, conducted, and its connection to our
theories and concepts; identifying research questions.
particular areas of debate or
controversy.

§ Literature review can help to discover some research strategies and methods or
approaches of data collection which have been productive and those that have not really
been productive in addressing a topic.
§ Literature review could be used to support a problem that has been identified and as
well illustrate the gap that has been discovered in previous studies, and which one’s
research aims to fill.
§ Literature review can help to facilitate the interpretation of one’s research results.

Step 1: Gather literature on the topic § Websites of professional
of interest. organizations such as World Bank
(https://openknowledge.worldbank.o
We could gather literature from both rg ), Food and Agriculture
offline (e.g., libraries) and online Organization- FAO
sources. (https://www.fao.org/publications ),
Examples of offline sources of literature field-specific databases or websites,
are libraries, bookstores, and so on., among others.
while examples of online sources are § To begin this step, it will be helpful to
Google scholar (scholar.google.com), have a list of key words related to
Google search your topic so as to guide your
(https://www.google.com ), searches.
ScienceDirect
(https://www.sciencedirect.com ),
Directory of Open Access Journals
(https://www.doaj.org).

Step 2: Evaluate the sources and § For journal articles, it is usually
select the very relevant ones. helpful to first read the abstract of the
In selecting the relevant literature from article to have an understanding of
the ones gathered, we could consider what the research is really all about,
the following: and also to know if it is relevant to the
topic being considered.
§ title relevance;
§ credibility of the source; and § We could get more relevant literature
from the reference list of the literature
§ authors’ competence and expertise in
we have considered to be relevant.
the field.

Step 3: Read and critically appraise the § The connections could be drawn in terms
information in the literature. of:
This stage has to do with reading the relevant § Patterns and trends (specifically in theories,
literature, and then identifying relationships methods and results);
and connections between the sources that
have been read. § Themes (that is, questions and concepts that
appear frequently across the literature);
§ Debates and conflicts (for example, studies
that make use of similar methodology but
produced different results); and
§ Gaps (that is, what is missing from the
literature and any weakness that needs to
be addressed).

§ Chronological approach: § Thematic approach
§ In this approach, patterns and turning points In this approach, literature review is
should be analyzed from the older literature organized around themes.
to the more recent ones.
This approach involves dividing the research
§ Also, it is necessary for you to provide your
own interpretation of why and how specific into categories or subjects for the topic. For
developments occurred over time in the instance, a section could be devoted to
field of study. literature or resources that supports your
research hypotheses, while another section
could be for resources that contradicts the
hypotheses, and another section for the
literature that neither support nor contradicts
them but rather raised additional questions.

§ Method approach § Theory approach:
§ This deals with organizing the literature § In this approach, literature review is
according to the research method used organized around theories of the main
and comparing the results and concepts.
conclusions of the different methods.
§ For example, one can start by looking § This deals with organizing sources or
at studies that used survey method as literature based on the use of various
well as those that used experimental theories, models and definitions of key
method, and then compare the result of concepts.
these different approaches.
§ For example, one can start by
discussing how different scholars have
defined the concept of AI, then discuss
theories that help to explain the
relationship between AI and marketing.

§ Paraphrasing statements or sentences § As we write the drafts, it is advised that
(obtained from another author’s work) we should always put references
in one’s own words and then citing the accordingly.
author.
§ If tables and figures are included in the
§ Adding double quotation marks to body of the literature review, it is very
statements or sentences (obtained from important to add label or title to them
another author’s work) when one has appropriately. Note that the discussion
not made any change to it, and then and reference to the table should be
adding in-text citation accordingly. done prior to the table or figure.
§ It is very important to take notes or § It is very important to proofread the
write as we read through the literature. writeup you have developed during
literature review, and pay close
attention to typographical errors,
overuse of passive voices, repetitive
phrasing, informal language, among
others.

§ Ajireloja, J. (2023, July 24). Literature Review: An Important Exercise for Students and
Researchers. Medium. https://medium.com/@josephajire/literature-review-an-
important-exercise-for-students-and-researchers-e7c041381634
§ Bougie, R., & Sekaran, U. (2019). Research methods for business: A skill building
approach. John Wiley & Sons.

1


§ A THEORY is “a coherent set of general propositions, used as principles of
explanation of the apparent relationships of certain observed phenomena.”
§ Before a proposition can be explained, the nature of theoretical concepts must be
understood.

§ A CONCEPT (or construct) is “a generalized idea about a class of objects,
occurrences, or purposes.”
§ Concepts are our building blocks, and some examples of organizational theory
concepts might be “leadership,” “productivity,” and “morale.”

§ The basic or scientific business researcher operates at two levels:
1. the abstract level of concepts (and propositions) and
2. the empirical level of observation and manipulation of objects and events.
§ Researchers are concerned with the observable world, or what we will loosely
term “reality.”
§ Theorists translate their conceptualization of reality into abstract ideas.
§ Thus, theory deals with abstraction.
§ Things are not the essence of theory, ideas are.
§ Only when we begin to explain how concepts relate to other concepts; we begin to
construct theories.

§ A scientific method is a set of prescribed procedures for establishing and connecting
theoretical statements about events and for predicting events yet unknown.
§ There is no consensus concerning exact procedures for the scientific method, but most
discussions of the scientific method include a reference to “empirical testability.”
§ A hypothesis is a proposition that is empirically testable.
§ Variables may be measured.
§ Thus, the scientific method has two basic levels: the empirical level which is primarily
concerned with the facts of the science as revealed by observation, and the abstract or
theoretical level which consists of a serious attempt to understand the facts of the science, and
to integrate them into a logical system.

§ To determine which is the better theory, researchers gather empirical data or
evidence to verify theories.
§ One task of science is to determine if a given theoretical proposition is false or if
there are inconsistencies between competing theories—theories are made to be
tested.
§ Business research gathers facts to verify theories. However, the researcher must
understand the difference between facts and theories.
§ Facts are the world’s data.
§ Theories are structures of ideas that explain and interpret facts.

§ Facts do not go away when scientists debate rival theories to explain them.

§ Reasoning is the action of thinking about something in a logical, sensible manner.
§ There are two types of reasoning – Deductive and inductive.
§ Deductive reasoning is the logic process of deriving a conclusion from a known
premise or something known to be true.
§ It is a bottom-up approach where some specific conclusion is established from a
generic observation.
§ Inductive reasoning is the logical process of establishing a general proposition
on the basis of observation of particular facts.
§ This is a top-down approach where a specific observation is tried to be
generalized.

§ Theory generation may occur at the abstract, conceptual level and at the empirical
level.
§ At the abstract, conceptual level, theory may be developed with deductive
reasoning.
§ For example, we know that all managers are human beings. If we also know that
Mary Fisher is a manager, then we can deduce that Mary Fisher is a human being.
§ At the empirical level, theory may be developed with inductive reasoning.
§ For example, all managers that have ever been seen are human beings; therefore,
all managers are human beings.
§ Therefore, theory construction is often the result of a combination of deductive and
inductive reasoning.

§ Seven operations may be viewed as the steps involved in the application of the
scientific theory:
§ A. Assessment of relevant existing knowledge
§ B. Formulation of concepts and propositions
§ C. Statement of hypotheses
§ D. Design the research to test the hypotheses
§ E. Acquisition of meaningful empirical data
§ F. Analysis and evaluation of data
§ G. Provide explanation and state new problems raised by the research

§ Theories allow us to generalize beyond individual facts or isolated situations.
§ Theories provide a framework that can guide managerial strategy by providing

insights into general rules of behavior.
§ A good theory allows us to generalize beyond individual facts so that general
patterns may be predicted and understood.

§ The theoretical framework is a logically developed, described and elaborated
network of associations among the variables deemed relevant to the problem
situation.
§ The relationship between the literature review and the theoretical framework is that
the former provides a solid foundation for developing the latter. That is the
literature review identifies the variables that might be important as determined by
previous research findings.
§ The theoretical framework represents an elaborate relationship among the
variables, explains the theory underlying these relations and describes the
nature and direction of the relationships.
§ Just as a literature review sets the stage for good theoretical framework this in turn
provides a logical base for developing testable hypothesis.

§ A variable is a quality that can exhibit differences in value, usually magnitude or
strength.
§ In statistical analysis, a variable could be identified by a symbol such as X.
§ Six main types of variables are mainly described in a research:
§ 1. Dependent variable (Criterion variable)
§ 2. Independent variable (Predictor variable)
§ 3. Moderating variable
§ 4. Mediating variable
§ 5. Sub variable
§ 6. Output variable

§ Moderating variable
§ Dependent variable
A moderating variable is the one that has a
A dependent variable is the main variable strong contingent effect on the
that lends itself for investigation. independent-dependent variable
§ Sub Variable relationship.
A sub-variable is a variable which is § Mediating variable
indented to another parent variable A mediating variable describes the
(independent variable). relationship between the independent and
§ Independent variable dependent variables.
An independent variable is a variable that is § Output variable
expected to influence the dependent Output variables are those that describe
variable either in a positive or negative way. the outcome of research such as any
An independent variable is the cause while a results, products, or outcomes produced
dependent variable is the effect in a causal by the processes.
research study.

§ A conceptual model describes your ideas about how the concepts or variables in
your model are related to each other.
§ A schematic diagram of the conceptual model helps the reader to visualise the
theorist relationships between the variables in your model hand us to obtain a
quick idea about how you think the research problem can be solved.
§ Hence conceptual models are often expressed in this diagrammatic form.

§ A theory or a clear explanation for the relationships in your model is the last
component of a theoretical framework.
§ A theory attempts to explain relationships between the variables in your
model.
§ An explanation should be provided for all the important relationships that are
theorised to exist among the variables.
§ Then there should also be an indication as to whether the relationships should be
positive or negative and linear or nonlinear.
§ From the theoretical framework then, testable hypothesis can be developed to
examine whether the theory formulated is valid or not.

§ A hypothesis is an unproven proposition or possible solution to a problem.
§ In its simplest form, a hypothesis is a guess.
§ Hypotheses are statements that can be empirically tested.
§ A formal statement of hypothesis can force researchers to be clear about what they
expect to find through their study.
§ The hypothesis can raise critical questions about the data that will be required in
the analysis stage.
§ For e.g., Here is a hypothesis from a study on turnover:
§ “The lower the job performance, the greater the likelihood of turnover.”
§ Job performance is the independent variable and turnover is the dependent
variable.

§ Bougie, R., & Sekaran, U. (2019). Research methods for business:
A skill building approach. John Wiley & Sons.
§ Zikmund, W. G., Babin, B. J., Carr, J. C., Adhikari, A., & Griffin, M.
(2013). Business Research Methods A South-asian Perspective:
Cengage Learning.

1

Research Methodologies 2
§ Primary data is …
§ information collected by a researcher to address a specific issue or problem. As it has not

yet been gathered or it may not be accessible, it is data that is unique, first-hand and from
an original data source.
§ The data is collected by a researcher using a variety of techniques, such as interviews,
focus groups, surveys and observations.
§ Example, a food manufacturing company was losing market share and wanted to gain a
better understanding of customers’ perceptions of their snack products in the light of a
cultural shift towards healthier foods. The researchers would have the advantage of
conducting interviews with customers using tailored questions, designed specifically to
elicit the required information to help them address the business issue. However, this
method of data collection may be considered quite costly and time consuming compared
to using information that is already in the public domain.
§ A secondary data source refers to a data source that is already in existence and is being
used either for a purpose for which it was not originally intended or by someone other
than the researcher who collected the original data (Salkind, 2010).
§ Secondary data can be raw data or published summaries and you can tailor the data
according to your research needs. Examples include large databases of surveys,
censuses, and social and economic data that are too expensive or unfeasible for an
individual to collect.
§ Other types of secondary data include organisational records and surveys (e.g.
employee surveys), market research data, or transcripts of interviews or focus groups.
Whether you are collecting data for your own project or compiling a portfolio of
evidence, secondary data serves as a time-efficient and easy to obtain source of
information.
§ Qualitative data is data in the form of descriptive accounts of observation or data
which is classified in a way,
whereas
§ Quantitative data is data that can be expressed numerically or classified by some
numerical value (Ghosh and Chopra, 2010).
Data gathered and recorded by someone else prior to and for a
purpose other than the current project
Is often:
§ Historical
§ Already assembled
§ Needs no access to subjects
§ Secondary data may be dated.
§ Fact Finding
§ Model Building
§ Data Based Marketing
§ Inexpensive
§ Obtained Rapidly
§ Information is not Otherwise Accessible
§ Uncertain Accuracy
§ Data Not Consistent with Needs
§ Inappropriate Units of Measurement
§ Time Period Inappropriate (Dated)
Evaluating Secondary Data
Does the data help to

answer questions
set out in the
problem definition?
Applicability
to project
objectives Does the data apply to
the time period of
interest?
Does the data apply to

the population of
interest?
Evaluating Secondary Data (continued)
Do the other terms

and variable
classifications
Applicability presented apply?
to project
objectives
Are the units of
measurement
comparable?
If possible, go to the
original source of the
Accuracy data?
of the data
Is the cost of data
acquisition worth it?
Accuracy Is there a possibility

of the data of bias?
Can the accuracy of

data collection be
verified?
Fact Finding - Identifying consumption patterns
- Tracking trends
Model building - Estimating market potential

- Forecasting sales
- Selecting trade areas and sites
Data Based Marketing - Development of Prospect Lists

- Enhancement of Customer Lists
§ Identify consumer
behavior
§ Trend analysis
§ Environmental
scanning
§ Market potential
§ Forecasting sales
§ Analysis of trade
areas
§ Practice of maintaining a customer data base
§ Names
§ Addresses
§ Past purchases
§ Responses to past efforts
§ Data from numerous sources
Internal and proprietary data is more
descriptive
§ Accounting information
§ Sales information
§ Backorders
§ Customer complaints
Traditional Distribution
Indirect Channel Using Intermediary
Information Producer
(Federal Government)
Library
(Storage of
government
documents
and books)
Research Methodologies Company User 19

Traditional Distribution
Direct Channel
Information Producer
(Federal Government)
Company User
Modern Distribution of Secondary Data
Collection
Information producer A Information producer B Information producer C
(Federal government- (Grocery store-retail (Audience research company-
census data) scanner data) viewing data)
Vendor/external
distributor
(Computerized database
integrating all three data
sources for any
geographic area)
Distribution
Information producer A
(Federal government-
Research Methodologies census data) 21
§ Created, recorded, or generated by an entity other than the
researcher’s organization
§ Government
§ Trade associations
§ Newspapers and journals
§ Libraries
§ The Internet
§ Vendors
§ Producers
§ Books and periodicals
§ Government sources
§ Media sources
§ Commercial sources
§ Attitude and public opinion research—syndicated services report the findings of
opinion polls
§ Consumption and purchase behavior data
§ Advertising research—readership and audience data
§ Diverse types of data offered from a single source
- e.g., television viewing and scanner purchase data

- e.g., Prizim and ClusterPlus
§ Typical limitations
§ Additional pitfalls
§ Unavailable
§ Questionable accuracy
§ Lack of standardized terminology
John Wiley & Sons.
§ Using data to aid organisational change. (n.d.). Open Learning.
https://www.open.edu/openlearn/money-business/using-data-aid-organisational-
change/content-section-4.1
1


§ Ethics are an important consideration for any research including business research.
§ Ethical situations are defined by societal norms, which are codes of behavior.
§ In most research situations three parties are involved: The researcher, the
sponsoring client (user) and the respondent (subject).
§ The interaction of each of these parties identifies a series of ethical questions.
§ Ethics include the rights and obligations of researchers, clients, and subjects of
business research.
§ Consciously or unconsciously, each party expects certain rights and feels certain
obligations toward the other party.

§ If there are conflicting perspectives about behavioral expectations, ethical
problems may arise.
§ For instance, several ethical issues concern the researcher’s expected rights versus
those of the respondent/subject.
§ A respondent who says, “I don’t care to answer your question about my income”
believes that he or she has the right to refuse to participate.
§ Yet some researchers will persist in trying to get that information.
§ In general, a researcher is not expected to overstep the boundary society places
on privacy.

§ The obligation to be truthful
§ Privacy
§ Deception
§ The right to be informed

§ The Obligation to be Truthful
This issue involves the subject’s freedom to choose whether or not to comply with the
investigation request
§ Privacy
Another aspect of the privacy issue. Generally, certain standards of common courtesy
have to be set by interviewing firms, as to not to interfere with the privacy issues.
§ Deception
In a number of situations, the researcher creates a false impression by disguising the
purpose of the research. Bluntly stated, to avoid possible biased reactions, the subject is
lied to.
§ The Right to be Informed
It has been argued that subjects have a right to be informed of all aspects of the research.
This includes information about its purpose and sponsorship..

§ The purpose of research is research
§ Objectivity
§ Misrepresenting research
§ Protect the right to confidentiality of both subjects and clients

§ Dissemination of faulty conclusions
§ Advocacy research

§ General business ethics should be a standard for business research firms and
business departments.
§ More has been written about the ethics of researchers than about those of the other
parties because this group’s purpose is clearly identifiable.
§ A number of professional associations have developed a code of ethics—standards
and operating procedures for ethical practice by researchers.

§ The Purpose of Research is Research
The true intent of research should remain as research. Business people are expected to not
misrepresent a sales tactic as marketing research.
§ Objectivity
Researchers should maintain high standards to ensure that the data are accurate.
§ Misrepresenting Research
Basically it is assumed that the researcher has an obligation to both the client and the
subjects to honestly analyze the data and to correctly report the actual data collection
methods.

§ Protect the Right to Confidentiality of Both Subjects and Clients
It is the researcher’s responsibility to ensure that the privacy and anonymity of the
respondents are preserved.
§ Dissemination of Faulty Conclusions
Most research code of ethics state something like “a user of research shall not
knowingly disseminate conclusions from a given research project or service that are
inconsistent with or not warranted by the data.”
Which should mean that under no circumstances will this research lead to faulty
conclusions.

§ Ethics between buyer and seller
§ An open relationship with research suppliers
§ An open relationship with interested parties
§ Privacy
§ Commitment to research

§ Ethics between Buyer and Seller
The general business ethics expected between a purchasing agent and a sales
representative should hold in the marketing research situation as well.
§ An Open Relationship with Research Suppliers
The client sponsor has the obligation to encourage the research supplier to
objectively seek out the truth.
§ An Open Relationship with Interested Parties
Conclusions should be based on the data. A user of research should not knowingly
disseminate conclusions from a given research project or service that are
inconsistent with the data or not warranted by them.

Informed consent is a process of communication between a researcher and a potential
participant in research.
In this process, the researcher provides adequate information about the study, its risks and
benefits, the methods and use of data, storage and further use of data and the time period
of its use included.
After identifying with all the required information, the participant voluntarily agrees to
participate.
Informed consent can vary according to the nature of the study, type of participants, and
the context such as written , oral, implied, opt out consent ad assent.

§ There is no question that there are unethical researchers in the world and that a
number of shady dealings occur.
§ Under some circumstances even good researchers take shortcuts, some of which
may be of questionable ethics.
§ However, like most business research, majority of researchers are generally ethical
people.

§ Bougie, R., & Sekaran, U. (2019). Research methods for business: A skill building
approach. John Wiley & Sons.
§ Hassan, M. (2024, January 2). Informed Consent in Research - Types, Templates and
Examples. Research Method. https://researchmethod.net/informed-consent-in-research/

1


Qualitative Quantitative
§ Purpose is exploratory § Purpose is descriptive and

conclusive
§ Broad range of questioning versus
§ Large samples
§ Subjective interpretation
§ Structured questions
§ Statistical analysis

Symptom Detection
Analysis of
the Situation
Exploratory
Research
Problem Definition
Statement of
Research Objectives

QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE
DATA DATA

§ Initial research conducted to clarify and define the nature of a
problem
§ Does not provide conclusive evidence
§ Subsequent research expected

Diagnose a situation
Screening of alternatives
Discover new ideas

§ Experience surveys
§ Secondary data analysis

§ Case studies
§ Pilot studies

§ Ask knowledgeable individuals about a particular research problem
§ most are quite willing

“If you wish to know the road up the
mountain, you must ask the man who
goes back and forth on it.”
- Zenrinkusi

§ Data collected for a purpose other than the project at hand
§ Economical
§ Quick source for background information

§ Intensely investigates one or a few situations similar to the
problem
§ Investigate in depth
§ Careful study
§ May require cooperation

§ A collective term
§ Any small scale exploratory study that uses sampling

§ But does not apply rigorous standards

§ Focus Group Interviews
§ Projective Techniques
§ In-Depth Interviews
05/04/2024 Research Methodologies

Funneling technique Clarifying issues
At the beginning of the interview, it is The interviewer can rephrase or restate
advisable to ask open ended questions the question.
to form a broad idea and form about the
situation. Followed by this question, Taking notes
further questions can be asked that are When conducting interviews, it is
relevant to the topic of the interview. important to take notes as the interviews
Un biased questions are taking place or as soon as the
interview is terminated.
Bias should be minimized by asking
unbiased questions, and also by not The interview responses should be
transcribed immediately and not be
emphasizing certain words, by tone, or
voice inflections and suggestions. trusted to memory and later recall.

Structured/Unstructured Interviews Probing tactics
The interviews are labeled accordingly if the
interviewer has/has no pre-requisites on what § Silence
information is needed.
§ Repeating the answer
The main purpose of unstructured interview is to
explore and probe into the several factors in the § So, what I hear you saying is…
situation.
§ I’m not quite sure I understood … Could
Visual aids such as pictures etc. can be used while you ….
interviews.
§ Could you give an example?
The same questions will be asked of everybody in
the same manner. § Anything else?
The projection of professionalism, enthusiasm, Listening to the interviewee is essential
and confidence is important for the interviewer.
Bias could be introduced by interviewer,
Rapport should be developed between the interviewee or the situation
interviewer and interviewee
Some interviewees may be turned off due to
the personal likes and dislikes

§ Unstructured
§ Free flowing without
restrictions
§ Group interview
mode
§ Start with broad
topic and focus in on
specific issues

§ 6 to 10 people
§ Relatively
homogeneous
§ Similar lifestyles and
experiences

§ Establish a rapport
§ Begin with broad topic
§ Focus in on specific topic
§ Generate discussion and interaction

§ Develops rapport -
helps people relax
§ Interacts
§ Listens to what
people have to say
§ Everyone gets a
chance to speak

§ Maintains loose control and focuses discussion
§ Stimulates spontaneous responses

§ Fast
§ Inexpensive
§ Bring together many participants from wide-spread geographical areas
§ Respondent anonymity
§ Transcript automatically recorded

§ Less group interaction
§ Absence of tactile stimulation
§ Absence of facial expression and body language
§ Moderator’s job is different

Surveys ask respondents for information using verbal or
written questioning

§ Quick
§ Inexpensive
§ Efficient
§ Accurate
§ Flexible

§ Poor Design
§ Improper Execution

§ Mixed Method research approach combines rigorous quantitative and qualitative research
methods to draw on the strengths of each.
§ Mixed method approaches allow researchers to use a diversity of methods, combining
inductive and deductive thinking, and offsetting limitations of exclusively quantitative and
qualitative research through a complementary approach that maximizes strengths of each
data type and facilitates a more comprehensive understanding of health issues and potential
resolutions.
§ Mixed methods may be employed to produce a robust description and interpretation of the
data, make quantitative results more understandable, or understand broader applicability of
small-sample qualitative findings.
§ Mixed methods is not simply having quantitative and qualitative data available or analyzing
and presenting data findings separately. The integration process can occur during data
collection, analysis, or in the presentation of results.

John Wiley & Sons.
§ Mixed Methods Research. (n.d.). Harvard Catalyst.
https://catalyst.harvard.edu/community-engagement/mmr/

1


Research
Validity Sensitivity Reliability
Bias

§ Doing research is not a simple process, but one that should be done with focus and
caution.
§ Research should be done:-
§ Without bias
§ Being sensitive to the process and people involved
§ Collecting ‘valid and reliable’ data

§ And finally
§ To produce ‘valid and reliable’ results.

Bias is some sort of a prejudice which makes the researcher lean unfairly toward a position that is
not based on the truth but rather from a personal viewpoint.
In research it can be defined as “any trend or deviation from the truth in data collection, data
analysis, interpretation and publication which can cause false conclusions.”
So, it is clear that, bias,
1. May occur at any part of the research process – planning, execution or analysis
2. Both qualitative and quantitative research are subject to bias
3. Therefore, it must be acknowledged that bias is not either present or absent but occurs in
degrees since all bias cannot be eliminated from a study.
Florczak., 2022

§ Research bias refers to a systematic error that can occur during the design, conduct, or
interpretation of a study, leading to inaccurate conclusions.
§ Understanding and identifying bias is crucial to make sure about the scientific integrity of
research studies in question.
§ Bias in research can occur due to a variety of reasons.
1. Subconscious bias – where researchers may unknowingly favour certain outcomes or
interpret data in a way that aligns with their preconceived beliefs.
2. Influence of funding sources – Studies funded by certain organisations may have a
specific interest in specific results.
3. Design and execution of a study - The use of non-random sampling or inadequate
blinding methods.
4. Lack of planning, foresight, training - Sometimes bias can occur due to these factors as
well and can create unbiased research.
CASP
1. Design Bias - Design bias happens when a
researcher fails to capture biased views in most
experiments. This can also develop after the
research is completed and the results are
analyzed.
§ This occurs due to concerns with the
organization and its research methods and also
when the researchers’ original concerns are not
reflected in the exposure.
§ Example:- A researcher is working on a survey
containing questions concerning health benefits.
The researcher may overlook his/her awareness
of the sample group’s limitations. As a result, it’s
possible that the group tested was all male or all
over a particular age.

2. Selection bias, This occurs when 3. Procedural bias –This bias occurs
volunteers are chosen to represent your when survey respondents are given
research population, but those with insufficient time to complete surveys.
different experiences are ignored.
This bias also occur when individuals are
Selection bias occurs in a variety of ways. forced to participate in a survey. They
For e.g., if one sampling method is put as a are more likely to complete the survey
preference into the research, this is known fast, leaving them with enough time to
as sampling bias. accomplish other things.
Hence, selection bias is also referred to as Example:-
sampling bias.
If an organization asks its employees to
Example:- A research on a disease that survey their break, they may be
depended heavily on white male pressured, which may compromise the
volunteers cannot be generalized to the full validity of their results.
community, including women and people of
other races or communities.
4. Data collection Bias 5. Publication/Reporting bias
If there is a defect in the data collection This occurs when favourable outcomes
process and measuring techniques, that are more likely to be reported than
causes data collection bias. negative or empty ones. Any bias in
analysis (analysis bias) can also make it
Data collecting bias is also known as easier for reporting bias to happen.
measurement bias.
Researchers also sometimes choose not
It occurs in both qualitative and quantitative to disclose their outcomes if they believe
research methodologies. the data do not reflect their theory.
Example:- If a researcher has no internet Example:- If there were seven research
access, you may ask those to participate in on the antidepressant drug Reboxetine.
the survey by email or on your website. Among them, only one got published,
and the others were unpublished.

§ Bias in qualitative research, when the
§ The major types of bias in quantitative
research occur with the study design, results are tried to be generalised.
participant selection, data collection, or § This is because the role of true
analysis or during publication. qualitative findings is not to be
§ Data collection methods might occur in
generalized to populations but to bring
quantitative research when you use an understanding to the problem at hand.
approach that is not appropriate for your § Data collection/interview bias occurs in
research population. qualitative research when inappropriate
survey questions are asked during an
§ Instrument bias is one of the most
common forms of measurement bias in unstructured interview. Bad survey
quantitative investigations. A defective questions are those that lead the
scale would generate instrument bias and interviewee to make presumptions.
invalidate the experimental process in a
quantitative experiment.

§ Considering the case, bias can enter into either a quantitative or qualitative study.
§ It seems that both types of research are equally at risk.
§ Quantitative researchers cannot claim to be more objective than qualitative since the
phenomenon of interest underlying those numbers and the manner of interpretation

can be influenced by human minds.
§ Qualitative researchers also cannot dismiss bias because the end result is not
generalization of the findings since qualitative findings are being case sensitive.

§ There are several key factors identifying bias including:-
1. Examine the study's hypothesis and see if it was clearly stated and justified.
2. In data represented for e.g., clinical trials, pay attention to the selection or sampling
criteria for participants.
3. If the criteria seem overly restrictive or targeted towards a specific outcome, it could
suggest bias in participant selection.
4. Scrutinise the data collection and analysis methods. Look for any inconsistencies or
deviations from standard practices that could introduce bias.

Bias impacts the reliability and validity of your findings, leading to misinterpretation of data.
Validity is the ability of a scale to measure what was intended to be measured.
Reliability is the degree to which measures are free from random error and
therefore yield consistent results.
Sensitivity is a measurement instrument’s ability to accurately measure

variability in stimuli or responses.
They are all key to the research process!

Old Rifle New Rifle New Rifle
Sun glare
Low Reliability High Reliability Reliable but Not
Valid
(Target A) (Target B) (Target C)
Validity
FACE OR CONTENT CRITERION VALIDITY CONSTRUCT VALIDITY
CONCURRENT PREDICTIVE
§ Simply, validity refers to how well an instrument as measures what it is intended to
measure.
§ Research validity can be divided into two groups: internal and external.
§ Internal validity refers to how the research findings match reality
§ While external validity refers to the extend to which the research findings can be
replicated to other environments.
§ Face validity can occur when a test may be specified as valid by a researcher because it
may seem as valid, without an in-depth scientific justification.
§ Construct validity can be effectively facilitated with the involvement of panel of ‘experts’
closely familiar with the measure and the phenomenon.
§ Criterion validity correlates results of assessment with another criterion of assessment.
§ Concurrent validity shows you the extent of agreement between two different measures
or assessments taken at the same time.
§ Predictive validity refers to the ability of a test or other measurement method to predict a
future
Research outcome.
Methodologies 05/04/2024 16
RELIABILITY
STABILITY INTERNAL CONSISTENCY
TEST RETEST EQUIVALENT FORMS SPLITTING HALVES
§ Simply, research reliability is the degree to which research method produces stable and
consistent results. There can be three different categories of reliability:-
§ Test-retest reliability – This is the measure of reliability that has been obtained by
conducting the same test more than one time over period of time with the participation of
the same sample group.
§ E.g., Employees of ABC Company may be asked to complete the same questionnaire
about employee job satisfaction two times with an interval of one week, so that test
results can be compared to assess stability of scores.
§ Equivalent forms – This relates to a measure of reliability that is obtained by conducting
assessment of the same phenomena with the participation of the same sample group via
more than one assessment method.
§ E.g., The levels of employee satisfaction of ABC Company may be assessed with
questionnaires, in-depth interviews and focus groups and results can be compared.
§ Split-half reliability is another type of internal consistency reliability that involves all
items of a test to be ‘spitted in half’.

§ Sensitivity and specificity are concerned with the accuracy of a test relative to a reference
standard.
§ The sensitivity is the ability of a screening test to correctly identify all people who have a
condition, or, if 100% testing positive, while specificity is the ability of a screening test to
detect a true negative, if 100%, identifying all patients who do not have the condition of
interest by those people testing negative on the test.
§ Example, a test that correctly identifies all positive samples in a panel is very sensitive.
Another test that only detects 60 % of the positive samples in the panel would be deemed to
have lower sensitivity as it is missing positives.
§ Where results are given on a sliding scale of values, rather than a definitive positive or
negative, sensitivity and specificity values are especially important.
§ They allow you to determine where to draw cut-offs for calling a result positive or negative,
or maybe even suggest a grey area where a retest would be recommended.
§ Finding a balance is therefore vital for an effective and usable test.
§ Sensitivity = [a/(a + c)]x100
§ Specificity = [d/(b + d)]x100
§ Positive predictive value
(PPV) = [a/(a + b)]x100
§ Negative Predictive value
(NPV) = [d/(c + d)]x100

§ Florczak, K. L. (2022). Best available evidence or truth for the moment: Bias in research.
Nursing science quarterly, 35(1), 20-24.
§ Different Types of Bias in Research - CASP. (n.d.). CASP - Critical Appraisal Skills Programme.
https://casp-uk.net/news/different-types-of-research-bias/
§ Villegas, F. (2022, June 18). Research bias: What it is, Types & Examples | QuestionPro.
QuestionPro. https://www.questionpro.com/blog/research-bias/
§ Validity - Research-Methodology. (n.d.). Research-Methodology. https://research-
methodology.net/research-methodology/reliability-validity-and-repeatability/research-
validity/
§ Sensitivity vs Specificity. (n.d.). Analysis & Separations From Technology Networks.
http://www.technologynetworks.com/analysis/articles/sensitivity-vs-specificity-318222
§ Trevethan, R. (2017, November 3). Frontiers | Sensitivity, Specificity, and Predictive Values:
Foundations, Pliabilities, and Pitfalls in Research and Practice. Frontiers.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2017.00307
§ Research Reliability - Research-Methodology. (n.d.). Research-Methodology. https://research-
methodology.net/research-methodology/reliability-validity-and-repeatability/research-
reliability/

1


Surveys ask respondents for information using verbal or
written questioning

CLASSIFYING
SURVEY
RESEARCH
METHODS
METHOD STRUCTURED TEMPORAL

OF AND DISQUISED CLASSIFICATIONS
COMMUNICATION QUESTIONS
05/04/2024 Research Methodologies 4

Respondents are a
representative sample of
people

§ Quick
§ Inexpensive
§ Efficient
§ Accurate
§ Flexible

§ Poor Design
§ Improper Execution

§ A statistical fluctuation that occurs because of change variation
in the elements selected for the sample

§ Systematic error results from some imperfect aspect of the
research design or from a mistake in the execution of the
research

§ A classification of sample bias resulting from some respondent
action or inaction
§ Nonresponse bias
§ Response bias

§ Nonrespondents - people who refuse to cooperate
§ Not-at-homes
§ Self-selection bias
§ Over-represents extreme positions
§ Under-represents indifference

§ Improper administration of the research task
§ Blunders
§ Confusion
§ Neglect
§ Omission

ADMINISTRATIVE ERROR
§ Interviewer cheating - filling in fake answers or falsifying interviewers
§ Data processing error - incorrect data entry, computer programming, or other

procedural errors during the analysis stage.
§ Sample selection error -improper sample design or sampling procedure
execution.
§ Interviewer error - field mistakes

Random sampling
error
Total
error
Systematic
error (bias)

Administrative
error
Systematic
error (bias)
Respondent
error

Nonresponse
error
Respondent
error
Response
bias

Deliberate
falsification
Response
bias
Unconscious
misrepresentation

Administrative
error
Systematic
error (bias)
Respondent
error

Data processing error
Sample selection error
Interviewer error
Interviewer cheating

Acquiescence bias
Extremity bias
Interviewer bias
Auspices bias
Social desirability bias

§ Sample bias - when the results of a sample show a persistent
tendency to deviate in one direction from the true value of the
population parameter

§A bias that occurs when
respondents tend to answer
questions with a certain slant that
consciously or unconsciously
misrepresents the truth

§ A category of response bias that results because some
individuals tend to agree with all questions or to concur with a
particular position.

§ A category of response bias that results because response styles vary from person
to person; some individuals tend to use extremes when responding to questions.

§ A response bias that occurs because the presence of the interviewer influences
answers.

§ Bias in the responses of subjects caused by the respondents
being influenced by the organization conducting the study.

§ Bias in responses caused by respondents’ desire, either
conscious or unconscious, to gain prestige or appear in a
different social role.

§ Cross-sectional
§ Longitudinal

§ A study in which various segments of a population are sampled
§ Data are collected at a single moment in time.

§ A survey of respondents at different times, thus allowing
analysis of changes over time.
§ Tracking study - compare trends and identify changes
§ consumer satisfaction

§ A longitudinal survey of the same sample of individuals or households to record (in
a diary) their attitudes, behavior, or purchasing habits over time.

STAGES IN TRACKING QUALITY IMPROVEMENT
Commitment Bench- Initial Continuous

and marking quality Quality
Exploration improvement Improvement

§ Management makes a commitment to total quality assurance
§ Business researchers explore external customers’ needs and problems.
§ Business researchers explore internal customers’ needs, beliefs, and motivations.

§ Research establishes quantitative measures as benchmarks or points of
comparison
§ Overall satisfaction and quality ratings of specific attributes
§ Employees actual performance and perceptions

§ Personal interviews
§ Door-to-door
§ Shopping mall intercepts
§ Telephone interviews
§ Self-administered questionnaires

§ Total quality management - A business philosophy that emphasizes market-driven
quality as a top organizational priority.

Good Afternoon, my name is _________.
I am with _________ survey research company.
We are conducting a survey on_________.
38

§ Speed of data collection
§ Moderate to fast
§ Geographical flexibility
§ Limited to moderate
§ Respondent cooperation
§ Excellent
§ Versatility of questioning
§ Quite versatile

§ Questionnaire length
§ Long
§ Item nonresponse
§ Low
§ Possibility of respondent misunderstanding

§ Lowest

§ Degree of interviewer influence of answer
§ High
§ Supervision of interviewers
§ Moderate
§ Anonymity of respondent
§ Low

§ Ease of call back or follow-up
§ Difficult
§ Cost
§ Highest
§ Special features
§ Visual materials may be shown or demonstrated; extended probing possible

§ Fast
§ Confined, urban bias
§ Moderate to low
§ Extremely versatile

§ Speed of Data Collection
§ Fast
§ Geographical Flexibility
§ Confined, urban bias
§ Respondent Cooperation
§ Moderate to low
§ Versatility of Questioning

§ Moderate to long
§ Item nonresponse
§ Medium

§ Lowest

§ Degree of interviewer influence of answers
§ Highest
§ Moderate to high
§ Low

§ Difficult
§ Cost
§ Moderate to high
§ Special features
§ Taste test, viewing of TV commercials possible

Funneling technique Clarifying issues
At the beginning of the interview, it is The interviewer can rephrase or
advisable to ask open ended questions restate the question.
to form a broad idea and form about
the situation. Followed by this question, Taking notes
further questions can be asked that are When conducting interviews, it is
relevant to the topic of the interview. important to take notes as the
Un biased questions interviews are taking place or as soon
as the interview is terminated.
Bias should be minimized by asking
unbiased questions, and also by not The interview responses should be
transcribed immediately and not be
emphasizing certain words, by tone, or
voice inflections and suggestions. trusted to memory and later recall.

Probing tactics
Structured/Unstructured Interviews
§ Silence
The interviews are labeled accordingly if the
interviewer has/has no pre-requisites on what § Repeating the answer
information is needed.
§ So, what I hear you saying is…
The main purpose of unstructured interview is
to explore and probe into the several factors in § I’m not quite sure I understood … Could
the situation. you ….
Visual aids such as pictures etc. can be used
while interviews. § Could you give an example?
The same questions will be asked of everybody § Anything else?
in the same manner.
Listening to the interviewee is essential
The projection of professionalism, enthusiasm,
and confidence is important for the interviewer. Bias could be introduced by interviewer,
interviewee or the situation
Rapport should be developed between the
interviewer and interviewee Some interviewees may be turned off due to
the personal likes and dislikes

Telephone Mail Email Internet

§ Speed of Data Collection
§ Very fast
§ Geographical Flexibility
§ High
§ Respondent Cooperation
§ Good
§ Versatility of Questioning
§ Moderate

§ Questionnaire Length
§ Moderate
§ Item Nonresponse
§ Medium
§ Possibility of Respondent Misunderstanding

§ Average
§ Degree of Interviewer Influence of Answer

§ Moderate

§ High, especially with central location WATS interviewing
§ Moderate

§ Easy

§ Cost
§ Low to moderate
§ Special features
§ Fieldwork and supervision of data collection are simplified; quite adaptable to computer
technology

§ Central location interviewing
§ Computer-assisted telephone interviewing

§ Computerized voice-activated interviews

SELF-ADMINISTERED
QUESTIONNAIRES
PAPER ELECTRONIC
QUESTIONNAIRES QUESTIONNAIRES
MAIL IN-PERSON INSERTS FAX E-MAIL INTERNET KIOSK

DROP-OFF WEB SITE

§ Researcher has no control over return of questionnaire; slow
§ High
§ Moderate--poorly designed questionnaire will have low response rate

§ Highly standardized format
§ Varies depending on incentive
§ Item nonresponse
§ High

§ Highest--no interviewer present for clarification
§ Degree of interviewer influence of answer

§ None--interviewer absent
§ Not applicable

§ High

§ Easy, but takes time
§ Cost
§ Lowest

• Write a “sales oriented” cover letter
• Money helps
- As a token of appreciation
- For a charity
• Stimulate respondents’ interest with interesting questions
• Follow Up
- Keying questionnaires with codes
• Advanced notification
• Sponsorship by a well-known and prestigious institution
§ Effective cover letter
§ Money helps
§ Interesting questions
§ Follow-ups
§ Advanced notification
§ Survey sponsorship
§ Keying questionnaires

§ Instantaneous
§ Geographic flexibility
§ worldwide
§ Cheaper distribution and processing costs

§ Flexible, but
§ Extensive differences in the capabilities of respondents’ computers and e-mail software
limit the types of questions and the layout
§ E-mails are not secure and “eavesdropping” can possibly occur
§ Varies depending if e-mail is seen as “spam”

§ A self-administered questionnaire posted on a Web site.
§ Respondents provide answers to questions displayed online by highlighting a
phrase, clicking an icon, or keying in an answer.

§ Instantaneous
§ Cost effective
§ Geographic flexibility
§ worldwide
§ Visual and interactive

§ Varies depending on web site
§ Varies depending on type of sample
§ When user does not opt-in or expect a voluntary survey cooperation is low.
§ Self-selection problems in web site visitation surveys - participants tend to be more
deeply involved than the average person.

§ Individualized base on respondent answers
§ Longer questionnaires with panel samples
§ Item nonresponse
§ Software can assure none

§ Representative samples
§ The quality of internet samples may vary substantially.
§ A sample of those who visit a web page and voluntarily fill out a questionnaires can
have self-selection error.

§ 1) not all individuals in the general public have internet access
§ 2) many respondents lack powerful computers with high-speed connections to the
internet
§ 3) many respondents computer skills will be relatively unsophisticated.

§ Possibility for respondent misunderstanding
§ High
§ Interviewer influence of answers
§ None
§ Supervision of interviewers not required

§ Anonymity of Respondent
§ Respondent can be anonymous or known
§ Ease of Callback or Follow-up

§ difficult unless e-mail address is known
§ Special Features
§ allows graphics and streaming media

§ Welcome Screen like a cover letter
§ It contains the name of the research company and how to
contact the organization if there is a problem or concern.
§ "If you have any concerns or questions about this survey, or
if you experience any technical difficulties, please contact
(NAME OF RESEARCH ORGANIZATION).

1. Google Forms for the fastest form
creation
2. Microsoft Forms for Microsoft 365
integrations
3. Tally for versatile pop-up forms
4. Jotform for building forms from a
template
5. SurveyPlanet for question templates
6. Zoho Survey for short, business-oriented
surveys
7. forms.app for generating a form with AI

§ A trial run with a group of respondents to iron out fundamental problems in the
instructions of survey design

§ How quickly is the information needed?
§ Will the study require a long and complex questionnaire?
§ How large is the budget?

§ Is the assistance of an interviewer necessary?
§ Are respondents interested in the issues being investigated?
§ Will cooperation be easily attained?

PUBLIUS SYRUS

Publius Syrus
(roman,1st century B.C.) 81

§ As easy to compose as a good poem
§ But, it is usually the result of long, painstaking work

1. What should be asked?
2. How should each question be phrased?
3. In what sequence should the questions be arranged?
4. What questionnaire layout will best serve the research
objectives?
5. How should the questionnaire be pretested? Does the
questionnaire need to be revised?

§ Questionnaire relevance
§ Questionnaire accuracy

§ Open-ended questions
§ Fixed-alternative questions

Classifying Surveys
by Degree of Structure and Degree of Disguise
Structured Unstructured
Example: Example:
Typical descriptive survey Survey with open-ended

Undisguised with straight-forward, structured questions to discover “new”
questions answers or focus group interview
Disguised Example: Example:
Survey interview to measure Projection techniques used

brand A’s image versus mostly for exploratory research
competitive brands’ images or
brand recall (unaided recall)

§ No hard and fast rules
§ Only guidelines

• Avoid Complexity: use simple, conversational
language
• Avoid leading and loaded questions
• Avoid ambiguity: be as specific as possible
• Avoid double-barreled items
• Avoid making assumptions
• Avoid burdensome questions

§ Question sequence
§ Order bias
§ Funnel technique
§ Filter bias
§ Question layout

Pilot testing of the questionnaires is important.
1. Apply it to a small group that will not be evaluated in the original survey.
2. Consider the responses of a selected group as the first results obtained from the
project.
3. You can also use a pilot survey to deliberately ask participants for feedback, for
example, asking them how clear the instructions are or what questions are difficult to
answer.
4. After obtaining and analyzing results from the pilot survey, you can correct the
questions on your survey or choose the most appropriate types of questions if, for
example, you are going to carry out an online survey.
5. However, successfully completing a pilot survey is not a guarantee of the success of a
large-scale survey.

§ Graphical User Interface (GUI)
§ Paging layout going from screen to screen
§ Scrolling layout gives the respondent the ability to scroll down
§ Push buttons
§ Status bar

§ Audio button
§ Drop-down box
§ Check box
§ Open-ended boxes

§ Boolean skip and branching logic
§ hidden skip logic
§ Variable piping software

§ Error trapping - forced answering software
§ Interactive help desks

§ The nature of the variable will determine § Instead of phrasing all questions positively,
what kinds of questions are asked. it is advised to include some negatively
worded questions.
§ The language of the questions should
approximate the level of understanding of § Double barreled question – A question
the respondents. that lends to different responses to its
subparts. E.g., Do you think there is a good
§ Open ended questions allow respondents market for the product and that it will also
to answer them in any way they choose. E.g., sell well?
What are the five things that are
interesting/challenging in the job. § Ambiguous questions – Avoid
ambiguously worded questions.
§ A closed question will ask the respondent
to make a choice among a set of § Loaded questions – Avoid questions that
alternatives. E.g., The list could be given for are emotionally charged.
the 5 interests or challenges in the job and
the respondents make the choice from the § Length – As a rule of thumb, a question or
list. statement should not exceed 20 words.
§ Sequence – Follow a funnel approach from
generic to specific questions.

1. Can establish rapport and motivate 1. Computer literacy is a must
respondent
2. Some issues can happen while sampling
2. Doubts can be clarified
3. Equal rate of non-response can also be
3. Less expensive when administered to an issue
groups
4. Not always possible to generalize the
4. Almost 100% response rate is ensured results.
5. Easy to administer and can reach a 5. Respondent must be willing to complete
global audience the survey
6. Faster delivery 6. People can find invitations via email rude
and offensive; emails are deleted or
7. Respondents can answer at their own people complain.
convenience.
8. Anonymity can be maintained (if need
be)

§ Confidentiality § Anonymity
Confidentiality is key. If a researcher While a researcher may have the best of
promises confidentiality and then fails to intentions, if they fail to anonymise the results,
keep information provided by participants, or worse still, store that information in a way
especially personal data, safely stored and that leaves it accessible, then they have acted
handled, then confidentiality is breached. unethically.
§ Informed consent § Failure to disclose interest
If you fail to get informed consent, it means Survey results should always be published
that a participant might agree to take a survey with a statement disclosing any interest by
without fully understanding of what it’s for or sponsors funding the research, so that the
what will happen to the answers they provide. results can be understood in context.
§ Persuasion and pressure For example, if a survey into the effects of a
certain mattress technology on sleep quality
There are ethical concerns in research was sponsored by a mattress manufacturer,
participants are persuaded or pressured into this should be clearly disclosed wherever the
taking part in a survey. results are published.

§ Villegas, F. (2021, December 7). Pilot Survey: Definition, importance and tips |
QuestionPro. QuestionPro. https://www.questionpro.com/blog/pilot-survey/
§ The 12 best free survey tools and form builders | Zapier. (n.d.). The 12 Best Free Survey
Tools and Form Builders | Zapier. https://zapier.com/blog/best-free-survey-tool-form-
app/
§ Q. (2020, November 12). Ethical Issues in Surveys | Qualtrics. Qualtrics.
https://www.qualtrics.com/blog/ethical-issues-for-online-surveys/

1


§ Action research is a research method that aims to simultaneously investigate and
solve an issue. In other words, as its name suggests, action research conducts
research and takes action at the same time. It was first coined as a term in 1944 by
MIT professor Kurt Lewin.
§ A highly interactive method, action research is often used in the social sciences,
particularly in educational settings.
§ Particularly popular with educators as a form of systematic inquiry, it prioritizes
reflection and bridges the gap between theory and practice. Due to the nature of
the research, it is also sometimes called a cycle of action or a cycle of inquiry.
§ In this method, participants are effectively co-researchers, with their lived
experiences considered formative to the research process.

§ As part of an ongoing commitment to improve school facilities for students with
disabilities, an action research plan asked students using wheelchairs to time how
long it took them to get to and from various points on school grounds.
§ After the information was collected, the students were asked where they thought
ramps or other accessibility measures would be best utilized, and the suggestions
were sent to school administrators.

§ Action research differs sharply from other types of research in that it seeks to
produce actionable processes over the course of the research.
§ This is the focus rather than contributing to existing knowledge or drawing
conclusions from datasets.
§ In this way, action research is formative, not summative, and is conducted in an
ongoing, iterative way.

§ Field research is defined as a qualitative method of data collection that aims to observe, interact and
understand people while they are in a natural environment.
§ Field research encompasses a diverse range of social research methods including direct observation,
limited participation, analysis of documents and other information, informal interviews, surveys etc.
Although field research is generally characterized as qualitative research, it often involves multiple
aspects of quantitative research in it.
§ Field research typically begins in a specific setting although the end objective of the study is to observe
and analyze the specific behavior of a subject in that setting. The cause and effect of a certain behavior,
though, is tough to analyze due to presence of multiple variables in a natural environment. Most of the
data collection is based not entirely on cause and effect but mostly on correlation. While field research
looks for correlation, the small sample size makes it difficult to establish a causal relationship between
two or more variables.
§ For example, nature conservationists observe behavior of animals in their natural
surroundings and the way they react to certain scenarios.
§ In the same way, social scientists conducting field research may conduct interviews
or observe people from a distance to understand how they behave in a social

environment and how they react to situations around them.

§ The advantages of field research are: § The disadvantages of field research
are:
§ It is conducted in a real-world and
natural environment where there is § Studies are expensive and time-
no tampering of variables, and the consuming and can take years to
environment is not doctored. complete.
§ Due to the study being conducted in § Bias can be an issue, and it is an
a comfortable environment, data can interpretive method, and this is
be collected even about ancillary subjective and entirely dependent on
topics. the ability of the researcher.

§ A research investigation in which conditions
are controlled
§ One independent variable is manipulated
(sometimes more than one)
§ Its effect on a dependent variable is
measured
§ To test a hypothesis

§ Experimental research is a study conducted with a scientific approach using two sets of
variables. The first set acts as a constant, which you use to measure the differences of
the second set. Quantitative research methods, for example, are experimental.
§ Experimental research is used in the field of psychology to test theories and
understand human behavior. By manipulating variables such as stimuli, researchers can
gain insights into how the brain works and identify new treatment options for mental
health disorders.
§ In the field of education, it allows educators to test new teaching methods and identify
what works best. By manipulating variables such as class size, teaching style, and
curriculum, researchers can understand how students learn and identify new ways to
improve educational outcomes.
§ In addition, experimental research is a powerful tool for businesses and organizations.
By manipulating variables such as marketing strategies, product design, and customer
service, companies can understand what works best and identify new opportunities for
growth.

§ You can conduct experimental research in the following situations:
§ Time is a vital factor in establishing a relationship between cause and effect.
§ Invariable behavior between cause and effect.
§ You wish to understand the importance of cause and effect.

§ Experimental research is a powerful tool for understanding cause-and-effect
relationships. It allows us to manipulate variables and observe the effects, which is
crucial for understanding how different factors influence the outcome of a study.
§ It’s a critical method for many scientific and academic studies. It allows us to test
theories, develop new products, and make groundbreaking discoveries.

§ Advantages
§ This research allows you to test your idea in a controlled environment before marketing.
§ The results are specific.
§ Any industry can implement it for research purposes.
§ Researchers have a stronger hold over variables to obtain desired results.
§ Disadvantage can be on the front of costs, non generalizability, or even business preferences.

§ Manipulation of the Independent Variable
§ Selection of Dependent Variable
§ Assignment of Subjects (or other Test Units).

The experimenter has some degree of control over the
independent variable.
The variable is independent because its value can be

manipulated by the experimenter to whatever he or
she wishes it to be.

§The experimenter controls
independent variable.
§The variable’s value can be
manipulated by the experimenters
to whatever they wish it to be.

§Its value is expected to be dependent on the
experimenter’s manipulation
§Criterion or standard by which the results are
judged
§Called as ‘constants’

§ Selection
§ e.g... sales volume, awareness, recall,
§ Measurement

§Subjects or entities
whose response to the
experimental
treatment are
measured or
observed.

§ Constant errors
§ Random errors

Field Vs. Laboratory Experiment

Laboratory Experiment Field Experiment
Artificial-Low Realism Natural-High Realism
Few Extraneous Many Extraneous

Variables Variables
High control Low control
Low Cost High Cost
Short Duration Long Duration
Subjects Aware of Subjects Unaware of

Participation Participation
John Wiley & Sons.

1


§ Series of items arranged according to value for the purpose of quantification
§ A continuous spectrum

§ Uniquely classifies
§ Preserves order
§ Equal intervals
§ Natural zero

§ This scale uniquely classifies the data.
§ E.g.,
§ Sammy Sosa # 21
§ Barry Bonds # 25

§ Preserves order

§ Preserves order
§ Equal intervals
§ E.g., 1. Consumer Price Index (Base 100)
§ E.g., 2. Fahrenheit temperature

§ Preserves order
§ Equal intervals
§ Natural zero
§ E.g., Weight and distance

§ ATTRIBUTES
§ A single characteristic or fundamental feature that pertains to an object, person, or
issue
§ COMPOSITE MEASURE
§ A composite measure of several variables to measure a single concept; a multi-item
instrument

§ Sample
§ Population or universe
§ Population element
§ Census

§ Subset of a larger population

§ Any complete group
§ People
§ Sales territories
§ Stores

§ Investigation of all individual elements that make up a population

Stages in the
Define the target population
Selection
of a Sample Select a sampling frame
Determine if a probability or nonprobability

sampling method will be chosen
Plan procedure
for selecting sampling units
Determine sample size
Select actual sampling units
Conduct fieldwork

§ Relevant population
§ Operationally define
§ Comic book reader?

§ A list of elements from which the sample may be drawn
§ Working population
§ Mailing lists - data base marketers
§ Sampling frame error

§ Group selected for the sample
§ Primary Sampling Units (PSU)
§ Secondary Sampling Units
§ Tertiary Sampling Units

§ Sampling frame error
§ Random sampling error
§ Nonresponse error

§ The difference between the sample results and the result of a census conducted
using identical procedures
§ Statistical fluctuation due to chance variations

§ Nonsampling errors
§ Unrepresentative sample results
§ Not due to chance
§ Due to study design or imperfections in execution

§ Probability sampling
§ Known, nonzero probability for every element
§ Nonprobability sampling
§ Probability of selecting any particular member is
unknown

§ Convenience
§ Judgment
§ Quota
§ Snowball

§ Simple random sample
§ Systematic sample
§ Stratified sample
§ Cluster sample
§ Multistage area sample

§ Also called haphazard or accidental sampling
§ The sampling procedure of obtaining the people or units that are most
conveniently available

§ Also called purposive sampling
§ An experienced individual selects the sample based on his or her judgment about
some appropriate characteristics required of the sample member

§ Ensures that the various subgroups in a population are represented on pertinent
sample characteristics
§ To the exact extent that the investigators desire
§ It should not be confused with stratified sampling.

§ A variety of procedures
§ Initial respondents are selected by probability methods
§ Additional respondents are obtained from information provided by the initial
respondents

§ A sampling procedure that ensures that each element in the population will have
an equal chance of being included in the sample

§ A simple process
§ Every nth name from the list will be drawn

§ Probability sample
§ Subsamples are drawn within different strata
§ Each stratum is more or less equal on some characteristic
§ Do not confuse with quota sample

§ The purpose of cluster sampling is to sample economically while retaining the
characteristics of a probability sample.
§ The primary sampling unit is no longer the individual element in the population
§ The primary sampling unit is a larger cluster of elements located in proximity to

one another

Population Element Possible Clusters in the United States
U.S. adult population States

Counties
Metropolitan Statistical Area
Census tracts
Blocks
Households

College seniors Colleges
Manufacturing firms Counties

Metropolitan Statistical Areas
Localities
Plants

Airline travelers Airports

Planes
Sports fans Football stadiums

Basketball arenas
Baseball parks

§ Degree of accuracy
§ Resources
§ Time
§ Advanced knowledge of the population

§ National versus local
§ Need for statistical analysis

§ Internet surveys allow researchers to rapidly reach a large sample.
§ Speed is both an advantage and a disadvantage.
§ Sample size requirements can be met overnight or almost instantaneously.
§ Survey should be kept open long enough so all sample units can participate.

§ Major disadvantage
§ lack of computer ownership and Internet access among certain segments of the
population
§ Yet Internet samples may be representative of a target populations.
§ target population - visitors to a particular Web site.
§ Hard to reach subjects may participate

§ Recruited Ad Hoc Samples
§ Opt-in Lists

§ Unrestricted samples are clearly convenience samples
§ Randomly selecting visitors
§ Questionnaire request randomly "pops up"
§ Over- representing the more frequent visitors

§ Typically yield a high response rate
§ Members may be compensated for their time with a sweepstake or a small, cash
incentive.
§ Database on members
§ Demographic and other information from previous questionnaires
§ Select quota samples based on product ownership, lifestyle, or other

characteristics.
§ Probability Samples from Large Panels

John Wiley & Sons.

1

Fundamentally there can be
§ Qualitative data analysis
§ Quantitative data analysis
§ As its name suggests, this is a research method used to identify frequencies and
recurring words, subjects, and concepts in image, video, or audio content.
§ It transforms qualitative information into quantitative data to help discover trends
and conclusions that will later support important research or business decisions.
§ This method is often used by marketers to understand brand sentiment from the
mouths of customers themselves.
§ E.g., Business use it to analyse brand sentiment from the customers.
§ This method focuses on analyzing qualitative data, such as interview transcripts, survey
questions, and others, to identify common patterns and separate the data into different
groups according to found similarities or themes.
§ Since this technique is more exploratory, be open to changing your research questions or
goals as you go.
§ E.g., Imagine you want to analyze what customers think about your restaurant. For this
purpose, you do a thematic analysis on 1000 reviews and find common themes such as
“fresh food”, “cold food”, “small portions”, “friendly staff”, etc. With those recurring themes
in hand, you can extract conclusions about what could be improved or enhanced based on
your customer’s experiences.
§ A bit more specific and complicated than the two previous methods, it is used to
analyze stories and discover their meaning.
§ These stories can be extracted from testimonials, case studies, and interviews, as
these formats give people more space to tell their experiences.
§ This method is used to draw the meaning of any type of visual, written, or symbolic
language in relation to a social, political, cultural, or historical context.
§ It is used to understand how context can affect how language is carried out and
understood.
§ The grounded theory approach aims to create or discover a new theory by
carefully testing and evaluating the data available.
§ Unlike all other qualitative approaches on this list, grounded theory helps extract
conclusions and hypotheses from the data instead of going into the analysis with a
defined hypothesis.
§ This method is very popular amongst researchers, analysts, and marketers as the
results are completely data-backed, providing a factual explanation of any
scenario.
§ It is often used when researching a completely new topic or with little knowledge
as this space to start from the ground up.
§ Mean: A mean represents a numerical average for a set of responses. When dealing with a data set (or
multiple data sets), a mean will represent the central value of a specific set of numbers.
§ Standard deviation: Standard deviation reveals the distribution of the responses around the mean. Smaller
values indicate that the data points cluster closer to the mean—the values in the dataset are relatively
consistent. Conversely, higher values signify that the values spread out further from the mean.
§ Frequency distribution: This is a measurement gauging the rate of a response appearance within a data set.
When using a survey, for example, frequency distribution, it can determine the number of times a specific
ordinal scale response appears (i.e., agree, strongly agree, disagree, etc.). Frequency distribution is extremely
keen in determining the degree of consensus among data points. It shows whether the observations are high
or low and also whether they are concentrated in one area or spread out across the entire scale.
§ Essentially, it uses historical data to understand the relationship between a
dependent variable and one or more independent variables.
§ Knowing which variables are related and how they developed in the past allows you to
anticipate possible outcomes and make better decisions going forward.
§ For example, if you want to predict your sales for next month, you can use
regression to understand what factors will affect them, such as products on sale and
the launch of a new campaign, among many others.
§ In a business scenario, cohort analysis is commonly used to understand customer
behaviors.
§ For example, a cohort could be all users who have signed up for a free trial on a
given day. An analysis would be carried out to see how these users behave, what
actions they carry out, and how their behavior differs from other user groups.
§ Typically applied to survey analysis, the conjoint approach is used to analyze how
individuals value different attributes of a product or service.
§ This helps researchers and businesses to define pricing, product features, packaging,
and many other attributes.
§ For example, one use is menu-based conjoint analysis, in which individuals are given a
“menu” of options from which they can build their ideal concept or product. Through this,
analysts can understand which attributes they would pick above others and drive
conclusions.
§ Last but not least, the cluster is a method used to group objects into categories.
Since there is no target variable when using cluster analysis, it is a useful method to find
hidden trends and patterns in the data.
§ In a business context, clustering is used for audience segmentation to create targeted
experiences.
§ For example, In market research, it is often used to identify age groups, geographical
information, and earnings, among others.
EDITING
CODING
ERROR
CHECKING
AND
VERIFICATION
DATA ENTRY
DATA ANALYSIS
§ The process of checking and adjusting the data
§ for omissions
§ for legibility
§ for consistency
§ And readying them for coding and storage
§ 1873?
§ 1973 more likely
§ The process of identifying and assigning a numerical score or other character
symbol to previously edited data
FIELD
EDITING
IN-
HOUSE
EDITING
Reasons for Editing
CONSISTENCY COMPLETENESS QUESTIONS

ANSWERED
OUT OF ORDER
§ Legitimate don’t know
§ Reluctant don’t know
§ Confused don’t know
§ The rules for interpreting, classifying, and recording data in the coding process
§ The actual numerical or other character symbols
§ Categories should be exhaustive
§ Categories should be mutually exclusive and independent
§ Identifies each variable
§ Provides a variable’s description
§ Identifies each code name and position on storage medium
§ The process of transforming data from the research project to computers.
§ Optical scanning systems
§ Marked-sensed questionnaires
§ Recoding is the process of using a computer to convert original cods used for raw
data to codes that are more suitable for analysis.
§ Var1 = 8 - Var1
§ Data cleaning
§ The transformation of raw data into a form that will make them easy to understand
and interpret; rearranging, ordering, and manipulating data to generate
descriptive information
Type of Type of
Measurement descriptive analysis
Frequency table
Two Proportion (percentage)
categories
Nominal
Frequency table
Category proportions
More than
(percentages)
two categories
Mode
Type of Type of
Ordinal Rank order

Median
Type of Type of
Interval Arithmetic mean
Type of Type of
Index numbers
Ratio Geometric mean
Harmonic mean
§ Tabulation - Orderly arrangement of data in a table or other summary format
§ Frequency table
§ Percentages
§ The arrangement of statistical data in a row-and-column format that exhibits the
count of responses or observations for each category assigned to a variable
Measure of
Central Measure of
Type of Scale Tendency Dispersion
Nominal Mode None

Ordinal Median Percentile
Interval or ratio Mean Standard deviation
§ A technique for organizing data by groups, categories, or classes, thus facilitating
comparisons; a joint frequency distribution of observations on two or more sets of
variables
§ Contingency table- The results of a cross-tabulation of two variables, such as
survey questions
§ Analyze data by groups or categories
§ Compare differences
§ Contingency table
§ Percentage cross-tabulations
§ The number of respondents or observations (in a row or column) used as a basis
for computing percentages
§ Moderator variable
§ A third variable that, when introduced into an analysis, alters or has a contingent effect on
the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable.
§ Spurious relationship
§ An apparent relationship between two variables that is not authentic.
§ Data conversion
§ Changing the original form of the data to a new format
§ More appropriate data analysis
§ New variables
Summative Score =
VAR1 + VAR2 + VAR 3
40
§ Strongly Agree § Strongly Agree/Agree
§ Agree § Neither Agree nor
§ Neither Agree nor Disagree
Disagree § Disagree/Strongly
§ Disagree Disagree
§ Strongly Disagree
§ Score or observation recalibrated to indicate how it relates to a base number
§ Ordinal data
§ Brand preferences
§ Bannerheads for columns
§ Studheads for rows
§ Pie charts
§ Line graphs
§ Bar charts
§ Vertical
§ Horizontal
§ SPSS
§ ANOVA
§ NVIVO
§ Microsoft Excel
Data analysis and interpretation, regardless of the method and qualitative/quantitative status,
should lead to the following:
§ Data identification and explanation
§ Comparing and contrasting data
§ Identification of data outliers
§ Future predictions
§ Trend identification leading to…
§ Business decisions.
§ Calzon, B. (2024, January 30). What Is Data Interpretation? Meaning & Analysis Examples.
BI Blog | Data Visualization & Analytics Blog | Datapine.

https://www.datapine.com/blog/data-interpretation-methods-benefits-problems/
1


§ Writing up the research process is crucial in itself…
§ It should sum up your research findings, its implications and recommendations.
§ Reporting is the concluding part of the research process.

§ Recommendations & Conclusions § Managerial Implications
§ Recommendations for future research should be: § Managerial implications are the practical
considerations and actions that managers
q Concrete and specific need to take based on the findings or
conclusions of a study, research, or analysis.
q Supported with a clear rationale
§ Examples are:-
q Directly connected to your research
1. Strategic Decision-Making: Managers
These recommendations should be targeted at your may need to adjust their strategic plans or
audience, specifically toward peers or colleagues in make changes in the organization's
your field that work on similar subjects to your research direction based on market trends,
topic. competitive analysis, or emerging
Example: A recommendation from a language research opportunities and threats.
would be like :- 2. Ethical Considerations: Managers may
The research investigation revealed that mastering need to ensure ethical practices and
language is an important prerequisite for mastering compliance with legal and regulatory
social skills. On this basis, future research should requirements based on the research
examine the ability of language development programs findings. This could involve revising
to expand the language skills of children aged 1 to 4. policies, implementing ethical guidelines,
or conducting training programs on ethics
and compliance.

Report parts
Prefatory parts Main body of the report Appended parts

Prefatory parts
Title page
Summary
Objectives
Letter of
Usually a business transmittal
requirement Results
and will vary according
to the specific Letter of
researches authorization Conclusions
Table of contents Recommendations

Main body of the report
Introduction Limitations
Results
Area 1
Conclusions and
Methodology
Area 2 recommendations
Final area

Appended parts
Data collection
forms
Detailed
calculations
General tables
Bibliography

Field of Experience Field of Experience
Communicator Encoding Message

Decoding Audience
Communication

§ Abstract / Executive Summary § Methods
§ Introduction § Results
§ Aim § Discussion
§ Objectives & Question/s § Conclusions
§ Literature Review § Managerial Implications
§ (Include, if necessary, § Limitations and Future
Theoretical Framework & Research
Research Model)

§ What are some examples of managerial implications? (n.d.). Quora.
https://www.quora.com/What-are-some-examples-of-managerial-implications
§ George, T. (2023, July 18). How to Write Recommendations in Research | Examples &
Tips. Scribbr. https://www.scribbr.com/dissertation/recommendations-in-research/

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1

Module Name: Research Methodologies

C Understand the use of research and its applications to business needs

§ Detached and impersonal rather than biased

§ Problem, opportunity, or monitor operations

§ Problem means management problem

Isolate/identify State research

§ Managerial goals expressed in measurable terms.

§ Situation analysis - The informal gathering of background information to familiarize

§ Demographic changes: Children have grown up

Organization Symptoms Based on Symptom True

Twenty- Membership Neighborhood Demographic

Isolate/identify State research

Specific Specific Specific

must focus on integrating customer-driven quality throughout the organization.

§ Managers improve durability and enhance features as the product ages.

§ Market knowledge is essential

§ Cultural and consumer factors

§ Does not provide conclusive evidence

§ Some understanding of the nature of the problem

what, and why, and when, and how,

§ Woman about 40 years old

§ At least some college education

§ 1/3 size of women’s fragrance market

§ Women buy 80 % of men’s fragrances

§ Selecting and implementing a course of action

§ Benefits versus costs

Do Not Conduct Business Research

§ Business research can sometimes give you inaccurate information because of a

John Wiley & Sons.

Methods A South-asian Perspective: Cengage Learning.

QuestionPro. QuestionPro. https://www.questionpro.com/blog/business-research/

§ Research Limitations - Research-Methodology. (n.d.). Research-Methodology.

C Understand the use of research and its applications to business needs

Exploratory Collection of the

Editing and Report

§ Stages can overlap chronologically

§ Conclusions And Report

§ Problem, opportunity, or monitor operations

§ Problem means management problem

§ They may also be recorded by machines too.

§ Research is only good as its applications.

§ What is a research objective? (n.d.). Scribbr. https://www.scribbr.com/frequently-asked-

John Wiley & Sons.

Methods A South-asian Perspective: Cengage Learning.

C Understand the use of research and its applications to business needs

Problem Discovery Problem Selection of

§ Exploring answers for a question

§ ‘To do research is to expand the

§ It is a plan, framework, blueprint, or methodology explaining how a business should

§ This section of your proposal has multiple parts

§ Justify your method choice

RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES 05/04/2024 9

RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES 05/04/2024 10

§ Primary sources have not been subject to processing, manipulation, analysis or

§ analysed); § published results of laboratory

§ interpreted or analysed); § published results of research studies;

§ recorded or transcribed speeches or interviews; § and ongoing research;

§ analyses of clinical trials;

§ analyses/interpretations/critiques of previous research;