Chapter 3

Characteristics of the Driver, the

Pedestrian, the Bicyclist, the Vehicle,
and the Road
3-1
Briefly describe the five characteristics of visual reception relevant to transportation
engineering.

Visual acuity: is the ability to see fine details of an object. It can be

represented by the visual angle, which is the reciprocal of the smallest pattern
detail in minutes of arc. The ability to resolve a pattern detail with a visual acuity
of one minute of arc (1/60 of a degree) is considered the normal vision acuity
(20/20 vision).
Peripheral vision: is the ability of people to see objects beyond the cone of
clearest vision. Although objects can be seen within this zone, details and color
are not clear.
Color vision: is the ability to differentiate one color from another.
Deficiency in this ability, usually referred to as color blindness, is not of great
significance in highway driving because other ways of recognizing traffic
information devices (e.g., shape) can compensate for it.
Glare vision and recovery: there are two types of glare vision: direct and
specular. Direct glare occurs when relatively bright light appears in the
individual’s field of vision and specular glare occurs when the image reflected by
the relatively bright light appears in the field of vision. Both types of glare result
in a decrease of visibility and cause discomfort to the eyes.
Depth perception: it affects the ability of a person to estimate speed and
distance. It is particularly important on two-lane highways during passing
maneuvers, when head-on crashes may result from a lack of proper judgment of
speed and distance.

3-2
Briefly describe the two types of visual acuity.

The two types of visual acuity are static and dynamic. The ability of a driver to
identify an object when both the object and the driver are stationary depends on
one's static acuity. Some factors that affect static acuity include the background
brightness, contrast, and time. The ability of a driver to clearly detect a moving
object depends on the driver's dynamic visual acuity.

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Garber/Hoel: Traffic & Highway Engineering, 5e SI

3-3
(a) What color combinations are used for regulatory signs (e.g. speed limit signs)
and for general warning signs (e.g. advance railroad crossing signs)
(b) Why are these combinations used?

Regulatory signs use a color combination of black lettering on white background,

and most advance warning signs use the color combination of black lettering on
yellow background. These color combinations are used because they have been
shown to be those to which the eye is most sensitive.

3-4
Briefly describe the changes that occur in the abilities of older drivers (aged 65 and
over) that influence their driving capability.

As one grows older, his or her sensory, cognitive, and physical functioning ability
declines, which can result in older drivers being less safe than their younger
counterparts, and with a higher probability of being injured when involved in a
crash. Specific declining abilities of older drivers include reduced visual acuity,
ability to see at night, and flexibility and motion range. This group also suffers
from narrower visual fields, greater sensitivity to glare, higher reaction times, and
reduced muscle strength, which may result in the older driver having a higher
crash risk.

3-5
Determine your average walking speed. Compare your results with that of the
recommended walking speed in the MUTCD. Which value is more conservative and
why?

Pass # Intersection Width Walk Time Walking Speed

(m) (sec) (m/sec)
1 10.8 7 1.54

2 10.8 8.2 1.32

3 10.8 9.5 1.14

4 10.8 7.6 1.42

5 10.8 8 1.35

Average 1.35

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 Chapter 3: Characteristics of the Driver, the Pedestrian, the Bicyclist,
the Vehicle, and the Road

In this case, the MUTCD value, 1.05 m/sec (3.5 ft/sec), is more conservative than
the observed speeds. This value is more conservative because it is a slower speed
and it will allow slower people, such as elderly, individuals with small children,
and handicapped individuals to traverse the intersection safely.

3-6
Describe the three types of vehicle characteristics.

The three types of vehicle characteristics are static, kinematic, and dynamic. Static
vehicle characteristics include the vehicle's weight and size. Kinematic
characteristics involve the motion of the vehicle, and dynamic characteristics
involve the force that causes the motion of the vehicle.

3-7
Determine the maximum allowable overall gross weight of the WB-67 Design
Vehicle.

From Table 3.2, the extreme distance between the axle groups is 43.4 – 45.4 ft
(use 45.4 in this case). The number of axles in the group is 4.

Use Eq. 3.2,

⎡ LN ⎤ ⎡ 45.4 × 4 ⎤
W = 500 ⎢ + 12 N + 36⎥ = 500 × ⎢ + 12 × 4 + 36⎥ = 72267lb .
⎣ N −1 ⎦ ⎣ 4 −1 ⎦
The maximum allowable overall gross weight is 72267 lb, which, rounded to the
nearest 500 lb, is 72,000 lb (32.66 kN)

3-8
The design speed of a multilane highway is 9 mi/h. Determine (a) the minimum
stopping sight distance that should be provided for a level roadway, and (b)
the minimum stopping sight distance that should be provided for a roadway with a
maximum grade of 7 percent.
a
Note: the term in the appropriate equation is typically rounded to 0.35 in
g
calculations. Assume perception reaction time = 2.5 sec.

The minimum sight distance required in these cases is the stopping sight distance
(SSD), given by Equation 3.27:

u2
S = 0.278ut + ;
!a $
254 # ± G &
"g %

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Garber/Hoel: Traffic & Highway Engineering, 5e SI

where u = design speed (km/h)

t = perception-reaction time (sec)
a = rate of deceleration (taken as 3.36 m/sec2)
g = gravitational acceleration (taken as 9.81 m/sec2)
G = grade

(a) Since the roadway is level, G = 0.

S = (0.278)(96)(2.5) + (96)2 / (254)(0.35 + 0)

S = 66.72 + 103.66
S = 170.38 m

Therefore, the minimum sight distance for this horizontal roadway is 171 m.

(b) Since this roadway has a maximum grade of 7 percent, G = –0.07. The
downgrade (negative) case provides the most conservative (higher) value for
design.

S = (0.278)(96)(2.5) + (96)2 / (254)(0.35 -0.07)

S = 66.72 + 129.58
S = 196.3 m

Therefore, the minimum sight distance for this roadway should be 197 m.

3-9
The acceleration of a vehicle can be expressed as:
du
= 1.1 − 0.06u
dt
If the vehicle speed, u, is 9 m/sec at time T0, determine:
(a) Distance traveled when the vehicle has accelerated to 13.5 m/sec.
(b) Time for vehicle to attain the speed of 13.5 m/sec.
(c) Acceleration after 4 seconds.

(a) First, determine the time it took for the vehicle to accelerate to 13.5 m/sec.
Using a rearrangement of Equation 3.10:

– βt = ln [(α– βut) / (α – βu0)] therefore;

t = (–1/β) ln [(α– βut) / (α– βu0)]
t = (–1/0.06) ln [(1.1 – 0.06(13.5)) / (1.1 – 0.06(9))]
t = 12.43 seconds

Next, determine the distance traveled during this time.

From Equation 3.12:

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 Chapter 3: Characteristics of the Driver, the Pedestrian, the Bicyclist,
the Vehicle, and the Road

x = (α / β)t – (α / β2) (1 – e–βt) + (uo / β) (1 – e–βt)

x = (1.1 / 0.06)12.43 – [(1.1 /(0.06)2)(1 – e–0.06((12.43))] +
[(9 / 0.06)(1 – e–0.06(12.43))]
x = 146.12 m.

Therefore, the vehicle traveled 146.12 m when accelerating from 9 m/sec to 13.5
m/sec.

(b) This time was determined in Part (a) of this problem. Therefore, it took
11.55 seconds for the vehicle to attain the speed of 45 ft/sec.

(c) First, determine the velocity of the vehicle after 4 seconds.

From Equation 3.11:

ut = (α / β) (1 – e–βt) + uoe–βt
ut = (1.1 /0.06)(1 – e–(0.06)(4)) + 9e–(0.06)(4)
ut = 11 m/sec.

Since acceleration is: a = du/dt = 3.6 – 0.06u

a = 1.1 – 0.06(11)
a = 0.44 m/sec2

Therefore, the acceleration of the vehicle after 4 seconds is 0.44 m /sec2

3-10
The gap between two consecutive automobiles (distance between the back of a
vehicle and the front of the following vehicle) is 19.5 m. At a certain time the front
vehicle is traveling at 64 km/h and the following vehicle at 48 km/h. If both vehicles
start accelerating at the same time, determine the gap between the two vehicles after
10 sec if the acceleration of the vehicles can be assumed to take the following forms:
du/dt = 1.02 – 0.07 ut; (leading vehicle)
du/dt = 0.99 – 0.065 ut; (following vehicle)
where ut is the vehicle speed in m/sec.

First, determine the distance each vehicle travels during the elapsed time (10
seconds) using Equation 3.12. For the leading vehicle:

x = (α / β)t – (α / β2) (1 – e–βt) + (uo / β) (1 – e–βt)

x = (1.02 / 0.07)10 – [(1.02 /(0.07)2)(1 – e–0.07(10))] +
[((64)(0.278) / 0.07) (1 – e–0.07(10))]
x = 168.9 m.

Similarly, for the following vehicle:

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Garber/Hoel: Traffic & Highway Engineering, 5e SI

x = 1.02 / 0.065)10 – [(1.02 /(0.065)2)(1 – e–0.065(10))] +

[((48)(0.278) / 0.065) (1 – e–0.065(10))]
x = 139.33 m.

Since the leading vehicle traveled further, the gap between vehicles increased by
the difference in the distances, 168.9 – 139.33 = 29.57 m
The initial gap was given as 19.5 mt, so after 10 sec, the gap is 19.5 +
29.57 = 49.07 m.

3-11
The driver of a vehicle on a level road determined that she could increase her speed
from rest to 80 km/h in 12.8 sec and from rest to 104 km/hr in 19.8 sec. If it can be
assumed that the acceleration of the vehicle takes the form:
du
= α − βut
dt
determine the maximum acceleration of the vehicle

First, convert miles/hour to feet/second.

80 km/h = 22.2 m/sec
104 km/h = 28.9 m/sec
Next, use Equation 3.11 to develop the equation for each case as follows:

Case 1 (80 km/h)

ut = (α / β) (1 – e–βt) + uoe–βt
22.2 = (α / β) (1 – e–β(12.8)) + 0e–β(12.8)
22.2 = (α / β) (1 – e–β(12.8)) Equation 1

Case 2 (104 km/h)

ut = (α / β) (1 – e–βt) + uoe–βt
28.9 = (α / β) (1 – e–β(19.8)) + 0e–β(19.8)
28.9 = (α / β) (1 – e–β(19.8)) Equation 2

Solve for α in equation 1 and substitute into equation 2.

α = 22.2 / (1 – e–β(12.8)) Equation 3

Substitute this into Equation 2.

28.9 = [(22.2 β / (1 – e–β(12.8))) / β) × (1 – e–β(19.8))
28.9 = (22.2 / (1 – e–β(12.8))) × (1 – e–β(19.8))
(28.9 / 22.2) × (1 – e–β(12.8)) = (1 – e–β(19.8))
1.30 × (1 – e–β(12.8)) = (1 – e–β(19.8))
1.30 – 1.30e–β(12.8) = (1 – e–β(19.8))
1.30e–β(12.8) – e–β(19.8) = 0.30

34
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 Chapter 3: Characteristics of the Driver, the Pedestrian, the Bicyclist,
the Vehicle, and the Road

The above equation can be solved by assuming a value for β, evaluating the left
hand side of the equation, and comparing the result to 0.3 as follows.

β 1.30 e –β (12.8) – e –β (19.8)

0.010 0.32
0.005 0.31
0.001 0.30

As can be seen, the solution is:

β = 0.001

Substituting into Equation 3 gives:

α = 22.2 × 0.001 / (1 – e (–0.001 × 12.8))

= 1.745 m/sec2

Since the maximum acceleration is achieved when the velocity of the vehicle is 0,
the value for α determined above is the maximum acceleration.

3-12
If the vehicle in Problem 3-11 is traveling at a speed of 64 km/h, how long will it take
after the driver starts accelerating for the vehicle to achieve a speed of 72 km/h?

The acceleration model found in Problem 3-11 was

du/dt = 1.745 – 0.001 ut

The values α =1.745 and β = 0.001 can then be substituted in Equation 3.10:

t = (–1/β) ln [(α – βut) / (α – βu0)]

t = (–1/0.001) ln [(1.745 – ((0.001)(64)(0.278)) / (1.745 –
((0.001)(72)(0.278))]
t = 1.3 seconds

3-13
Determine the horsepower developed by a passenger car traveling at a speed of 80
km/h mi/h on an upgrade of 5% with a smooth pavement. The weight of the car is
15.87 kN and the cross-sectional area of the car is 3.6 m2.

First, determine all of the resistive forces, air, rolling, and grade, acting on the
vehicle, and then determine its horsepower requirement.

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Garber/Hoel: Traffic & Highway Engineering, 5e SI

The air resistance is (using Equation 3.13):

Ra = 0.5 × [(0.077pCDAu2) / g]
Ra = 0.5 × [(0.077 (1.2256 × 9.81)(0.4)(3.6)(80)2 / 9.81]
Ra = 434. 86 N

The rolling resistance is (using Equation 3.14):

Rr = (Crs + 0.077Crvu2) × W
Rr = (0.012 + 0.077(0.65 × 10–6)(80)2) × 15870
Rr = 245 N

The grade resistance is:

RG = WG
RG = (15870)(0.05)
RG = 793.5 N

Since these are the only forces acting on the vehicle, one can now determine the
horsepower requirement. Use Equation 3.17.

P = 0.278Ru / 760
P = [(.278(460.5 + 245 + 793.5)(80)) / 760]
P = 43.1 hp

3-14
Repeat Problem 3-13 for a 108.84 kN truck with a cross-sectional area of 9 m2 and
coefficient of drag of 0.5 traveling at 129 km/hr.

First, determine all of the resistive forces, air, rolling, and grade, acting on the
vehicle, and then determine its horsepower requirement.

The air resistance is (using Equation 3.13):

Ra = 0.5 × [(0.077pCDAu2) / g]
Ra = 0.5 × [(0.077 (1.2256 × 9.81)(0.5)(9)(129)2 / 9.81]
Ra = 1358 N

The rolling resistance is (using Equation 3.15):

Rr = (Ca + 0.278Cbu) × W
Rr = (0.02445 + 0.278(0.00147)(129)) × 108840
Rr = 3851 N

The grade resistance is:

RG = WG
RG = (108840)(0.05)
RG = 5442 N

36
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 Chapter 3: Characteristics of the Driver, the Pedestrian, the Bicyclist,
the Vehicle, and the Road

Since these are the only forces acting on the vehicle, one can now determine the
horsepower requirement. Use Equation 3.17.

P = 0.278Ru / 550
P = [(0.278 (1358 + 3851 + 5442)(129)) / 760]
P = 503 hp

3-15
A 11.34 kN passenger vehicle originally traveling on a straight and level road gets
onto a section of the road with a horizontal curve of radius = 255 m. If the vehicle
was originally traveling at 88 km/h, determine (a) the additional horsepower on the
curve the vehicle must produce to maintain the original speed, (b) the total
resistance force on the vehicle as it traverses the horizontal curve, and the total
horsepower. Assume that the vehicle is traveling at sea level and has a front cross-
sectional area of 2.7 m2.

First, determine all of the resistive forces, air and rolling, acting on the vehicle
while it is traveling straight and then determine its horsepower requirement.

The air resistance is (using Equation 3.13):

Ra = 0.5 × [(0.077pCDAu2) / g]
Ra = 0.5 × [(0.077 (1.2256 × 9.81)(0.4)(2.7)(88)2 / 9.81
Ra = 394 N

The rolling resistance is (using Equation 3.14):

Rr = (Crs + 0.077Crvu2) × W
Rr = (0.012 + 0.077(0.65 × 10–6)(88)2) × 11340
Rr = 140 N

Since these are the only forces acting on the vehicle, one can now determine the
horsepower requirement on the straight segment. Use Equation 3.17.

P = 0.278Ru / 760
P = [(0.278(394 + 140)(88)) / 760]
P = 17.2 hp

The curve resistance is (using Equation 3.16):

Rc = 0.5 × [(0.077u2W) / gR]
Rc = 0.5 × [(0.077 (88)2(11340) / (9.81)(255)]
Rc = 1351 N

Determine the total additional horsepower for the curve section of roadway.
P = 0.278Ru / 550
P = [(0.278(1351)(88)) / 760]
P = 43.4 hp

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Garber/Hoel: Traffic & Highway Engineering, 5e SI

Determine the additional required for the vehicle to maintain its original speed
hprequired = hpcurve + hpstraight
hprequired = 43.4 + 17.20
hprequired = 60.6 hp

Therefore, the vehicle will need to produce 60.6 horsepower to traverse the curve
at its original velocity.

The total resistive force acting on the vehicle while in the curve is:
Rtotal = Ra + Rr + Rc
Rtotal = 394 + 140 + 1351
Rtotal = 1885 lb

Therefore, the total resistive force acting on the vehicle in the curve is 1885 N.

3-16
A horizontal curve is to be designed for a section of a highway having a design speed
of 80 mi/h.
(a) If the physical conditions restrict the radius of the curve to 120 m, what
value is required for the superelevation at this curve?
(b) Is this a good design?

(a) First, determine the coefficient of side friction, fs, from Table 3.3.
fs = 0.14
Next, use equation 3.34 and solve for the superelevation value.
R = u2 / 127(e + fs)
e = [u2 / 15R] – fs
e = [(80)2 / 127 (120)] – 0.14
e = 0.28

(b) The superelevation for this curve would be 0.28. Since e = 0.28 > 0.10
(allowable maximum superelevation, this would NOT be a good design.

3-17
Determine the minimum radius of a horizontal curve required for a highway if the
design speed is 96 km/h and the superelevation rate is 0.08.

First, determine the coefficient of side friction, fs, from Table 3.3. fs = 0.12.
Next, use Equation 3.34 to solve for R.
R = u2 / 127 (e + fs)
R = [(96)2 / 127(0.08 + 0.12)
R = 362 m.
The minimum radius for this curved section of roadway was found to be 362 m.

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 Chapter 3: Characteristics of the Driver, the Pedestrian, the Bicyclist,
the Vehicle, and the Road

3-18
The existing posted speed limit on a section of highway is 88 km/h and studies have
shown that that the current 85th percentile speed is 104 km/h. If the posted speed
limit is to be increased to the current 85th percentile speed, what should be the
increase in the radius of a curve that is just adequate for the existing posted speed
limit? Assume a superelevation rate of 0.08 for the existing curve and for the
redesigned curve.

For the existing curve, use Equation 3.34 to determine the radius.
R = u2/127 (e + fs)
R = (88)2/127 (0.08 + 0.13)
R = 290 m
Similarly, determine the radius for the curve to be redesigned.
R = (104)2/127(0.08 + 0.11)
R = 448 m

The increase should then be 448 – 290 = 158 m

3-19
The radius of a horizontal curve on an existing highway was field-measured to be
243 m. The pavement on this two-lane highway is 6.6 m wide, and the elevation
difference between the inside and outside of the curve is 0.43 m. The posted speed
limit on the road is 96 km/h. Is this a hazardous location? If so, why? What action
will you recommend to correct the situation?

Assume that the design speed of this section of roadway is 112 km/h (16 km/h
above the posted speed limit.
Next, determine the coefficient of side friction, fs, from Table 3.3. fs = 0.10

Next, determine the rate of superelevation, e:

e = 0.43/6.6
e = 0.065

Next, determine the maximum permissible speed on this existing curve by using
Equation 3.34.
R = u2 / 127 (e + fs)
u2 = 127 (R)(e + fs)
u = [127(243)(0.065 + 0.10)]1/2
u = 71.36 km/h

This curve is hazardous since the speed limit is posted at 96 km/h yet the
maximum safe speed in the curve is approximately 71 km/h. One low cost
measure to increase the safety of this curve would be to reduce the speed limit to

39
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Garber/Hoel: Traffic & Highway Engineering, 5e SI

71 km/h, or to post a curve warning sign with an advisory (maximum safe) speed
of 71 km/h. A long-term solution to improve safety would be to increase the
radius of curvature to permit safe operation at the speed limit. This can be
accomplished by using the above equation (equation 3.34):

R = (96)2 / 127(0.065 + 0.10)

R = 439 m.

Therefore, to permit safe travel at the maximum speed limit, the radius of the
curve should be increased to 439 m.

3-20
A section of highway has a superelevation of 0.05 and a curve with a radius of only
90 m. What is the maximum safe speed at this section of the highway?

A trial value for u must be assumed and the corresponding fs found and then
checked for safety. Using Equation 3.34, solve for the value of fs associated with
u = 56 km/h
R = u2 / 127(e + fs)
90 = 562 / 127(0.05 + fs)
fs = 0.224

Interpolating in Table 3.3, for u =56 km/h, fs = 0.18 should be assumed.

Therefore, try a lower speed of u = 48 km/h. Using Equation 3.34, fs = 0.15,
which is less than the assumed to be provided value of 0.20. Therefore, the
maximum safe speed at this section of the highway should be 50 km/h.

3-21
What is the distance required to stop an average passenger car when brakes are
applied on a 3.3% downgrade if that vehicle was originally traveling at 56 km/h?

Use equation 3.25 to determine the braking distance.

u2
Db =
!a $
254 # ± G &
"g %

Note that a is taken as 3.36 m/sec2; therefore, a/g is equal to 0.34.

Db = 562 / 254(0.34 – 0.033)

Db = 40.2 m

The braking distance required to stop the vehicle is 40.2 m.

40
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 Chapter 3: Characteristics of the Driver, the Pedestrian, the Bicyclist,
the Vehicle, and the Road

3-22
A driver on a level two-lane highway observes a truck completely blocking the
highway. The driver was able to stop her vehicle only 9 m from the truck. If the
driver was driving at 88 km/h, how far was she from the truck when she first
observed it (assume perception-reaction time is 1.5 seconds)? How far was she from
the truck at the moment the brakes were applied (use a/g = 0.35)?

Use equation 3.35 to determine the stopping sight distance used.

u2 (88)2
SSD = 0.278ut + = 0.278(88)(1.5) + = 123.8 m
!a $ 254(0.35 + 0)
254 # ± G &
"g %

Therefore, the distance from the point at which the driver observed the stopped
truck to the truck is 9 + 123.8 = 132 mt.
Next, use equation 3.25 to determine braking distance.

Db =
u2
=
( 88 ) = 87 m
2

!a $ 254 ( 0.35 + 0 )
254 # ± G &
"g %

Therefore, the distance from the point at which the driver applied the brakes to the
truck is 9 + 87 = 96 m.

3-23
A temporary diversion has been constructed on a highway of +4% grade due to
major repairs that are being undertaken on a bridge. The maximum speed allowed
on the diversion is 32 km/h. Determine the minimum distance from the diversion
that a road sign should be located informing drivers of the temporary change on the
highway. Assume that a driver can read a road sign within his or her area of vision
at a distance of 9 m for each 25 mm of letter height.
Speed limit on highway = 104 km/h
Letter height of road sign = 200 mm
Perception-reaction time = 2.5 sec

Use equation 3.35 to determine the stopping sight distance.

u2
SSD = 0.278ut +
!a $
254 # ± G &
"g %

41
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Garber/Hoel: Traffic & Highway Engineering, 5e SI

While the first term in this equation is simply the distance traveled during the
perception-reaction time, second term is the distance traveled during braking. a/g
is taken as 0.35. Since the vehicle is not stopping (the final speed is not equal to
zero), the equation needs to be modified to take this into consideration. The
second term of equation 3.35 is replaced by equation 3.26 as follows (in which u1
is the initial velocity and u2 is the final velocity):

u12 ! u2 2
SSD = 0.278ut +
"a %
254 $ ± G '
#g &
SSD = 0.278(104)(2.5) + (1042 – 322) / (254 (0.35 + 0.04))
SSD = 72.28 + 98.8
SSD = 171.08 m.

Next, determine the readability of the roadway sign.

Readability = (Letter height in mm) × 9 m / 25 mm of letter height
Readability = 200 mm × 9 m / 25 mm
Readability = 72 m

The sign can be read at a distance of 72 m.

Next, determine the distance from the diversion the sign should be placed.

x = SSD – readability distance

x = 171.08 – 72
x = 99.08 m

The sign should be placed approximately 99 m prior to the diversion to alert

drivers of the change on the highway.

3-24
Repeat Problem 3-23 for a highway with a downgrade of –3.5% and the speed
allowed on the diversion is 24 km/h. Assume that a driver can read a road sign
within his or her area of vision at a distance of 12 m for each 25 mm of letter height.

Use equation 3.35 to determine the stopping sight distance.

u2
SSD = 0.278ut +
!a $
254 # ± G &
"g %

While the first term in this equation is simply the distance traveled during the
perception-reaction time, second term is the distance traveled during braking. a/g

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 Chapter 3: Characteristics of the Driver, the Pedestrian, the Bicyclist,
the Vehicle, and the Road

is taken as 0.35. Since the vehicle is not stopping (the final speed is not equal to
zero), the equation needs to be modified to take this into consideration. The
second term of equation 3.35 is replaced by equation 3.26 as follows (in which u1
is the initial velocity and u2 is the final velocity):

u12 ! u2 2
SSD = 0.278ut +
"a %
254 $ ± G '
#g &
SSD = 0.278(104)(2.5) + (1042 – 242) / (254 (0.35 - 0.035))
SSD = 72.28 + 127.98
SSD = 200.26 m

Next, determine the readability of the roadway sign.

Readability = (Letter height in inches) × 12 m / 25 mm of letter height
Readability = 200 mm × 12 m / 25 mm
Readability = 96 m

The sign can be read at a distance of 96 m.

Next, determine the distance from the diversion the sign should be placed.

x = SSD – readability distance

x = 200.98 – 96
x = 104.98 m

The sign should be placed approximately 104 m prior to the diversion to alert
drivers of the change on the highway.

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Garber/Hoel: Traffic & Highway Engineering, 5e SI

3-25
An elevated expressway goes through an urban area, and crosses a local street as
shown in Figure 3.9. The partial cloverleaf exit ramp is on a 2% downgrade and all
vehicles leaving the expressway must stop at the intersection with the local street.
Determine (a) minimum ramp radius and (b) length of the ramp for the following
conditions:
Maximum speed on expressway = 96 km/h
Distance between exit sign and exit ramp = 78 m
Letter height of road sign = 75 mm
Perception-reaction time = 2.5 s
Maximum superelevation = 0.08
Expressway grade = 0%
Assume that a driver can read a road sign within his or her area of vision at a
distance of 15 m for each 25 mm of letter height, and the driver sees the stop sign
immediately on entering the ramp.

First, determine the readability of the roadway sign.

Readability = (Letter height in mm) × 15 m / 25 mm
Readability = 75 mm × 15 m / 25 mm
Readability = 45 m

Next, determine the speed of the vehicle just prior to it entering the exit ramp
(uexit). Modify equation 3.27 by replacing the second term (braking distance) with
equation 3.26. a/g is taken as 0.35.
u12 ! u2 2
SSD = 0.278ut + – readability distance
"a %
254 $ ± G '
#g &
78 = 1.47(60)(2.5) + [(60 – u2exit) / 30 (0.35 + 0)] – 45
2

78 = 0.278(96)(2.5) + [(962 – u2exit) / (254 (0.35 + 0))] – 45

123 = 66.72 + (962 – u2exit) / 88.9
962 – u2exit = 5003
uexit = 64.9 km/h

Next, determine the minimum radius for this exit ramp, using Equation 3.34. For
the exit speed of 45 mi/h, the new coefficient of side friction should be fs = 0.14.
R = u2exit / 127(e + fs)
R = (64.9)2 / 127(0.08 + 0.14)
R = 150.8 m.
Next, determine the length required for this exit ramp.
S = 0.278uexitt + u2exit / 254 ((a/g) ± G)
S = 0.278(65.9)(2.5) + (64.9)2 / 254(0.35 - 0.02)
S = 95.35 m

Therefore, the minimum radius for this exit ramp is approximately 151 m and the
minimum length of the exit ramp was found to be approximately 95.35 m.

44
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