Journal - V - 18 - n1 - 2023 PDF

ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS
First Admiral Tay Yap Leong is the Senior Director at the Malaysian Institute of Defence and
Security (MiDAS), Ministry of Defence. He joined the Royal Malaysian Navy (RMN) in 1985 and
was commissioned into the Executive Branch. First Admiral Dr Tay is a Mine Clearance Diving
(MCD), qualified to dive to 90 meters, and Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) Specialist. He
holds a Doctor of Management from Universiti Malaya (2022), a Master’s in Strategic Defence
Studies from Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, and has attended the Malaysian Armed Forces
Defence College (2013). In his 38 years of service, First Admiral Dr Yap Leong has attended
various courses locally and abroad, including the Maritime Terrorism and Civil-Military Response
to Terrorism Course at the Naval Postgraduate School (NPS) in California, USA in 2011. During
his long and notable services, First Admiral Dr Tay Yap Leong has been awarded numerous medals
and recognition, including KMN, PAT, KAT, AAP, PPS, PPA, mpat, and psc. During his service, he
had also been the Commanding Officer of multiple RMN vessels and shore establishments. First
Admiral Dr Tay Yap Leong is married to Madam Soo Wat Kee and blessed with three children, a
daughter and two sons.
Lt Kol Hasmady Alim is a PhD candidate in the Faculty of Defence Management and Security
Studies at the National Defence University Of Malaysia (NDUM). Before starting his PhD, He
served as an officer commanding (OC) at Regiment 21 Commando, Sungai Udang, Melaka. He did
his Master in Defence Technology (Operational Research) at the National Defence University Of
Malaysia (NDUM). His research interests encompass Human Resources, Operational Research,
and Military Training His Master’s dissertation focus was a Factor that enhanced the Interagency
in Eastern Sabah Security Command using the Operational Research (OR) method. Currently,
in her PhD research, He is exploring the concept of Transfer of Training for the development of
military personnel readiness in the Malaysia Army. For correspondence, He can be contacted via
hasmadyalim@gmail.com
Azlinda Yaacob, a driven Master student who is paving the way for a cleaner, more sustainable
future through her groundbreaking research. Finishing her studies in Master of Science (Strategic
Studies) in Universiti Utara Malaysia and still creating her path in researching new idea in creating
a positive impact on the world. She pursued her degree in International Relation and has garnered
extensive knowledge on social issues through her involvement in her studies.
Siti Darwinda Mohamed Pero is a Senior Lecturer at School of International Studies of Universiti
Utara Malaysia (UUM), Malaysia. She received her Ph.D. from the University of Melbourne,
Australia, and her BA (Hons) International Affairs Management and MSc (Strategic Studies) from
Universiti Utara Malaysia. She is an associate research fellow at the Asian Institute of International
Affairs and Diplomacy (AIIAD) and The Institute of Excellence for Islamicjerusalem Studies
(IEIJS), UUM. Her current research focuses on multilateral diplomacy; comparative regional
integration; and non-traditional security with particular focus on cybersecurity and human security
issues. Dr Darwinda is a principal investigator and participant of research projects funded by the
university, Ministry of Higher Education of Malaysia and other government agencies.
Dr Bakri Mat serves as an Associate Professor and Senior Research Fellow at the Asian Institute
of International Affairs and Diplomacy (AIIAD) within the School of International Studies
(SoIS) at Universiti Utara Malaysia (UUM). Over an illustrious two-decade tenure at UUM, he
attained his undergraduate from Universiti Malaya (UM) in Sharia, majoring in Islamic Politics
and Economics, subsequently advancing with a Master’s in Strategic and Defence Studies at the
same university. His doctoral studies from Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia delved deeply into
The Journal of Defence and Security i
Malaysia’s food security, examining it through a refined human security prism. His academic
pursuits span both traditional and non-traditional security sectors, culminating in varied research,
consultations, and publications. Currently on sabbatical, Dr. Bakri remains accessible for scholarly
engagements via bakri@uum.edu.my.
Amna Khalid is a PhD candidate in International Relations at School of International Studies

(SoIS), Universiti Utara Malaysia. Before starting her PhD, she worked as an International Relations
Lecturer at Lahore Garrison University, Pakistan. She did her MPhil in International Relations from
Kinnaird College for Women, Pakistan. Her research interests encompass Geopolitics, foreign
policy and defence and strategic studies. Her MPhil dissertation focus was Russia’s foreign policy
in Asia since 2000. Currently, in her Ph.D. research, she is exploring the discourse surrounding the
Indo-Pacific region. For correspondence, she can be contacted via amnakhalid2578@gmail.com
Maj Nur Izzati bt Madzrib was commissioned into the Royal Intelligence Corps in 2009 after
joining the Army in 2004. She has held a number of command and staff appointments in the Army
and Malaysian Defence Intelligence Organisation (MDIO). She currently serves as an analyst
at the Directorate of Strategic Intelligence, specialising on the Southeast Asia region. She has a
Bachelor of Computer Engineering degree from Akedemi Tentera Malaysia - Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia (ATMA - UTM) and an Internasional Master of ASEAN Studies degree from University
Malaya (UM).
Lt Kdr Nur Alfa Ernie binti Masdan TLDM was born on 25th Mar 1983 and joined Royal
Malaysian Navy in 2001. She holds a Degree in Computer Science from University of Technology
Malaysia and Master of Management from UNITAR International University. She is qualified
Chartered Member (CMILT). She has served various appointment as a Supply Officer at RMN
Bases and ship, some of them being Electronic Data Processing Officer in Supply Depot Pangkalan
TLDM Lumut, Staff Officer 2 Contract in Materiel Department Navy Headquarter Kuala Lumpur,
Procurement Officer in Ministry of Defence and Supply Officer on board KD KEDAH.
Lt Col Ts Dr. Maimunah Omar is a Deputy Director for Contemporary Security Study Centre
at the Malaysia Institute of Defence and Security (MiDAS), Ministry of Defence. She graduated
from the University of Science Malaysia in 1999. She holds a Master’s Degree in Science and
Engineering for Defence Security from the University of Warwick UK and a Ph.D. in Defence
Management from National Defence University Malaysia. Her area of research is on Supply Chain
Management for Effective Disaster Response. She has published several articles in academic
journals and presented many research papers at international conferences. She is a Chartered
Member of the Malaysia Institute of Logistics and Transport (CMILT) and a member of the
Malaysia Board of Technologists with Professional Technologist recognition. She was an Alumni
of two prestige programs: The International Visitor Leadership Program (IVLP) and The Study in
the United States Institute for Scholars Program (SUSIs) sponsored by the Bureau of Education,
Department of States, USA and has become the only military officer from Malaysia Armed Forces
selected for this program. Previously she served as Key Performance Indicator Officer for the
Ministry of Defence.
ii The Journal of Defence and Security

The Journal of Defence and Security, Vol. 18, No. 1, 2023
COLLABORATIVE GOVERNANCE FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND

MARINE RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN MALAYSIA
Capt Dr Tay Yap Leong RMN

Maritime Security Director, MiDAS
Email: tayyapleong@navi.mil.my
ABSTRACT
Malaysia, with its extensive coastline stretching over 4,675 kilometres, boasts a wealth of
marine resources critical for economic growth and societal well-being. However, the sustainable
management of these resources has become increasingly complex due to environmental threats,
overexploitation, and the need to strike a balance between economic development and ecological
conservation.
Collaborative governance is a multifaceted approach that involves cooperation,

coordination, and shared decision-making among diverse stakeholders to address complex public
policy issues. In the context of marine resource management, it brings together government
agencies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), local communities, and other relevant actors
to collectively work towards the sustainable use and conservation of marine resources.
The complexity of marine resource management, with its interdependencies between ecological,
economic, and social systems, makes collaborative governance crucial. Moreover, it aligns
with the principles of sustainable development, balancing economic growth with environmental
conservation and social equity.
While Malaysia’s marine resources are abundant, the country faces challenges such as
a complex legal and institutional framework, coordination and communication issues, disputes
over resource ownership, and the need for capacity building. Thus, including the rich biodiversity
of Malaysia’s marine ecosystems, existing initiatives like marine protected areas and community-
based management, cultural diversity supporting collaboration, and Malaysia’s commitment to
international agreements on marine conservation.
Government agencies at the federal and state levels, such as the Department of Fisheries and
the Department of Marine Parks Malaysia, play central roles. NGOs, including WWF-Malaysia
and Reef Check Malaysia, provide expertise and support, while local communities contribute
traditional knowledge.
Collaborative governance offers numerous benefits for Malaysia, including enhanced

ecosystem resilience, economic growth through sustainable practices, social equity by sharing
benefits with local communities, an improved international reputation for commitment to
conservation, and adaptability to climate change impacts.
The success stories from various regions underscore the potential for collaboration to
empower local communities, protect marine ecosystems, and contribute to the overall well-being of
Malaysia’s coastal regions. As the nation faces ongoing challenges in marine resource management,
collaborative governance stands out as a beacon of hope for a resilient and sustainable future.
The Journal of Defence and Security 1

Collaborative Governance for Sustainable Development and Marine
Resources Management in Malaysia
INTRODUCTION
Collaborative governance has emerged as a promising approach to address complex

environmental challenges, such as sustainable development and marine resources management
(Stakeholder Engagement Science and Practice (Institute for Sustainable Agricultural, Food, and
Environmental Science (SAFES)), n.d.). Marine resources are invaluable assets to any nation,
particularly for those with vast coastlines like Malaysia. These resources, which include fisheries,
aquaculture, and biodiversity, are essential to the nation’s social and economic development. In
Malaysia, a country blessed with abundant marine resources, the need for effective governance
mechanisms becomes paramount (Chee et al., 2021a). However, the sustainable management
of marine resources has become increasingly challenging due to environmental threats,
overexploitation, and the need to balance economic development with ecological conservation.
Collaborative governance has emerged as a promising approach to address these complex issues
and ensure the sustainable development of marine resources in Malaysia.
This subtopic aims to explore the concept of collaborative governance and its relevance
in the context of sustainable development and marine resource management in Malaysia. This
will delve into the concept of collaborative governance, its importance in the context of marine
resource management, and its practical application in Malaysia. We will explore the challenges
and opportunities of implementing collaborative governance in Malaysia, highlighting successful
case studies and key stakeholders involved in this process. Furthermore, we will discuss the
potential benefits of this approach for sustainable development and marine resource management
in Malaysia.
Malaysia’s diverse marine ecosystems face numerous threats, including overfishing,

pollution, habitat destruction, and climate change impacts. These challenges require multi-
stakeholder collaboration involving government agencies, local communities, non-governmental
organizations (NGOs), and industry players (Reviving Ocean Health Through Regional
Cooperation, n.d.). By engaging different stakeholders in decision-making processes, collaborative
governance can facilitate knowledge sharing, foster consensus-building, and promote transparency
and accountability while ensuring sustainable outcomes (Florini, 2018).
Understanding Collaborative Governance Collaborative governance is a multifaceted

approach that involves cooperation, coordination, and shared decision-making among various
stakeholders to address complex public policy issues. In the context of marine resource management,
it brings together government agencies, non-governmental organizations, communities, and other
relevant actors to work collectively towards the sustainable use and conservation of marine
resources.
THE IMPORTANCE OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND MARINE RESOURCES

MANAGEMENT IN MALAYSIA
Sustainable development is an approach that aims to meet human development goals

while also enabling natural systems to provide necessary natural resources and ecosystem services
to humans (Wikipedia contributors, 2023). Collaborative governance aligns with the principles of
sustainable development, balancing economic growth with environmental conservation and social
equity. It helps to ensure that the benefits of marine resource management are distributed equitably
among various stakeholders.
2 The Journal of Defence and Security

Captain Dr Tay Yap Leong RMN
Marine resource management is an important aspect of sustainable development.

Marine resource management is inherently complex due to the interconnectedness of ecological,
economic, and social systems. Collaborative governance enables a holistic approach that considers
these interdependencies, allowing for more efficient and sustainable decision-making. Malaysia is
located in the Indo-Pacific region with coasts bordering the Andaman Sea, the Straits of Malacca
and Singapore, the Gulf of Thailand, the South China Sea, the Sulu Sea, and the Sulawesi Sea (Bee
et al., 2023). The country has a rich marine biodiversity and its marine resources play a crucial role
in its economy.
Sustainable development and effective management of marine resources are crucial

for the socio-economic growth and environmental well-being of Malaysia (The 12th Malaysia
Plan: Advancing Sustainability | United Nations Development Programme, n.d.). As a nation
blessed with extensive coastal areas, rich biodiversity, and abundant marine resources, Malaysia
recognizes the significance of preserving its marine ecosystems (Salman et al., 2021). Sustainable
development ensures that present generations meet their needs without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet theirs (Malaysia’s Water Vision: The Way Forward - the Malaysian
Water Partnership, n.d.).
Federal and state-level agencies, such as the Department of Fisheries and the Department
of Marine Parks Malaysia, play a central role in marine resource management. Their involvement
is essential for creating policies, regulations, and management plans. Hence, it entails adopting
responsible practices that balance economic activities with environmental protection. By promoting
sustainable fishing methods, reducing pollution, and conserving marine habitats, Malaysia aims
to safeguard its valuable coastal ecosystems (Chee et al., 2021b). To ensure the protection and
sustainable use of seas and marine resources, the Malaysian government formulated the “National
Policy on Biological Diversity 2016–2025” and has resolved to increase total terrestrial areas by
20% and marine territories by 10% by 2025 (Masud, 2019).
Environmental and conservation organizations, like WWF-Malaysia and Reef Check

Malaysia, work closely with local communities and government agencies to provide expertise,
support, and advocacy for marine resource management. WWF-Malaysia advocates for Malaysia’s
commitment to conserve 30% of Malaysia’s seas and coasts, for the benefit of nature, livelihoods,
businesses, and future generations (Marine 2, n.d.). Furthermore, effective governance in managing
marine resources is vital to ensure equitable distribution and sustainable utilization.
In Malaysia, indigenous and coastal communities have centuries of experience in managing

their coastal resources sustainably. Local communities often possess valuable knowledge about
the marine environment, which can be harnessed through collaborative governance. Engaging
local communities and other stakeholders in the management process can enhance compliance
with regulations and increase the effectiveness of enforcement efforts. Collaborative governance
involving various stakeholders such as government agencies, local communities, scientists, and
non-governmental organizations is essential for successful implementation (Johnstone & Vaghefi,
2019). It is effective in achieving sustainable development outcomes (Fava, 2022).

CHALLENGES FACED IN COLLABORATIVE GOVERNANCE FOR SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT AND MARINE RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN MALAYSIA
Collaborative governance for sustainable development and marine resources management

in Malaysia faces several challenges that hinder effective implementation. Malaysia’s vast
coastline, which extends over 4,675 kilometres, offers a wealth of marine resources, making it
crucial for the country’s economy and food security. Marine protected areas (MPAs) in Malaysia
are significantly constrained by a host of problems and challenges such as ineffective management,
poor institutional capacity, limited enforcement, absence of awareness, and poor socioeconomic
status (SES) which influence the conservation of marine resources (Masud, 2019). MPA’s problems
are a reflection of the challenges in collaborative governance and marine resource management.
Furthermore, overfishing, habitat deterioration, and the effects of climate change have
all posed obstacles to the sustainable management of these resources. In addition, collaborative
governance may also encounter various prevalent challenges, such as insufficient trust and
communication among stakeholders, divergent interests and objectives, constrained financial
resources and capacity, inadequate public awareness or political determination, and deficient legal
and institutional frameworks (General, 2022).
Firstly, Malaysia’s marine resource management is governed by a complex web of laws and
regulations. Aligning these regulations and creating a coherent legal framework for collaborative
governance can be a formidable task. The lack of political will has amplified exercises to overcome
inadequate legal instruments and institutional framework. A good and effective legal instrument
and framework at least minimises overlapping function and jurisdiction.
Secondly, the lack of trust and communication among various stakeholders is a significant
obstacle. Efficient communication and coordination among diverse stakeholders, including
government agencies at the federal and state levels, can be challenging. Ensuring that all parties
work together harmoniously is essential for successful collaborative governance. Conflicting
interests and goals across various agencies, governmental authorities, and local communities
frequently resulted in fragmented efforts and inefficient decision-making procedures. The
cooperative management of maritime resources can also be hampered by conflict and conflicts
over resource ownership and access rights, especially in places where local communities and
commercial interests clash.
Thirdly, limited financial resources pose a challenge to collaborative governance initiatives

(Mohd Zaideen, 2020; Gao et al., 2023). Insufficient funding hampers the implementation of
comprehensive policies, programs, and projects aimed at sustainable development and marine
resource management.
Fourth, inadequate institutional capacity and expertise hinder effective collaboration

between government agencies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), academia, and
other relevant stakeholders (Integrated Management of Coastal Zones, n.d.). Numerous local
communities and non-governmental organisations may face limitations in terms of resources and
experience, which might hinder their ability to effectively engage in collaborative governance
initiatives. Building capacity through training programs can help overcome this challenge.

Fifth and finally, the lack of awareness and understanding among the public about
the importance of sustainable development exacerbates the challenges faced in collaborative
governance (3. Environmental Management and Sustainable Development in Malaysia, Danish
Environmental Protection Agency, n.d.). Without active engagement from communities and
individuals, it becomes difficult to achieve meaningful progress towards sustainable practices.
OPPORTUNITIES IN COLLABORATIVE GOVERNANCE
The maritime ecosystems in Malaysia exhibit a remarkable level of diversity, encompassing

various habitats such as coral reefs, mangroves, and seagrass beds. Protecting and managing this
rich biodiversity is critical for the country’s environmental sustainability and economic resilience.
Malaysia has already taken steps toward implementing collaborative governance in

marine resource management. Notable examples include the establishment of marine protected
areas, community-based management approaches, and partnerships with NGOs and research
institutions. Efforts should be made to enhance and coordinate existing opportunities among
agencies and stakeholders to adopt a more comprehensive and effective strategy.
Malaysia’s multicultural society and traditional knowledge systems offer a rich foundation
for collaboration, integrating the wisdom of various communities into marine resource management
practices cultural diversity is vital for better improvement.
Malaysia is a signatory to several international agreements and conventions linked to

the preservation of marine life and the promotion of sustainable development. These accords and
conventions provide a framework that is supportive of collaborative governance.
STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT: KEY TO SUCCESSFUL COLLABORATIVE

GOVERNANCE
Collaborative governance involves multiple stakeholders working together to achieve

common goals. It is effective in achieving sustainable development outcomes. In the context of
marine resource management, collaborative governance can involve clustering spatial management
measures such as marine protected areas based on the principles of ecological connectivity and
developing or enhancing collaborative governance networks of relevant stakeholders such as
managers, community groups, and non-governmental organisations based on the principles of
social connectivity (OECD, 2021; General, 2022). One key aspect of stakeholder engagement is
promoting inclusivity and representation.
In Malaysia, the government has made significant efforts to engage with stakeholders in
these areas. The 12th Malaysia Plan (12MP) is one such initiative that aims to advance sustainability
by guaranteeing continuous economic growth while protecting the environment and continuing
Malaysia’s commitments to global targets. This theme builds on two game changers namely circular
economy and integrated water resources management, critical in fulfilling the goal of building a
better, greener, and fairer Malaysia in the post-COVID era. In building momentum towards the start
of implementation in 2022, Economic Planning Unit Malaysia (EPU) in partnership with UNDP,
organised an interactive dialogue and exchange session on 12 December 2021 with prominent
academician, policymakers, members of civil society and private sector (Shafie & Tan, 2021).

Apart from that, the Malaysian government has made significant efforts to engage with
stakeholders in the management of its maritime resources. Academic institutions and researchers
provide essential data, research findings, and technical expertise to inform decision-making and
adaptive management strategies. The Maritime Institute of Malaysia (MIMA) is a policy research
institute set up by the Malaysian Government under the Ministry of Transport to look into matters
relating to Malaysia’s interest at sea and to serve as a national focal point for research in the
maritime sector. MIMA focuses on several areas of research, including ocean law and policy,
maritime security and diplomacy, coastal and marine environment, Straits of Malacca, and
maritime economics and industries (Noh & Yashaiya, 2018).
In addition to setting up MIMA, the Malaysian Institute of Defence and Security (MiDAS)
was also set up under the Ministry of Defence to look into matters relating to Malaysia’s defence
and security including those within the maritime domain. MiDAS as a think tank for the Ministry
of Defence has a centre that focuses more on the ongoing traditional and non-traditional threats
within the maritime domain such as national sovereignty, territorial disputes, trans-border crime,
maritime legal instruments and framework, marine environment, as well as defence and security
maritime engagement.
On another front, local universities such as Universiti Malaysia Terengganu (UMT) also
play their role through the establishment of a research centre on the maritime environment and
coastal erosion prevention (UMT, 2023). UMT has contributed their findings to the appropriate
government agency in the area of sustainable development and marine resources management
for Malaysia. Collaborative governance enhances the protection and resilience of Malaysia’s
marine ecosystems, safeguarding them against threats like climate change and habitat destruction.
Sustainable resource management can boost economic opportunities for local communities, such
as ecotourism and responsible fisheries, contributing to the country’s economic growth.
By involving diverse stakeholders from various sectors and backgrounds, collaborative

governance can benefit from different perspectives, knowledge, and expertise. This inclusive
approach helps build trust among stakeholders while ensuring that decisions reflect the interests
and needs of all involved parties. Furthermore, effective stakeholder engagement encourages
transparency and accountability in decision-making processes. Regular communication channels
facilitate information sharing, allowing stakeholders to stay informed about policies, regulations,
and initiatives related to marine resource management (EAS Congress, 2006).
CASE STUDIES: SUCCESSFUL EXAMPLES OF COLLABORATIVE GOVERNANCE

FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND MARINE RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
IN MALAYSIA
One successful example of collaborative governance for sustainable development and

marine resources management in Malaysia is the establishment of the Coral Triangle Initiative
(CTI). The CTI is a regional partnership between six countries, including Malaysia , aimed at
conserving marine biodiversity and promoting sustainable development in the Coral Triangle
region (CTI, 2009). In Malaysia, the CTI has brought together various stakeholders, including
government agencies, local communities, NGOs, and academia. One similar example of this is
the UMT collaboration with Aquaria KLCC to organize the Coral Conservation Expedition at
UMT Marine Natural Research Station on Bidong Island involving local students, fishermen and
NGOs. This expedition focuses on replanting corals and bringing awareness to the public on the
importance of coral to marine biodiversity (UMT, 2023).
In addition, through collaborative efforts, they have implemented several initiatives to

address challenges such as overfishing and habitat degradation. For instance, they have established
marine protected areas (MPAs) to conserve critical habitats and regulate fishing activities. An
example of conserving and rehabilitating critical habitat is the national mangrove restoration
projects led by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment Malaysia (NRE) which has
involved multi-stakeholders comprising federal and state governments, technical agencies, research
and institutions of higher learning, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) as well as civil and
local communities. It is carried out through the “Tree Planting Program with Mangroves and
Other Suitable Species Along National Coastlines”, which has been implemented since 2005 and
involves a strategic integrated approach (Ramli & Zhang, 2017). The importance of mangroves to
Malaysia was also translated in the formation of the Mangrove Research Unit (MARU) established
in 1997 under UMT which has been conducting a wide range of research works in the mangrove
habitats throughout Peninsular Malaysia (occasionally in Sabah and Sarawak).
With regards to overfishing an example of Malaysia tackling this issue is through

Community-based co-management (CBCM). It is an approach that focuses on partnerships between
government agencies, local resource users, NGOs, and other stakeholders. This approach is people-
centred, community-oriented, and resource-based, where all parties share the responsibility and
decision-making authority for managing a fishery (Viswanathan et al., 2003; Pomeroy et al., 2007).
Fisheries co-management is based on the principle that cooperation between communities

and the state can lead to more effective governance of fisheries resources. This approach involves
fishers and resource managers working together to improve the regulatory process for managing
the resource, to ensure that the people who depend on the resource have a say in its management.
An example of this is the collaboration between the Department of Fisheries Malaysia and local
fishing communities in implementing co-management approaches (Nurul Islam & K. Viswanathan,
2021). These approaches empower local communities to actively participate in decision-making
processes related to fisheries management.
The Semporna Islands, situated in the state of Sabah, serve as a noteworthy illustration
of effective collaborative governance in the realm of marine resource management. Community-
managed marine protected areas (MPAs) have been established via collaborative efforts between
local communities, government agencies, and NGOs to safeguard coral reefs and fisheries. The
Semporna Islands serve as a notable illustration of how collaborative governance can effectively
facilitate the empowerment of local populations in assuming responsibility for their marine
resources.
Apart from that, the success of the Pulau Pangkor Marine Conservation Programme
shows the promise of shared leadership on the western coast of Peninsular Malaysia. To preserve
the island’s marine ecosystems and encourage ecotourism, the government, locals, and scientists
have joined forces for this endeavour. The local population now has better access to economic
opportunities, and the health of the reef has improved thanks to more cooperative governance.
Last but not least, the coastline of Penang and its once-thriving fishing sector have been
confronted with substantial challenges as a result of overfishing and the destruction of habitat.
Penang’s collaborative governance efforts have centred on the formation of partnerships between
local fishermen, government institutions, and non-governmental organisations (NGOs), with
the goals of developing environmentally responsible fishing practices and protecting essential
ecosystems such as seagrass beds.
POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ENHANCING COLLABORATIVE

GOVERNANCE IN MALAYSIA’S SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND MARINE
RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
Strengthening Institutional Framework: The Malaysian government should establish a

dedicated agency or department responsible for overseeing collaborative governance initiatives
related to sustainable development and marine resources management. This entity should have
the authority to coordinate and monitor the implementation of collaborative projects, ensuring
effective stakeholder engagement.
Promoting Stakeholder Participation: Encourage active involvement of all relevant
stakeholders, including local communities, NGOs, academia, and industry representatives,
in decision-making processes ensuring that all stakeholders have a voice and a say in shaping
policies and management plans. To foster inclusivity and collaboration, it is imperative to involve
a wide array of stakeholders. Implement mechanisms such as public consultations, participatory
workshops, and multi-stakeholder platforms to ensure diverse perspectives are considered.
Enhancing Transparency and Accountability: Establish clear guidelines for information

sharing among government agencies, stakeholders, and the public regarding sustainable
development initiatives in Malaysia’s marine sector. Facilitating open channels of communication
and promoting the exchange of information are essential strategies for fostering trust among
stakeholders.
Compliance and Enforcement: Engaging local communities and other stakeholders in the
management process can enhance compliance with regulations and increase the effectiveness of
enforcement efforts.
Private Sector: Commercial fishing companies, tourism operators, and businesses involved
in the seafood industry have a role to play in sustainable resource management. Collaborative
governance can help align their interests with conservation efforts.
Local Communities: The inclusion of local communities, particularly indigenous and

coastal populations, is crucial for the success of collaborative governance. Their traditional
knowledge and on-the-ground experience are invaluable for sustainable resource management.
CONCLUSION: THE WAY FORWARD FOR COLLABORATIVE GOVERNANCE

IN MALAYSIA’S SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND MARINE RESOURCES
MANAGEMENT
In conclusion, collaborative governance offers a promising path forward for Malaysia in

achieving sustainable development and efficient marine resource management. The challenges are
significant, but the opportunities are even greater. Through the establishment of a collaborative
framework that encompasses a wide range of stakeholders, such as governmental bodies, NGOs,
local communities, and the corporate sector, Malaysia has the potential to develop a holistic
strategy that effectively harmonizes economic advancement, environmental preservation, and
social fairness.
Collaborative governance holds immense potential for Malaysia’s sustainable

development and marine resources management. The case studies and discussions presented in this

text highlight the benefits of involving diverse stakeholders, including government agencies, local
communities, NGOs, and the private sector. By embracing collaborative approaches, Malaysia can
achieve more effective decision-making processes that consider various perspectives and interests.
Moving forward, Malaysia must prioritize the establishment of robust institutional frameworks
that promote collaboration among stakeholders (VietNamNet News, 2023).
The success stories in some cases such as Semporna Islands, Pulau Pangkor, and Penang
demonstrate that collaborative governance is not only feasible but also beneficial for marine
resource management in Malaysia. The involvement of local communities and their traditional
knowledge, combined with the support of NGOs, researchers, and government agencies, can create
a resilient and sustainable future for the country’s marine resources.
As Malaysia continues to face the challenges of overfishing, habitat degradation, and

climate change, collaborative governance offers a ray of hope for the preservation of its invaluable
marine ecosystems and the prosperity of its coastal communities. It is a model that encourages all
stakeholders to come together, share their knowledge and resources, and collectively work towards
the common goal of safeguarding the nation’s marine resources for future generations.
This includes enhancing coordination mechanisms between different government

agencies responsible for sustainable development and marine resources management. Additionally,
strengthening capacity-building initiatives for all stakeholders involved will foster a greater
understanding of collaborative governance principles and practices. Furthermore, continuous
engagement with local communities is essential to ensure their active participation in decision-
making processes. Empowering communities through education and awareness programs will
enable them to contribute their traditional knowledge and practices towards sustainable marine
resource management (Regional Marine Strategy, 2023).
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wiki/Sustainable_development

ARMY4NEXTG: THE CONCEPT OF THINKING SOLDIERS IN SUPPORT OF

MALAYSIAN DEFENCE POLICY
Hasmady Alim1a*
1National Defence University of Malaysia
aFaculty of Defences Management and Security Studies,
Sungai Besi Camp, 57000 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
* Email: hasmadyalim@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
In a defense landscape driven by increasing multi domains operations and advanced technology,
how do military organizations empower concepts and military personnel? This article provides
an overview of the concept of Army4NextG in the Malaysian Army (MA) to develop Thinking
soldiers as characteristic of modern warriors to support Malaysian defense policy. Thinking
Soldier is a part of MA’s human resource development plan strategy to equip military personnel
with Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities (KSAs) to perform in military operations. Military personnel
at each level in the MA must be cognitively ready for military deployment and can adapt and
apply their knowledge and experience in a variety of contexts that can be utilized when required.
Under Army4NextG development plan has undergone significant to develop thinking soldiers that
have transformed the MA in many meaningful ways to achieve force objectives to meet security
challenges in the 21st century. Its conclusion will help MA and policy practitioners establish the
culture and behavior through military training that promotes thinking soldiers which to derive
KSAs needed to execute a task at the desired level of performance in modern warfare.
Keywords: Defence strategy, Thinking Soldier, Human Dimension, Military Training, Military
Readiness
INTRODUCTIONS
“The role of the Malaysian Armed Forces is a very challenging one. Apart from national
defense, it is also involved in the process of nation-building – Tun Mahathir Mohamad”
This quote provides significance for the Malaysian Armed Forces’ (MAF) role to defend
the state against real or potential external threats and protect national interests. What is needed,
therefore, is an approach to the acquisition and management of the defense capability for the
effective and efficient preparation of a new generation of armed forces that need a different set of
knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSA). The direction of MAF strategies is to design its capabilities
as a credible force toward defense self-reliance [1]. In conjunction with MAF visions, the
Malaysian Army (MA) launched its transformation plan under Army4NextG in 2021. What kind
of soldiers does MA require? The Army4NextG transformation plan strategy is to maintain the
highest standard of professionalism of soldiers and the organization must be efficient [2]. Realizing
the importance of human resource development, Army4NextG focuses on the development of
Force Objectives to facilitate the implementation of Thinking Soldier. As the MA considers human
resource development policies as part of the pillar Army4NextG to enhance soldier readiness with
military knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) to perform in military operations. Understanding

ARMY4NEXTG: The Concept of Thinking Soldiers in Support of Malaysian
Defence Policy
Malaysian Defence Policy and Malaysian Defence White Paper is, therefore, necessary for one to
fully appreciate the transformation MA plan that has to undergo since its adoption of Army4NextG,
ultimately in preparing Thinking Soldier at each level (strategic, operational, and tactical) to
achieve cognitive readiness.
This article serves as a background to understand the making of Army4NextG related

to the aspect of how MA strategy to fostering on the human dimension and quality of the soldier
by creating the human resources necessary to carry out this kind of extensive and persistent form
of war to facilitate the concept of Thinking Soldier. Complex Operating environments (COE) in
military operations will require soldiers to process large amounts of mission-critical information
within short periods and interact with technology systems [3]. Solving these challenges depends
on the cognitive abilities of a soldier such as thinking skills, problem-solving and decision-making
processes in these environments will promote mission success and operational effectiveness. The
cognitive readiness literature has always recognized the significance of military training on how
and why a soldier should be trained for thinking enhancement [4]. The development of Thinking
Soldiers is starting with basic combat training on “soldierization” (transforming a civilian into a
soldier) when someone joins the military to become a soldier [2]. Military training is fundamental
in developing soldiers’ readiness but the way to design, deliver, and implement a training program
has to refer to the science of training [5]. The MA management practice needs to consider decisions
about what to train, how to train, and how to implement and evaluate training should be informed
by the best information science has to offer in preparing Thinking Soldier to ensure the security and
stability of the nation as well as protect Malaysian interests.
THE MAKING ARMY4NEXTG CONCEPT
The consideration behind Malaysia’s defense policy is self-reliance which focuses on

maintaining and ensuring its overall national interest and security are protected [1]. Being a relatively
small nation, located strategically with rich resources and the physical attributes of common land
and sea area boundaries with most of the ASEAN states. Malaysian attracts increasing international
attention that demands its security development especially Malaysian Armed Forces (MAF)
capabilities including Army, Navy, and Air Forces. It calls for the application of the denial strategy
and the development of a credible armed force with an effective war-fighting capability to deter
any act of hostility or aggression by adversaries. On the other hand, the concept of Army4NextG
is responsible for all matters related to the defense of Malaysia in line with Malaysia’s defense
policies and MAF functions [2]. To carry out the MAF function, MA concentrates to modernize
with the required manpower, organization, and equipment for modern warfare involving multi-
domain operations (land, sea, air, and cyber).
Despite its desire to achieve Force Objectives for multi-domain operations, the MA aims
to enhance military personnel and performance through the development of Thinking Soldiers as
a part of human resource management from the idea of Army4nextG [2]. Thinking capability is
the critical variable supporting all soldier performance: physical, mental, cognitive, and emotional
[6]. The MA, since its inception in 1933, has been a vital pillar to defend the sovereignty of
the nation from internal and external threats. The MA human resources development strategy is
part of the requirement to meet the role and responsibility of the armed forces as an element
that represents the Malaysian Armed Forces (MAF) to defend Malaysian sovereignty. However,

Lt Col Hasmady bin Alim
emerging technologies will change all battlefield roles and operational effectiveness relies on
military training to train soldiers who are ready to operate across missions in environments of
military operations.
In modern military operations, a combination of physical, mental, and cognitive abilities is

paramount for soldiers [7][8][9]. Military actions mostly depend on the military knowledge, skills,
and abilities of the soldier to execute military operations [10]. Because of this, the MA strategy is
to enhance soldiers’ readiness to develop the Thinking soldier concept. The Thinking Soldier is
based on military personal critical thinking skills, problem-solving, and higher thinking skills. This
concept is also seen to have the capacity to integrate humans and technology to empower human
resources that enable soldiers to operate in a complex operating environment (COE). So why is the
Thinking Soldier concept so important? Let’s start with the evolution of the MA transformation
plan under Army4NextG in line with modern warfare needs and requirements of armed forces.
THE EVOLUTION OF THE MALAYSIAN ARMY TRANSFORMATION PLAN UNDER

ARMY4NEXTG
The MA origin can be traced back to the early 1930s. From its early establishment, MA has
operated under Malaysia’s internal security on the militant threat posed by the Communist Party
Malaya (CPM) and the North Kalimantan Communist Party (NKCP). The government introduce
modernization (PERISTA) between 1979 to 1983 integrate capabilities required by combatant
commanders to execute their assigned missions [1]. Externally, Malaysia was equally concerned
over the power ideological rivalry that these concerns posed security problems for the countries
in the region. Today, Malaysian main concern is to strive towards maintaining and ensuring a
conducive environment to meet the challenges of security threats in the 21st century. Because of
these factors, MA needs to take serious cognizance of the transformation plan the enhance MA
capabilities [2]. Significantly, the end of militant threats by CPM and NKCP has also brought about
global and regional changes resulting in news trends in international security scenarios that will
affect countries in the region.
The defeat of the CPM and NKCP and the subsequent restoration of peace and security
in the country has enabled the MA to reorganize itself towards a more conventional force. Key
reasons why the government introduced the Malaysian Defence White Paper (MDWP) saw that
all services need to focus on the forces’ capabilities development including human resource
management to meet emerging security challenges [11]. The soldier is a crucial element for the
transformation plan of Army4NextG to develop its capabilities for rapid and decisive maneuvers.
The modernization program involves new weapon system and equipment that demands soldiers
are competent with military KSAs for modern warfare. Dealing with new challenges, military
organizations acquire new ideas for the development of armed forces to be able to improve military
readiness. Consequently, the solutions of action to what often are framed as problems in military
organizations to adapting the functionality of modern armed forces [2].
In addressing modern warfare, MA seeks to develop a balanced capability in all

dimensions of warfare in firepower, mobility, intelligence, communications, cyber and logistic
support to contribute toward self-reliant armed forces capable of upholding the sovereignty of the
nation as well as defending and protecting Malaysia’s strategic interests. It is also mindful of the

Defence Policy
rapid Revolution Military Affairs (RMA) would impact upon the aspect of integration and joint
operation with the Malaysian Navy and the Royal Malaysian Air Forces to meet the demands of
understanding multi-domain operations (MDO) [11]. In line with the challenging multi-domain
operation environment, the MA has embarked on a modernization program including enhancing
the human resource development of Thinking Soldiers. With this development, the MA requires
soldiers who are mental preparation with KSA to perform in military operations.
THINKING SOLDIERS
Soldiers are not born but made. Soldiers have always been an important role in success
on the battlefield. The MDO with greater complexity, fog, and friction as the battlefield expands
into space and cyberspace. In the military environment, combinations of extreme physical and
mental fatigue, high levels of anxiety and stress, and environments of great unpredictability require
the soldier to face and adapt. Soldiers need to maintain effective cognitive performance in COE
military operations that demand the sustained focus of attention or concentration, as well as the
rapid processing of information. To meet these challenges, MA must remain aligned with the
Malaysian Armed Forces policy to develop human resources to ensure soldier readiness [11].
The environment and military strategy have changed considerably in the last few decades
because of Revolution in Military Affairs (RMA). Modern warfare must look at a different
dimension of warfare and deal with the uncertain environment that requires competent soldiers and
technology. To operate effectively under conditions of uncertainty and complexity, soldiers must
think critically to reduce uncertainty through the understanding situation in the military operation
[11]. Finally, the thinking soldier concept has been introduced, and development of strategies with
specific military training programs designed to equip the knowledge, skills, and abilities of military
personnel to fight for multi-domain operations [2].
Developing the future force is important to implement concentric deterrence, the

MDWP’s first pillar of defense strategy. The MAF serves as the “Nation’s Shield” entrusted by the
Government to uphold the National Defence Objectives at all times. The force structure and force
posture need to be reshaped to better address armed intervention, and natural disasters and realize
the need to conduct two-theatre operations simultaneously between Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah,
and Sarawak. The Government shall develop the MAF into an integrated, agile, and focused force,
capable of responding to traditional and non-traditional threats during peace or conflict, with a high
level of readiness to perform its operations amid the unpredictable security environment [11]. With
this purpose, the MA provides a specified core element that forms force development emphasis on
the improvement of military personnel readiness as illustrated in Figure 1.1.

peace or conflict, with a high level of readiness to perform its operations amid the unpredictable
security environment [11]. With this purpose, the MA provides a specified core element that
forms force development emphasis on the improvement of military personnel readiness
Lt Col Hasmady bin Alim as
illustrated in Figure 1.1.
Figure
Figure1.1: Army4NextG
1.1: - Thinking
Army4NextG Soldier
- Thinking Concept
Soldier [2][2]
Concept
Thinking is a basic human activity when individuals are confronted with real problems.
Thinking is a basic human activity when individuals are confronted with real problems.
Soldiers still struggle with predicting what is going to happen in military operations and what
Soldiers still struggle with predicting what is going to happen in military operations and what
KSA are needed to solve complex situations. Fundamentally, Thinking Soldiers emphasizes the
development of a soldier’s professional, innovative, creative, agile, fighting spirit, spiritual power,
4
military mind, and intellectual are essential characteristics of the soldier to encounter modern
warfare. This concept drives soldiers to improve cognitive abilities especially critical thinking
skills, problem-solving skills, and higher thinking skills due to its potential to contribute to
individual performance in the military operation. More specifically, thinking soldiers is a future
development plan of MA strategy for reaching the Objective Forces. The Objective Force focuses
on capability-based that integrates soldiers with technology to address security challenges. The
MA will also work towards upgrading and improving capability with new weapon systems and
equipment in achieving a force that is lean compact and effective. Hence, the MA needs to be
structured, equipped with modern equipment, and highly dedicated soldiers with adequate
knowledge, skills, and abilities. Recognizing the need for the important concept of Thinking
Soldier, MA introduces the Malaysian Army Training System (MATS) on how to transform MA
training to produce soldiers that enable them to perform for military deployment at the desired
level of performance [2].
MALAYSIAN ARMY TRAINING SYSTEM
The Army 4NextG is the MA development plan that provides a framework for improving
human resource development as part of an Objective Force by aligning the organization’s goals,
system-level requirements, organizational programs, and military training [2]. Military training
and educations are human resources development strategies to increase soldiers’ readiness. In
the context of increased complexity, unpredictability, and ambiguity of military operations, what

Defence Policy
is needed for preparing soldiers on the real battlefield? Military training is defined as a process
intended to establish and improve the capabilities of soldiers (prepared (trained), able (skills),
and motivated) to perform in the complex environment of the military operation. The impact
of military training should be explored from several perspectives for individual readiness who
(soldier) is expected to apply what (e.g., selection of tactical and strategic plans), when (in the
dynamic, complex, and unpredictable environment of military operations), and in which conditions
(stressful or unfamiliar). Training literature has often described the science of training [12][13][14]
and it is influenced by the transfer training process [15][16][17] impact on thinking enhancement
[18][19][20][21].
In United States America (USA), research and development targeting soldier thinking
performance enhancement is a priority area to increase the ability to achieve and sustain
military dominance through accelerated military training [22][23][24]. Thinking performance
enhancement is important to help soldiers and teams maintain peak performance in the face of the
environment involves the application of technologies and techniques. The US Army focuses on
targeted training technologies and methods, transcranial electrical brain stimulation, and reality
augmentation approaches to enhance soldiers’ thinking enhancement [25][26][27]. In contrast,
The People’s Liberation Army (PLA) of China believes that emerging technologies, especially
artificial intelligence (AI), become as critical to victory on the future battlefield as information
technology [28]. The PLA explores and experiments with new concepts and capabilities to enhance
its combat power by studying and adapting lessons learned from American concepts and initiatives
[6][27]. The process of transforming concepts in the capabilities of human cognition is recognise
the importance of balancing human and machine elements in decision-making for future warfare.
Hence, continuing research on military training by military organizations improves the human
component of warfighting.
The objective of military training specifically prepares individuals and teams with the
knowledge, skills, and abilities based on current situation involvement in military operations
by focusing on individual and collective military training at all levels of strategic, operational,
and tactical levels of military organizations. MA development plan also focuses on capability
detection, survival, strike, sustainment, protraction, and nation-building. To achieve this vision,
the MA needs to redesign military training and education based on the Malaysian Army Training
System (MATs)[2]. The focus is to enhance elements of the cognitive, psychological, and spiritual
of soldiers in terms of the tasks they needed to perform. The process of deciding why, what, and
who should be trained in the initial stage of training development. Figure 1.3 shows the Malaysian
Army Training System to develop the Thinking Soldier concept.

Training System (MATs)[2]. The focus is to enhance elements of the cognitive, psychological,
and spiritual of soldiers in terms of the tasks they needed to perform. The process of deciding
Lt Col Hasmady
why, what, and who should be trained in the initial stage of training development. Figurebin1.3
Alim
shows the Malaysian Army Training System to develop the Thinking Soldier concept.
Figure
Figure 1.3:1.3: Malaysian
Malaysian Army
Army Training
Training System
System [2][2]
Thinking soldiers
Thinking strategically
soldiers related
strategically to the
related capability
to the of of
capability thethe
human
humandimension
dimensioninin
enhancing the military readiness process dealing with the environmental security
enhancing the military readiness process dealing with the environmental security challenges. The challenges.
The security environment is marked by volatility, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity
security environment is marked by volatility, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity (VUCA)
(VUCA) where the capability to defend and promote national interests might be restricted by
where the capability to defend and promote national interests might be restricted by material and
material and personnel resource constraints. That’s the reason why the human dimension is a
personnel resource constraints. That’s the reason why the human dimension is a very complex
very complex area that influences future military readiness. With that purpose, the MA
area that influences future military readiness. With that purpose, the MA established Army4NextG
established Army4NextG with a set of strategies for the way soldiers fight, how to prepare
withtoafight
soldiers set of strategiesand
tactically foroperationally,
the way soldiers howfight, how to prepare
organizations soldiers
organize to fight
to fight andtactically
everythingand
operationally,
necessary to equip how organizations
our forces organize
that require for to
thefight andFor
fight. everything
this to benecessary
possible,tothe
equip
MAour forces
leaders
focus on soldiers' training using the necessary tools and methodologies based on MATs tousing
that require for the fight. For this to be possible, the MA leaders focus on soldiers’ training be
the necessary
qualified tools and
for peacetime, methodologies
wartime, based on
and various MATs to beoperations
contingency qualified for
to peacetime,
meet the wartime,
force's
and various
objectives at the contingency
strategic, operations to meet
operational, andthetactical
force’s objectives
levels areat focused
the strategic,
on operational,
the thinking and
tactical levels are focused on the thinking enhancements.
enhancements.
CONCLUSION
CONCLUSION
The future
The future of of militaryoperations
military operations isisexpected
expectedto expand further further
to expand involvinginvolving
the challenging
the
of security
challenging threats and
of security battlefield
threats technologies’
and battlefield impact on the
technologies' character
impact of war
on the and on of
character howwarmilitary
and
operations
on how militarywill be conducted,
operations willincluding the fundamental
be conducted, including role of fundamental
the the armed forces. The
role ofchanges
the armedin the
complex
forces. operating
The changes in environment
the complexinoperating
military operations
environment haveinled the military
military to rethink
operations haveitsled
rolethe
and
military to rethink its role and search for new missions. Clearly defined military roles and
search for new missions. Clearly defined military roles and missions are fundamental to enhancing
the military capabilities of armed forces are for and how they should be structured and organized.
The MA will continue with its efforts to the modernization
6 program supported by the management
practice and cost-effective ensuring the role in safeguarding the sovereignty and territorial integrity
of the nation. Proper guidance and prioritization through research and development need to explore
in line with the Army4NextG concept in developing thinking soldiers. The rationalization of the

Defence Policy
MA to develop thinking soldiers to meet a new force structure and war doctrine dealing with
emerging security challenges. The MA must ensure that a MAF has the necessary forces, assets,
facilities, and capabilities to fulfill its tasks throughout the full spectrum of its missions more
effectively in new and challenging modern warfare environments.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors also would like to acknowledge all the helpful military information supported
by the Malaysian Army (MA). The views expressed in this work are those of the authors and do not
necessarily reflect official MA policy.
REFERENCES AND ENDNOTES
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[2] Malaysian Army (2021). Army4NextG, Malaysian Army Headquarters, Mindef, Kuala
Lumpur.
[3] O’Toole, P., & Talbot, S. (2011). Fighting for knowledge: Developing learning systems
in the Australian army. Armed Forces & Society, 37(1), 42-67.
[4] Crameri, L., Hettiarachchi, I., & Hanoun, S. (2021). A review of individual operational
cognitive readiness: theory development and future directions. Human factors, 63(1), 66-87.
[5] Salas, E., Tannenbaum, S. I., Kraiger, K., & Smith-Jentsch, K. A. (2012). The science
of training and development in organizations: What matters in practice. Psychological science
in the public interest, 13(2), 74-101.
[6] Herlihy, D. J. (2022). Cognitive Performance Enhancement for Multi-domain

Operations. The US Army War College Quarterly: Parameters, 52(4), 13.
[7] Brunyé, T. T., Brou, R., Doty, T. J., Gregory, F. D., Hussey, E. K., Lieberman, H. R.
... & Yu, A. B. (2020). A review of US Army research contributing to cognitive enhancement in
military contexts. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, 4, 453-468.
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physiological predictors of success in the US Army Special Forces Assessment and
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Lt Col Hasmady bin Alim
[10] Wasinski, C. (2011). On making war possible: Soldiers, strategy, and military grand
narrative. Security Dialogue, 42(1), 57-76.
[11] Ministry of Defence Malaysia (2020). Malaysian defence white paper, Mindef, Kuala
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TECHNOLOGICAL SURGE: CHALLENGES FACED BY MINDEF IN

IMPLEMENTING GREEN TECHNOLOGY POLICY IN MALAYSIA’S MILITARY
DEVELOPMENT
Azlinda Yaacob
azlindayaacob@gmail.com
Siti Darwinda Mohamed Pero

School of International Studies, Universiti Utara Malaysia
darwinda@uum.edu.my
ABSTRACT
Malaysia’s defense policy objective is to achieve a balance and integration of a combination

of assets and other resources with the purpose of strengthening national defense. Historically,
Malaysia had hardly any active development program in the military before gaining independence
in 1957 as the nation’s defense industry at the time only had minimal capabilities for repair and
overhaul. However, Malaysia’s political, economic, and social development policies underwent
significant changes after the 1960s and the early 1970s when Malaysia adopted to an import
strategy in an effort to create stability in trading. This paper analyses Green Energy Technology
and focuses on the Ministry of Defence Malaysia (MiNDEF) in implementing green military
equipment. The primary objective of this paper is to analyze the extent to which the issues
faced by MiNDEF related to energy consumption affect Malaysia’s national security, reliance,
maintenance, and annual budget allocation. This study utilizes qualitative research approach to
evaluate the current defense approach related to military weapons in Malaysia.This study found
that MiNDEF has to face several challenges in implementing GE Technology, leading to foreign
reliance, current logistic issues in maintenance, and budget constraints. By implementing GE
technology in Malaysia’s military industry, national security can be enhanced as an alternative
strategy. However, in order to achieve new alternatives in defense mechanisms, the Ministry of
Defence needs to address these challenges, optimize energy usage, and plan new strategies for
future security.
Keywords: Green Energy Technology, Military industry, Malaysia Ministry of Defence
INTRODUCTION
Energy has always been a critical factor in every battlefield or mission. Military operations
encompass land, water transport, air, and installations based on the operational location. With the
rapid globalization and technological advancements, the discussion of new clean energy sources
and the challenges faced by the military has become a hot topic (Sovacool et al., 2017). Green
Energy Technology (GET) is inherently designed to be environmentally friendly and sustainable,
contributing to global efforts to reduce emissions that contribute to climate change and diminish
the reliance on non-renewable resources. Moreover, green energy has the potential to enhance
military performance while aligning with Malaysia’s Green Energy Plan, which aims to embrace
clean energy technologies such as wind, solar, water, nuclear power, natural gas, and bioenergy.
According to the European Defence Strategy (2022), green energy plays a pivotal role
in shaping the future strategy of the EU Security and Defence Policy operations, particularly in
Technological Surge: Challenges Faced by Mindef in Implementing Green
Technology Policy in Malaysia’s Military Development
addressing warfare and crisis management. With green technology emerging as a new opportunity
and industry, it goes beyond combating the climate emergency; it becomes a competition among
global leaders, influencing the hierarchy of nations and future global power dynamics (European
Defense Energy, 2022).
Meanwhile, under the administration of President Joe Biden, the US Army has unveiled
its strategy to prepare for conflicts driven by global warming. By 2030, half of all non-combat
vehicles will be electrified, and by 2050, combat vehicles will follow suit (Birnbaum & Root,
2022). Another significant green initiative involves the development of alternative energy sources
such as solar and wind power, which will enhance the military’s resilience by reducing reliance on
fuel convoys (Singh & Gupta, 2022). The concern arose when US armed forces faced ambushes
during fuel missions, affecting the lives of soldiers and critical resources.
The Asia-Pacific region has also witnessed active development in green technologies,
with a focus on sustainable development, often referred to as clean technology. For example,
China has been implementing green policies and the Law for the Promotion of Clean Production,
aimed at utilizing clean energy and raw materials to enhance efficiency in electricity utilization
and environmental protection (Mol & Liu, 2005).The Chinese People’s Liberation Army (PLA)
has recently established a micro-power grid system for over 80 border defense outposts in remote
areas and islands. This system provides troops with stable and reliable energy, serving as a backup
power source to diesel oil and battery storage (Leung, 2021).
In the Southeast Asian region, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) has
recognized the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development as a complementary to its regional
community-building’s efforts to enhance the quality of life for their people. A major focus of the
current ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community Blueprint 2025 is on the promotion and assurance of
layered protection, along with the continuous development and adoption of environmentally sound
technologies (Tay et al., 2017).Countries such as Vietnam have been actively developing their
solar power applications since the 1990s. Manicub, a hybrid technology utilizing renewable energy
sources, has been used in Vietnamese solar-powered homes, ships, and ambulances (Dong et al.,
2019). Meanwhile, in Indonesia, the government is actively working to increase the use of the New
and Renewable Energy Law (NRE), such as Peraturan Presiden No. 4 2016 (Pasal 14), as part of
its efforts to advance the electricity infrastructure to meet the fuel requirements of the Indonesian
Army (Kontjoro et al., 2021).
On the contrary, Malaysia has successfully implemented national development plans,

placing a significant reliance on green technology for economic development. This approach has
contributed to a reduction in economic and social problems, such as poverty, unemployment, and
population challenges (Zaboon & Salih, 2021). As a developing country, Malaysia has launched
the National Biomass Strategy to enhance its competitiveness in clean energy alongside other
nations. This strategy focuses on locally-based innovation for producing bio-based chemicals
and bio-energy (Rashidi et al., 2022). Under Malaysia’s Ministry of Defence, the government
plays a critical role in strengthening national defense capabilities, aiming to establish Malaysia
as a military asset producer (Abdullah & Haliza Mohd Zahari, 2023). To achieve this target, the
government has made significant efforts through cooperation and technology transfer with other
military producers, including the USA, Italy, China, and Turkey (Yaakob, 2021). Regarding green
energy, Malaysia has developed plans to enhance green energy consumption, in which, the country
has set new targets under Malaysia’s Renewable Energy Roadmap (MyRER), aiming to provide

Azlinda Yaacob
31% of the nation’s energy by 2025 and 40% by 2035 (Reuters, 2023). Currently, Malaysia is
focusing on aspects of energy transition and the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions at the 26th
Conference of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC COP 28)
in Dubai (RTM, 2023).
This paper, therefore, aims to examine the extent to which issues related to energy
consumption impact Malaysia’s national security, reliance, maintenance, and annual budget
allocation for the Ministry of Defence (MiNDEF). To accomplish this, the paper will emphasize
existing military equipment and the challenges faced by defense departments, focusing on their
equipment and strategies. Additionally, this paper identifies the challenges associated with
implementing Green Energy technologies as a new security policy mechanism.
This paper begins by providing an overview of the existing literature related to the topic
under examination, encompassing Malaysia’s military development, green technology, and green
energy. Following this, the paper elucidates the research methodology employed in this study.
Subsequently, it presents the findings and analysis derived from our research. Finally, the paper
concludes with research findings and policy recommendations.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Malaysia’s Military Development
Historically, Malaysia had little active military development prior to gaining independence
in 1957, lagging behind its neighboring countries. At that time, the nation’s defense industry
had minimal capabilities for overhauling. However, Malaysia’s political, economic, and social
development policies underwent significant changes in the 1960s and early 1970s, as political
forces led the country to adopt an import strategy aimed at creating stability in trade. As Malaysia
progressed through different development stages, the government-led initiatives focused on the
defense industry in three key sectors: aerospace, maritime, and ordnance. By the 1980s, Malaysia
decided to make more aggressive investments in heavy industrialization, aligning with the launch
of the Malaysia’s Master Plan in the Look East Policy and heavy industry. The Master Plan
primarily emphasized heavy industry, particularly the basic metals industry, which had a profound
impact on the defense industry. During this period, the primary goal was to provide the Malaysian
Armed Forces (MAF) with through-life maintenance, repair, and overhaul support in the form
of logistical assistance. Industrial development was centred around meeting the needs of various
service branches. For instance, the Royal Malaysian Air Force (RMAF) aircraft were serviced by
the Air Force Aircraft Maintenance and Overhaul Depot (AIROD), while the Malaysia Explosives
Company (SME) was responsible for producing small guns, ammunition, grenades, and fireworks,
serving the needs of TUDM (Megat, 2021).
In the late 1980s and mid-1990s, Malaysia initiated a new set of modernization programs
for the future of its defense industry. During this period, countries like Brazil, Turkey, and India
had already made significant strides in manufacturing, establishing their own positions in the
defense industry (Balakrishnan, 2008). Indonesia and South Korea were making substantial
investments in arms production, while Singapore was expanding its capabilities in Maintenance,
Repair, and Overhaul (MRO) and became a regional aerospace center (Bitzinger, 2013). Malaysia
has recognized that it had fallen behind in terms of military development. Politically, Malaysian
leaders aspired for the country to become strong and economically progressive. While economic
development remained a priority in Malaysia’s national interests, the importance of the defense
industry was also acknowledged as crucial for regaining momentum through the acquisition of
advanced technology.
In 1982, Malaysia formulated the National Defence Production Policy, providing

precise guidelines for the development of the local defense sector. Given the scarcity of strategic
manufacturing equipment and the burden of providing support services, it was determined that
state-owned enterprises would take responsibility for military production (Megat, 2021). By 1990,
Malaysia’s defense industry comprised small businesses that supplied products and a limited
number of large corporations. These large corporations, while offering essential services to the
military, such as the construction of locally made ships and aircraft maintenance and servicing, did
so as part of their primary civilian operations.
In the era of Industry 4.0 adoption, the Malaysian army is currently undergoing a
process of modernization and conventionalization. This encompasses upgrades in both weaponry
and equipment, as well as a restructuring of training methods to enhance conventional warfare
capabilities. However, the Malaysian army is also grappling with new challenges, such as the
threat of cyber-attacks. As noted by Balakrishnan (2008), the fundamental elements of Malaysia’s
army continue to revolve around defense mechanisms, including combat power, firepower, and
proficiency in warfare skills, all aimed at preparing for various security situations. Presently,
Malaysia is actively working on its first-ever Defense White Paper (DWP). The primary objective
of this historic document is to provide the general public with insights into the Ministry’s objectives
and long-term plans for enhancing Malaysia’s defense and security. Achieving these goals requires
a comprehensive effort involving participation from the entire society. In the wake of the 9/11
incidents, the world witnessed a shift in global security dynamics. Given Malaysia’s geographic
location in the heart of Southeast Asia, sharing borders with seven other countries, it is essential
for the nation to remain vigilant and proactive in addressing security concerns.
Thus, Malaysia’s Defense policy objective is to achieve a balance and integration of

various assets and resources, all aimed at strengthening national defense. All improvements and
developments encompass four key spectrums: land, air, sea, and the electromagnetic spectrum,
which is crucial in modern warfare. While Malaysia’s Armed Forces (MAF) continue to produce
well-trained personnel, a significant focus is also directed towards the improvement of military
equipment through Research and Development (R&D). This is essential to ensure that MAF is
equipped with the best defense systems during operations.
Understanding Renewable Energy Source
While alternative energy may seem like an additional and conventional form of energy,
developed countries have embraced this new energy source with the support of government
initiatives and technological advancements. In the context of definitions, Maradin (2021) highlights
Renewable Energy (RE) as an alternative to fossil resources. However, defining alternative energy
precisely poses challenges due to the various existing energy sources and different objectives in
promoting each type of operation. Another perspective on renewable energy argues that renewable
energy is naturally replenished at a rate faster than energy consumption, or it involves durable
resources due to their natural availability (Van Vliet et al., 2012). Renewable energy sources can
be continuously renewed and are considered inexhaustible, even though the consumption process
can deplete them. According to Ellaban et al. (2014), renewable energy sources are continuously

Azlinda Yaacob
replenished by nature and derive either directly or indirectly from the sun, distinguishing them
from fossil fuels, waste products from fossil fuels, or waste from inorganic sources. Examples of
renewable energy sources include wind, hydropower, and photosynthetic sources.
Renewable energy has increasingly gained attraction in economic sustainable

development. It not only surpasses energy demand, but also, promises to be a significant contributor
to future global energy sources. Larionov et al. (2021) argue that renewable energy demand offers
several advantages. First, concerning energy security, green energy sources open up possibilities
for fuel diversification. Since the military heavily relies on fuel during missions, the integration
of new energy sources allows the Malaysia Armed Forces to maintain a stock of multiple fuel
blends, enhancing their energy security. Secondly, renewable energy can serve as an effective
solution for addressing energy access challenges. Overall, the protection of the environment are
primary factors in promoting renewable energy to the world, especially the evidence of the sources
contributing zero per cent of greenhouse gas emission and pollution (United Nation Development
Program, 2000). Malaysia also has taken the initiative to align with the objectives of international
environmental standards by taking all the practical measurements of the Millennium Development
Goals (Choong, 2010). Malaysia’s Defense industry development relies on the development of the
economy in order to have full support in any kind of innovation or R&D and financial support. On
the other perspective, Doleček & Karabegović (2013) emphasises utilisation of renewable energy
can be manifested in the encouragement of economic development of a nation specifically in the
energy sector and all related sectors in this industry.
Technological innovations in renewable energy have the potential to drive the production
of energy machinery products and equipment, which, in turn, can attract increased investment.
Maradin (2021) argues that the adoption of new technologies in renewable energy can lead to
improvements in business processes and economic development, with a strong emphasis on the
participation of a qualified workforce. This implementation can also result in the creation of new job
opportunities, particularly in the field of military research and development related to new energy
sources. However, as noted by Osorio-Tejada et al. (2017), the availability of job opportunities in
this sector depends on the level of activity within the plant life cycle and the extent of renewable
energy exploitation. Additionally, Maradin (2021) points out that renewable energy does come
with challenges. Geographical location and weather conditions can introduce unpredictability and
limitations in energy generation.
According to Sagar (2021), energy is an essentially boundless resource that should be

harnessed as an energy asset and efficiently utilized. Research underscores the importance of
considering externalities expenses, reliability, effectiveness, and ecological impact. Mohtasham
(2015) also emphasizes sustainability analysis dependent on renewable energy, which comprises
three main components: externalities cost, economic aspects, financing, and environmental
impact. Even in developed countries, renewable energy, while significant, has not yet become the
predominant source of energy. This aligns with the argument put forth by Peimani & Taghizadeh-
Hesary (2019), who found that Singapore and the Philippines have differing approaches to
achieving sustainable development. They take into consideration factors such as affordability,
availability, acceptability, and plausibility, despite both countries being dominated by fossil energy
sources. Maradin (2021) also underscores the costs associated with developing renewable energy
power plants, particularly in marine energy, which can be exceptionally expensive due to their
location. In support of this statement, Ellabban et al. (2014) argue that energy can be derived from
six distinct sources: (i) waves, (ii) tidal range, (iii) tidal currents, (iv) ocean currents, (v) ocean
thermal energy conversion, and (vi) salinity gradients. Each of these sources originates differently
and necessitates specific technologies for conversion.
Renewable Energy and military equipment
Referring to the American army during operations, it consumed approximately 880 million
gallons of fuel and utilized about 9.1 million megawatt-hours of electricity. This highlights the
significance of addressing price volatility and achieving energy independence. As Scholtes (2013)
points out, the potential to replace traditional fuels with renewable energy sources can lead to a
reduction in overall fuel consumption and demand. The idea of transitioning to alternative energy
sources not only reduces the military’s reliance on fossil fuels but also enhances its resilience
by reducing dependency on the electric grid system. This shift allows the military to allocate
resources to upgrade other critical areas.
With the world evolving technologically and in terms of procurement, global military
leaders have become increasingly concerned with issues related to energy supply. These leaders
have also actively engaged in research and development (R&D) endeavors, particularly focused on
technologies that improve resource efficiency and minimize environmental impact.
For instance, the United States has recognized the significance of Army research &
Development (R&D) through the Research, Development and Engineering Command (RDECOM).
The RDECOM oversees R&D and technology budgets aimed at producing products and designs,
tailored to address the complexity of current security threats (Lyons et al., 2005). France, on the
other hand, ranks second to the United States among OECD countries in terms of representing
more than one-third of R&D expenditure (Hebert, n.d). In 2021, under France’s Military Planning
Law, the military budget saw an increase to 39.2 billion euros, marking a 1.7 billion euro rise
compared to the previous budget allocation. This budget allocation primarily focuses on fostering
innovations, enhancing personnel, upgrading military defense systems, and modernizing the
French armed forces (Ministry of the Armed Forces (France), 2023).
As noted by Hoffman (2014), different countries approach military-energy challenges

with varying methods and emphases. These differences also reflect varying levels of development
among countries that engage with renewable energy. Balakrishnan (2008) underscores the
significant financial gap between developing and developed countries when it comes to acquiring
cutting-edge technologies for utilizing new energy in military operations. Tommey (2015) further
highlights the challenges associated with developing new energy sources for military purposes,
including federal restrictions on new energy projects, cost considerations, technological challenges,
and the entrenched use of traditional energy sources. However, as Tommey (2015) points out,
renewable energy holds the potential to provide advantages in addressing future security threats.
It can reduce the reliance on fossil fuel sources, thereby mitigating the risks of terrorist disruption
during military operations at domestic installations.
Green Technology
Green technology, also known as clean technology, is designed to be environmentally

friendly and aims to conserve natural resources with the goal of having zero impact on the
environment. Bhardwaj & Neelam (2015) have provided a distinction between technology and
green technology to clarify the knowledge gap between these two terms. The term ‘technology’

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primarily focuses on the production process, encompassing techniques, skills, and resource
utilization to create desired products and services. On the other hand, ‘green technology’ pertains
to the development of equipment and systems aimed at conserving natural resources, with a strong
emphasis on minimizing adverse impacts on the environment and humanity.
Iravani et al. (2017) further explained the categories of green technologies, which include:
(i) Monitoring and evaluating,

(ii) Pollution prevention,
(iii) Control, and
(iv) Remediation and restoration.
Drawing from previous literature on challenges related to renewable energy, it is evident

that obtaining consistent renewable energy can be significantly unpredictable depending on
weather conditions. Venkadeshwaran (2019) has criticized the current status of global technology
production for its unnecessary derivatives. However, Iravani et al. (2017) emphasized the
importance of prevention technologies that mitigate the production of hazardous materials, which
can lead to environmental damage. The development of green technologies, such as solar cells
that directly generate electricity and light through the photovoltaic process, plays a crucial role in
reducing the reliance on fossil fuels and contributes to a nation’s sustainability goals.
According to Carrard et al.’s analysis from 2011, the discovery of raw groundwater
is considered more affordable and practical in the long term. This is attributed to Malaysia’s
substantial annual rainfall, estimated at 990 billion m³, with 550 billion m³ categorized as runoff
water that flows into rivers and lakes. However, it is noteworthy that the level of public awareness
and knowledge regarding green technology remains insufficient (Mustapha et al., 2019). This holds
particularly true in Malaysia, where community attitudes tend to be less concerned. Despite the
lack of awareness among many Malaysians, a study by Siti Rohani (2013) reveals that individuals
and companies with higher levels of education are more inclined to embrace green technology in
their business operations.
Green Energy & Malaysia
According to Syed Shah Alam et al. (2013), Malaysia possesses significant potential in
sustainable renewable energy, particularly in the realm of green energy. However, for green energy
(GE) technology to be widely implemented across Malaysia, there needs to be a substantial shift in
public opinion towards its adoption. Syed Shah Alam et al. (2013) also highlight several challenges
associated with the implementation of GE technology. These challenges include high costs, the
long-term sustainability of such initiatives, resistance from the public, socio-political factors, and
the adaptation of GE technology alongside existing energy sources.
In the implementation of Green Energy (GE) in the military, the acceptance of consumers is
also crucial for achieving widespread adoption throughout the entire military infrastructure. Zailin
Zainal Ariffin et al. (2022) point out that Renewable Energy (RE) becomes more appealing when
consumers are aware of the environmental issues and cost reductions associated with transforming
Malaysia’s existing energy sources into new, more sustainable alternatives. Additionally, Islam et al.
(2022) argue that sustainability and the assurance of energy supply security and reliability depend
on diversifying energy sources. This diversification is essential to ensure that the military sector
is not overly reliant on a single energy source. Malaysia must not only consider environmental
concerns but also focus on how to enhance its position in the international military market and
move up the value chain.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
In this research, an attempt was made to determine the effectiveness of green technologies in
the development of military equipment and to explore the challenges encountered during policy
implementation. To achieve this, a qualitative approach was employed. This paper adopted a
qualitative research methodology, which included semi-structured interviews. These interviews
were conducted to gain deeper insights into the situations related to military equipment.
Table 1: List of participants in interview session
List participant Name of Participation Position Agency

Participant 1 Dr. Tuan Sabri bin Tuan Ketua Sel Kripto MOSEP, Pusat Peny-
Mat elidikan SPEKTRUM
Participant 2 Laskar Udara Nur Izatul Pegawai Bahagian Logistik
Hanania binti Mohd Pertahanan - Markas
Zakila Angkatan Tentera
Participant 3 Kpl Muhammad Nur Staf Bahagian Logistik
Iman bin Norzilan Pertahanan - Markas
Angkatan Tentera
Participant 4 Mohd Fauzi bin Moha- Pegawai Penyelidik MOSEP, Pusat Peny-
mad Akhir elidikan SPEKTRUM
Participant 5 Hj Saidin bin Abd Rah- Pegawai Penyelidik MOSEP, Pusat Peny-
man elidikan SPEKTRUM
Participant 6 LT DYA Nur Najib bin Pegawai Bahagian Logistik
Sharir Zaaba TLDM Pertahanan - Markas
Angkatan Tentera
However, it is important to note that some scholars have expressed reservations about
the use of qualitative methods due to potential biases in data collection. To address this concern,
this study employed triangulation and data validation techniques to enhance the reliability of
the collected data. In this research, triangulation was achieved through various data collection
methods. Comprehensive data was gathered from different sources, including formal individual
interviews, journals, and government data. To mitigate potential data inconsistencies, these sources
were cross-referenced with various types of data sources that were considered more credible and
reliable.
Additionally, the examination of green technology within the defense industry was
carried out using secondary data at a macro level. This existing knowledge base played a pivotal
role in enhancing the research’s understanding of green technology in the context of military
energy. Various materials related to climate change were scrutinized, with sources encompassing
reports, publications, information from the Ministry of Defence (MINDEF), the Malaysian Green
Technology Corporation (MGTC), the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources (KeTSA), and
primarily, existing literature. This extensive information-gathering process encompassed topics
such as renewable energy, green technology, Malaysian military equipment, the impacts of green
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technology, and the broader context of green technology in military equipment. These data sources
were instrumental in identifying issues and shaping the research’s objectives.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Challenges in implementing Green Technology in Malaysia’s Military
Green technology in Malaysia has made significant strides across various sectors,
including health, education, transportation, and energy. However, the focus on the military sector
has been relatively limited (Zaboon & Salih, 2021). Even with the establishment of the Green
Technology Plan (GTMP) during the Eleventh Malaysia Plan (2016 - 2020), which prioritizes green
growth in energy, transportation, economy, manufacturing, and social aspects (Ministry of Energy,
Technology, and Water Malaysia, 2017); the military sector’s integration of green technology
remains modest. A noteworthy trend can be observed in Malaysia’s GDP from 2000 to 2016,
where total spending on Science, Research & Development for scientific research and innovation
increased from 0.5% in 2000 to 1.4% in 2016. These investments were primarily directed toward
areas such as bio-agriculture and health food programs (Zaboon & Salih, 2021).
A study conducted by Teoh et al. (2020) investigated public opinions and knowledge
regarding Green Energy (GE) technologies, particularly Photovoltaic panels (PV). The research
results revealed that a majority of the participants (90%) possessed knowledge about GE
technologies and recognized the importance and benefits of PV panels. However, when the
participants were informed about the costs associated with PV panels, their reactions were largely
characterized by astonishment. In summary, the study indicated that Malaysians had a significant
awareness and knowledge of GE technologies but faced limitations in implementing or adopting
the technology due to its high cost.
The technology gap between developed and developing countries poses a significant
challenge for Malaysia in its efforts to develop new military technology. This technology gap
encompasses various challenges, including a shortage of qualified human resources, limited
investments, and national regulations and controls (Baek et al., 1989). At present, Malaysia is
classified as a ‘third-tier’ country in terms of arm production and is considered a ‘low-tech’ nation.
This classification is due to Malaysia’s ability to produce only a limited range of military equipment,
such as small arms, ammunition, small-sized ships, and armored vehicles (Amiruddin et al., 2020).
As highlighted by Balakrishnan (2008), the widening technology gap between developing and
developed countries can be attributed to insufficient investment, lack of expertise, and limited
national interest, despite significant proportions of national budgets being allocated to defense.
Understanding the financial challenges facing Malaysia’s investment in Green Energy

(GE) technology reveals that significant barriers still exist. For instance, the installation of solar PV
panels in buildings with the smallest systems of 4kWp can cost approximately RM 40,000, and the
return on investment is estimated to take at least eight years (The Edge Market, 2020). Furthermore,
Chew (2019) pointed out that the average price of solar systems in Malaysia is higher compared
to neighboring countries, primarily due to the country’s relatively high cost of living. On average,
a solar panel costs almost RM 15,000. To promote the adoption of solar panels, Malaysia has
initiated the Large Scale Solar program (LSS). However, this program has encountered challenges,
with project costs increasing by 30% to 40% in 2020. Additionally, the expansion of LSS to LSS4
projects had to be extended to March 2022 (Aziz, A. 2022).
In terms of budget allocation, Malaysia’s national defense budget in 2019 experienced

a significant reduction, reaching its lowest point at RM 5.9 billion, which represented a 40%
decrease from the 2018 allocation budget. Out of the total budget, RM 1.3 billion was allocated
for operational expenditures, while the remainder was designated for development (Kementerian
Kewangan Malaysia, 2018). This reduction was deemed unavoidable due to the government’s focus
at the time on eliminating the national budget deficit and reducing sovereign debt, as explained by
Lim Guan Eng, who served as the Finance Minister of Malaysia (Berita Harian, 2019).
Matthew’s research (2021) aligns with this budgetary trend, highlighting that Malaysia
primarily directs its defense industry budget toward upgrading, repair, and maintenance without
relying on foreign assistance. Despite limited resources, Malaysia maintains its commitment to
developing a self-reliant defense industry, with a focus on logistic support and maintenance, a
strategic approach that has been in place since 1957. In contrast, the 2023 Malaysia annual budget
has allocated approximately RM 17.4 billion for the Ministry of Defence. However, Salawati
Mat Basir, a lecturer at the National Defence Education Centre, contends that this budget falls
short and is only sufficient for maintaining existing equipment (Free Malaysia Today, 2022).
Despite being classified as a “strategic industry,” the defense sector continues to exist to support
the Malaysia Armed Force (MAF) in acquiring modern equipment and achieving self-sufficiency
(Yahaya, 2019).This demonstrates that the Malaysian military has taken the initiative to modernize
its equipment and adhere to the principle of self-reliance. Nevertheless, the most significant
challenges revolve around the allocation of budgetary resources for research and development as
well as modernization.
Issues faced by MINDEF in processing high tech military equipment
Military equipment refers to a collection of weapons, arms, and supplies readily

employed for the application of lethal force in response to actual or perceived threats. As the
world transitioned from the atomic era, nearly all countries embarked on the acquisition of high-
tech advanced military technologies to engage in warfare and safeguard their nations. In general,
Malaysia can be categorized as a “third-tier” arms producer, somewhat considered a “low-tech”
country in this regard. Malaysia’s defense industry originated with a focus on aircraft maintenance
and repairs but has since expanded into various sectors, including weaponry, information and
communication technology, automotive, and maritime. However, the defense industry in Malaysia
faces numerous formidable challenges that must be overcome to continue its development.
Starting in 1986, Malaysia actively promoted private industry participation in the defense
sector, leading to the privatization of several government enterprises. In the realm of defense,
privatization primarily took the form of Non-Financial Public Enterprises, which maintained
a certain degree of government oversight while encouraging the adoption of private sector
technology. In 1982, the Defence Industry Division introduced the National Defence Production
Policy (NDPP), which categorized defense products into three groups: “strategic,” “essential,”
and “non-strategic.” The NDPP recognized the need for self-reliance in producing strategic items
independently while leaving non-strategic products to be manufactured by semi-government
organizations and the private sector.

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To summarize the issues faced by the Ministry of Defence (Mindef) in implementing green
technology:
1. Low Demand from the Malaysian Armed Forces (MAF): There has been a
challenge in generating sufficient demand for green technology solutions within the MAF,
which may affect the adoption of these technologies.
2. Lack of Economies of Scale: The private sector in Malaysia’s defense industry

faces difficulties in achieving economies of scale, making the production of green
technology solutions less cost-effective.
3. Allocation of Budget to Imports: A significant portion of the military budget has

historically been allocated to the importation of weapons systems, leaving limited
resources for investing in domestic green technology development.
4. Recommendation for International Partnerships: In 1997, the defense minister

recommended developing the defense industry through closer partnerships with businesses
in ASEAN nations and Western countries, suggesting a need for external collaboration.
5. Efforts to Strengthen Technology Transfer: The government has taken steps to

enhance the technology transfer component of trade agreements and expand the supplier
base to facilitate green technology adoption in the defense manufacturing sector.
These challenges indicate the complexity of implementing green technology in Malaysia’s

defense industry and highlight the need for strategic planning and international cooperation to
address them effectively.
Foreign Reliance
The information provided by research participants indicates that Malaysia has been actively
seeking to reduce its dependency on defense imports and develop its domestic defense industry.
Some key points from this information include:
1. Limited Defense Exports: Malaysia’s defense exports were minimal from 2012
to 2017, highlighting the need to enhance domestic defense industry capabilities.
2. Reducing Dependency on Imports: The main objective is to reduce reliance on

defense imports by strengthening domestic capabilities.
3. Strategic Partnerships: Malaysia has entered into strategic partnerships with

various companies, both local and international, to enhance its defense-related products
and technologies.
4. Government Involvement: Many of these partnerships involve some level

of government participation, including shareholdings, indicating a role for the government
in managing and supporting these initiatives.

5. Maintenance and Dockyard Facilities: Malaysia has established joint ventures

and facilities for the maintenance and repair of military equipment, including aircraft and
naval vessels.
Overall, Malaysia’s efforts to develop its domestic defense industry involve collaboration
with various partners and aim to enhance its self-reliance in defense production and maintenance.
In the end, this strategic partnership has highlighted that Malaysia is still not self-sufficient.
According to the National Defence White Paper of 2020, Malaysia has had to acknowledge the
influence of the United States, China, and Japan on the development of the Asia-Pacific region.
In this context, Malaysia also emphasizes the protection and defense of its territories from both
internal and external threats, even as these strategies may reduce efforts to achieve self-sufficiency.
For many years, Malaysia’s defense industry was largely neglected, relying heavily on foreign
suppliers for its military hardware. In the early 1980s, defense strategists emphasized the need
for a long-term strategy to achieve self-sufficiency (Defence White Paper, 2020). Balakrishnan
(2008) further explained that by early 1984, Malaysia had developed local small arms production
capabilities sufficient to meet the majority of its armed forces’ small arms, ordnance, and
ammunition needs. Since the domestic industry was not yet considered ready for offset programs
in the 1980s, counter-purchases were the most common form of offset in Malaysia. However,
to establish domestic manufacturing of assault rifles, intended to be a joint venture between a
government-owned firm and a foreign arms manufacturer, a task force was formed in mid-1983.
The decision was made to prioritize domestic production for military purposes rather than economic
considerations, even though rifles could be purchased more cost-effectively on the global market.
The government made the decision to privatise several military sites in 1970. Back then, the
main goal was to establish a domestic defence sector to support the country’s aim to adopt a
defensive posture of self-reliance (Pike, J. 2022). This plan also aided the national aim of building
up capability in high-tech industries like aerospace. In 1972, Malaysia began by privatising the
maintenance and repair facilities at the Armed Force Base, currently known as AIROD (Ananthan,
S. & Inderjit, S. 2014). Following this, the PSD Naval Dockyard in Navy Base Lumut, now known
as Boustead Naval Shipyard sdn.bhd, was privatised in 1997.
Furthermore, Sapura collaborated with the French company Thales to develop the
TCR 5100 radio. The Malaysian Armed Forces have adopted this radio, and it is also supplied
to countries including Pakistan, Indonesia, Venezuela, and India, as reported in the SAPURA
Annual Reports for 2021. Additionally, AIROD has emerged as the world’s most certified C-130
center, specializing in structural repair, tanker conversion, stretch modification, and landing gear
maintenance. Another notable company, Achromatic, possesses internal simulator development
capabilities.
Ensuring army mobility, especially in communication, is crucial in Malaysia’s tropical

climate, where heavy rainfall is common throughout the year. Factors such as receiver sensitivity,
bandwidth, power, and losses need to be carefully correlated. Military forces frequently change
their locations, whether in Taman Negara’s jungles or other specific areas, making satellite
communication equipment essential. Additionally, understanding the power requirements for
SATCOM equipment is vital for safe operations (Akhtaruzzaman et al., 2020).
Ensuring army mobility, especially in communication, is crucial in Malaysia’s tropical

climate, where heavy rainfall is common throughout the year. Factors such as receiver sensitivity,
bandwidth, power, and losses need to be carefully correlated. Military forces frequently change

Azlinda Yaacob
their locations, whether in Taman Negara’s jungles or other specific areas, making satellite
communication equipment essential. Additionally, understanding the power requirements for
SATCOM equipment is vital for safe operations (Akhtaruzzaman et al., 2020).
On October 22, 2022, Malaysian Defense reportedly added new assets as part of a
repeated order to further enhance defense capabilities. The newly acquired weapons include 72
units of 81mm mortars, 27 units of 40mm Multiple Grenade Launchers, 150 units of Light Anti-
Tank Weapons (Short), and 98 Assault Boats (News 2022). Over the past few years, Malaysia
has actively expanded its military weaponry stock while concurrently developing its own defense
industry. The Malaysian Defense White Paper also outlines the nation’s commitment to reducing
dependency on foreign defense assets, a goal that is currently in progress.
In 2019, Malaysia explored the possibility of using its abundant natural resource, palm
oil, as a potential payment method in collaborations with China, Russia, Pakistan, Turkey, and Iran.
This initiative aimed to diversify revenue sources for upgrading Malaysia’s military equipment
(Reuters, 2019). Former Defence Minister Mohamad Sabu emphasized Malaysia’s wealth of
natural resources, particularly palm oil, as a potential means of payment rather than solely relying
on these resources for military research and development. However, discussions on this matter
have been stalled due to internal governmental changes and have not progressed to date.
Malaysia continues to grapple with various challenges in the realm of national defense, which will
be analysed in this paper. Despite progress, Malaysia still faces issues stemming from its status as
a developing nation and an end-user, which in turn gives rise to other challenges. As evident from
the inventory list, Malaysia retains out-dated equipment, necessitating on-going maintenance and
repairs, resulting in increased costs. Moreover, the government’s budget allocation for defense
remains limited year after year, constraining the Ministry of Defence (MINDEF) from pursuing
new initiatives and advancements in the military sector.
Maintenance
According to Harz (1981), army regulations mandate a comprehensive inspection of

a vehicle by the crew before, during, and after operation. If unit maintenance personnel fail to
perform regular vehicle servicing properly, potential problems may arise, leading to the gradual
degradation of the vehicle due to the cumulative effects of contaminated lubrication, coolant, and
carburetion systems (Harz, 1981).
Malaysia had the opportunity to acquire advanced aircraft but faced a choice between
purchasing from the USA or Russia. In 2003, Malaysia opted to buy 18 Russian fighter jets,
specifically the Sukhoi Su-30 MM, instead of Boeing Hornets from the USA. This decision was
motivated by the desire to secure a more cost-effective deal at that time. However, challenges
arose when it came to maintenance because Malaysia was the sole user of the Sukhoi Su-30 MM.
This is reflected in the expenditure budget allocated to the Ministry of Defence (MINDEF), which
accounts for approximately 4% to 6% of the total federal government budget, amounting to around
RM 13 billion to RM 17 billion (Lee, 2022).
Since 1970, the Ministry of Defence has been actively developing the national defense,
science, technology, and industrial infrastructure to ensure the capability for maintaining, repairing,
and overhauling (MRO) all military assets and equipment. Despite the defense white paper policy,
the implementation of MRO remains challenging due to difficulties in obtaining spare parts, largely
stemming from strategic partnerships with producer countries. These producer countries, such as
the USA, China, and France, constantly upgrade their products, leading to frequent changes in
spare parts. As noted by Syed Abdul Haris et al. (2020), many of the assets purchased by the
government in the 1970s through the 1990s are now outdated but still remain in the Malaysian
Armed Forces (MAF) inventory.
Nevertheless, Malaysia has taken initiatives to develop local production in line with
the country’s specific needs. In recent years, Malaysia has made strides in reducing its reliance
on foreign military vehicle supplies by developing its own Armoured Vehicles (HMAV4 4x4).
These vehicles are equipped with advanced artillery, grenade, and mine blast functions. Mildef
International Technologies, specializing in providing automotive services for the defense industry,
has played a crucial role in resolving the issue of foreign supply of spare parts. The vehicles also
feature Remote Control Weapon Stations (RCWS), allowing them to engage in firefights while on
the move (Svalstedt, 2022).
However, as Former Prime Minister Ismail Sabri Yaakob and the former Ministry of
Defence have noted, the development primarily considers Malaysia’s unique environment, and
entering the international market may require additional time. The current development project has
already spanned four years and incurred costs of RM 16 million (Bernama, 2021).
While there’s no doubt that the Malaysian Armed Forces (ATM) need to invest in the latest
technology, the delays encountered in projects like the LCS highlight the importance of maintaining
and upgrading existing equipment. This is crucial to ensure their continued functionality until new
technology is delivered. Equipping ATM with advanced assets aligns with the national defense
policy founded on a perimeter deterrence strategy. Such an approach not only enhances defense
capabilities but also safeguards the nation’s interests and sovereignty.
Presently, the Ministry of Defence (MinDef) maintains a strong focus on Maintenance,

Repair, and Overhaul (MRO) for all assets. However, the adoption of Green Government
Procurement (GGP) was expanded to encompass all government agencies in 2017. The Ministry
of Defense (MinDef) is among the organizations mandating that separate ministries consider green
requirements when purchasing products falling under the GGP categories.
4.5 Budget
Due to its increasing economic significance, Malaysia has become one of the key
political players in Southeast Asia. Despite a reduction in defense funding during the 1997–1998
economic crisis, the nation remains committed to modernizing and strengthening its armed
forces. The discussion on defense spending revolves around whether Malaysia is allocating an
appropriate amount to safeguard its sovereignty. This is distinct from the findings of the Stockholm
International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) report, which noted a historic increase in global
military spending in 2021, surpassing US$2 trillion. The top spenders in this global context were
The United States, China, India, the United Kingdom, and Russia, collectively constituting 62%
of the total expenditure (SIPRI, 2021). The planning of defense budgets and the procurement of
weapons are conducted as part of broader budgeting processes involving various agencies and
ministries.
According to Rajamayagam, these budgeting processes are subject to equivalent controls

and screening procedures for financial accountability. However, the question of opportunity costs

Azlinda Yaacob
remains unanswered, and there is no apparent public mechanism for determining the adequacy of
defense expenditure or the allocation of a fair share of the national budget in the context of national
security. In terms of allocation Operating expenditure makes up the bulk of the annual defence
budget at about 70% to 80%, while the rest goes up to development expenditure. However, the
budget for assessments under development shows that annual relative spending is declining has
recommended a 2022 defence expenditure of MYR16.14 billion for the 2022 MiNDEF budget
(USD3.9 billion).The allocation represents a 1.8% increase over the original allocation in 2021 of
MYR15.86 billion.
Malaysia Military spending/Budget Data (2016-2022)

Year Billion USD % GDP
2022 3.9B 1.8%
2021 3.83B 1.06%
2020 3.81B 1.14%
2019 3.77B 1.03%
2018 3.45B 0.96%
2017 3.49B 1.10%
2016 4.17B 1.38%
Table 2: Malaysia Military spending/budget Data (2016-2022)

(Data Sources: World Bank)
Malaysian Defense Budget

6000 5680
4692.49 4545.96 4707.9 4607.24 4459.9
5000
3921.93 3871
4000 3500
3000
2000
1000
0
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
Year Linear (Year)
(DataFigure
Sources:
1:Malaysian
MalaysiaAnnual Budget
Military Plan) / Budget Data (2016 – 2019) USD $
spending
(Data
According to the graph Sources:
above, Malaysian
Malaysia's Annual Budget
military expenditure Plan)
was 1.38% of its gross domestic product
(GDP) in 2016 but decreased to 1.1% of GDP the following year, where it has remained for the past
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the graph above,
(2010 Malaysia’s
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reports that expenditure
Malaysia's was 1.38%
military arsenal consistsofof its gross
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the largest of GDP
exporters the following
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to Malaysia it has
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been for the past
France, few years.
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and contemporary weaponry, bolstering the army's status as one of the region's more formidable 1997.
(Shah, 2020). included the acquisition of Army Main Battle Tanks, Armoured Personnel
This modernization
The Malaysian government has been committed to strengthening naval security. Following the
completion of the New Generation Patrol Vessel program, the Royal Malaysian Navy initiated the
Second Generation Patrol Vessel program, aiming to acquire a batch of Littoral Mission Ships and
Multi-Role Support Ships (Abas, 2022). In addition, there is an ongoing program to enhance and extend
the service lives of previous ships, ensuring that the inventory remains equipped with the latest
Carriers, Infantry Fighting Vehicles, and contemporary weaponry, bolstering the army’s status as
one of the region’s more formidable forces (Shah, 2020).
The Malaysian government has been committed to strengthening naval security. Following
the completion of the New Generation Patrol Vessel program, the Royal Malaysian Navy initiated
the Second Generation Patrol Vessel program, aiming to acquire a batch of Littoral Mission Ships
and Multi-Role Support Ships (Abas, 2022). In addition, there is an ongoing program to enhance
and extend the service lives of previous ships, ensuring that the inventory remains equipped with
the latest technologies.
However, challenges have arisen in the completion of the Littoral Combat Ship (LCS)
project, both in terms of schedule and budget. The construction of these ships was intended to
bolster the country’s and the navy’s defenses. The project has been noted as the largest defense
budget in Malaysian history, with a total cost of RM 9 billion. According to the Public Accounts
Committee (PAC), despite the government’s expenditure of approximately RM 6.08 billion, not a
single ship has been completed (Parlimen Malaysia, 2020). Nonetheless, the government remains
committed to the project, viewing it as an asset essential to the nation’s sovereignty and its efforts
to address conventional security concerns.
According to Abdul Rahman (2021), historically, the Royal Malaysian Air Force (RMAF)
primarily sourced its acquisitions from the United States and Europe in the West. However, as
noted by David (1986), the United States’ restrictions on delivering ‘new technology’ to the region
prompted RMAF to explore imports from Russia and other unconventional suppliers. As a result,
RMAF now operates a unique fleet of aircraft originating from America, Europe, and Russia.
The Malaysian Armed Forces (MAF) play a crucial role in safeguarding the country’s air, sea,
and land defenses. In 2018, Malaysia’s military power ranked 44th out of 136 nations. However,
several challenges and circumstances contribute to the suboptimal logistical management of
soldiers, with the primary issue being insufficient budget allocation. To enhance MAF logistics
efficiency and implement green technologies, the government must consider increasing the
budget and formulating a strategic plan for research and development, encompassing both current
resources and future security needs.
Conclusion and Recommendation
In line with the Defence White Paper (DWP), the Malaysian Armed Forces (MAF)
recognizes the imperative of adapting to an ever-changing security environment. During the DWP
period, the MAF’s force size will remain constant, but a strategic shift involving repurposing
and re-prioritization will be undertaken to align with future requirements. The national defense
ecosystem encompasses various elements, including heightened awareness of the volatile security
landscape, increased collaboration among the MAF and other security agencies, and partnerships
with external entities.
In contemporary security considerations, the depletion of natural gas assumes significance

as a national security concern. Malaysia’s long-standing reliance on the oil and gas (O&G) industry
has multifaceted implications. Notably, a substantial portion of the state’s revenue is derived from
this sector. Several factors contribute to this dependency, including the expansion of Malaysia’s
economy relative to the O&G sector, periodic price shocks, and structural challenges within
the fossil fuel industry (ISEAS, 2022). Additionally, the unpredictable fiscal contribution of the

Azlinda Yaacob
O&G sector complicates matters further. Various supply, demand, and public policy variables,
such as interest rates, natural disasters, political instability, and OPEC decisions, influence oil
prices. Recent global experiences have demonstrated that unforeseen health and economic crises
can exacerbate this volatility. The inherent cyclical nature of oil price fluctuations exacerbates the
issue.
In the course of this research, the findings underscore the challenges Malaysia faces in
implementing green technology as a new strategy for future security. Overall, the Ministry of
Defence (MINDEF) continues to grapple with persistent issues, including budget constraints,
dependence as an end user, and difficulties in maintaining existing assets. Malaysia faces various
defense-related challenges, including its status as a third-tier country and an end buyer. As evidenced
by the inventory list, Malaysia retains older equipment, incurring significant maintenance and
repair costs. Yearly budget allocations remain constrained, making it challenging for MINDEF to
embark on new initiatives for the military’s future.
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Enhancing_Sustainable_Development

INDIA’S HYBRID WARFARE IN BALOCHISTAN: CHALLENGES AND WAY

FORWARD FOR PAKISTAN
Amna Khalid
PhD Candidate in International Relations at School of International Studies (SoIS), Universiti
Utara Malaysia
Bakri Mat
Associate Professor and Senior Research Fellow at Asian Institute of International Affairs &
Diplomacy - AIIAD, School of International Studies (SoIS), Universiti Utara Malaysia
Corresponding author: bakri@uum.edu.my
ABSTRACT
The 21st century has witnessed a significant transformation in the nature of military threats,
driven primarily by the escalating utilisation of non-kinetic strategies by adversaries to advance
their objectives. This paradigm shift is epitomised by the emergence of hybrid warfare, which
amalgamates both kinetic and non-kinetic instruments of warfare, with its overarching objective
being the erosion of the morale of the adversary as opposed to outright military victory. The
study aims to uncover India’s strategy against Pakistan through the lens of hybrid warfare.
The study is qualitative, using the library method to answer the research question of how India
has potentially deployed a hybrid warfare strategy against Balochistan. Following Pakistan’s
international claims of Indian interference in the Balochistan province, the 2016 arrest of Indian
Navy Officer Kulbhushan Yadav provided substantial evidence of India’s purported espionage
activities and support to insurgents in the area. The study posits that under the Modi government,
India has sought to robustly counter Pakistan’s growing influence in South Asia, particularly in the
backdrop of the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) and other regional partnerships with
China. In this strategic matrix, Balochistan emerges as a critical focal point, enabling India to
potentially disrupt China’s ambitions in Central Asia and Afghanistan by considering Balochistan
as a battleground for a proxy conflict. In the 21st century, military threats have evolved, notably
through the rise of hybrid warfare, which blends kinetic and non-kinetic strategies, emphasizing
undermining adversary morale. This research, adopting a qualitative approach via the library
method, explores India’s potential hybrid warfare strategy in Balochistan against Pakistan. After
Pakistan’s international claims of Indian interference in Balochistan, the 2016 arrest of Indian
Navy Officer Kulbhushan Yadav highlighted alleged Indian espionage and support to insurgents.
The study suggests that under the Modi government, India aims to counter Pakistan’s expanding
influence in South Asia, particularly against the backdrop of China-Pakistan collaborations like
the CPEC. Within this framework, Balochistan is crucial, possibly serving as India’s battleground
for a proxy war aimed at disrupting China’s Central Asian ambitions. To effectively safeguard
against external intrusions and the perils of hybrid warfare, it is imperative for Pakistan to bolster
its surveillance and intelligence capabilities for early detection of covert activities. Furthermore,
Pakistan should prioritise socio-economic advancement. This prioritisation should involve
initiatives in healthcare, education, and employment, with tribal leaders playing a critical role in
collaborating with the government to address internal challenges.
KEYWORDS: hybrid warfare, kinetic, non-kinetic warfare, Pakistan, Balochistan, India

India’s Hybrid Warfare in Balochistan: Challenges and Way Forward for
Pakistan
INTRODUCTION
Hybrid warfare is a multifaceted strategic approach characterised by the amalgamation

of both conventional and unconventional methods of warfare. This approach involves various
combinations of state and non-state actors working together to achieve a spectrum of objectives
encompassing not only political but also security, economic, and social dimensions (Dayspring,
2015). The determination of hybrid warfare is contingent upon several factors, including the
belligerent nature of the state, the presence of specific conditions, and the utilisation of non-
conventional means beyond the military sphere. Hybrid warfare is fundamentally oriented towards
realising strategic objectives, where states employ a range of tactics, tools, and techniques within
a hybrid threat environment to fulfil their goals.
India’s involvement in hybrid warfare with Pakistan traces its origins back to the 1971
conflict, during which India provided substantial support, funding, and training to the Mukti Bahini,
ultimately resulting in the separation of East Pakistan. Balochistan, the largest province of Pakistan
in terms of land area, shares borders with Iran’s Balochistan-Sistan province to the southwest, as
well as Afghanistan to the north and northwest. Its strategic significance lies in serving as a gateway
to the Middle East, Central Asia, and South Asia. Balochistan boasts a substantial coastline, rich
in untapped resources such as copper, coal, gold, uranium, gas, and oil (Iqbal, 2012). However,
internal complexities, vulnerabilities, and economic and political marginalisation have created
opportunities for external interference in the province. Pakistan has raised international concerns
about Indian interference in Balochistan, with explicit references made by Prime Minister Narendra
Modi in his Independence Day speech in 2016 and statements from National Security Advisor Ajit
Doval highlighting India’s intent to exploit these vulnerabilities.
China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), a project under the Belt and Road Initiative
(BRI), has become a grave concern for India. Since its inception in 2015, the Modi government has
intensified efforts to counter Pakistan comprehensively, including its growing influence in South
Asia through the CPEC. This strategic initiative not only bolstered Pakistan’s regional stature
through collaboration with China but also positioned Balochistan as a potential lever for India
to counter China’s influence in the Central Asian Republics and Afghanistan. The proximity of
Gwadar to the Chabahar Port further underscores India’s interest in limiting China’s reach. India’s
endeavours to counter China and assert itself as a South Asian hegemon while simultaneously
weakening Pakistan politically, socially, and economically are pivotal elements in India’s broader
strategic calculus aimed at expanding its influence and confronting its adversaries.
This study adopts a qualitative research approach, utilising library-based research methods
to elucidate the extent of India’s involvement in the internal affairs of Pakistan, with a specific focus
on the province of Balochistan. The primary objective of this research is to discern and analyse the
patterns and strategies employed by India in its engagement with Balochistan, aiming to influence
threat perceptions and garner support among the local population to undermine Pakistan’s security
and stability. The present research study exerts a significant positive influence by establishing a
seminal trend within the realm of academic inquiry. Prior to this investigation, the topic of Indian
hybrid warfare techniques directed towards Balochistan and Pakistan’s corresponding responses
had remained largely unexplored in scholarly discourse. The research endeavour at hand, therefore,
has assumed a pioneering role by offering an initial foray into this hitherto underexplored subject
matter. Consequently, it furnishes an essential foundation for subsequent in-depth investigations
that seek to delve further into the multifaceted dimensions of Indian involvement and the evolving
nature of warfare strategies in Balochistan.
GEOSTRATEGIC SIGNIFICANCE OF BALOCHISTAN
Balochistan is the largest province in terms of land area among the country’s four provinces
and boasts a strategic geographical location, sharing its borders with Iran’s Balochistan-Sistan
province to the southwest and Afghanistan to the north and northwest. Additionally, it serves as a
Amna Khalid
Bakri Mat
regional crossroads, bordered by the Middle East, Central Asia, and South West Asia. Balochistan’s
total land area encompasses a staggering 796,000 square kilometres, constituting 44% of Pakistan’s
territory (Congress, 2012). Despite its enormous size, the province has a very small population,
accounting for only 6% of the overall population of the country. The Baloch people make up
54.7% of the population, while Pashtuns make up 29.0%. Surprisingly, in comparison to Pakistan’s
other three provinces, Balochistan remains disproportionately impoverished and underdeveloped
(Group, 2006). The social structure of Balochistan is profoundly anchored in a tribal system, with
Sardars and Nawabs exercising authority and autonomy (Iqbal, 2012). Balochistan is a province
characterised by intriguing contrasts and complexity that necessitate deeper exploration due to its
unusual combination of resources and lack of development, as well as its distinct tribal system.
Balochistan’s history is complicated, stretching back to the British administration of

colonialism. Balochistan was divided into four princely states before its merger into Pakistan:
Makran, Lasbela, Kharan, and Kalat. At the start of the partition of Pakistan and India in 1947,
the British Balochistan ‘Shahi Jirga’ in partnership with the Quetta Municipality, unanimously
accepted and signed a resolution to annex Balochistan to Pakistan. While three of the princely
states acceded to Pakistan, Khan of Kalat adopted an alternative approach, proclaiming Kalat an
independent state at first and preferring diplomatic engagement with Pakistan instead of rapid
annexation. Subsequently, a pivotal meeting transpired between Quaid-e-Azam (the founder of
Pakistan) and the Khan of Kalat, resulting in the Khan’s decision to integrate Kalat into Pakistan in
1948. Notably, Makran became a district within the Balochistan province, with the exception of the
Gwadar area, spanning 800 square kilometres. The Gwadar area remained under the administration
of the Sultanate of Oman until its acquisition by Pakistan in September 1958. This territory was
subsequently incorporated into the province of Balochistan in 1977 (Ahmed, 2019).
Presently, Balochistan comprises six divisions and thirty districts, reflecting its dynamic
history of territorial expansion and integration into the broader political framework of Pakistan
(Khan et al., 2012). This historical evolution underscores the intricate and multifaceted process
through which Balochistan emerged as a constituent part of Pakistan.
Source: Baksh, 2021

Source: Baksh, 2021
Balochistan, occupying a distinctive strategic location, serves as a gateway to the Middle East, Central
Asia, and South Asia. With a coastline spanning 756 kilometres, the province is endowed with
substantial reserves of copper, coal, gold, uranium, gas, and oil. Its coastline remains largely
Pakistan
Balochistan, occupying a distinctive strategic location, serves as a gateway to the Middle

East, Central Asia, and South Asia. With a coastline spanning 756 kilometres, the province is
endowed with substantial reserves of copper, coal, gold, uranium, gas, and oil. Its coastline remains
largely undeveloped, while having enormous natural resources that are mostly untapped (Iqbal,
2012). Notably, Balochistan’s southern boundary meets the Arabian Sea, home to the strategically
significant port of Gwadar along the Makran Coast. Additionally, the province is strategically
situated at the mouth of the Strait of Hormuz. Rich natural resources, including the “Hillock of
Gold” in the Rickodek part of Chagi, housing the fourth-largest gold and copper deposit, further
underscore the province’s economic potential (Mazhar et al., 2012).
Balochistan occupies a pivotal position in the marine passage of the Indian Ocean,
strategically connecting Asia’s Eastern, Western, and Central divisions. The Indian Ocean has
already garnered immense global attention as a focal point for major sea trade routes. The province’s
significance is accentuated by its military routes, with crucial naval and air force stations located in
Gawadar to monitor potential military activities and exercise control over vital choke points in the
Strait of Hormuz and Persian Gulf, as well as overseeing trade routes through the Indian Ocean.
The province’s vast natural resources, combined with its geostrategic location, have attracted the
interest of regional and extra-regional actors (Javaid & Jahangir, 2015).
However, Balochistan grapples with internal conflicts and longstanding grievances

of its populace concerning its relationship with the government of Pakistan. These issues have
fluctuated over the years, evolving with changing political regimes. Despite various financial
and development projects, the Baloch people continue to face hardships, resulting in a protracted
struggle for autonomy, improved political representation, and effective governance. Given its
proximity to Iran and Afghanistan, any internal turmoil or issues directly impact neighbouring
nations, contributing to broader regional security concerns. Internal political vulnerabilities provide
concerns. Internal
opportunities forpolitical
countriesvulnerabilities provide
like India and opportunities
Afghanistan for countries
to intervene andlike India and Afghanistan
exacerbate the conflict
to intervene and exacerbate the conflict between the Baloch population
between the Baloch population and the Pakistani government (Hasan, 2016). and the Pakistani
India, government
particularly
(Hasan, 2016).
under the India, particularly
leadership of Narendraunder
Modi,thehasleadership of efforts
intensified Narendra Modi, has intensified
to undermine efforts to
Pakistan, especially
undermine Pakistan, especially following the commencement of the China-Pakistan
following the commencement of the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), which Economic Corridor
India
(CPEC), which India views as a threat to its national security. The complex interplay of geostrategic
views as a threat to its national security. The complex interplay of geostrategic importance, internal
importance, internal conflicts, and external interests shapes the ongoing challenges and dynamics in
conflicts, and external interests shapes the ongoing challenges and dynamics in Balochistan (Lie &
Balochistan (Lie & Perwita, 2019).
Perwita, 2019).
Source: Ahmed, 2015

Source: Ahmed, 2015
46
Hybrid Warfare: The Complexity of Modern Strategy
The Journal of Defence and Security
In the 21st century, the criteria and character of military threats have undergone a profound
transformation, primarily attributed to the escalating utilisation of non-kinetic strategies by adversarial
entities to advance their objectives. This shift is indicative of a complex landscape where both kinetic
Amna Khalid
Bakri Mat
HYBRID WARFARE: THE COMPLEXITY OF MODERN STRATEGY
In the 21st century, the criteria and character of military threats have undergone a
profound transformation, primarily attributed to the escalating utilisation of non-kinetic strategies
by adversarial entities to advance their objectives. This shift is indicative of a complex landscape
where both kinetic and non-kinetic methods of warfare challenge the ability of states to safeguard
their national security and territorial integrity. The concept of hybrid threats gained prominence
notably during the Hezbollah-Lebanon War of 2006 when Hezbollah achieved a degree of
tangible military success against the Israel Defence Forces. Hybrid threats include a wide range
of challenges that combine kinetic and non-kinetic elements, such as cyber warfare, information
warfare, asymmetric conflicts involving both state and non-state actors, piracy, resource security,
globalisation processes, and the proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMDs). According
to NATO’s strategy, as described in the Bi-Strategic Command Capstone Concept of 2010, hybrid
threats are enemies who use a combination of conventional and non-conventional tactics to achieve
their goals (Bachmann & Gunneriusson, 2015).
The concept of ‘Fourth Generation Warfare,’ advanced by military thinker William Lind,
is inextricably linked to hybrid warfare. Lind dates the origins of contemporary warfare to the
Westphalian Treaty of 1648, a watershed period in history that aided the creation of nation-states
and the rise of non-state entities. The Fourth Generation Warfare marks a significant departure from
the Westphalian paradigm as states lose their traditional monopoly over the conduct of warfare.
Frank Hoffman played a pivotal role as a military theorist who introduced the term ‘hybrid warfare,’
citing the Lebanon-Hezbollah War of 2006 as a prime example of hybrid warfare. Importantly,
hybrid warfare can be executed by both state and non-state actors, with multifaceted activities
within the hybrid threat spectrum potentially being conducted by distinct or integrated units
operating within the primary theatre of conflict to achieve synergistic effects. While a universally
accepted definition of hybrid warfare remains elusive, the definition proposed by Frank Hoffman
holds significant traction due to its nuanced portrayal of the concept (Deshpande, 2018). Hoffman
states:
“The convergence of warfare methodologies, the diversification of combatants, and the

utilisation of various technologies result in a diverse and intricate phenomenon known as hybrid
warfare. This type of warfare can be executed by both nation-states and various non-state entities.
Hybrid warfare encompasses a spectrum of warfare approaches, encompassing conventional
military capabilities, irregular tactics, and formations, acts of terrorism involving indiscriminate
violence and coercion, as well as criminal disorder. These multifaceted operations may be carried
out by separate units or even within the same unit, but they are generally orchestrated and
coordinated operationally and tactically within the primary battleground to achieve synergistic
outcomes (Hoffman, 2007).”
In contemporary times, achieving victory is not solely contingent upon the triumph of
one’s armed forces; rather, it hinges significantly on whose narrative prevails. Through covert
and clandestine activities, adversaries tactically exploit a state’s underlying social, political, and
economic vulnerabilities, systematically sowing seeds of discord and division that culminate in
tumultuous and often violent political transformations (Marks & Ucko, 2021). Consequently,
the formulation of hybrid warfare strategies entails a multifaceted process wherein a myriad of
elements come into play to shape and define these strategies.
activities, adversaries tactically exploit a state’s underlying social, political, and economic
vulnerabilities, systematically sowing seeds of discord and division that culminate in tumultuous and
India’s Hybrid
often Warfare
violent in Balochistan:
political Challenges
transformations and &
(Marks Way Forward
Ucko, for Consequently, the formulation of hybrid
2021).
Pakistan
warfare strategies entails a multifaceted process wherein a myriad of elements come into play to shape
and define these strategies.
Source:
Source: Pinker
Pinker &&Žilinčík,
Žilinčík, 2016
2016
One key element of hybrid warfare is the manipulation of information and propaganda to
destabilise local populations and spread baseless information, often seen in cases like India’s use
of fake propaganda against Pakistan. Covert operations, including espionage and subversion, are
another major component, pressuring target governments to take ill-advised actions and causing
disruption in their responses. Special Armed Forces (SAF) can be used to regulate certain situations,
particularly in smaller operations. Furthermore, the logistical and financial support of terrorist
organisations plays a crucial role, allowing states to carry out destabilising acts while preserving
plausible deniability. Furthermore, extremist groups, both ethnic and religious, are organised with
governmental support to cause political and social disorder. Economic pressure, such as poor
economic settlements and poverty, contributes to nation destabilisation, while manipulation of
democratic institutions can cause political upheaval and social unrest (Babar & Mirza, 2020).
Hybrid warfare is distinct from traditional warfare in its versatility and reliance on a range
of methods. It can involve state and non-state actors cooperating or acting independently, with the
ability to change strategy as needed. Definitions of the European Union (EU) emphasise states’
coordinated use of diplomacy, military action, economic measures, and technology to achieve
their goals. The state is the major actor in hybrid warfare, deciding overall strategy, yet achieving
success requires striking a balance between methods and state capabilities. While hybrid warfare
is a new idea, its practices have historical precedents, such as the deployment of hybrid warfare to
defeat Hezbollah during the 2006 Lebanon war and Russia’s tactics during the Crimean annexation.
States must build their own hybrid technology, foster cooperation, provide analytical support to
institutions, educate and train agencies, and construct organisational structures to effectively defeat
hybrid warfare. In a world with rising displacement and rebel groups, hybrid warfare has evolved
beyond traditional guerrilla tactics into a more complicated and impactful strategy (Caliskan &
Cramers, 2018).
In its relations with Pakistan, India has used hybrid warfare methods, notably in relation
to the situation in Balochistan. On the basis of credible evidence, India has used hybrid warfare
elements to incite unrest in Balochistan and destabilise Pakistan. This includes alleged support for

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Bakri Mat
separatist groups and giving Baloch nationalist leaders a platform to express their apprehensions
against Pakistan. India’s information warfare techniques have also been blamed for spreading
propaganda and misinformation to create unrest in Balochistan via media outlets and social media.
Concerns have been expressed concerning the potential use of hybrid warfare techniques to
undermine Pakistan’s stability and territorial integrity.
INDIA’S STRATEGIC INTERESTS IN BALOCHISTAN
India’s engagement in Pakistan’s domestic affairs is a historical phenomenon with origins

that can be traced back to crucial events in the region’s history. Notably, India’s involvement in
hybrid warfare and its impact on Pakistan can be traced back to the 1971 conflict, when India
actively sponsored, funded, and trained the Mukti Bahini, a step that helped East Pakistan’s
independence (Arain, 2021). India’s historical inclination for extending influence into neighbouring
territories is well documented, with instances of espionage systems dating back to the era of
Kautilya, when gathering information about neighbouring countries and potential adversaries
was a strategic imperative (Saad & Wenxiang, 2020). However, the geostrategic significance of
Pakistan in the South Asian region has made it an attractive partner for China, further contributing
to the complexity of regional dynamics. China’s overtures toward Pakistan extend beyond mere
economic interests, as it seeks to counterbalance India’s growing influence in South Asia. As China
emerges as a prominent Asian superpower, it is inclined to expand its sphere of influence, and
countering India’s regional dominance is a central objective (Ghiasy, 2021).
Moreover, the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), a flagship project under the
Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), has heightened India’s concerns. Since the initiation of the CPEC
in 2015, the Indian government, under the leadership of Prime Minister Modi, has intensified
efforts to counter Pakistan’s growing stature in South Asia, particularly within the framework of
the CPEC. This ambitious project not only bolsters Pakistan’s economy but also strengthens its
regional standing through collaboration with China. However, India perceives an opportunity to
disrupt China’s access to Central Asian Republics and Afghanistan via Balochistan. The strategic
location of Gwadar, in proximity to the Chabahar Port, offers India a means to limit China’s
influence.
Beyond India’s geostrategic and economic interests, its approach appears to align with
the principles of Kautilya, wherein immediate neighbours are viewed as potential adversaries
and extended neighbours as potential allies. Indian Defence Minister AK Antony, in a 2013 press
conference, expressed India’s apprehension over Pakistan’s ceding of control of the Gwadar
port to China, underscoring the strategic significance of this development (Afp, 2013). India’s
continued engagement in Balochistan, especially following the Mumbai attacks, has been a subject
of scrutiny and is frequently justified by the activities of the Research and Analysis Wing (RAW),
India’s external intelligence agency (Khetran, 2017). These multifaceted dynamics underscores
the intricate interplay of geostrategic imperatives and regional power dynamics shaping India’s
involvement in Pakistan.
India’s Hybrid Warfare in Balochistan
Sun Tzu, a renowned expert on warfare, articulated that the highest form of excellence in
conflict lies not in the conquest of one’s adversaries but in subduing the enemy’s resistance without
resorting to direct confrontation (Giles, 2002). In the context of Balochistan, a province riddled
Pakistan
with internal complexities, vulnerabilities, and political-economic alienation, external actors

have found fertile ground for interference. The Government of Pakistan has vigorously raised
international concerns, highlighting India’s alleged involvement in Balochistan. Key indicators of
India’s strategic intent emerged during Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s Independence Day speech
on 15th August, 2016, where he made explicit references to Balochistan. Additionally, National
Security Advisor Ajit Doval’s articulations within the context of Pakistan further underscored
India’s interest in leveraging the province’s vulnerabilities for its strategic advantage. Notably, in a
statement dating back to 2014, Ajit Doval emphasised India’s familiarity with strategic subtleties,
ruling out the possibility of nuclear conflict with Pakistan and hinting at a more nuanced approach
(Khetran, 2017). This prompts the question: why has India chosen to play the Balochistan card?
Officials contend that India’s strategic calculus revolves around disrupting the China-Pakistan
Economic Corridor (CPEC), a project of immense geostrategic importance (Willasey-Wilsey,
2016).
It is crucial to grasp that hybrid warfare’s objective is not merely the defeat of the
adversary on the battlefield but the erosion of the adversary’s morale and resilience. Within this
context, Pakistan faces a pressing imperative to comprehend the multifaceted threats posed by
hybrid warfare, especially as it grapples with destabilisation efforts that challenge its stability and
prospects for the future.
A recent event highlighting this challenge was the exposure of India’s espionage activities
in Islamabad. The discovery led to the expulsion of eight members of the Indian High Commission.
Their activities were exposed, revealing their alleged involvement in fomenting unrest in Pakistan
on behalf of their intelligence bureau. Subsequent revelations from Pakistan’s Foreign Office
suggested their connections with Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) and claims of support for Baloch
separatists and the TTP to destabilize Pakistan from across the border in Afghanistan. Afghanistan
is believed to serve as a facilitator for the Balochistan insurgency, with India allegedly utilising
Afghan soil to channel funds, deploy troops, and supply weapons to insurgent groups. Notably, the
case of Indian Navy Officer Kulbhushan Yadav stands as a concrete example of India’s involvement
in Balochistan (Khetran, 2017). More recently, a tragic incident occurred on 30th September 2023,
when a suicide bomber targeted a mosque in Mastung, Balochistan, claiming 59 lives. Pakistan’s
Interior Minister, Sarfaraz Bugti, attributed the attack to the Indian intelligence agency, RAW,
reiterating longstanding Pakistani claims of Indian subversion within its borders, particularly in
Balochistan (Ahmed, 2023).
This evolving scenario illuminates the intricate maze of hybrid warfare, with Balochistan
epitomising the geopolitical crosshairs. The subsequent section will delve into the specific hybrid
warfare strategies India is alleged to have deployed in Balochistan.
Support to Insurgents and Separatist Organisations
India’s involvement in Pakistan’s internal affairs is not a recent phenomenon but rather
traces its roots back to the 1971 conflict when India supported, funded, and trained the Mukti
Bahini, which contributed to the separation of East Pakistan. Although condemned by then-
President Pervez Musharraf, who decried Indian interference, it was revealed that India was
actively supporting and financing the Baloch insurgency. Former Balochistan Chief Minister Jan
Muhammad Yousaf stated in 2004 that India’s intelligence agency, the Research and Analysis Wing
(RAW), was providing training to terrorists in Balochistan. Pakistan’s intelligence agencies have

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Bakri Mat
alleged that Indian consulates along the Balochistan border in Kandahar are supplying funds and
weapons to the Balochistan Liberation Army and the Balochistan Liberation Front (Group, 2006).
India’s decision to grant citizenship to self-exiled Baloch separatist leader Brahmdagh Bugti raises
questions about its significant interest in supporting separatist elements. India’s involvement in
funding, training, assisting, and financing terrorist activities in Balochistan has been portrayed
as support for freedom fighters (Shah, 2017). Baloch Liberation Army leader Brahmdagh Bugti
openly acknowledged India’s support and funds and called upon India to provide moral, financial,
military, and diplomatic support to the Baloch nationalist agenda. His words reflect a desire for
India to champion Balochistan’s cause on the global stage, similar to Pakistan’s efforts concerning
the Kashmir issue (Javaid & Jahangir, 2015).
Moreover, India’s interest in Balochistan can be attributed to the province’s abundant

natural and mineral resources, along with its strategic significance. India has been accused of
supporting insurgencies in Balochistan and exploiting differences and hostilities between the state
and Baloch tribal leaders. India’s aim appears to be to deprive Pakistan of access to these valuable
resources, thus weakening its economy. Economic factors play a pivotal role in hybrid conflicts,
as weakening an adversary’s economy and isolating the state are key objectives. However, such
political and economic instability could inflict significant damage on Pakistan (Ismail, 2014).
Propaganda Through the Formation of Hind-Baloch Forum
India has also resorted to propaganda tactics to bolster Baloch separatists, creating the
Hind-Baloch forum in 2017 with the goal of spreading anti-Pakistan propaganda. The forum aims
to support and promote anti-Pakistani elements, portraying the Baloch people as oppressed by
the government on the international stage. The inaugural seminar titled “how India can play a
role in the freedom struggle of Balochistan” indicates India’s strategic use of propaganda tools to
destabilise Balochistan further (Ahmed, 2018).
Ethnic and Sectarian Violence
Hybrid warfare encompasses colour revolutions, with the objective of overthrowing a

state’s leadership and seizing power. Under the Modi-Doval doctrine, vulnerable Baloch youth
are being radicalised through propaganda. Ethno-fascist terrorists from groups like the Baloch
Liberation Army and Baloch Liberation Front have targeted Sindhis, Punjabis, and Pashtuns,
exacerbating ethnic tensions. India is accused of arming and financing ethnic conflicts to fuel
unrest and instability in Balochistan, which directly affects Pakistan’s overall stability (Ali, 2022).
Additionally, sectarian violence and attacks on the Shia Hazara community in Quetta have fueled
controversy. According to Senior Intelligence Officer Ali Haider Durrani, these sectarian acts of
terrorism aim to disrupt Pakistan’s peace through Balochistan (Kakar, 2017).
Propaganda Tactics
India has employed digital tools to extend its influence among the Baloch people, launching
a mobile app and a website through All India Radio to reach a broader audience. Radio programs
in the Baloch language, broadcast since 1974, have become more interactive (Agencies, 2018).
India’s information warfare also targeted the flow of information by briefly halting newspaper
deliveries across Balochistan, allegedly under the auspices of RAW, causing concern among local
print media owners. Numerous anti-Pakistan campaigns proliferate through social media platforms,
Pakistan
disseminating false information about Balochistan, fostering anti-state sentiments, and supporting
ethnic and sectarian conflicts. These campaigns include anonymous profiles and individuals from
both Balochistan and other parts of the country, operating under the banner of the Free Balochistan
Movement (Ahmad, 2022).
Recently, the emergence of an anti-Reko Diq campaign can be attributed to the tactics of
Fifth-generation Warfare. This campaign involved various elements, including the utilisation of
Indian electronic and digital media in collaboration with militant groups. The fundamental purpose
of their campaign was to portray the development project as an act of resource exploitation. Shortly
after the signing of an agreement between a Pakistani company and a Canadian corporation, there
was a large increase in Twitter activity, primarily from India. These tweets were intended for the
Canadian corporation, pleading with them to leave Balochistan immediately. A press announcement
from Baloch Raji Aajoi Sangar, an umbrella organisation representing numerous Baloch sub-ethnic
nationalist organisations, accompanied this coordinated effort. This story was bolstered by Indian
news outlets and social media pages, which complemented Twitter’s continuous anti-Pakistan
operations.
These covert operations were revealed in an EU DisinfoLab investigation, which identified

a disinformation campaign aimed at damaging Pakistan’s international image and stirring internal
unrest. This policy aimed to deteriorate civil-military relations and build distrust between the state
and its citizenry. According to the EU DisinfoLab 2020 research, 750 Indian-backed websites have
been actively propagating anti-Pakistan propaganda for more than 15 years. These websites were
active in over 115 countries around the world, with the primary goal of spreading anti-Pakistan
sentiment (Kuchay, 2020).
Furthermore, the investigation uncovered a pattern of making and circulating fake news
via ANI, which has operations in Brussels, Geneva, and around the world. This strategy effectively
obscures local media networks in a staggering 97 countries, undermining nations in conflict with
India. This proliferation of online content is a growing concern. Similar activities can be observed
in a few other channels and digital newspapers, such as The Balochistan Post, which operates from
Germany and are actively involved in amplifying anti-state propaganda of banned organisations.
They manipulate facts to a certain extent, fabricating issues under the guise of addressing relative
deprivation.
A notable instance of this disinformation campaign occurred during the Panjgur and
Noshki attacks. Various Twitter accounts operated from India, under Baloch identities, played
a significant role in spreading and magnifying fake news about these incidents. In addition to
social media, prominent Indian newspapers like Hindustan Times published editorials and articles
that glorified insurgents and their attacks. Following a suicide attack carried out by a female
member of the Majeed Brigade, a banned terrorist organization associated with the Balochistan
Liberation Army (BLA), foreign-funded newspapers and digital media outlets produced literature
that glorified her actions. Hashtags like ‘Shari the legend’ started trending on Twitter, garnering
thousands of tweets from across the border. Recent incidents, such as the arrest of two alleged
female suicide bombers named Noor Jahan and Habiba, further underscore this issue. According
to the Balochistan government spokesperson, both women were recruits of the BLA and were
tasked with targeting a vehicle carrying Chinese citizens in another suicide attack. The recruitment
of Baloch women into such organizations is a result of external forces exploiting the sentiments
of Baloch youth through anti-state narratives facilitated by literature, false reporting, and digital

Amna Khalid
Bakri Mat
media. This manipulation acts as a catalyst for the erosion of national cohesion and integration
(Rakhshani, 2022).
Kulbhushan Yadav Episode
India’s involvement in Balochistan’s unrest remained disputed until the arrest of Indian
spy and RAW agent Kulbhushan Yadav in 2016 in Balochistan provided concrete evidence of
India’s subversive activities. Yadav confessed to being sent by RAW to finance and fund separatists
and militants in Balochistan, incite sectarian violence, and execute acts of espionage and terrorism
to sabotage national security. His admission shed light on India’s hybrid warfare efforts in
Balochistan (Shah & Ehsan, 2022).
Menace of Pashtoon Tahaffuz Movement (PTM)
External powers, including India, supporting Baloch sub-nationalists have also lent their
support to the Pashtoon Tahffuz Movement (PTM) as part of a collective agenda against Pakistan.
The PTM, perceived to be backed and funded by RAW and Afghanistan’s National Directorate
of Security (NDS), aims to exacerbate ethnic Pashtun conflict as a means to divide Pakistan
and foment unrest. The movement gained prominence after the 2018 murder of Naqeebullah
Mehsud and was accused of having links to terrorist organizations like Lashkar-e-Jhangvi and the
Islamic State of Iraq and Syria. Operating primarily through social media, the PTM has spread its
influence across Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Balochistan. Some locals in Balochistan and Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa view the PTM and its leader, Manzoor Pashteen, as agents of external forces seeking
to tarnish Pakistan’s image (Sevea, 2018).
Role of NGO’s
Geopolitical commentator Andrew Korybko (2017) has cautioned Pakistan to be wary of

developments in Balochistan and Gilgit-Baltistan, given the escalating hybrid warfare scenario. A
shift toward exclusive nationalism, driven by external NGOs and informal actors, could imperil
the patriotism of residents in both areas. Korybko stressed that foreign entities are actively pushing
the populations of Balochistan and Gilgit-Baltistan against the state. Given the developing hybrid
danger, Pakistan must take proactive measures to avoid additional internal unrest (Arshad, 2017).
POLICY OPTIONS TO COUNTER THE CHALLENGES
The current scenario in Balochistan is extremely alarming for Pakistan’s sovereignty.

This province has historically been a focus point for external parties wanting to exercise influence
due to its vast energy and mineral resources. However, the growing frustrations and weaknesses
within Balochistan have made the scenario ripe for exploitation against Pakistan. This has
resulted in a hybrid warfare environment and a plethora of various threats to Pakistan’s stability
(Achakzai, 2021). Internal insecurity, restricted prospects for the indigenous population, and the
growth of sectarian violence are all elements that have contributed to the strife in Balochistan.
These, among various causes, have contributed to the province’s complicated web of issues. It
is worth emphasising that, in the face of these obstacles, development projects in Balochistan
have been started with the goal of providing critical services and opportunities to its people. The
struggle in Balochistan, however, is not a one-sided affair. It is worsened further by the entrenched
views of local Sardars and Nawabs, who frequently display rigidity and a sense of entitlement.
Pakistan
These established power structures, which are difficult to change, have exacerbated the dispute
and hampered efforts to resolve it. As a result, comprehending the numerous factors at work in
Balochistan is critical to addressing the challenges and ensuring Pakistan’s sovereignty.
A comprehensive approach is required to handle every challenge posed by hybrid warfare

and promote stability in Balochistan. It is critical to develop a strong education policy focused
on raising the province’s literacy rate. Balochistan’s youth are vulnerable to external propaganda
operations, necessitating close monitoring of propaganda institutions and organisations.
Furthermore, organising programmes and seminars to educate the youth about hybrid warfare
dangers helps strengthen their resistance to external influence. Second, the China-Pakistan Economic
Corridor (CPEC) provides the potential to create jobs, notably for the Baloch population. This not
only promotes economic progress but also increases a sense of ownership and engagement in the
Balochistan development. Third, addressing the current Sardari and Nawab system in Balochistan
is critical. This established system fosters brutality and marginalisation, particularly among women
who are subjected to it. Efforts to deconstruct these systems can result in the emancipation and
empowerment of marginalised people. Fourth, a peaceful resolution to the missing persons issue
is essential because it not only alleviates the suffering of afflicted families but also creates a sense
of justice and reconciliation. Furthermore, the provision of essential services such as healthcare,
education, and employment opportunities is fundamental in improving the overall socio-economic
landscape of Balochistan. Lastly, a re-evaluation of the role and involvement of the Pakistan Army
in Balochistan is necessary to address the disparities and promote inclusivity among the Baloch
populace. A balanced approach that combines security with socio-economic development can
contribute significantly to stability and progress.
CONCLUSION
Pakistan has consistently experienced Indian engagement in various insurgent activities,

an issue that has been widely recognised. Despite Pakistan’s international appeals against Indian
aggression within its borders, it remains evident that a significant portion of militant and terrorist
activities within the country are instigated by Indian agencies. This persistent Indian threat has
caused significant hurdles to Pakistan’s development and its overall prosperity. Furthermore, India’s
strategy to engage with Pakistan has evolved by refraining from outright military interventions.
Instead, India has pursued a diversified strategy that contributes to its unconventional warfare.
This hybrid warfare strategy not only destroys Pakistan’s internal peace but also provides the
framework for India to undermine Pakistan’s state stability. However, it is critical to recognise
that these hybrid warfare strategies offer significant problems to Pakistan’s security services and
government institutions. The dynamic and destructive character of hybrid warfare makes it difficult
to grasp and effectively counter. The use of guerilla tactics by India has posed a particularly serious
challenge to Pakistan’s security infrastructure.
However, India’s participation in Balochistan demonstrates its use of hybrid threats.

India’s historical use of espionage systems, tracing back to the era of Kautilya, underscores its
longstanding interest in gathering intelligence about neighbouring countries and adversaries. In the
case of India’s hybrid warfare strategy in Balochistan, the internal complexities, vulnerabilities,
and political and economic alienation experienced by the Balochistan populace have created fertile
ground for external interference in the province. Pakistan’s government has raised international
concerns regarding Indian interference in Balochistan, with Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s
Independence Day speech in 2016 and the statements of National Security Advisor Ajit Doval
providing clear indications of India’s strategic intent to exploit these vulnerabilities.
Amna Khalid
Bakri Mat
India’s apprehension primarily centres on Pakistan’s potential to surpass India’s influence,

particularly in conjunction with China, through the CPEC. This is of paramount concern to India,
given its aspirations for regional hegemony within South Asia. Consequently, the Modi government
has adopted a multi-pronged approach aimed at countering Pakistan on multiple fronts, including
undermining its growing position in South Asia, facilitated by the CPEC and various regional
projects conducted in collaboration with China since its initiation in 2015. Moreover, through its
involvement in Balochistan, India seeks to limit China’s reach into the Central Asian Republics
and Afghanistan, leveraging the strategic location of Gwadar and its proximity to the Chabahar
Port. India’s investments in the development of the Chabahar port, in partnership with Iran, further
exemplify its efforts to curb China’s influence. Recognising India’s interference and involvement
in Balochistan is crucial for Pakistan in the context of hybrid warfare threats. India’s strategies
encompass supporting ethnic groups, providing funds and weaponry to insurgents, and facilitating
non-state terror organisations with the objective of destabilising Pakistan’s internal security—a
formidable challenge to Pakistan’s national security. Thus, comprehending the dynamics of hybrid
warfare and effectively countering these threats assumes paramount importance for Pakistan’s
security and stability in the region.
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THE CHALLENGES OF TURKIYE’S TO BE THE MEMBER OF THE EUROPEAN

UNION
Maj Nur ‘Izzati Madzrib

Malaysian Defence Intelligence Organisation
Email: izzati.madzrib@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Turkiye and the European Union (EU) diplomatic relationship started in 1959 when Turkiye filed
for associate membership in the European Economic Community (EEC). Subsequently, Turkiye
applied for EU membership in 1987. However, Turkiye was only admitted to the EU Customs
Union in 1996, not as a member of the EU. Nevertheless, Turkiye’s aspirations to become an
EU member persisted until the EU launched negotiation talks in 2005 under the EU’s Acquis
Communautaire legal framework. However, it was an extremely long and slow procedure until the
EU suspended the negotiation process in 2016. This paper will examine the criteria for joining the
European Union and identify why Turkiye’s negotiation process stagnated in 2016. Aside from that,
this article will also analyze the polemics and political Islamophobia concerns that significantly
impact Turkiye’s entry into the European Union.
Keywords: Islamophobia, Turkiye, European Union (EU)
INTRODUCTION
The Republic of Turkiye is situated between the Middle East and Europe. It has operated
both as a barrier and a bridge connecting the two regions throughout its history. Turkiye is one
of the region’s largest countries in size and population, with a geographical area bigger than any
European country. Turkiye’s capital city is Ankara. Turkish is the official language, and Islam is
the state religion. Turks are the majority ethnic group in Turkiye, accounting for 75% of the total
population, followed by Kurds (20%) and other ethnic minorities (5%). Turkiye’s government is
a constitutional republic headed by a unitary presidential president, and its current President is
Recep Tayyip Erdogan.
Turkiye was known around the world for its Ottoman Empire history. The Ottoman Empire
was one of the world’s most powerful and long-lived Islamic empires. It governed significant
parts of the Middle East, Eastern Europe, and North Africa for almost 600 years, and Western
Europeans often saw them as a threat as a consequence. In 1299, caliph Uthman bin Affan founded
the Ottoman Empire. However, the Ottoman Empire collapsed in 1918, during the start of World
War I, and the Sultan’s title was removed. Turkiye became a republic on 29 October 1923 under the
leadership of President Mustafa Kamal Atatürk. Turkiye has become a secular Islamic state under
the Atatürk leadership, differentiating it from the other Islamic countries of the Middle East.
BACKGROUND OF TURKIYE – EU RELATIONSHIP
Relations between Turkiye and the EU date back to the late 1950s when Turkiye applied
to join the European Economic Community (EEC) as an associate member. The Ankara Agreement
of 1963 had secured Turkiye membership in the EEC. The accession of Turkiye to this economic
union is a significant step forward for the country’s integration with the European bloc.

The Challenges of Turkiye’s to be The Member of The European Union
To further improve its economic cooperation with the EU, Turkiye joined the EU Customs
Union in 1996, eliminating trade restrictions, including tariffs and non-tariff barriers (Alessandri
et al., 2018). With the exception of Iceland and Norway, this deal brought Turkiye and the EU
closer together economically than any other non-member country had before and opened up the 65
million-consumer Turkish market to EU businesses. A custom union with Europe was a symbol for
the Turks of their membership in Europe, and hence a step towards the EU integration.
However, during the European Enlargement Programme in 1997 (The Luxembourg

Summit), EU excluded Turkiye as a candidate country. The Turks were outraged by this decision
because weaker democracies and economies such as Slovakia, Bulgaria, and Romania were
selected. The decision of EU to incorporate the Greek side of Cyprus, in flagrant contravention of
international treaties governing the foundation of the Cyprus Republic, was the ultimate humiliation
perpetrated on the Turks.
After more than 55 years of ups and downs in relationship between Turkiye and Europe,
the EU’s decision to launch formal accession negotiations with Turkiye in 2005 marked a significant
milestone in the relationship. However, due to human rights and the rule of law concerns, the
Turkiye - EU negotiation process was put on hold in 2016 and has remained stalled to this day.
With the deteriorating ties between the EU and Turkiye, it became obvious that something needed
to be done to improve the situation. Apart from the fact that Turkiye was drifting away from the
EU, a number of significant foreign policy and security issues on the alliance’s agenda were also
stagnating.
TURKIYE’S INSUFFICIENT CRITERIA
The stance of EU MPs and European politicians in the discourse debating Turkiye’s
membership into the EU can be divided into two factors. The first factor is to take a stand based
on the framework of the agreement that has been agreed between Turkiye and the EU, namely
Turkiye’s ability to meet all the terms and conditions of the Acquis Communautaire. While the
second factor refers to groups that tend to play on racist sentiments, xenophobia and Islamophobia.
The arguments put forward are more about finding differences as well as hostility. This sort of
animosity and sentiment is often played out by populist and far-right political party organizations
that are very influential in stirring protests against Turkiye’s EU membership.
THE COPENHAGEN CRITERIA
Let us begin by looking at the first factor in the argument for Turkiye’s accession into EU,
which is the Copenhagen criteria. The Copenhagen criteria, often known as the accession criteria,
are the basic requirements that all applicant nations must meet in order to become a member. It
is a roadmap for defining accession eligibility, as well as a checklist of political and economic
standards for candidate member nations (Dudley, 2020). There are three primary requirements
that must be fulfilled by the candidate countries, which are as follows: (1) Political Criteria: The
candidate nation must have a stable democracy, the rule of law, human rights, and minorities
must be respected and protected, (2) Economic Criteria: A functioning market economy and the
ability to deal with competition and market forces in the EU, (3) Administrative and organizational
competence to successfully execute the acquis, as well as the willingness to accept membership
duties.
After fulfilling all three requirements, the candidate nation must get the endorsement of
the EU Council, the Commission, and the European Parliament. According to their constitutional
criteria, its membership to the EU must also be signed and ratified by all current EU nations. This
means that new members must not only fulfill the requirements set but also obtain the approval of
all current EU members.
During the more than 10 years of discussions between Turkiye and the EU since 2005,
Turkiye has only opened 16 out of 35 chapters and closed only one chapter, which is Science
and Research under the EU legislative framework known as Acquis Communautaire (Saparudin
& Kamarudin, 2019). It is an extremely slow procedure when compared to other EU member
countries, such as Croatia, which took 8 years, Spain 7 years, and Poland, which took 5 years.
Even more frustrating for Turkiye, the country’s never-ending internal issues hampered its EU
membership process by failing to fulfill European norms, principles, and admission conditions
outlined in the Acquis Communautaire. Moreover, Turkiye’s stance in the reform plan, notably in
the areas of judicial and legal reform, human rights and freedoms, as well as foreign and security
policy, has caused the European Union’s leaders’ trust in the country has diminish.
DEMOCRACY, RULE OF LAW AND HUMAN RIGHT ISSUES
On July 15, 2016, the Turkish Armed Forces, dubbed as Peace Home Council, attempted
a coup against President Erdogan’s administration. The violent coup attempt in July 2016 was
a watershed moment in Turkiye’s political history. Soldiers and tanks came to the streets, and
explosions could be heard in Ankara and Istanbul. The coup, however, failed because it was
effectively halted by the Turkish people, as well as the military and police that are loyal to the
government. Nonetheless, the overall cost of victory was high as 241 people were killed and
2,194 were wounded. This military coup was linked to Fethullah Gülen’s movement. Mr Gülen’s
objective was to shift Turkiye away from secularism and more towards Islamic religion and morals
rather than politics (BBC News, 2016).
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personnel, pilots,Inpolice
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and Security 61 own
rectors was eliminated. Erdogan will now appoint candidates personally.

closed down (BBC News, 2016). In another measure, universities' ability to elect their own
rectors was eliminated.
The Challenges Erdogan
of Turkiye’s will
to be The nowofappoint
Member candidates
The European Union personally.
Figure2:2:Thousands
Figure Thousands have
have been
been detained
detained on
on suspicion
suspicionof
ofhaving
havingclose
closeties
tiestoto
the Gülen
the Gülen movement
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As a resultAs of
a result of the attempted
the attempted military
military coup,coup, a constitutional
a constitutional referendum on
referendum on replacing
replacing
Turkiye’s parliamentary system with a stronger president was conducted on April 16, 2017.
Turkiye'sThe
parliamentary
ruling Justice system with a stronger
and Development president
Party (AKP) was
and the conducted
Nationalist on April
Movement 16,(MHP)
Party 2017.
suggested 18 reforms. The yes vote campaign won 51.3 percent of the vote,
The ruling Justice and Development Party (AKP) and the Nationalist Movement Party (MHP) while the no vote
won 48.7 percent, allowing President Recep Tayyip Erdogan to assume complete control of the
suggested 18 reforms.
government (TheThe yes vote
Guardian, campaign won 51.3 percent of the vote, while the no vote
2017).
The Prime Minister’s office was eliminated as a consequence of its acceptance, and
the current parliamentary form of government was replaced with an executive presidency and a
presidential system. The president has the authority to make decrees, proclaim states of emergency,
and appoint ministries and other governmental5 officials. It is also possible that Erdogan will
continue in power in the NATO member state until 2029. (Tattersall & Solaker, 2017).
Many have viewed the results of the people’s referendum on April 16 as bolstering
President Erdogan’s ‘grip on power’ in Turkish politics and as the beginning of a one-man rule or
autocratic leadership (Saparudin & Kamarudin, 2019). This scenario had strained Turkiye’s ties
with the European Union, which accused Erdogan of using the coup attempt to crush the opposition.
This lawsuit has also caused the Turkiye-EU accession negotiations to stagnate till today. Turkiye’s
ties with the United States also worsened, as Washington refused to extradite Gulen. The Turkish
government’s actions have negatively affected Erdogan’s legitimacy and commitment to uphold
the rule of law, media freedom, and human rights.
THE ISLAMOPHOBIA ISSUES
In this chapter, we will examine the second important challenge facing Turkiye’s - EU
accession, which is Islamophobia problems. According to the Oxford dictionary, Islamophobia can
be defined as the nature of fear, hatred and prejudice against Islam and Muslims. This phenomenon
is also defined by Ali et al. (2011) as follows:
“Exaggerated fear, hatred, and hostility toward Islam and Muslims that is perpetuated by negative
stereotypes resulting in bias, discrimination and the marginalization and exclusion of Muslims
from social, political and civic life.”
Many EU and European politicians are Islamophobic and use hate, racism, and
xenophobia to their advantage. The arguments presented are primarily concerned with finding
areas of disagreement as well as hatred. This approach is prominent in many European nations,
particularly in the context of the debate over Turkiye’s membership in the EU. Populist and far-
right political party groups are considered as having a large influence in mobilizing resistance
to Turkiye’s accession to the EU. The Europe of Freedom and Direct Democracy Group, the
Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats in the European Parliament, and the Alliance
of Liberals and Democrats for Europe are among the political groupings that have been vocal in
their opposition to Turkiye’s membership. Geert Wilders, a Dutch member of parliament (MP)
known for his anti-Muslim stance, has been outspoken in his opposition to Muslim migration to
the Netherlands and Europe. He states:
“Islamic countries like Turkiye are not part of Europe. European values such as freedom,
democracy and human rights are not in line with Islamic teachings. Europeans do not welcome you
(Turks)” (PVVpers, 2015).
According to James Carver, a European MP from the UK Independent Party (UKIP),

Turkiye exploited the refugee issue as a stepping stone to enter the EU (UKIP MEPs, 2016).
Guenther Oettinger, the EU Commissioner for Budget and Human Resources, claimed that Turkiye
would not be able to join the EU in this decade or the next decade (RT, 2015). Bill Etherridge, a
UKIP European MP, argued that Turkiye posed a serious threat to the EU (UKIP MEPs, 2015).
Norbert Hofer, Austria’s 2016 presidential candidate from the Freedom Party of Austria, threatened
that if the EU accepted Turkiye as a member, Austria would leave the bloc. Hofer also demanded
that the negotiations on Turkiye’s – EU membership be halted (Sputnik, 2016).
Former German chancellor Angela Merkel actively voiced her disapproval of Turkiye’s
accession discourse long before she took power in 2005, advocating Turkiye for a ‘privilege
partnership’ rather than EU membership (Reuters, 2015). When Merkel paid a working visit to
President Ahmet Necdet Sezer in September 2011, Merkel stated that “We don’t want the full
membership of Turkiye, but we don’t want to lose Turkiye as an important country”(Deutsche
Welle, 2006).
Figure
Figure3:
3:Former
Former German
German Chancellor,
Chancellor, Angela Merkel (left)
Angela Merkel (left) and
and Geert
GeertWilders
Wilders
Former French Prime Minister Nicholas Sarkozy, as well as Nigel Farage (a British
MP and former EU MP) and other UKIP leaders, opposed to Turkiye’s inclusion due to the
geographical reason of Turkiye having only seven or nine percent of its territory in continental
Former
Europe French Prime Minister
(Truthvspropaganda, Nicholas
2008). Austrian Sarkozy,Christian
Councillor as well Kern
as Nigel
and Farage
Austrian(aDefense
British MP
Minister Hans-Peter Doskozil both said that the Turkish membership negotiations were merely
and former EU MP)
a “diplomatic and
fiction” other UKIP
(Saparudin leaders, 2019).
& Kamarudin, opposed to Le
Marine Turkiye's
Pen, the inclusion due ofto the
far-right leader
France’s National
geographical reason ofFront, statedhaving
Turkiye Turkiyeonly
threatened
seventhe
or EU
ninebypercent
exploiting the territory
of its refugee situation to
in continental
ease the EU’s membership process, as well as Turkiye’s inability to protect human rights and
Europe (Truthvspropaganda, 2008). Austrian Councillor Christian Kern and Austrian Defense
Minister Hans-Peter Doskozil both said that the Turkish membership negotiations were merely
a "diplomatic fiction" (Saparudin & Kamarudin, 2019). Marine Le Pen, the far-right leader of
to ease the EU's membership process, as well as Turkiye's inability to protect human rights and
justice, particularly after the coup attempt (Yildiz, 2018). Danial Hannan, a British politician,
emphasized the complaint against Turkiye for practising iron nails, anti-western fanaticism,
and religious bigotry. Such
justice, particularly a country
after the is not(Yildiz,
coup attempt an ally2018).
to theDanial
EU (Dan Hannan,
Hannan, 2009).
a British According
politician,
emphasized the complaint against Turkiye for practising iron nails, anti-western
to Akşit et al. (2010), some European politicians believe that Turkiye's admission would fanaticism, and clash
religious bigotry. Such a country is not an ally to the EU (Dan Hannan, 2009). According to Akşit
civilizations between
et al. (2010), Islam and
some European the West.
politicians believe that Turkiye’s admission would clash civilizations
between Islam and the West.
Figure 4: Norbert Hofer (left) and Christian Kern (middle)

Figure 4: Norbert Hofer (left) and Christian Kern (middle)
and Hans-Peter Doskozil
and Hans-Peter Doskozil
These anti-Turkish and Islamophobic protest voices are dominant in the EU parliament
and among Europeans. The growth of far-right groups, which have fuelled racism and anti-Islamic
sentiments, has influenced the Turkish-EU membership debate. The Brexit phenomenon perfectly
illustrates translating the far-right group’s influence, which drove the United Kingdom to exit
the EU bloc. Far-right organizations frequently 8 spread misinformation claiming that Turkish
membership would dominate the EU and intensify Islamization in Europe. This sentiment has
intimidated the European people in the EU bloc (Saparudin & Kamarudin, 2019).
Islamophobia is a severe problem in Europe, posing a serious challenge to social

integration, democratization, and global peace. Examining the narrative of Islamophobia, the
common knowledge of this issue became recognized following the 9/11 attack when the peak of
anger and prejudice towards Muslims could no longer be contained. Without valid evidence or
proof, the world blames Islam for being the root of all bloodshed, terrorism, and radicalization.
The Charlie Hebdo case (Petrikowski, 2022) and the killings in Nice, France (History, 2016)
(BBC News, 2020) have reignited the discussion in Europe about Islam and Muslims. In addition,
threats and explosions organized by the extreme group, ISIS in Brussels, France, and Germany
(Cruickshank, 2017), have fuelled Islamophobia among Europeans. To make matters worse, the
Syrian refugee crisis in Europe has become the focus of a rhetorical discussion about Muslims
“dominating” Europe.
Turkiye’s accession to the EU is now viewed as an increasingly difficult and complex

process. This is based on a survey done by the Economic Development Foundation, a Turkish think
tank, to determine the main challenges to Turkiye’s EU membership. According to the IKV survey,
61% of the problems were due to ‘cultural and religious differences,’ 41% were due to objections
from EU member states, and 21% were attributed to Europeans’ prejudices and perceptions of
Turkiye (Ceran et al., 2016). He emphasized that issues affecting the image of Islam and the
Muslim-majority population had a significant impact on Turkiye’s journey to joining the union.
While the Eurobarometer, a perception study of European countries about Turkiye’s membership
proposal, discovered such a high rejection by the European community. Even though the general
public is not directly involved in the formulation of EU policies, EU decisions are made within
what the European civil community recognizes.
Most recently, Brexit was seen as a strong call by the majority of British who are
increasingly rejecting the influx of foreigners and pro-integration and pro-multicultural groups of
democratic political leaders due to a game of racist sentiment and Islamophobia blown up by far-
right groups. In the United States, Donald Trump’s victory heightened the white supremacy issues
anti-Muslim and anti-immigrant prejudice as a result of his political clout, and he is seen to have
influenced the majority of Americans. In the Netherlands, several Turkish election candidates have
received death threats in reaction to the anti-Muslim and anti-immigrant sentiment that dominated
European elections in 2019 (Gurbuz, 2019).
CONCLUSION
The journey of Turkiye - EU diplomacy is increasingly complicated due to various factors and
incidents, particularly in the negative perception of Islam by the majority of European society and
political leaders. The decision of the EU Parliament to freeze the Turkish membership negotiations
on 22 November 2016 is seen to have slowed down the membership process and will certainly
take a long time for Turkiye in its mission to join the bloc. The weight to this barrier is not simply
because of Turkiye’s failure to meet the pre-requisites of the Copenhagen Criteria alone, but is also
linked to the public perception of Turkiye as an ‘Islamic power’ that has the potential to influence
the political landscape in Europe. This perception is deeply troubling the EU, which wants to
maintain its European values and norms it has been inherited for so long. Although it appears that
Turkiye will not join the EU in the near future, internal political stability must be secured first in
order to ensure a good rule of law, peace and democracy for its nation. The Turkish government
should also offer the finest example of a fair and transparent Islamic administration; only then can
the issue of Islamophobia progressively disappear, and the negotiation dialog may commence in
the future.
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Turkiye’s Accession to the EU. Center for European Studies, Middle East Technical University.
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Perceptions_on_Turkiye_s_Accession_to_the_EU
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Deutsche Welle. (2006, October 5). Merkel Heads to Turkiye for First Time as Chancellor. Retrieved
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Ballots. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2017/apr/16/Turkiye-referendum-
recep-tayyip-erdogan-votes-presidential-powers
Gürbüz, Ş. N. (2019, May 16). Turkish politicians receive death threats ahead of EP elections.
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death-threats-ahead-of-ep-elections
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https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/2016-nice-terrorist-attacks
Petrikowski, N. P. (2022, January 1). Charlie Hebdo Shooting. Retrieved from https://www.
britannica.com/event/Charlie-Hebdo-shooting
PVVpers. (2015, December 4). Geert Wilders tells Turks: Turkiye not welcome in Europe [Youtube
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www.reuters.com/article/us-europe-migrants-germany-Turkiye-idUSKCN0S12RD20151007
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tr/download/article-file/565099

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY: REPERCUSSIONS AND ADAPTION IN THE
MALAYSIAN ARMED FORCES
Lt Cdr Nur Alfa Ernie binti Masdan RMN

Staff Officer 2 Doctrine (Maritime Logistic)
Email: alfaernie@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The Fourth Industrial Revolution and the artificial intelligence underpinning it are bringing about
fundamental shifts in how we live, work, and interact with one another as citizens. Some reports
recommend that national governments and the MAF adopt their very own AI strategy to safeguard
and care for their inhabitants during the period of technological transition. There is a need to create
all-encompassing training and educational opportunities to cultivate an appropriate level of trust
in AI-powered systems. Also, it is necessary to develop an export policy for artificial intelligence
systems that encourages interoperability with allies while protecting crucial technologies. Last
but not least, there is a dire need to address the ethical challenges that are associated with this
emerging technology.
Keywords: Applications, Chatter Bots, Simulation, Robotics, Cybersecurity
INTRODUCTION
Artificial intelligence is a technology that can be used in a variety of fields, including

electricity, computers and internal combustion engines. AI will improve productivity in a wide
range of industries. These applications have the potential to cause economic growth and disruption
on a scale comparable to that of an earlier industrial revolution. AI is a branch of computer science
that deals with the development of programs that can think for themselves. AI seeks to improve
the computer’s performance in solving complex problems. AI is increasingly being used in web
applications, which has led to significant advances in the field. Today, AI is used in a wide range of
applications, including in the military. At all levels of command and military operations, AI is used
to support decision-making, e.g., in assessing the readiness, reliability and capabilities of armed
forces, as well as in complex mission planning and integrating data from different sources. AI
research also addresses the difficulties associated with supporting such decision-making in rapidly
changing situations. The use of this technology by the military opens up a whole new world of
possibilities.
AI’s exaggeration frequently distorts our understanding of the benefits it presents and
the obstacles it poses in applying it from scale to the battlefield. AI is the ability of a computer
system to perform activities that require human intelligence. It is a technological enabler, not
a revolutionary weapon system that works with alone, which will eventually result in a “sky-
net” catastrophe (Luis & Moncayo, n.d.). Technology is a fantastic enabler in war, allowing for
a paradigm shift in how we think about fighting it, according to Korteling et al., (2021). AI has
now surpassed human intelligence in limited task selection. Artificial General Intelligence and
Artificial Superintelligence, in which a machine’s cognitive ability exceeds that of a human in any
given task, require additional research (Luis & Moncayo, n.d.). However, the military is close to
realizing the diversity of benefits that AI may offer.

Artificial Intelligence in The Twenty-First Century: Repercussions and
Adaption in The Malaysian Armed Forces
Beginnings and Recent History
During World War II Alan Turing cracked the encryption of the German Enigma
machine, and in 1940 the use of AI in the military began. Deciphering the “Enigma” code was
the main focus of Turing’s work at Bletchley Park during World War II. The Enigma was a type
of encryption machine used by the German military to send messages in a secure manner. Turing
and codebreaker Gordon Welchman developed the Bombe, a machine that helped codebreakers
significantly reduce their workload (Imperial War Museum, 2018). In 1950, Turing claimed that
computer programs can be taught to think like humans, and he developed the “Turing Test” to
determine whether or not a computer is intelligent. This test was developed to determine whether
a machine can think or not. A human interviewer interacts with both humans and machines during
the test to determine who is a human and who is a machine (Pannu & Student, 2008). In 1956, Dr
John McCarthy proposed a two-month investigation into artificial intelligence. His preferred term
was ‘computational rationality’, but he decided against it because it would have prevented him
from working on ‘analogue cybernetic devices’ (Stuart Russell & Norrig, 1996). Dr McCarthy
had no idea what he was unleashing on the world when he coined the term AI. The term ‘artificial
intelligence’ has an eerie ring to it and evokes pseudo-scientific speculation in popular culture.
In 1958, the United States Department of Defence established the Advanced Research Projects
Agency (ARPA) to promote research and development of military and industrial strategies. In
1960, ARPA began training computers to simulate human thought in order to fulfil its mission
APPLICATIONS OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
AI applications are the result of the fusion of cutting-edge research in the fields of computer
science and robotics. The goal is to develop intelligent machines that are able to perform difficult
tasks on their own. AI can be used in any field that requires intelligent analysis, precision and
automation. Heavy industry and aerospace, finance, computing, aviation, swarm intelligence, toys
and games, weather forecasting, transportation, medicine and telecommunications are just some
of the areas where AI has found application. Intelligent capabilities such as pattern recognition,
artificial creativity, natural language processing, computer vision, diagnostics, robotics, game
theory, non-linear control, chatterbots, virtual reality and image processing, to name a few, enable
these AI applications (Anyanwu, 2011). Among the AI applications that have been carried out
using AI techniques are:
Language Comprehension. One of the many applications of AI in the military is language

comprehension. This includes reading and responding to natural language as well as translating
between spoken and written language and between natural languages. The process involves a
number of sub-processes, including speech recognition, semantic information processing (also
known as computational linguistics), question answering, information retrieval and language
translation
Adaptive and Learning Systems. AI in the military is used for adaptive and learning
systems such as cybernetics and concept formation. Cybernetics and concept formation are
two sides of the same coin. Cybernetics refers to the ability to modify behaviour based on past
experience, while concept formation refers to the ability to construct general rules about the world
based on such experience.
Solving Problems. AI can also be used to solve problems. They are able to accurately
represent a problem, develop a strategy to solve it and determine when additional knowledge

is needed and where it can be obtained. Problems have been solved using a variety of methods,
including inference (Resolution-Based Theorem Proving, Plausible Inference and Inductive
Inference), interactive problem solving, automatic program writing and heuristic search.
Observation. Next, AI lends itself to observation. The ability to compare a perceived

situation with an internal model that represents the perceiving organism’s “knowledge of the
world” in order to interpret it. Pattern recognition and scene analysis are two types of analysis
that produce a structured set of relationships between entities in a scene. AI is installed on airline
aircraft to monitor atmospheric conditions and system status. The autopilot can be activated once
a target course has been set. In weather forecasting, neural networks are used to predict weather
conditions. A neural network is fed historical data, which it then uses to understand and predict
weather patterns.
Modelling. Another AI application is modelling. The ability to construct an internal

representation and a set of transformation rules that can be used to predict the actions and
relationships of a group of objects or entities that exist in the real world. The representation problem
for problem-solving systems, modelling natural systems (economic, sociological, ecological,
biological, etc.) and modelling the Hobot world are all examples of modelling processes (perceptual
and functional representations). The representation problem for problem-solving systems was
originally formulated as a challenge for problem-solving systems).
Robots. AI application is also very prominent in robotic applications. A robot is able to

traverse different types of terrain and manipulate different types of objects, in addition to the features
mentioned above. These include exploration, transport and navigation, industrial automation (e.g.,
process control, assembly tasks and executive tasks), protection, other activities (e.g., agriculture,
fishing, mining, sanitation, construction, etc.), the military and domestic work.
Games. AI application is used widely for game applications. Adopting a formal set of
game rules and translating them into a representation or structure that allows the use of problem-
solving and learning skills to achieve a level of performance that is considered satisfactory. Some
of the first attempts to mass produce locally oriented AI for education or entertainment were made
in the 1990s. Tamagotchis and Giga Pets, the internet and Furby, the first robot made available to
the public, were examples of how the digital revolution eased people into a life where they have to
interact with a variety of forms of AI.
Heavy Industry and Space Exploration. The combination of robotics and cybernetics
with AI expert systems has taken robotics and cybernetics to new heights. In the manufacture
of automobiles, machine tools, computer crisps and almost all other high-tech processes, an
entire manufacturing process is now fully automated, controlled and maintained by a computer
system. This is also the case with almost all other high-tech processes. They are entrusted with
dangerous tasks, such as handling radioactive material. Robot pilots are responsible for carrying
out complicated maneuvers for unmanned space vehicles. As a result of the rapid technological
advancements in the fields of disruptive innovation and Deep Learning, significant advances in AI
and Machine Learning are anticipated to make it possible for superpowers to realize their ambitions
and dominate their respective autonomous technology fields in the coming decades. Vladimir Putin
has been quoted as saying, “Whoever becomes a leader in AI will be a ruler of the globe” (Vincent,
2017). The United States ‘Third Offset Strategy’ aspires to enhance ‘Inner Machine Learning
Systems, human-machine fighting forces, and network-enabled semi-autonomous weapons. At the
same time, China has declared its intention to lead the world in AI by the year 2030, transitioning
from informative to smart warfare (Luis & Moncayo, n.d.). According to Johnson (2020). The
strategic impact of military AI is not unique or exclusive to this technology. The impact of AI
on the military’s strategy is not singular and exclusive. However, the convergence of conflicting
multi-faceted technological assumptions with enhanced conventional capabilities results in both
positive and negative effects of AI. By enhancing national retaliation capabilities, a new generation
of conventional weapons boosted by AI can serve to stabilize international strategic connections.
Strengthening both early warning and command and control will achieve the objective. Although
AI is inherently multi-dimensional, this development has the potential to contribute to the
stabilization of international strategic ties.
APPLICATIONS IN THE MILITARY
It is possible that AI will have an impact on land, sea, air, space and information, as well
as on all levels of military conflict (political, strategic, operational and tactical (Svenmarck et al.,
2018). Currently, the most common applications of AI in the military include autonomous weapons
and weapon targeting systems, surveillance, cybersecurity, homeland security, logistics and
autonomous vehicles (Ozdemir, 2019). In terms of national defence, AI has great potential. Artificial
intelligence is likely to be used by the military in the same way as computers and electricity. AI is
expected to impact military strategy, operations, logistics, personnel and training. Some military
AI applications, such as lethal autonomous weapons systems and AI in nuclear operations, could
have catastrophic consequences. During the first and second Industrial Revolutions, the scope and
scale of destruction that could be wrought with Industrial Age weapons increased significantly.
Mechanization enabled an increase in destructive power, leading to the deadly trench warfare that
characterized the First World War. One example of the influence of mechanization is the machine
gun. Radio communications made it possible to coordinate operations over long distances, which
in turn enabled rapid advances such as the Blitzkrieg during the Great War II. The transition from
the Bronze Age to the Atomic Age occurred during World War II when the bombings of Hiroshima
and Nagasaki demonstrated the extremely destructive potential of nuclear weapons.
Policymakers recognized the gravity of nuclear weapons and the serious threat they posed
- and continue to pose - to civilization. The impact of AI on warfare cannot be characterized by a
single technology such as nuclear weapons, but by a multitude of changes brought about by the
widespread use of general-purpose technologies. This contrasts with the impact that the Industrial
Revolution had on the world at the time. As a result of industrialization, the physical scope and
scale of combat operations increased, enabling armed forces to field larger and more destructive
forces capable of moving further and faster, unleashing more firepower and operating in a wider
range of areas. This allowed for an expansion of the physical reach and scope of combat. The
field of artificial intelligence (AI) is currently undergoing a cognitive revolution, and the hard
part is figuring out how this revolution will affect the field of warfare (Scharre, 2019). The main
military applications where AI will make significant progress in the coming years are the following
(Aihints.com, 2022):
Cybersecurity. Cyber-attacks on military systems can result in the loss of important

military data as well as damage to the systems themselves. On the other hand, systems equipped
with AI protect computers, data, programs and networks from unauthorized access. Web security
systems supported by AI can also record patterns of cyber-attacks and develop counter-attack tools
in response to these patterns.
Combat Systems. Defense forces in several countries are integrating AI into weapons
and other warfare systems deployed on space, air, sea and land platforms. The use of artificial
intelligence in these systems has led to more efficient warfare systems that rely less on human
input. It has also improved the performance and synergy of warfare systems and requires less
maintenance. AI has the potential to equip autonomous weapons with the ability to conduct
cooperative attacks
Transportation and Logistics. In the military, AI will soon play a crucial role in logistics
and support. Ammunition, weapons, troops and supplies must be transported for a military
operation to be successful. The use of AI in the transport sector has the potential to cut costs and
reduce the amount of manual work performed by humans. It gives military fleets the ability to
detect anomalies and predict component failures in real-time.
Target Recognition. AI strategies have the potential to improve the accuracy of target
detection in highly complex combat environments. A comprehensive understanding of potential
operational areas can be gained by a nation’s armed forces through the study of intelligence,
documents and reports, and other information. It is possible to improve the ability of target
detection systems to locate their targets by integrating AI into these systems. AI-powered target
recognition systems are capable of performing a variety of tasks, including analyzing mission
approaches, predicting enemy behavior, compiling environmental conditions and developing
mitigation strategies. Based on the information gathered, machine learning is used to pursue
objectives. AI can be used in war zones to provide surgical support remotely. In critical conditions,
AI-powered systems can effectively analyses a soldier’s medical data and help with diagnosis. An
excellent example of this is the partnership between the research team at IBM and the United States
Veterans Administration to develop the Electronic Medical Record Analyzer, a clinical reasoning
prototype (EMRA). Using machine learning strategies, this technology has been developed to
process patients’ medical records and identify and classify the various health problems they have.
Monitoring of Threats and Safety of Military Personnel. Intelligence, Surveillance and

Reconnaissance (ISR) is an operation essential for conducting situational awareness and threat
surveillance. Processing data in support of a variety of military operations is achieved through
these operations. It is possible to send unmanned systems used for ISR missions on a predetermined
path. When equipped with AI, these systems can assist military personnel in monitoring threats and
improve situational awareness. Drones can be used in conjunction with AI to patrol border areas,
detect threats and relay threat information to the appropriate response teams. Consequently, the use
of AI in warfare improves the security of the military.
Managing Large Amounts of Data. AI helps in processing large amounts of data quickly
to extract useful information. AI is helpful in gathering and summarizing data that comes from
multiple sources, as well as aggregating important data from multiple data sets. This type of
analysis enables military personnel to identify patterns and draw conclusions.
Combat Training and Simulation. The fields of computer science, systems engineering
and software engineering are used in the creation of computer models for simulation and training
purposes. These models are used to familiarize soldiers with the various combat systems used
in military operations. Simulation and training applications are receiving more funding than
ever before. The US Army is conducting warfare analysis and has launched sensor simulation
programmers. SAIC Orbital ATK and Leidos are among the companies the US Navy has brought
in to support its programmers.

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IMPLEMENTATION IN THE MALAYSIAN ARMED

FORCES
The MAF is making great strides towards making the armed forces the most technologically
advanced in the world. The MAF will be transformed by the use of artificial intelligence-based
technology. Years of preparation have led to the government’s support and aspiration to modernise
the military through AI. A culture of cutting-edge innovation and collaboration has been cultivated
thanks to bold initiatives, earmarked budgets, policy changes and indigenous support. In the areas
of data, logistics, surveillance, weapons and much more, this collaboration between the public
and private sectors, research organisations, academic institutions, start-ups and entrepreneurs has
helped develop many innovative AI-based tech products. The integration of autonomy into weapon
systems, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance) and data management could be an
important aid in preventing terrorism, implementing counter-terrorism measures and protecting
troops. In reality, AI in defence has what it takes to fundamentally change conflict and warfare. The
implementation of AI in the MAF, the benefits of AI in combat and, last but not least, the risks of
AI are discussed in this chapter.
Benefits of Artificial Intelligence in Warfare
AI refers to a relatively young field of computer science that attempts to simulate

human cognition. John McCarthy is considered to be the person who first used the term “artificial
intelligence” in 1950. He stated that any aspect of learning or any other feature of intelligence
can be so perfectly characterized theoretically that a computer can be designed to reproduce it.
The goal is to figure out how to make computers talk, how to construct abstractions and concepts,
how to solve problems currently reserved for humans, and how to make computers themselves
better. The ability of a computer program to learn and think is what is meant by the term AI.
Anything in which a computer programme performs a task that we would normally equate with
human intelligence can be considered an example of AI. Humans, in their quest for sophistication,
have constantly developed and perfected numerous technologies. This is to ensure that they can
develop products that make it easier for them to perform numerous techniques. Since the dawn of
time, humans have engaged in a number of tasks to ensure that they have a chance in the various
situations in which they have appeared.There are a variety of uses for artificial intelligence in the
field of military research and development. It has been discovered that there are many benefits
associated with using artificial intelligence.
Speed of Decision-Making
The advantage of greater speed is most often mentioned when talking about the use of
AI in combat. Deadlines are not necessarily determined by the decision-making processes that
AI can speed up. There are certainly scenarios where one can imagine such an advantage, but it
is important to keep in mind that this is the case. The time it takes to move people or equipment,
or even the time it takes for explosives to get to their destination, often determines how long the
time span will be. In such situations, it is important not to exaggerate the benefits of speeding up
the decision-making process. It is also important to assess whether extending decision-making
deadlines will introduce new risks or exacerbate existing risks. The outcome of the conflict is
uncertain. It is possible that safety precautions and robustness will be sacrificed in favour of speed
if this is seen as the most important factor in the decision to develop autonomous weapon systems.
The result would be that the weapons would be less safe and reliable than they might otherwise be.
Another danger is that time becomes the most important factor when choosing between competing
autonomous weapon systems to develop. Despite these drawbacks, the increased speed that AI can

provide has clear military value, as evidenced by the large number of specialists who are committed
to it. This advantage comes in the form of improved reaction time. MAF is using Human Resource
Management Information Systems (HRMIS) to help them with decision-making by looking online
at personal details and a list of posts. For example, they can also nominate personnel to attend the
course by looking at the personnel course data. All officers can make an immediate decision to
approve or not any leave application by personnel since all officers can access the system.
Use of Big Data
When the term “Big Data” is used, it often refers to data that is either too large to fit in
a computer’s memory, generated too quickly for a single computer to process, or in a variety of
forms and formats. Because of these three challenges, it can be difficult for humans to make sense
of the data, although robots and artificial intelligence tend to perform better when provided with
more data. The sheer volume of data generated by a multitude of sensors is beyond the ability of
any one person or group of people to analyses. This is because so many sensors are involved in the
process. It is expected that the practical use of AI will continue to grow in popularity as a direct
result of the ever-increasing amount of data currently available all over the world. The use of big
data is related to ICT. The importance of ICT has also been recognised and formally enforced by
the Malaysian National Defence Policy (Malaysian Ministry of Defence, 2010), which stated that
ICT usage is mandatory within the MAF as a means of achieving information dominance and that
this usage must occur at all levels of the MAF. In reality, the Fourth Dimension MAF (4DMAF)
plan proposed a capability-based approach that focuses on leveraging ICT to improve information
operations efficiency (Manuri, 2015). To ensure that the Malaysian Ministry of Defence has
systematic and competitive human resource management, the MAF began deploying the Human
Resources Management Information System (HRMIS) in August 2013 (Malaysian MINDEF
Internal Audit, 2017).
Better Vision and Targeting
Image processing is one of the areas where the effects of too much data are felt most
acutely. The number of cameras used for surveillance purposes has increased significantly, both
locally and internationally, and this trend is expected to continue. There is no denying that it
is necessary and quite justifiable to automate the process of reviewing incoming videos and
images. This justification is supported by the fact that an enormous amount of data is generated.
As technology develops, these systems will become increasingly capable of distinguishing
components that are invisible to the human eye, and in ever greater numbers. New developments
in facial recognition could also be used to speed up the identification of known terrorists or
militants. In addition, facial expression analysis could help the military and other members of the
security forces identify potentially dangerous situations and better manage social interactions as
they work towards keeping the peace. In line with efforts to improve how MAF protects national
security, infrastructure, and assets, MAF has leveraged facial recognition technology to enable
duty personnel to review recorded video footage to identify persons of interest after an event. It is
also used in critical infrastructure.
Ocean patrols covering a large area are also more challenging for the RMN, which has
limited resources. When circumnavigating the EEZ, which is 220 nautical miles long, the use of
Eyes in the Sky is now a little more helpful in saving time. The use of AI can actually be helpful,
especially in obtaining a particular distant view. An example of this would be the use of high-
powered drones that can cover a wider area and be operated in a time-saving manner, as well as
existing assets such as the RMAF’s BeachCraft.
Manpower Issues Mitigation
There are a number of unmet needs or latent requirements within the military, but there are
simply not enough personnel to meet those needs. There is no doubt that the capacity of the armed
forces needs to be maintained, but there is also a gap between the demand for certain activities
and the people available to perform these tasks, which is often discussed. Some examples of these
tasks are image analysis and foreign language translation. These are the tasks that arise from the
exponential increase in the amount of data that needs to be processed. Fortunately for us, these are
tasks in which artificial intelligence can increasingly support humans. Artificial intelligence is also
important for supporting robots on the battlefield, enabling armed forces to maintain or expand
their warfighting capabilities without using more humans. This is made possible by the use of
robotic support through AI. By using AI in conjunction with robotic assistance, this goal will be
achievable.
Cyber Defence Enhancements
As cyber warfare is a current and evolving military threat and is situated in the same
digital universe as AI, it is only normal that there will be interactions between the two. As antivirus
companies advance in the cat-and-mouse game between attackers and defenders, these intersections
have already become more apparent. Antivirus software has traditionally relied on the detection
of “telltale static tags”. These are essentially invisible graphics that stay in place and indicate that
the code being examined is malicious. However, using static tags to identify malware is no longer
sufficient, as malicious actors have developed methods to create malware with fewer tags. This
means that the use of static tags alone is no longer sufficient to identify malware. The MAF has
established a Cyber Warfare Signals Regiment (99 RSPS) in an effort to increase its capacity and
preparation in the face of cybersecurity challenges and cyber threats from multiple areas. MAF are
monitored constantly to counter any threat that could disrupt the MAF defence communication
network. MAF always monitors and steps up its cyber security through its Defence Cyber and
Electromagnetic Division (BSEP) and the Cyber Defence Operations Center (CDOC) but also
protect the country’s strategic defence communications network.
Enhancements in Accuracy
Machines are fundamentally capable of achieving a higher degree of precision and

accuracy than humans. For example, it is possible to use machines to produce electronic transistors,
which are the building blocks of computers, even though the width of these transistors is only a
few nanometers. Humans tend to think in terms of approximate estimates or round numbers, while
machines are able to think in terms of floating-point precision, which easily encompasses 32 or 64
bits for each number represented. Machine precision also extends to AI. This is not to say that it is
conceivable to know with absolute certainty the number expressed with 64-bit precision, but the
precision is theoretically there to ensure accuracy. Because of the inherent properties of machines,
such as the ability to maintain consistency from one machine to another over time, machines can
be more precise than humans, but humans have more individual differences but get tired or bored.
The new Su-30MKM simulator centre for jet fighter operations training has been revealed
by the Royal Malaysian Air Force (RMAF) at its base in Gong Kedak. Because multiple simulated
aeroplanes can be used to conduct the training mission at once, an actual environment can be
closely modelled. High-level fidelity in recreating an aircraft flight model is possible while training
RMAF pilots, weapons sensor officers, and ground crew. Additionally, the new technology will
increase the RMAF’s reputation as the region’s most technologically advanced air force.
The Future Soldier System (FSS) soldier upgrading initiative in Malaysia, which began
in 2009, is in line with NATO’s five capability areas: sustainability, mobility, survivability,
lethality, and C4I (command, control, communications, computers, intelligence). The FSS is a
“fully integrated infantryman combat system” developed by Sapura Thales Electronics (STE), a
partnership between Sapura and French multinational Thales. It includes most of a modern soldier’s
load out, including Personal Protection Equipment (PPE, such as Oakley goggles, Kevlar helmets,
and vests), and Special Operations Preferred Modification rifle attachments. FSS was adopted as
a component of the Network Centric Operations (NCO) program of the Malaysian Army, which
enables better synergy and collaboration over large distances.
The MAF has established a Cyber Warfare Signals Regiment (99 RSPS) in an effort to
increase its capacity and preparation in the face of cybersecurity challenges and cyber threats from
multiple areas. MAF are monitored constantly to counter any threat that could disrupt the MAF
defence communication network. MAF always monitors and steps up its cyber security through its
Defence Cyber and Electromagnetic Division (BSEP) and the Cyber Defence Operations Center
(CDOC) but also protect the country’s strategic defence communications network.
Enhancements in Accuracy
Machines are fundamentally capable of achieving a higher degree of precision and

accuracy than humans. For example, it is possible to use machines to produce electronic transistors,
which are the building blocks of computers, even though the width of these transistors is only a
few nanometers. Humans tend to think in terms of approximate estimates or round numbers, while
machines are able to think in terms of floating-point precision, which easily encompasses 32 or 64
bits for each number represented. Machine precision also extends to AI. This is not to say that it is
conceivable to know with absolute certainty the number expressed with 64-bit precision, but the
precision is theoretically there to ensure accuracy. Because of the inherent properties of machines,
such as the ability to maintain consistency from one machine to another over time, machines can
be more precise than humans, but humans have more individual differences and get tired or bored.
The new Su-30MKM simulator centre for jet fighter operations training has been revealed
by the Royal Malaysian Air Force (RMAF) at its base in Gong Kedak. Because multiple simulated
aeroplanes can be used to conduct the training mission at once, an actual environment can be
closely modelled. High-level fidelity in recreating an aircraft flight model is possible while training
RMAF pilots, weapons sensor officers, and ground crew. Additionally, the new technology will
increase the RMAF’s reputation as the region’s most technologically advanced air force.
The Future Soldier System (FSS) soldier upgrading initiative in Malaysia, which began
in 2009, is in line with NATO’s five capability areas: sustainability, mobility, survivability,
lethality, and C4I (command, control, communications, computers, intelligence). The FSS is a
“fully integrated infantryman combat system” developed by Sapura Thales Electronics (STE), a
partnership between Sapura and French multinational Thales. It includes most of a modern soldier’s
loadout, including Personal Protection Equipment (PPE, such as Oakley goggles, Kevlar helmets,
and vests), and Special Operations Preferred Modification rifle attachments. FSS was adopted as
a component of the Network Centric Operations (NCO) program of the Malaysian Army, which
enables better synergy and collaboration over large distances.
Thales develops capabilities and puts them into practice. These consist of communication
and sensor solutions as well as command and weapon engagement systems such as TACTICOS.
Thales offers a variety of ground and air warfare solutions, including naval combat systems and
sensors. These system solutions support other systems from US and European manufacturers and
perform surveillance, command and control, combat and communication tasks. The level of risk
mitigation for cyber-attacks in current and future operations is determined by data analysis based
on AI and human factors.
Labor and Cost Reduction
AI and robots are increasingly taking over tasks that used to require the expertise of a
human worker. This trend can be observed in all sectors of the economy. This development makes
it possible for a single person to perform tasks that would previously have required a team of
humans, and it also makes it possible for certain tasks to be performed entirely by machines. The
military, which is a major employer, is no exception and could look for ways to reduce the number
of staff without compromising the quality of service provided. In addition, AI has shown that it can
improve or optimise a wide range of processes, leading to cost savings. AI has a lot of potential to
increase efficiency and reduce costs.
The Small Arms and Leadership Immersive Virtual Training Simulator (VIRTSIM) is
now fully functioning at the Army Simulator Centre in Gemas’ Kem Sirajuddin. By utilising
cutting-edge technology, Army soldiers to improve their combat skills, either individually or in
groups, in all conditions. A soldier generally requires 10 sessions of training to learn the abilities
required for battle, which is more expensive; however, with the new simulator, we can lower
the cost because they may only require two sessions of field training after experiencing eight
virtual sessions. Using virtual assets was also regarded as crucial in spotting suspicious actions
in the border area. The Royal Malaysian Air Force (RMAF) has upgraded its radar systems to
make its defence mechanisms competitive and strengthen the country’s security systems. RMAF
also upgraded its radar systems to make its defence mechanisms competitive and strengthen the
country’s security systems. In the military aerospace sector, Thales supplies advanced airborne
mission systems and avionics to the RMAF for both its fighter and other mission aircraft. The
advanced capabilities of these systems include maritime surveillance (AMASCOS for B200T) and
target acquisition (DAMOCLES for Su-30).
Risks of Artificial Intelligence in Warfare
With the advantages mentioned above. However, AI also has the following downsides.
The areas where AI in defence lags behind and needs improvement are listed below. Applications
of AI in the military are likely to bring a variety of benefits; however, these applications also pose
a significant risk. One must weigh the potential benefits of these capabilities against the risks they
pose in order to conclude whether or not the use of AI in armed conflict is a wise policy decision.
Artificial Intelligence Systems Might Make Dangerous Errors
While the specialists we interviewed emphasized increased speed, precision, and accuracy
as possible advantages of military AI, they also expressed concern that these systems might make
decisions too quickly or be unable to adapt to the inevitable complexity of armed combat. As
a result, they may have difficulty distinguishing between combatants and non-combatants and
between threats and system anomalies, and they may end up being less precise and accurate
than human operators. They also expressed concern that these algorithms make decisions far too
quickly or are unable to adapt to the inevitable challenges of armed warfare. As a result, they may
have difficulty distinguishing between combatants and non-combatants, and between hazards and
system anomalies, and they may be less accurate and precise than human operators. If systems
are put into operation before they have been sufficiently tested, or if adversaries manage to hack
or spoof them, the situation may become even more precarious. Emergent behaviour in machine
learning processes has the potential to be catastrophic.
Arms Race or Escalation in Artificial Intelligence
Every country’s pursuit of military AI in the hope of gaining an advantage in combat

against potential enemies could lead to the proliferation of weapons and the arms race. Autonomous
weapons may not respond sufficiently to political factors or escalation thresholds in a war situation.
They could launch an attack at a time or place that would exacerbate the situation. To make matters
worse, it would be difficult to assign blame or responsibility for these crimes to human operators.
Combined with the likelihood of AI reducing the cost of fighting in terms of human lives, this could
tempt commanders to take these risks and act more brutally, further exacerbating the escalation
dynamic.
Reliability in Artificial Intelligence
There is a danger that the MAF commanders and leaders put too much trust in their
AI systems. They may be prone to ‘automation bias’, i.e., relying on the results of AI systems
even when those results do not seem to make sense. This tendency is amplified in systems whose
computational processes are so complex that the results are incomprehensible. That is, system
operators cannot readily determine how some of their mechanisms produce certain responses or
behave in certain ways. The same is true of purported audio and video “deep fakes” that were
produced by altering voices and likenesses. The latter has already generated buzz. A politician’s
audio clip could be altered using machine learning, a branch of artificial intelligence that deals with
natural language processing, to make it appear as though they expressed racist or sexist opinions
when in fact they didn’t. If the clip’s quality is sufficient to deceive viewers and avoid detection.
SUGGESTION OF AI APPLICATION IN MALAYSIAN ARMED FORCES
Application of Artificial Intelligence. Some strategies that could be taken by the MAF
are to Develop guidelines and resources for the storage, sharing, gathering, and utilization of data
in AI applications. Re-evaluate the requirements for the intelligence and intelligence needs for
data that are necessary for expected AI applications. Develop testing and evaluation processes
that are appropriate for non-deterministic and adaptive system types. Incorporate iterative
development, experimentation, and evaluation into your workflow in order to speed up learning
and improvements. Create all-encompassing training and educational opportunities to cultivate
an appropriate level of trust in AI-powered systems. Make it a priority to become an efficient and
quick follower of significant technological industry advances. Create guidelines for operational
applications of artificial intelligence, particularly judgments that involve the use of force, in order
to improve the safety of AI.
Establishing a consistent structure for data protection legislation and resolving any moral
issues that may arise
The data drives artificial intelligence. As a direct consequence of this fact, it is of the
utmost necessity to establish a consistent and long-lasting legal framework of mutual trust between
the persons whose data are being collected and the enterprises that are collecting it. This framework
needs to provide an exhaustive explanation of how data can be obtained, stored, processed, and
distributed, as well as how it can be deleted. The requirement for the protection of individual data,
and the sector’s growing dependence on personal data. In addition, given the growing impact that
AI solutions are having in a variety of spheres of our lives, there is a need to have an obligation to
make certain that the advancement of these technologies is beneficial to the welfare of people. It is
also necessary to address the ethical challenges that are associated with this emerging technology
(such as discrimination and prejudice; rejection of personal liberty, resorting, and privileges; and
inexplicable results) to achieve this objective. Additionally, it is important to constantly promote
the personally liable development and operation of artificial intelligence alternatives by means of
a rigorous legal regime.
Creating an all-encompassing research environment and encouraging collaboration

between businesses and educational institutions
The landscape of research into artificial intelligence technology is distinct compared to

that of other areas of scientific research. The research potential of both corporations and academic
institutions is valued equally. The availability of open data and the subsequent generation of
that data are extremely important to the development of AI solutions. Nations that adopt an AI
strategy ought to provide a method for establishing an industry-academia collaborative research
environment within their borders, taking into consideration the strategic priorities and objectives of
the nation. Obtaining the best possible personnel for both fundamental and applied research should
be the primary focus, along with conducting an analysis of how the current incentive systems
in research should be altered to encourage better integration of industry and governance across
sectors.
Focusing primarily on investments in strategic industries
If MAF intends to thrive in the Fourth Industrial Revolution, it will need to make use of
the comparative advantages and high-performing industries that their economies already possess.
The MAF ought to centre the construction of its artificial intelligence ecosystems on the primary
industries of Malaysia’s economies. However, MAF should avoid allocating a small amount of
resources across all areas because doing so will not result in the highest return on investment
overall. This is especially true in developing nations, where there is typically less support available
from the general public.
CONCLUSION
The applications of AI in the military are advancing rapidly. Some of the above benefits are already
being achieved in current systems. Other benefits have been found in laboratory environments or
regulated situations. Others are predicted based on forecasts of future AI advances or speculation
about military applications for new technologies that have been proven or are being used in
the private sector. The Fourth Industrial Revolution and the artificial intelligence underpinning
it are bringing about profound shifts in how we live, operate, and connect with one another as
citizens as well as how the MAF operates. It’s possible that the complexity of this shift will appear
overwhelming and daunting to some people and the MAF. It is important to keep in mind that all
forms of technology are social constructs that are produced by the decisions that individuals and
communities make. Artificial intelligence systems do not have other purposes other than those that
humans have given them. On the other hand, unfavourable outcomes are possible in the event that
we do not affect their evolution in a proactive manner. As a result, the present is not the time for
looking back with regret; rather, it is the moment to consciously act in order to build a prosperous
future.

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THE APPLICATION OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI)

IN PEACEKEEPING OPERATION
Lt Kol Ts Dr Maimunah Omar

MiDAS
o.maimunah@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Today, the Industrial Revolution 4.0 (4IR) requires one to accept the reality of advancements
in computer technology. The contemporary computer system technology has infiltrated many
physical technology and human life systems. This is what is known as Artificial Intelligence (AI).
The characteristics of AI are closely related to a computer system programmed to maximize human
behaviour and roles. AI is a wide and progressive field that has grasped the entire control of artificial
and digital technology and robotics. Innovations in AI have opened up new research involving
efforts in explaining and replicating human behaviour, recording, modelling, and storing human
intelligence in the information technology system and training or programming systems to execute
human tasks. AI is the ability of a computer system programmed in a machine to understand, think
and learn in a way similar to humans and to possess intelligence just like humans.
Keywords: Technology-driven, Internet, Peace Keeping, Intelligence, Machine Learning, Cyber

Defence
INTRODUCTION
The increasing amount of available data, mainly due to better access to the Internet in
countries where peacekeeping missions take place, has led to the technology–driven transformation
of the operational environment. This comes at a time of significant developments in the field of
artificial intelligence and particularly machine learning, most of which applications still rely on
massive amounts of data. As such, these developments have promising individual initiatives to
exploit this new and growing potential for the United Nations.
For 75 years, UN Peacekeeping has been one of the most important tools for mitigating
conflicts and promoting peace and security around the globe. Helping countries navigate the difficult
path from conflict to peace, peacekeeping boasts some unique strengths, including legitimacy,
burden sharing, and an ability to deploy and sustain troops and police forces from around the globe,
integrating them with civilian peacekeepers to advance multi-dimensional mandates. Today’s
peacekeepers are called upon not only to maintain peace and security, but also to facilitate the
political process, protect civilians, and assist in the disarmament, demobilization and reintegration
of former combatants (Nations, 2022). They also play a key role in supporting democratic efforts
such as organizing elections, protecting and promoting human rights, and assisting in the creation
and restoration of the rules of law.
In addition to peacekeeping operations, the UN operates special political missions (SPMs)

engaged in conflict prevention, mediation, and post-conflict peacebuilding around the world.
Authorized by the Security Council, SPMs are tasked with an array of responsibilities, including
supporting political dialogues and reconciliation processes, facilitating free and fair elections,
monitoring human rights violations, coordinating international development and humanitarian
assistance, and encouraging the development of effective rules of law institutions. Funded by
Member State dues, SPMs account for nearly one-quarter of the UN’s regular budget.
humanitarian assistance, and encouraging the development of effective rules of law institutions.
Fundedofby
The Application Member
Artificial State dues,
Intelligence (AI) inSPMs accountOperation
Peacekeeping for nearly one-quarter of the UN's regular
budget.
Figure
Figure1:1: United
UnitedNations
NationsPeace Keeping
Peace Worldwide
Keeping Worldwide
AREAS OF IMPLEMENTATION IN PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS
There are currently 12 peacekeeping operations deployed across Africa, the Middle
East, Europe, and Asia. UN Peacekeeping is made up of more than 90,000 total field personnel,
with 125 countries contributing troops, police forces, and civilian personnel, including several
dozen peacekeepers from the U.S. As early as 1996, researchers have used machine learning
(ML) to predict conflicts. Today, mainly due to significantly higher amounts of available data,
advancements in computing power and the progress made in natural language processing, several
artificial intelligence (AI) tools have been added to the peacekeeping arsenal. The surge of
available data has mainly been caused by the rise of mobile phones and improved access to the
Internet. The potential for companies such as Facebook to amass profits from their access to,
and the use of, people’s data makes it lucrative for them to provide access to the Internet at a
much lower price. Thus, the equipment is now affordable for people in relatively poorer countries,
which is where most peacekeeping operations take place. All of these developments constitute a
technology-driven transformation of the environment of peacekeeping operations. Therefore, the
changing environment that increases the potential for the application of AI tools in peacekeeping
operations is categorized into three main areas: general military tasks, conflict prediction, and
specific peacekeeping tasks during an operation (Coleman, 2014).

First; Specific Task
Some of the most ambitious AI tools for specific peacekeeping tasks set the objective of ‘deep
conflict resolution’[20], taking into account the needs and perceptions of all participants. Here, AI
is used to process knowledge on conflict dynamics and to present it in an easily accessible way to
the users in the field. This would lead to the decentralization of knowledge and the reduction of a
mission’s dependence on experts in psychology, conflict resolution, and local culture. The software
cogSolv claims to provide the users with ‘options leading to truly just results. This is achieved by
tools to analyze
simulating open-source
a specific situationinformation, most importantly
and, for example, suggesting togathered fromfor
base efforts theconflict
social media. A
resolution
on ‘Local Dignity’ instead of ‘Human Rights Discourse’.
UN Global Pulse lab has used NLP to analyze radio shows in Uganda, notably including
statements advancements
Significant of people whoincalled
naturalinto the radio
language station, (NLP)
processing in order to gain
enable the insights
creation into social
of powerful
translation
tensions. This access to unprecedented amounts and forms of information can provideas
tools, which could enhance the interoperability in multinational peacekeeping forces
well as facilitate communication with the locals. Arguably, the capability of computer programs to
peacekeeping
process languagemissions with aobjects
and identify better understanding
is deemed moreofvaluable
the environment theythe
in unlocking aretools
operating in,
to analyze
open-source information, most importantly gathered from the social media. A UN
but it could also be used for smarter reactions to emergencies based on informed decision- Global Pulse lab
has used NLP to analyze radio shows in Uganda, notably including statements of people who called
making.
into However,
the radio this
station, in –order
as well as the
to gain deployment
insights of UAVs
into social – raises
tensions. This concerns
access toabout privacy
unprecedented
amounts and forms of information can provide peacekeeping missions with a better understanding
and who will have access to intelligence gathered by the UN or in the course of a UN operation.
of the environment they are operating in, but it could also be used for smarter reactions to
Beyond that,based
emergencies the digitization
on informed of decision-making.
the UN operationsHowever,
might create
this –additional
as well asvulnerabilities
the deployment andof
UAVs – raises concerns about privacy and who will have access to intelligence gathered by the UN
establish an even more complex conflict environment by including cybersecurity risks.
or in the course of a UN operation. Beyond that, the digitization of the UN operations might create
additional vulnerabilities and establish an even more complex conflict environment by including
cybersecurity risks.
Figure2:2:Areas
Figure Areasof
ofImplementation
Implementation in
in Peacekeeping Operations
Operations
Second:
The JournalConflict
of DefencePrediction
and Security 83
The application of machine learning tools significantly increases success

in predicting conflicts. This can enhance the ability to understand conflict dynamics and allow
The Application of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Peacekeeping Operation
Second: Conflict Prediction
The application of machine learning tools significantly increases success in predicting

conflicts. This can enhance the ability to understand conflict dynamics and allow for a design of
peacekeeping operations that is more appropriate for preventing re-emerging or new conflicts.
For example, using ML techniques such as lasso and random forests, Blair et al. found that –
contrary to previous belief – ‘the risk of local violence is higher rather than lower in communities
where minority and majority ethnic groups share power’. The knowledge drawn from the ML-
driven analysis could be used to enhance prevention capabilities, thereby avoiding a situation
in which a peacekeeping mission has to be established in the first place. It can also be applied
on a tactical level, enabling a smarter allocation of resources for day-to-day tasks. An important
aspect here is the use of geographic information systems (GIS) which has greatly benefited from
the commercialization and subsequent affordability of satellites and satellite imagery. Machine
learning tools have been utilized to analyze these massive amounts of data. Unmanned aerial
vehicles (UAVs) can also contribute to this collection of data. Unarmed drones were first deployed
by the UN in 2013. The information obtained from the use of GIS can facilitate a broad range of
tasks beyond conflict prediction, including the monitoring of borders and sustainable development,
the support for elections and other governance tasks as well as field logistics.
Third: General Military Task
Among all the areas mentioned, the general military tasks have the potential for the
optimization and automation of administrative processes such as logistics, increasing not the
effectiveness but the efficiency of military operations. This could lead states to be more willing
to participate in peacekeeping missions; if more personnel or equipment is deployed while the
costs remain constant, the gap between mission goals and available resources can be reduced.
Additionally, AI-based virtual training can be used to enhance soldiers’ tactical abilities, thus
contributing to the mission’s success while mitigating casualties. Sharing such programs with less
developed countries – who are overwhelmingly the main troop contributors to United Nations
(UN) missions – could compensate for the lack of resources that results in insufficient training
for soldiers facing complex situations in peacekeeping operations [9]. Beyond that, this would
certainly be in the interest of more developed countries seeking to enable local forces to take
over the responsibility for the security of their own countries; one classic example would be the
European Union Training Mission Mali.
In light of the numerous benefits that the application of AI for peacekeeping can
yield, it is worthwhile to take a look at the effort the UN is making to make the most of this
technology. The UN-issued 2015 Report of the Expert Panel on Technology and Innovation in UN
Peacekeeping explicitly mentions AI once – in the annexe. The Secretary General’s Strategy on
New Technologies recognizes the importance of AI but speaks of ‘exposure to new technologies’.
Nonetheless, the increasing trend where several UN departments have already made use of AI
and machine learning, the Centre for Artificial Intelligence and Robotics being in the process of
establishment in The Hague and Big Data analysis were among the main topics discussed at the
5th International Partnership for Technology in Peacekeeping Symposium in May 2019. In 2013,
John Karlsrud argued that in comparison to other UN activities, the possibilities of Big Data are
underutilized for peacekeeping. Clearly, the UN is aware of the possible benefits. However, the
shift from “exploring“ and “raising awareness” to “regulating” and “committing resources” on a
systemic level has yet to take place.

AI: APPROACHES IN SUPPORTING PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS
As the UN peace operations are increasingly drawing upon digital technologies to

gather and analyze information – and also accessing the data generated by other users of digital
technologies like social media and cell phones – they have to reflect on the cost and benefit of
sharing this wealth of information beyond the mission. Moreover, the UN Security Council
may wish to consider how this information can enrich its own deliberations and to what extent
information-sharing should feature in peacekeeping mandates. The dissemination of information
such as drones or satellite images beyond the mission serves three purposes. First, providing some
raw data to the UN Security Council can help the latter achieve a common interpretation of events
in the area of operation, and may inform the discussions that lead to the Council’s decisions.
Second of all, sharing some of this data with the UN country team and with humanitarian aid
providers improves the speed and efficiency of the latter’s response to humanitarian crises. In this
context, the UN Secretary-General’s Data Strategy (2020: 4) established “a culture that values
openness and sharing by default” as one of the organization’s goals. The Humanitarian Data
Exchange, a platform spearheaded by OCHA that enables the UN system, NGOs, governments,
and universities to improve data sharing during emergencies, helps turn this aspiration into
practice. Finally, sharing fine-grained (but anonymized) conflict event data with researchers
can dramatically improve our collective understanding of contemporary armed conflicts and the
corresponding resolutions. More than a decade ago, systematically compiled conflict event data on
Afghanistan and Iraq was made available (in anonymized and declassified format) to researchers.
This resource inspired a large body of empirical scholarship on contemporary armed conflicts
with substantial policy implications (e.g., Berman et al. 2018). By sharing more fine-grained and
researchers, the UN could facilitate rigorous studies and obtain hard evidence on the
anonymized event data with researchers, the UN could facilitate rigorous studies and obtain hard
evidence on the
effectiveness effectiveness
and efficacy ofand
UNefficacy
peace of UN peaceatoperations
operations at a time
a time when manywhen many states
member member face
states face resource scarcity and competing priorities.
resource scarcity and competing priorities.
Figure 3: AI; Approaches in Supporting Peacekeeping Operations

Figure 3: AI; Approaches in Supporting Peacekeeping Operations
The Journal of Defence and Security

ARTIFICIAL 85
INTELLIGENCE CAN SUPPORT UN PEACE OPERATIONS IN FIVE
SPECIFIC WAYS.
Firstly, it can help optimize and automate administrative and logistical processes, thereby
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE CAN SUPPORT UN PEACE OPERATIONS IN FIVE

SPECIFIC WAYS.
Firstly, it can help optimize and automate administrative and logistical processes,
thereby enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of UN missions. For instance, natural language
processing software helps with translations that facilitate communication with the local population
and between UN staff members (Ibid.). AI-based virtual tactical training could help prepare UN
peacekeepers to implement complex mandates in difficult settings while also mitigating the risk of
casualties.
Secondly, machine learning techniques can be used to anticipate future conflicts. They
have been employed to predict local violence in Liberia, combat violent events in Africa and the
outbreak of civil war around the world. Moreover, natural language processing software can be
used to analyze radio and social media data in order to assess risks of future conflicts. For instance,
a UN Global Pulse lab relied on natural language processing to analyze radio shows in Uganda in
order to assess social tensions. In Somalia, a UN Global Pulse lab analyzed fake news on Facebook,
fake Facebook posts, and fake Facebook groups as well as trending topics and thereby improved
the situational awareness of the social media terrain.
Thirdly, machine learning can be used to respond to ongoing or impending crises more
effectively. For example, deep learning — a more complex method of machine learning that
uses “neural networks” to “learn” a particular set of tasks — has been used to identify the size
and location of refugee camps in Syria for improved humanitarian responses, and to prevent
overcrowding. The destruction of cities caused by civil wars and natural disasters can, similarly,
be used to better allocate funds aimed at rebuilding.
Fourth, AI can assist with the analysis of the video and remote sensing data gathered
through satellites, drones, and CCTV. Specifically, AI can detect humans, vehicles, objects, events,
and patterns in videos. Recent applications range from the real-time analysis of crowd size and
behaviour (e.g., the direction of movement and interactions in the crowd) to automatic license
plate recognition. AI can also send alerts, e.g., when it determines that a human is present on a
live video taken in a restricted area or when it notices a cloud of smoke from a fire or explosion.
Such uses require relatively simple algorithms that are programmed to sound the alarm when
specific conditions are met. In a more complex way, self-learning software can be instructed to
learn patterns of ‘normal’ behaviour by watching a video or remote sensing data and to recognize
events that depart from these patterns. For instance, such behavioural analytics recognizes a break
in patterns - and can sound the alarm - if a street that is usually empty at night is suddenly crowded
or used by a convoy of trucks.
Fifth, AI can help detect deep fakes. Advances in machine learning and computer graphics
make it easier to convincingly manipulate audio and video recordings, and UN peacekeepers have
to anticipate that conflict parties will increasingly use deep fakes in psychological operations,
propaganda, and diplomacy in the area of operation. In turn, AI also informs cutting-edge software
programs to detect deep fakes. Swift advances in technologies to produce deep fakes require
constant efforts to enhance the sophistication of AI-based approaches to detect them.
Harnessing the possibilities of AI for these tasks requires both access to high-quality
data and expertise in relevant methods. The necessary tools will vary depending on the goal, but
they often share certain common features. Translating images, text, or otherwise unstructured
information into usable data typically requires a classification method, often done through machine

learning. This, in turn, usually necessitates a large, manually classified set of “training data” that can
be used to build effective models. Developing this training data can be labour intensive, although
it can often be crowdsourced through platforms. Even using pre-existing data sources, effective
prediction requires the knowledge of machine learning methods and validation techniques. To fully
harness these tools, the UN could build in-house expertise or partner with external experts.
UN peacekeepers could fruitfully apply machine learning techniques to the analysis

of the fine-grained data gathered in the SAGE system. Such analyses could provide insights for
early warning and conflict prediction, and they could potentially benefit planning and resource
allocation at the strategic and tactical levels. Of course, the challenge of successfully translating
early warning into timely action is beyond the realm of artificial intelligence.
AI AND MALAYSIA ARMED FORCES: LEARNING FROM OTHERS
At present, Malaysia’s peacekeeping force is still utilizing the standard or normal methods
of conducting its operations. Nonetheless, plans have been made to embark on AI technologies in
future operations. At this point, we need support on the technical aspects of training and perhaps
capacity building. AI technology has reached Malaysia for other disciplines, therefore much
development has been ongoing. Our universities ventured into the subject of AI a long time ago,
although it is still in its infancy in Malaysian military applications.
The MAF will be transformed by the use of artificial intelligence-based technology.

Years of preparation have led to the government’s support and aspiration to modernize the military
through AI. A culture of cutting-edge innovation and collaboration has been cultivated, thanks
to bold initiatives, earmarked budgets, policy changes, and indigenous support. In the areas of
data, logistics, surveillance, weapons and much more, this collaboration between the public and
private sectors, research organizations, academic institutions, start-ups and entrepreneurs has
helped develop many innovative AI-based tech products. The integration of autonomy into weapon
systems, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance) and data management could be an
important aid in preventing terrorism, implementing counter-terrorism measures, and protecting
troops
As for Malaysia’s armed forces, even though the AI application is not as robust as in other
countries, progression and improvement are on their way in the form of the use of big data. The use
of big data is related to ICT, whose importance has also been recognized and formally enforced by
the Malaysian National Defense Policy. The policy has stated that ICT usage is mandatory within
the MAF as a means of achieving information dominance and that this usage must occur at all
levels of the MAF. In reality, the Fourth Dimension MAF (4DMAF) plan proposed a capability-
based approach that focuses on leveraging ICT to improve information operations’ efficiency.
Cyber Defense Enhancements
The MAF has established a Cyber Warfare Signals Regiment (99 RSPS) in an effort to
increase its capacity and preparation in the face of cybersecurity challenges and cyber threats
from multiple areas. MAF has been monitored constantly to counter any threat that could disrupt
the MAF defence communication network. MAF always monitors and steps up its cyber security
through its Defense Cyber and Electromagnetic Division (BSEP) and the Cyber Defense Operations
Center (CDOC) but also protects the country’s strategic defense communication network.

MAF defence communication network. MAF always monitors and steps up its cyber security
through its Defense Cyber and Electromagnetic Division (BSEP) and the Cyber Defense
Operations Center (CDOC) but also protects the country’s strategic defense communication
network.
Figure4:4: Malaysia
Figure Malaysia Defence
Defence White
WhitePaper
Paper
Developing the Future Soldier System (FSS)
Developing the Future Soldier System (FSS)
Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance Improvements. AI will enable far better
Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance Improvements. AI will enable far better
insights
insights to betogained
be gained from
from thethevast
vastamounts
amounts of
of ISR
ISR data
datathat
thatwill
willbebe
collected. MAF
collected. MAFhas already
has already
used used
drones
drones for border control, but their number must be raised so that all security agencies can
for border control, but their number must be raised so that all security agencies
use them. MAF anticipates that the employment of drone assets will improve the effectiveness of
border monitoring and control activities.
Defence White Paper
However, in the Malaysian Defense White Paper, certain chapters regarding efforts and
future plans for AI have been highlighted. It is probably worth mentioning beforehand that the
Defense White Paper is a public document that can be accessed and read by all Malaysians and
those interested in it. It represents the Government’s firm commitment to Malaysia’s defence
and resilience to protect national interests (Defence, 2020). It details the Government’s stance
on national defence, presents its outlook for strategic trends and outlines the National Defense
Framework to pursue the vision of Malaysia as a secure, sovereign and prosperous nation. The
DWP is to come into effect for a ten-year-period from 2021 to 2030 and adopting the Whole of
Government (WoG) and the Whole of Society (WoS) approaches comes in 8 chapters but among
all the chapters, chapters 4, 5 and 7 have significant relations regarded AI.
Chapter Four. This chapter discusses the primary and the secondary roles of the Malaysian
armed forces. In order for them to efficiently execute their roles they need to be equipped with the
necessary equipment, machinery and tools. It also sheds light on the requirements needed by the
Malaysian armed forces in the future in order to protect the nation’s interests as have been discussed
in the previous chapter. This chapter outlines the need for strengthening intelligence, air defence

and air strike capabilities, maritime strike and sustainment, enhancing firepower, improving
mobility, and also the role of the cyber-electromagnetic domain. So far, at the operational level, the
Defense Cyber and Electromagnetic Division has been established aiming to strengthen the cyber
capability of the Malaysian Armed Forces (MAF).
Chapter Five. Chapter five focuses on the people and their role in defending the
sovereignty and security of the country. It brings the message that the responsibility of protecting
the nation is not solely a burden of the enforcement agencies such as the military or police, but
it is also the responsibility of each citizen who was born and raised on Malaysian soil. It also
emphasizes the importance of developing a Knowledge Force (K-Force) to face future security
challenges that require an understanding of advanced technology. In the areas of data, logistics,
surveillance, weapons and much more, this collaboration between the public and private sectors,
research organizations, academic institutions, start-ups and entrepreneurs could help develop many
innovative AI-based tech products.
Chapter 7: Defense Industry, Science and Technology. The DWP describes the defence
industry as “a strategic component of Malaysia’s defence ecosystem” and the Defense Industry
Policy carries five main thrusts as follows, Thrust 1: Human Capital Development- to produce
and develop experts with the right skills and knowledge, Thrust 2: Technology Development-
Providing funding for local R&D capabilities and transfer of technology from foreign strategic
partners, Thrust 3: Industrial Development, Thrust 4: Towards Self-Reliance, Thrust 5: Penetrating
the Global Market.
APPLICATIONS OF AI IN COVID 19 PANDEMIC
Although the Malaysian artificial intelligence scene is not as vibrant as that of other
countries, we still have plenty of A.I. technology incorporated into the local technology, software,
processes, and apps and it is widely used during the pandemic. My Sejahtera, for instance, is
an app used to help check and control the spread of COVID-19. My Sejahtera also serves as a
contact tracing app. The system taps the machine learning capabilities to identify possible sources
of infection for each confirmed case and maps them geographically Meanwhile, Malaysian
emergency response authorities use cloud computing platforms to improve search and rescue (SAR)
operations. The emergency response agencies use the Search and Rescue Operation Coordination
System (SAROCS) to support the planning, execution, management, and coordination of SAR
activities during an emergency. The cloud-based SAROCS enables data from multiple devices and
systems to be integrated into a single platform, allowing various SAR agencies to access crucial
data to facilitate an operation remotely
Despite all efforts, the road is still long, and a lot of effort needs to be exerted. Therefore,
the areas that need to be emphasized are developing a national AI strategy, establishing an
environment that is conducive to the successful application of AI establishing a consistent structure
for data protection legislation to resolve any moral issues that may arise and Synergizing AI
research projects between military, industries and research universities

Figure5:5:AIAI
Figure during
during Pandemic
Pandemic in Malaysia
in Malaysia
CHALLENGES
CHALLENGES ANDOPPORTUNITIES
AND OPPORTUNITIES
The use
Theof use
digital technologies
of digital for monitoring,
technologies surveillance,
for monitoring, analysis and
surveillance, decision-making
analysis in
and decision-making
in UN
UN peacekeeping operations
peacekeeping operations is nothing
is nothing new.new. UN infantry
UN infantry battalions
battalions have possessed
have always always possessed
a a
military intelligence arm as one of their twelve core functions and analysts have
military intelligence arm as one of their twelve core functions and analysts have identified a identified a wide
array of digital technologies that have been deployed in missions over the years to enable and
wide array of digital technologies that have been deployed in missions over the years to enable
enhance their ability to monitor and analyze their surroundings. What is new are the types of
and and
threats enhance
trendstheir ability
that to monitor
missions seek and analyze theirthe
to understand; surroundings.
power andWhat is new are of
sophistication thethe
types
capabilities
available to peacekeeping; the volume and structure of data they generate;
of threats and trends that missions seek to understand; the power and sophistication of the and the complexity
of the management of these tools in a peacekeeping environment. Let us address these trends in
capabilities available to peacekeeping; the volume and structure of data they generate; and the
turn. Across many operations, peacekeepers are being asked to interact more proactively with
complexitydynamic
increasingly of the management of these tools
threats. Expectations in a peacekeeping
around environment.
the protection Letare
of civilians ushigher
addressthan ever,
andthese
combined
trends with budgetary
in turn. and operations,
Across many political pressures to downsize
peacekeepers are being missions, they have
asked to interact moreprompted
several
proactively with increasingly dynamic threats. Expectations around the protection of civilians mobile,
missions, notably UNMISS and MONSUCO, to adopt centralized, but highly
concepts of operations. These concepts foresee real-time situational awareness across enormous
are higherareas
geographic than to ever, and combined
enable with budgetary
rapid projections of forceandtopolitical
protect pressures
civilians.toAtdownsize
the same time,
peacekeepers
missions, they in have
someprompted
missionsseveral
are coming
missions,under diverse
notably UNMISSformsandof direct attack
MONSUCO, from conflict
to adopt
parties
centralized, but highly mobile, concepts of operations. These concepts foresee real-time tactical
and, in some cases, civilian populations, demanding comprehensive and real-time
awareness of their immediate surroundings as well as a nuanced understanding of local perceptions,
situational awareness across enormous geographic areas to enable rapid projections of force to
political discourse, and the information environment in which they operate. The capabilities of the
protect
digital civilians. Atthat
technologies the are
sameaccessible
time, peacekeepers in some missions
to peacekeeping missions aretoday
comingareunder diverse
exponentially more
powerful than those that operated a decade ago.
forms of direct attack from conflict parties and, in some cases, civilian populations, demanding
What was once decentralized and unstructured – yet substantively rich and deep –
information gathered by peacekeepers is now becoming increasingly centralized and organized
data. Quantitative and qualitative tools are being brought together, to present considerable new
opportunities for analysis, if the information can be effectively harnessed. More data-driven
analysis tools promise to improve the insights and predictive capacity of mission personnel across
a broad range of tasks, from the protection of civilians to political strategies to local conflict
prevention, but only if the information can be shared in a way that balances the need for broad
access with operational security and human rights concerns.
Information Requirements Management and Tasking
Several challenges stand in the way of this. First and foremost, with some exceptions,
most senior leadership in peacekeeping operations have yet to engage fully with peacekeeping
intelligence processes
Authorities, Limits, Law and Ethics
Information gathering in peacekeeping operations has always invoked ethical and human rights
considerations about, for example, the security of sources, the provenance of information from
security services, and the protection of personally identifiable information. With the introduction
of PKI/SA technologies to peacekeeping operations, the risks and challenges in this area have
expanded exponentially and may have broad reputational and normative consequences
AI, Machine Learning and Predictive Analysis
Effective data use will enable the UN to “forecast outcomes far more effectively than
conventional techniques based on static historical reports.”. For peacekeeping purposes, data-
driven predictive analysis could contribute to two levels of analysis. Firstly, within missions, the
objective is to achieve “predictive peacekeeping”, wherein threat prediction can occur at a sufficient
level of detail and precision, and with sufficient warning to enable missions to plan and execute
a response. The analysis for machine learning in peacekeeping could analyze large amounts of
data across missions to deliver insights on best practices in mission responses, highlight outlying
strategies, or compare and analyze peacekeepers’ performance.
Information Ownership and Sharing
Uniformed peacekeepers have always been subject to their national doctrine and military/
police frameworks. This is true both explicitly, and in the sense that they retain internal command
structures, administrations, and disciplinary responsibility. Implicitly, in the absence of clear rules
or guidance on a particular matter, it would only be natural to expect a unit to revert to its national
doctrine. This challenge arises in several areas: Information ownership, Custody And Reach-Back,
Transparency, Oversight And Accountability Information sharing and the Human Rights Due
Diligence Policy
Machine Learning and Predictive Analysis
When it comes to its own capacity for data-driven and predictive analysis, the field of
peacekeeping needs to, not only work through its pervasive problems of information fragmentation
and subsequent lack of trust in information processed at the operational level, but also prepare to
mitigate potential threats to the integrity of its own datasets and analytical processes. Effective
mechanisms should secure the diverse digital repositories (from ad-hoc reporting systems in
missions to more centralized efforts) that process sensitive data about situational awareness and
populations’ routine activities.

Without robust (AI and cybersecurity) safeguards, data-driven peacekeeping could lead
to unintended harm and erode public trust. Far beyond violations of privacy, unintended harm
includes collective data breaches with serious security implications, especially when data is
gathered from vulnerable populations. The UN has already been the target of offensive cyber-
attacks, thus, sixteen strong rules are needed to enable the determination of who will have access
to sensitive information.
Ethical Risk Management for Sensitive, Intrusive Surveillance Technologies
In general, the procurement and deployment of PKI/SA technologies into peacekeeping

operations have proceeded much the same way as other information and communication
technologies, in that operational support components of the Secretariat have largely managed these
processes
Information Security
In response to the increased sensitivity of some of the information it gathers, and the
greater security exposure that the centralized digital storage brings, the UN has employed enhanced
physical, technical and administrative measures for much if its data. The measures to mitigate the
risk of accidental or malicious misuse of data in the system, including measures to implement
existing information management policy and guidance, as well as enhanced measures such as the
maintenance of audit logs must be implemented seriously.
WAY FOWARD
The diverse array of digital technologies for peacekeeping intelligence and situational
awareness inventoried in this paper clearly establishes that these types of technologies now
constitute a key component of the technology portfolio. As missions have strived to keep pace
with the evolution of threats and the pace of technological change, the tools they deploy for these
purposes have become exponentially more powerful and complex. This paper’s analysis of the
capabilities, impact and challenges associated with PKI/SA technologies leaves us with three
overall conclusions that could inform a new strategy for the technology in peacekeeping.
Firstly, PKI/SA technologies, especially surveillance technologies, constitute a unique

category of tools within peacekeeping, and within the Organization. Many of the more advanced
and/or intrusive surveillance technologies deployed in peacekeeping operations in recent years
pose considerable risks to human rights in their use as well as in the use of the information they
generate. This reality does not disqualify them from the use, but it does demand a tailored approach
to the design, procurement and management of surveillance technologies that appropriately blend
policy, political and human rights considerations with more traditional technology management
practices. The Secretariat’s current treatment of these technologies is much more akin to a
“business as usual” approach and exposes the Organization to considerable legal, political, ethical,
and operational risks.
Secondly, the impact of PKI/SA digital technologies will dramatically depend on more
consistent, structured and analytically appropriate data. Moving beyond the important gains in
short-term, tactical situational awareness brought by camp security technologies towards the goal
of “predictive, data-driven analysis” and the potential application of machine learning will require
further efforts to bring consistency in the volume and content of data entered across time and
space in each mission. This is a very challenging task, considering the diversity and rapid rotations
rapid rotations of uniformed personnel, varying skill levels and available capacities across
missions, and the complexity of the subjects being recorded. While considerable
Lt Kolimprovements
Ts Dr Maimunah Omar
have been made in recent years, a more transformative change will be required in the ubiquity
of uniformed personnel,
of data gathering and varying
entry willskill levels for
be required andtools
available
like Sagecapacities acrosstomissions,
or Unite Aware fully deliverand the
complexity of the subjects being recorded. While considerable improvements have been made in
recent toyears,
meet atheir
moregoals. Along the way,
transformative DPO will
change shouldberemain mindful
required in thethat peacekeeping
ubiquity of datamissions’
gathering and
entry will be required for tools like Sage or Unite Aware to fully deliver to meet their goals. Along
qualitative analysis and insights developed by virtue of their proximity to the ground, relative
the way, DPO should remain mindful that peacekeeping missions’ qualitative analysis and insights
legitimacy,
developed and individualized
by virtue analytical
of their proximity to regimes are invariably
the ground, relative the subject ofand
legitimacy, envyindividualized
among
analytical
organizations with infinitely greater resources and technological capacities. Better quantitativegreater
regimes are invariably the subject of envy among organizations with infinitely
resources and technological capacities. Better quantitative analyses should not come at the expense
analyses
of solid should
fieldwork andnot come atinquiry.
dogged the expense of solid fieldwork and dogged inquiry.
Figure 6: 6:
Figure Largest
LargestPeacekeeping Operations
Peacekeeping Operations Worldwide
Worldwide
Finally,
Finally, the UN’s
the UN’s technologies
technologies for monitoring,
for monitoring, surveillance,
surveillance, information analysis
information management, management,
analysis and dissemination need to be understood and planned for as part of a PKI/SA ecosystem
and dissemination
that blends technology,need to be and
policy understood and planned
practice. for as part
The purposes andof aspecific
PKI/SA cases
ecosystem that
of individual
technologies must be systematically defined in relation to PKI/SA policies
blends technology, policy and practice. The purposes and specific cases of individual and processes –
notably, the peacekeeping-intelligence cycle – and in relation to one another. Despite an almost
technologiesconstellation
insurmountable must be systematically
of competing defined in relationinterests,
institutional to PKI/SAsome policies and processes
progress has been – made
in recent years to bring different tools and approaches closer together. However, in
notably, the peacekeeping-intelligence cycle – and in relation to one another. Despite an almost the absence
of a definitive leadership vision and corporate decision-making, the inter-relations among these
insurmountable
tools and approachesconstellation
will continueof competing institutional
to be decided in theinterests, some progress
bureaucratic has with
trenches, been made
transaction
costs that can be measured in terms of lost opportunities to improve the effectiveness,
in recent years to bring different tools and approaches closer together. However, in the absence efficiency
and responsibility in peacekeeping. DPO and DOS are in dire need of unified, peacekeeping-wide
of a definitive
leadership to defineleadership
a vision vision
for theand corporate
PKI/SA decision-making,
ecosystem the inter-relations
and adjudicate amongroles
the respective these of the
tools, processes and practices
tools and approaches within it.to be decided in the bureaucratic trenches, with transaction
will continue
CONCLUSIONS
To sum up, peacekeeping operations have expanded over the years. The use of AI applications
will assist in present and future operations. Peacekeeping Operations also need to keep up-to-
date with the latest technologies. Additionally, the R&D between peacekeeping operators and AI
industries is vital for future developments and improvements. Countries that have yet to apply AI
in their peacekeeping operations must learn from those that have applied the technology- António
Guterres, United Nations Secretary-General was quoted verbatim, “Be bold, be revolutionary…
and disrupt…because without innovation, there is no way we can overcome the challenges of our
time.”
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Warning, Situational Awareness, and Early Action,” PAX, April 2021.
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Beijing Forum.Dirk Druet, “Enhancing the Use of Digital Technology for Integrated Situational
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Peace Institute, April 2020, https://www.ipinst.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/2004-Finding-
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10.1016/j.jnca.2018.04.010.

THE JOURNAL
OF DEFENCE
AND SECURITY
Volume 15 Number 2 / 2021 ISSN 2180-284X
CONTENTS
National Defence and Security Strategy in Combating the Post-Pandemic Era: 1
The Best Defence is Good Offence
Mr Noor Hisham bin Rosie
Col Dr Nizlan bin Mohamed
Southeast Asia-China Trade Relations: Impact on Prosperity and Security 11

Lt Col Azlan bin Mustaffa
EU Pivot to Indo-Pacific: Rivalry or Strategem? 29

Maj Nur Izzati Madzrib
Zokhri Idris
Efforts in Counter the Narrative of ISIS in Malaysia 39

Maj Nurul ffeiah binti Zainudin
Challenges for Malaysia in Addressing Maritime Security Issues 55

Maj Nenny Khairul Bariza Binti Ramli TUDM
Dr. Tharishini Krishnan
Comprehending Counterterrorism Strategy in Malaysia 71

Najwa Farahah binti Nazri
Mohd Zaini bin Salleh
The Effect of 5G to Economy and Security in Malaysia 87

Nur-Aimi Mohamed Ghazemy
The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Disaster Relief and Fighting 99

the COVID-19
Lt Col Dr Maimunah Omar
MALAYSIAN INSTITUTE OF DEFENCE AND SECURITY

Volume 14 Number 1 / 2021
Malaysian Defence Industry: Context, Challenges and The Way Forward 1

Dr. Kogila Balakrishnan
Treesna Nadira Johar
COVID-19 Pandemic; What Future Holds for Bio-Terrorism Threats 19

Col Dr Zulkarnain bin Haron
Military Power As An Integral Element of National Power-Quantifying 29

Malaysia’s Perspective
Col Muzafar Shah bin Mosam Shah
The Importance of Naval Collaboration in The Post COVID-19 Pandemic 45

Capt Dr Shaftdean Lufty bin Rusland RMN
Does UN Peace Operation Bring Peace? 53

Lt Col Ir. Suthan Venkatachalam
Pharmacy Practice During First Six Months of The COVID-19 Pandemic 67

In Malaysia: Perspective of A Military Pharmacist From Tuanku Mizan
Armed Forces Hospital
Maj Manvikram Singh Gill
Future Destiny of The Syrian Refugees Crisis 77

Nur Sabrina Binti Mohamad Sharif
Muhammad Danniel Iqmal Bin Hamzah
National Task Force Roles in Maintaining Nasional Security During Disaster: 87

COVID-19 Pandemic
Lt Col Dr Maimunah Omar
Health and Security: An Analysis of Vaccine Hesitancy in Malaysia 1

Col (Dr) Mohd Farid bin Alias
A Critical Review of the Security Dilemma Concept in Southeast Asia 13

Lt Col Juma’in Bin Saadon RMAF
Reshaping KESBAN Concept Against Criminal Insurgency in Eastern Sabah 27

Lt Col Abdul Rahman Alavi (Retired), Professor Ruhanas Harun
Dr. Tharisini Krishnan
Counter Narrative of ISIS in Malaysia 41

Maj Nurul Ifziah Binti Zainudin
Assessing India’s Approaches in Navigating China in the Indian Ocean 53

Lt Cdr Ahmad Shahir Hasnan RMN, Dr. Tharishini Krishnan
Malaysia’s Hedging Strategy between United States and China 69

Lt Cdr Puspanathan Subramanian RMN
Maritime Strategy – A Way Ahead For Malaysian Armed Forces 83

Cdr Mohammad Fairuz bin Hassan RMN
Covid 19: The Impact and Challenges Towards National Defence and Security 93
Lt Col Dr. Maimunah Omar
Capability Management in Defence 1

Capt Ivan Mario Andrew RMN
Transnational Crimes: Issues and Challenges from the Perspective 17

of Malaysia’s National Security Construct
Ir. Dr. Yang Soo Siang
Non-Traditional Threats that Obstruct the Peace and Security in 27

Eastern Sabah and Calebes Sea
Cdr Chandramohan Balakrishnan RMN
The Humanitarian Perspective on Artificial Intelligence and Cyber Warfare 34

in Armed Conflict
Dr. Hugo Slim
The Cause and Effect of Climate Change in South East Asia and Its Implication 41
to Malaysia’s Strategic Security Outlook
Lt Crd Ir. Moorthy Pakisamy RMN
Spread of Violent Extremism Ideology in Malaysia: The Islamic State 64

in Iraq and Syria (Isis) Threat
Maj Muhammad Khidir bin Daud
Addressing the Human Rights Crisis Affecting the Rohingya People of Myanmar 81
Maj Ir. Arjun Gopinathan
Future Combat Vehicle System (FCVS): The Way Forward Against Hybrid Threats 109
Contemporary Challenges in Multidimensional Peacekeeping 1

Operation (PKO)
Colonel Padman Bhaskaran
Strategic Interest in Eastern Europe: Perspectives of Great Powers 12

Yang Soo Siang
Military Institution from The Perspective of The Quran and Prophetic 23

Traditions (As-Sunnah)
Burhanuddin Jalal, Sayuti Ab Ghani and Amnah Saayah Ismail
Japan’s Involvement in Peacekeeping Operations: Re-Branding a Nation 33

Maj Nor Azman bin Shahimi
The Rohingya Plight: The Role of State Actors and Non-States Actors 49
Mej Nirmala Krishna
Indonesia-Malaysia’s Strategic Contribution Towards International Peace and Security 69

Colonel Ramli H Nik (R)
The South China Sea Conflict: Managing Malaysia-China Maritime Relationship 76

Cdr Sugenderan Nagalan and Tharishini Krishnan
“No Permanent Friend Or Enemy, Only Permanent Interest”: 98

Malaysia-China Relations (From Tunku Abdul Rahman to Mahathir 2.0)
The Malaysian Wasatiyyah Model In Facing The Challenges Of Global Extremism 1

Asyraf Wajdi Dusuki
Developing Defence Cooperation In Maintaining Asean’s Resilience In Managing 14

Conflict And Unconventional Threat
Cdr Ivan Mario Andrew RMN
China’s Quest For Energy Security In The Indian Ocean Region: Its Implication On 29
India
Capt Hj Satria Sarawak bin Hj Jais RMN
External Conflicts And Malaysia’s National Security: 43

The Case Of Daesh
Ahmad El-Muhammady
Yom Kippur War: The Israeli Intelligence And Policy Failures And The Effects Of 59
The War On The Global Political And International Relations Scenario
Hafez Shahril Hussin
Coastal States Strategic Challenges In The South China Sea 79

Colonel Ramli H Nik (R)
The Successes And Failures Of The Treaty On The Non-Proliferation Of Nuclear 89

Weapons
Eradicating The Crime of Child Labour in Africa: The Roles of Income, Schooling, 1
Fertility, and Foreign Direct Investment
Nik Ahmad Sufian Burhan, Abdul Halim Sidek and Saifuzzaman Ibrahim
Performance of Organic Loght Emitting Diode for Low Power Military Display 17
Application
Suhana Md Rejab, Nurjuliana Juhari, Mohamad Halim Abd Wahid,
Nor Azura Malini Ahmad Hambali, Vithyacharan Retnasamy and
Mukhzeer Mohamad Shahimin
Enhancing Capacity and Expertise of Human Assistance and Disaster Relief 29

Effort in Asean
Nasharuddin Mohamad and Salduana Junaidi
Historic Arguments and Transboundary Disputes on Water Conflict in South Asia 40

Sudhir Pratap Singh and Haslinda Abdullah
Malaysia’s Twin achievements in International Peace and Security 57

Ramli H Nik
The Issue of Freedom of Navigation in The Asia-Pacific Region: The 66

Rights and Interests of Coastal States and Practices
Munraj Singh Gill RMAF
The Challenges and Prospects in Rebuilding Post-Conflict Afghanistan (2001-2014) 80

Kamarul Azlan Bin Abd Samad RMN
United States Response to China’s Assertiveness in The South China Sea 93

Mohammad Razief bin Che Ahmad
Dividing the Korean Peninsula The Rhetoric of The George W. Bush 1

Administration
Sarah Teo
Security in Chemical and Biological Laboratories 18

Roberto Mugavero and Valentino Sabato
Resolving the Conflict in Southern Thailand: Moving Forward or Stepping 35

Backward?
Mohd Zaini bin Salleh
Leadership Conflict and Identity Crisis Within Al Jama’ah Al Islamiyah: Revisited 54

Zulkarnain Haron and Nordin Hussin
North Korea’s Foreign Policy Patterns Towards Major Powers: From the Cold 74
War Era Until the Post-Cold War Era
Nordin bin Abdul Gahni, RMAF
Ethnic Conflict: Theories and Understanding the Root Causes 87

Nasharuddin bin Mohamad
The Influence of Public Opinion in the Formulation of State’s Foreign 98

and Defence Policies
Kwong Fook Wen and Norazman bin Mohamad Nor
Exogenous and Endogenous Factors of India’s Enduring Ambivalence 110

Towards the United States
Yusri bin Jamari, RMAF
Malaysia’s Defence and Security Policies 1

Hishammuddin Tun Hussein
Fundamentalists and the Utopia of a Daulah Islamiyah/ Khalifah Islamiyah 11

Zulkarnain Haron
Artificial Islands in the South China Sea: Rationale for Terrestrial Increase, 30
Incremental Maritime Jurisdictional Creep and Military Bases
Vivian Louis Forbes
The Determinants to the Outcomes of the United Nations Hybrid Mission 56

in Darfur Conflict
T.Azharan bin T.Putra
Japan: Looking for a Role, but Whither Southeast Asia in Japan’s Outreach? 70
Ruhanas Harun
A Review of Security Threats of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles and Mitigation Steps 81

Dinesh Sathyamoorthy
Non-Traditional Security Threats and Crisis Management: Is Malaysia Ready? 98

Shasshi Kunjunie Narayanan, Rosmini Omar
Islamic Practice Among the Malaysian Armed Forces Personnel 114

Burhanuddin Jalal
The Decline of US Helmed Global Hegemony: The Emergence of a More 101

Equitable Pattern of International Relation?
Chandra Muzaffar
The Human Dimensions of Soldiering: A Perspective on Future Requirements 120

in the Complex Operational Environment
Hj Zulkifli bin Hj Zainal Abidin
China’s Military Modernisation: The Growth of Domestic Defence Industries 141

Samir Abas
Navigating Maritime Disputes: Commonality of Security Interest 165

Ramli H. Nik
Iran’s Nuclear Program: The United States Response 173

Mohd Saifulisham bin Hj Baharun
United States - India Strategic Partnership: Implications for Asian Security 185
Mohd Mansor bin Hj Mohd Sharip
Planning an Arabic Language Syllabus for Military Religious Corps (KAGAT) 197
Personnel Deployed in Arabic Speaking Countries
Najjah Salwa Abd Razak, Zulkarnain Mohamed,
Ezzad Azraai Jamsari, Maheram Ahmad
Knowledge Management Strategy in the Malaysian Armed Forces: 216

Towards Next-Generation Knowledge-Centric Organization
Ismail Manuri
Terrorism Trends and Challenges: Understanding the Emergence of 1

‘Al Qaeda Galaxy’
Kumar Ramakrishna
“Trans-Border Migration: A Challenge to Regional Stability?” 8

Andrew Bruce, Christopher Foulkes
Cooperative Mechanism on the Management of the Straits of Malacca: 13

An Analysis
Zahid bin Abd Aziz RMN
The Role of the United Nations in the Kashmir Conflict: An Analysis 25

Mohamad Noorlizam bin Shamsuddin
The Affective Commitment as a Mediator in Relationship Between Military 44

Commanders Transformational and Transactional Leadership with
Subordinates Job Satisfaction in Malaysia Royal Signals Corp
Zolkifli bin Osman, Jegak Uli
Decision Making in Organisational Behaviour: A Review of Models, 62

Factors and Environment Types, and Proposal of AHP
Nor Hafizah Mohamed, Dinesh Sathyamoorthy
Maritime Cooperation with United States and China: Examination on the 74

Contemporary Issues and Challenges for Malaysia
Sumathy Permal
Vietnam and China: The Stress and Strains of an Unpredictable Relationship 89

Ruhanas Harun
Managing Complex Security Challenges: Historical Perspective, Traditional 111

Sovereignty, Nation Building And Collective Approaches
Hishammuddin Tun Hussein
The Global Shift of Power: Challenges, Opportunities and Security Implications 119
for the United States of America, Europe and the World: A Perspective from
South East Asia
Hj Zulkifli bin Hj Zainal Abidin
Future Air Force Cooperation in the Asean Region 137

Rodzali bin Daud
Asean Centrality in a Rising Asia 143

Benjamin Ho Tze Ern
The Balance of Leadership Change and Challenges Between Civil Democracies 160
and Military Rule in Pakistan
Inderjit, Ananthan
Realism, Liberalism, “Sabah Claim” and Malaysia 177

Raja Saifuddin bin Raja Azman, Nordin bin Rijaludin
Evaluation of Vulnerabilities of Global Positioning System (GPS) Signals: 189

A Review of Research Conducted in Stride Using Fields Evaluations and
GPS Simulation
Dinesh Sathyamoorthy, Mohd Faudzi Muhammad, Shalini Shafi,
Mohd Jalis Md Jelas
A Review on Motivational Factor in the Military 212

A. Endry Nixon
The Majority of Potential Maritime Boundaries Worldwide and the South China Sea 1
Remain Undelimited. Does it Matter?
Abdul Aziz Jaafar
U.S Attitudes and Policies Towards Asia Regionalism in the Post-Cold War Era 11
K.S. Nathan
ASEAN’s Quest for Political-Security Community in 2015: An Analysis 29

BA Hamzah
Role-Playing Games (RPG) and New-Age Terrorism: A Psychological Overview 38

Mohd Hafizzuddin Md Damiri
The Triangular Tension of Taiwan Straits - The Korean Peninsular - Japan: 49

Challenges in the Shadow of Cold War and Post Cold War Era
Mohd Zaini Salleh, Sharizan Wan Chik
The Risk Management and Its Key Elements: Risk Assessment and Contingency 68
and Emergency Planning
Valentino Sabato, Roberto Mugavero, Daniele Carbini
Motivating Non-Commissioned Officers in the Malaysian Infantry 80

A. Endry Nixon
Book Review - The Dark Sides of The Internet: On Cyber Threats and 108
Information Warfare
Cyberplanning and Cyber Defense: A Malaysian Perspective 117

William R. Stevenson
Malaysia’s Strategies and Approaches to Major Powers 122

Ruhanas harun
Transnational Security Threats and Non-traditional Security Challenges 130

Rita Parker
Weapons of Mass Destruction Terrorism and South Asia 139

Ajey Lele
Extended Continental Shelf Claims in East-Asia: Intension for Legal Clarity, 151
Political Dilemma in Reality
WU Shicun, HONG Nong
Cooperation Within the Asean Plus Three Context: Incidental or Coincidence? 170
Mohd Hafizzuddin Md Damiri
Analysis of Influence Zones of Mountains Extracted from Multiscale 180

Digital Elevation Models
Computation of Reattachment Lenght of the Main Recirculation Region of 195

a Backward-facing Step: A Review
Yogeswaran Sinnasamy, Dinesh Sathyamoorthy, Abdul Aziz Jaafar,
Azmin Shakrine Mohd Rafie
Non-Traditional Threats and Security Policy Response 1

Rita Parker
Consideration of the Maritime Boudaries in the Eastern end of Malacca Strait 13

Victor Prescott
Preventive Diplomacy in the South China Sea: Malaysia’s Perspective 16

Sumathy Permal
Symbiosis of Civil-Military Relations in Determining Security and Economic 45

Cohesion of People’s Republic of China
Mohd Zaini Salleh, Sharizan Wan Chik
Reinforced Team Dynamics Through Followership 63

Azlyn Ahmad Zawawi, Nur Zafifa Kamarunzaman, Kenali Basiron
Evaluation of the Effect of Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) on Global Positioning 71

System (GPS) Signals: Comparison of Field Evaluations and GPS Simulation
Dinesh Sathyamoorthy, Mohd Faudzi Muhammad, Zainal Fitry M Amin
Quantitative Evaluation of Camouflage Patterns on Textile Materials using 87

Fractal Analysis
Abdul Ghaffar Ramli, Mohamad Asri Abd Ghani, Dinesh Sathyamoorthy
Leadership Styles of Military Commanders in the Malaysian Infantry 100

A. Endry Nixon
Maritime Security in Southeast Asia: Consolidating Current Efforts and 163

Fostering New Ones
Ahmad Zahid Hamidi
Possible Mechanisms on Managing the Impacts of the Impeccable Incidents 171
Jian Wei
China’s Economic Security Interest in 21st Century in Asia Pacific: 197
The Australia-Indonesia Security Relations
Kasah Hj Mohd Shah
Evolution of Guerilla Warfare Strategy from Ancient Period to Contemporary Era: 209
An Over View
Zaini Salleh, Ahmad Zaidi Sulaiman
Japan’s Security Roles in East Asia: Key Determinants and Challenges 225
Muhammad Anwar Abdullah
The Australia-Indonesia Security Relations 236
Johnny Lim Eng Seng
The Symbiotic Bilateral Relationship Between Malaysia and Indonesia: 252
An Analytical Perspective on Issues amd Remedy for the Way Forward
Inderjit Singh
Human Trafficking in Malaysian Water: Tackling its Menace through 265

Migration Reforms
Pooja Teresha Stanslas
Modeling and Pid Based Feedback Control of Gun Control System for Improving 281
Eight-Wheeled Armored Vehicle (8WAV) Dynamics Performance in Roll and
Pitch Motions during firing
Zulkifli Abd Kadir, Khisbullah Huda, Shohaimi Abdullah, Mohd Fazli Mohd Yusoff,
Kahlid Abdul Jalil, Ahmad Mujahid Ahmad Zaidi, Khairul Hasni Kamaruddin,
Mohd Azzeri Md Naiem
Work Stress, Coworker’s Social Support and Work Interference with Family 293
Conflict: Perceptions of Employees in Defence Base Public Higher Institution
Azman Ismail, Aniza Wamin, Ummu Fahri Abd Rauf, Mohamad Nasir Saludin
Shohaimi Abdullah
Future of Asian Space Powers 1

Ajey Lele
Defence Research and Development: National Industrialization Towards 24
Achieving Self Reliance
Mohd Yunus Masjuki
Military Forecasting and Planning (F & P): An Overview 35
Norliza Husein, Norazman Mohamad Nor, Nooh Abu Bakar
Post - 2002 Development in South China Sea: Seeking Confidence Building & 54
Regional Cooperation
Nong Hong
Fostering Security Cooperation in Overlapping Maritime Areas 70
Victor Prescott
Maritime Human Trafficking in Malaysia: Scope of the Problem and 84
Role of Enforcement Agencies
Pooja Theresa Stanslas
Review of the Armour Protection Technology for the Future 105
Light Armoured Vehicles
Shohaimi Abdullah, Khairi Hasni, Norazman Mohamad Noor,
Ahmad Mujahid Ahmad Zaidi, Zulkifli Abd Kadir, Risby Mohd Suhaimi
Numerical Simulation Study in Early Scabbing Occurrence On A Concrete 131
Target Subjected to Local Impact Loading
Ahmad Mujahid Ahmad Zaidi, Qing Ming Le, Norazman Mohd Nor,
Shohaimi Abdullah, Zulkiffli Abd Kadir, Khalid Jalil, Khairul Hasni Kamaruddin
A Review of The Effects of Environmental Parameters on 142
Polymer Composite Materials
Roslan Abd Aziz
The Relationship Between Training Assignment, Feel Importance 150
And Training Motivation: A Study In Military Training Academy
Azman Ismail*, Nurhana Mohamad Rafiuddin, Shohaimi Abdullah and
Muhammad Zulfadhlizam Ghazali

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ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS

Amna Khalid is a PhD candidate in International Relations at School of International Studies

ii The Journal of Defence and Security

COLLABORATIVE GOVERNANCE FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND

Capt Dr Tay Yap Leong RMN

Collaborative governance is a multifaceted approach that involves cooperation,

Collaborative governance offers numerous benefits for Malaysia, including enhanced

The Journal of Defence and Security 1

Collaborative governance has emerged as a promising approach to address complex

Malaysia’s diverse marine ecosystems face numerous threats, including overfishing,

Understanding Collaborative Governance Collaborative governance is a multifaceted

THE IMPORTANCE OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND MARINE RESOURCES

Sustainable development is an approach that aims to meet human development goals

2 The Journal of Defence and Security

Marine resource management is an important aspect of sustainable development.

Sustainable development and effective management of marine resources are crucial

Environmental and conservation organizations, like WWF-Malaysia and Reef Check

In Malaysia, indigenous and coastal communities have centuries of experience in managing

The Journal of Defence and Security 3

CHALLENGES FACED IN COLLABORATIVE GOVERNANCE FOR SUSTAINABLE

Collaborative governance for sustainable development and marine resources management

Thirdly, limited financial resources pose a challenge to collaborative governance initiatives

Fourth, inadequate institutional capacity and expertise hinder effective collaboration

4 The Journal of Defence and Security

OPPORTUNITIES IN COLLABORATIVE GOVERNANCE

The maritime ecosystems in Malaysia exhibit a remarkable level of diversity, encompassing

Malaysia has already taken steps toward implementing collaborative governance in

Malaysia is a signatory to several international agreements and conventions linked to

STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT: KEY TO SUCCESSFUL COLLABORATIVE

Collaborative governance involves multiple stakeholders working together to achieve

The Journal of Defence and Security 5

By involving diverse stakeholders from various sectors and backgrounds, collaborative

CASE STUDIES: SUCCESSFUL EXAMPLES OF COLLABORATIVE GOVERNANCE

One successful example of collaborative governance for sustainable development and

In addition, through collaborative efforts, they have implemented several initiatives to

With regards to overfishing an example of Malaysia tackling this issue is through

Fisheries co-management is based on the principle that cooperation between communities

POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ENHANCING COLLABORATIVE

Strengthening Institutional Framework: The Malaysian government should establish a

Enhancing Transparency and Accountability: Establish clear guidelines for information

Local Communities: The inclusion of local communities, particularly indigenous and

CONCLUSION: THE WAY FORWARD FOR COLLABORATIVE GOVERNANCE

In conclusion, collaborative governance offers a promising path forward for Malaysia in

Collaborative governance holds immense potential for Malaysia’s sustainable

8 The Journal of Defence and Security

As Malaysia continues to face the challenges of overfishing, habitat degradation, and

This includes enhancing coordination mechanisms between different government

3. Environmental Management and Sustainable Development in Malaysia, Danish Environmental

Marine 2. (n.d.). WWF Malaysia. https://www.wwf.org.my/our_work/marine/

Masud, M. M. (2019). Conservation and sustainable use of marine resources in Malaysia. In

Mohd Zaideen, D. (2020, March 7). - ARE WE ON TRACK TO ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE

10 The Journal of Defence and Security

Regional Marine Strategy. (2023). PEMSEA. http://pemsea.org/our-work/regional-marine-

Wikipedia contributors. (2023). Sustainable development. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/

12 The Journal of Defence and Security

ARMY4NEXTG: THE CONCEPT OF THINKING SOLDIERS IN SUPPORT OF

The Journal of Defence and Security 13

This article serves as a background to understand the making of Army4NextG related

THE MAKING ARMY4NEXTG CONCEPT