Algebra Handbook

Math Handbook
of Formulas, Processes and Tricks

(www.mathguy.us)
Algebra and PreCalculus
Prepared by: Earl L. Whitney, FSA, MAAA
Version 3.3
August 22, 2021
Copyright 2008‐21, Earl Whitney, Reno NV. All Rights Reserved

Algebra Handbook
Table of Contents
Page Description
Chapter 1: Basics
9 Order of Operations (PEMDAS, Parenthetical Device)
10 Graphing with Coordinates (Coordinates, Plotting Points)
11 Linear Patterns (Recognition, Converting to an Equation)
12 Identifying Number Patterns
13 Completing Number Patterns
14 Real Number Sets (Sets of Numbers, Real Number Set Tree)
Chapter 2: Operations
15 Operating with Real Numbers (Absolute Value, Add, Subtract, Multiply, Divide)
16 Properties of Algebra (Addition & Multiplication, Zero, Equality)
Chapter 3: Solving Equations

18 Solving Multi‐Step Equations
19 Tips and Tricks in Solving Multi‐Step Equations
Chapter 4: Probability & Statistics

20 Probability and Odds
21 Probability with Dice
22 Combinations
23 Statistical Measures
Chapter 5: Functions
24 Introduction to Functions (Definitions, Line Tests)
25 Special Integer Functions
26 Operations with Functions
27 Composition of Functions
28 Inverses of Functions
29 Transformation – Translation
30 Transformation – Vertical Stretch and Compression
31 Transformation – Horizontal Stretch and Compression
32 Transformation – Reflection
33 Transformation – Summary
34 Building a Graph with Transformations
Cover art by Rebecca Williams,

Twitter handle: @jolteonkitty
Version 3.3 Page 2 of 187 August 22, 2021

Algebra Handbook
Table of Contents
Page Description
Chapter 6: Linear Functions

35 Slope of a Line (Mathematical Definition)
36 Slope of a Line (Rise over Run)
37 Slopes of Various Lines (8 Variations)
38 Various Forms of a Line (Standard, Slope‐Intercept, Point‐Slope)
39 Slopes of Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
40 Parallel, Perpendicular or Neither
41 Parallel, Coincident or Intersecting
Chapter 7: Inequalities
42 Properties of Inequalities
43 Graphs of Inequalities in One Dimension
44 Compound Inequalities in One Dimension
45 Inequalities in Two Dimensions
46 Graphs of Inequalities in Two Dimensions
47 Absolute Value Functions (Equations)
48 Absolute Value Functions (Inequalities)
Chapter 8: Systems of Equations

49 Graphing a Solution
50 Substitution Method
51 Elimination Method
52 Classification of Systems of Equations
53 Linear Dependence
54 Systems of Inequalities in Two Dimensions
55 Parametric Equations
Chapter 9: Exponents (Basic) and Scientific Notation

56 Exponent Formulas
57 Scientific Notation (Format, Conversion)
58 Adding and Subtracting with Scientific Notation
59 Multiplying and Dividing with Scientific Notation

Algebra Handbook
Table of Contents
Page Description
Chapter 10: Polynomials – Basic

60 Introduction to Polynomials
61 Adding and Subtracting Polynomials
62 Multiplying Binomials (FOIL, Box, Numerical Methods)
63 Multiplying Polynomials
64 Dividing Polynomials
65 Factoring Polynomials
66 Special Forms of Quadratic Functions (Perfect Squares)
67 Special Forms of Quadratic Functions (Differences of Squares)
68 Factoring Trinomials – Simple Case Method
69 Factoring Trinomials – AC Method
70 Factoring Trinomials – Brute Force Method
71 Factoring Trinomials – Quadratic Formula Method
72 Solving Equations by Factoring
Chapter 11: Quadratic Functions

73 Introduction to Quadratic Functions
74 Completing the Square
75 Table of Powers and Roots
76 The Quadratic Formula
77 Quadratic Inequalities in One Variable
79 Fitting a Quadratic through Three Points
Chapter 12: Complex Numbers

80 Complex Numbers ‐ Introduction
81 Operations with Complex Numbers
82 The Square Root of i
83 Complex Numbers – Graphical Representation
84 Complex Number Operations in Polar Coordinates
85 Complex Solutions to Quadratic Equations
Chapter 13: Radicals

86 Radical Rules
87 Simplifying Square Roots (Extracting Squares, Extracting Primes)
88 Solving Radical Equations
89 Solving Radical Equations (Positive Roots, The Missing Step)

Algebra Handbook
Table of Contents
Page Description
Chapter 14: Matrices

90 Matrix Addition and Scalar Multiplication
91 Matrix Multiplication
92 Identity Matrices and Inverse Matrices
93 Inverse of a 2x2 Matrix
94 Determinants – The General Case
95 Matrix Division and Inverses
96 Calculating Inverses – The General Case (Gauss‐Jordan Elimination)
97 Calculating Inverses Using Adjoint Matrices
99 Cramer’s Rule – 2 Equations
100 Cramer’s Rule – 3 Equations
101 Augmented Matrices
102 2x2 Augmented Matrix Examples
103 3x3 Augmented Matrix Example
104 Characteristic Equation and Eigenvalues
105 Eigenvectors
106 2x2 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors – General Case
107 Calculating Inverses Using Characteristic Equations
Chapter 15: Exponents and Logarithms

109 Exponent Formulas
110 Logarithm Formulas
111 e
112 Table of Exponents and Logs
113 Converting Between Exponential and Logarithmic Forms
114 Expanding Logarithmic Expressions
115 Condensing Logarithmic Expressions
116 Condensing Logarithmic Expressions – More Examples
117 Graphing an Exponential Function
118 Four Exponential Function Graphs
119 Graphing a Logarithmic Function
122 Four Logarithmic Function Graphs
123 Graphs of Various Functions
124 Applications of Exponential Functions (Growth, Decay, Interest)
125 Solving Exponential and Logarithmic Equations

Algebra Handbook
Table of Contents
Page Description
Chapter 16: Polynomials – Intermediate

126 Polynomial Function Graphs
127 Finding Extrema with Derivatives
128 Factoring Higher Degree Polynomials – Sum and Difference of Cubes
129 Factoring Higher Degree Polynomials – Variable Substitution
130 Factoring Higher Degree Polynomials – Synthetic Division
131 Comparing Synthetic Division and Long Division
132 Zeros of Polynomials – Developing Possible Roots
133 Zeros of Polynomials – Testing Possible Roots
134 Intersections of Curves (General Case, Two Lines)
135 Intersections of Curves (a Line and a Parabola)
136 Intersections of Curves (a Circle and an Ellipse)
Chapter 17: Rational Functions

137 Domains of Rational Functions
138 Holes and Asymptotes
139 Graphing Rational Functions
139 Simple Rational Functions
140 Simple Rational Functions ‐ Example
141 General Rational Functions
143 General Rational Functions ‐ Example
145 Operating with Rational Expressions
146 Solving Rational Equations
147 Solving Rational Inequalities
Chapter 18: Conic Sections

148 Introduction to Conic Sections
149 Parabola with Vertex at the Origin (Standard Position)
150 Parabola with Vertex at Point (h, k)
151 Parabola in Polar Form
152 Circles
153 Ellipse Centered on the Origin (Standard Position)
154 Ellipse Centered at Point (h, k)
155 Ellipse in Polar Form
156 Hyperbola Centered on the Origin (Standard Position)
157 Hyperbola Centered at Point (h, k)
158 Hyperbola in Polar Form
159 Hyperbola Construction Over the Domain: 0 to 2π
160 General Conic Equation ‐ Classification
161 General Conic Formula – Manipulation (Steps, Examples)
162 Parametric Equations of Conic Sections

Algebra Handbook
Table of Contents
Page Description
Chapter 19: Sequences and Series

163 Introduction to Sequences and Series
164 Fibonacci Sequence
165 Summation Notation and Properties
166 Some Interesting Summation Formulas
167 Arithmetic Sequences
168 Arithmetic Series
169 Pythagorean Means (Arithmetic, Geometric)
170 Pythagorean Means (Harmonic)
171 Geometric Sequences
172 Geometric Series
173 A Few Special Series (π, e, cubes)
174 Pascal’s Triangle
175 Binomial Expansion
176 Gamma Function and n !
177 Graphing the Gamma Function
178 Index
Useful Websites
Mathguy.us – Developed specifically for math students from Middle School to College, based on the
author's extensive experience in professional mathematics in a business setting and in math
tutoring. Contains free downloadable handbooks, PC Apps, sample tests, and more.
http://www.mathguy.us/
Wolfram Math World – Perhaps the premier site for mathematics on the Web. This site contains
definitions, explanations and examples for elementary and advanced math topics.
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/
Purple Math – A great site for the Algebra student, it contains lessons, reviews and homework
guidelines. The site also has an analysis of your study habits. Take the Math Study Skills Self‐
Evaluation to see where you need to improve.
http://www.purplemath.com/
Math.com – Has a lot of information about Algebra, including a good search function.
http://www.math.com/homeworkhelp/Algebra.html

Algebra Handbook
Table of Contents
Schaum’s Outlines
An important student resource for any high school math student is a Schaum’s Outline. Each book
in this series provides explanations of the various topics in the course and a substantial number of
problems for the student to try. Many of the problems are worked out in the book, so the student
can see examples of how they should be solved.
Schaum’s Outlines are available at Amazon.com, Barnes & Noble, Borders and other booksellers.
Note: This study guide was prepared to be a companion to most books on the subject of High
School Algebra. In particular, I used the following texts to determine which subjects to include
in this guide.
 Algebra 1 , by James Schultz, Paul Kennedy, Wade Ellis Jr, and Kathleen Hollowelly.
 Algebra 2 , by James Schultz, Wade Ellis Jr, Kathleen Hollowelly, and Paul Kennedy.
Although a significant effort was made to make the material in this study guide original, some
material from these texts was used in the preparation of the study guide.

Chapter 1 Basics
Algebra
Order of Operations
To the non‐mathematician, there may appear to be multiple ways to evaluate an algebraic

expression. For example, how would one evaluate the following?
3∙4∙7 6∙5
You could work from left to right, or you could work from right to left, or you could do any
number of other things to evaluate this expression. As you might expect, mathematicians do
not like this ambiguity, so they developed a set of rules to make sure that any two people
evaluating an expression would get the same answer.
PEMDAS
In order to evaluate expressions like the one above, mathematicians have defined an order of
operations that must be followed to get the correct value for the expression. The acronym that
can be used to remember this order is PEMDAS. Alternatively, you could use the mnemonic
phrase “Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally” or make up your own way to memorize the order of
operations. The components of PEMDAS are:
 P Anything in Parentheses is evaluated first.

 E Items with Exponents are evaluated next. Note: When there are multiple
operations in the same category,
 M Multiplication and … for example, a division and two
D Division are performed next. multiplications, the operations
 A Addition and … are performed from left to right.
S Subtraction are performed last.
Parenthetical Device. A useful device is to use apply parentheses to help you remember
the order of operations when you evaluate an expression. Parentheses are placed around the
items highest in the order of operations; then solving the problem becomes more natural.
Using PEMDAS and this parenthetical device, we solve the expression above as follows:
Initial Expression: 3∙4∙7 6∙5 Note: Any expression which is

ambiguous, like the one above, is
Add parentheses/brackets: 3∙4∙7 6∙ 5 poorly written. Students should strive
Solve using PEMDAS: 84 6 ∙ 25 to ensure that any expressions they
write are easily understood by others
84 150 and by themselves. Use of parentheses
Final Answer 234 and brackets is a good way to make
your work more understandable.

Chapter 1 Basics
Algebra
Graphing with Coordinates
Graphs in two dimensions are very common in algebra and are one of the most common
algebra applications in real life.
y
Coordinates
Quadrant 2 Quadrant 1
The plane of points that can be graphed in 2 dimensions is
called the Rectangular Coordinate Plane or the Cartesian x
Coordinate Plane (named after the French mathematician
and philosopher René Descartes). Quadrant 3 Quadrant 4
 Two axes are defined (usually called the x‐ and y‐axes).

 Each point on the plane has an x value and a y value, written as: (x‐value, y‐value)
 The point (0, 0) is called the origin, and is usually denoted with the letter “O”.
 The axes break the plane into 4 quadrants, as shown above. They begin with Quadrant 1
where x and y are both positive and increase numerically in a counter‐clockwise fashion.
Plotting Points on the Plane

When plotting points,
 the x‐value determines how far right (positive) or left (negative) of the origin the point is
plotted.
 The y‐value determines how far up (positive) or down (negative) from the origin the point is
plotted.
Examples:
The following points are plotted in the figure to
the right:
A = (2, 3) in Quadrant 1
B = (‐3, 2) in Quadrant 2
C = (‐2, ‐2) in Quadrant 3
D = (4, ‐1) in Quadrant 4
O = (0, 0) is not in any quadrant

Chapter 1 Basics
Algebra
Linear Patterns
Recognizing Linear Patterns
The first step to recognizing a pattern is to arrange a set of numbers in a table. The table can
be either horizontal or vertical. Here, we consider the pattern in a horizontal format. More
advanced analysis generally uses the vertical format.
Consider this pattern:

x‐value 0 1 2 3 4 5
y‐value 6 9 12 15 18 21
To analyze the pattern, we calculate differences of successive values in the table. These are
called first differences. If the first differences are constant, we can proceed to converting the
pattern into an equation. If not, we do not have a linear pattern. In this case, we may choose
to continue by calculating differences of the first differences, which are called second
differences, and so on until we get a pattern we can work with.
In the example above, we get a constant set of first differences, which tells us that the pattern
is indeed linear.
x‐value 0 1 2 3 4 5
y‐value 6 9 12 15 18 21
First Differences 3 3 3 3 3
Converting a Linear Pattern to an Equation

Note: If the table does not have a
Creating an equation from the pattern is easy if you have value for x=0, you can still obtain
constant differences and a y‐value for x = 0. In this case, the value of “b”. Simply extend the
 The equation takes the form 𝒚 𝒎𝒙 𝒃, where table left or right until you have an
 “m” is the constant difference from the table, and x‐value of 0; then use the first
 “b” is the y‐value when x = 0. differences to calculate what the
corresponding y‐value would be.
In the example above, this gives us the equation: 𝒚 𝟑𝒙 𝟔. This becomes your value of “b”.
Finally, it is a good idea to test your equation. For example, if 𝑥 4, the above equation gives
𝑦 3∙4 6 18, which is the value in the table. So we can be pretty sure our equation is
correct.

Basics
Chapter 1 ADVANCED
Algebra
Identifying Number Patterns
When looking at patterns in numbers, is is often useful to take differences of the numbers you
are provided. If the first differences are not constant, take differences again.
n ∆
‐3
2
‐1 When first differences are constant, the pattern represents a
2
1 linear equation. In this case, the equation is: y = 2x ‐ 5 . The
2
3 constant difference is the coefficient of x in the equation.
2
5
2
7
n ∆ ∆2
2 When second differences are constant, the pattern represents a
3
5 2
5 quadratic equation. In this case, the equation is: y = x 2 + 1 . The
10 2
7 constant difference, divided by 2, gives the coefficient of x2 in the
17 2
9 equation.
26 2
11
37
When taking successive differences yields patterns that do not seem to level out, the pattern
may be either exponential or recursive.
n ∆ ∆2
5 In the pattern to the left, notice that the first and second
2
7 2 differences are the same. You might also notice that these
4
11 4 differences are successive powers of 2. This is typical for an
8
19 8
16 exponential pattern. In this case, the equation is: y = 2 x + 3 .
35 16
32
67
n ∆ ∆2 In the pattern to the left, notice that the first and second
2 differences appear to be repeating the original sequence. When
1
3 1 this happens, the sequence may be recursive. This means that
2
5 1 each new term is based on the terms before it. In this case, the
3
8 2 equation is: y n = y n‐1 + y n‐2 , meaning that to get each new term,
5
13 3
8 you add the two terms before it.
21

Basics
Chapter 1 ADVANCED
Algebra
Completing Number Patterns
The first step in completing a number pattern is to identify it. Then, work from the right to the left, filling in
the highest order differences first and working backwards (left) to complete the table. Below are two
examples.
Example 1 Example 2
n Consider in the examples the sequences of six n

‐1 numbers which are provided to the student. You are 2
6 asked to find the ninth term of each sequence. 3
25 5
62 8
123 13
214 21
n ∆ ∆2 ∆
3
Step 1: Create a table of differences. Take successive n ∆ ∆2 ∆
3
‐1 differences until you get a column of constant 2

7 1
6 12 differences (Example 1) or a column that appears to 3 1
19 6 2 0
25 18 repeat a previous column of differences (Example 2). 5 1
37 6 3 1
62 24 8 2
61 6 5 1
123 30 13 3
91 8
214 21
n ∆ ∆2 ∆
3
Step 2: In the last column of differences you created, n ∆ ∆2 ∆
3
‐1 continue the constant differences (Example 1) or the 2

7 1
6 12 repeated differences (Example 2) down the table. 3 1
19 6 2 0
25 18 Create as many entries as you will need to solve the 5 1
37 6 3 1
62 24 problem. For example, if you are given 6 terms and 8 2
61 6 5 1
123 30 asked to find the 9th term, you will need 3 (= 9 ‐ 6) 13 3
91 6 8 2
214 additional entries in the last column. 21
6 3
6 5
n ∆ ∆2 ∆3 Step 3: Work backwards (from right to left), filling in n ∆ ∆2 ∆3

‐1 each column by adding the differences in the column 2
7 1
6 12 to the right. 3 1
19 6 2 0
25 18 5 1
37 6 In the example to the left, the calculations are 3 1
62 24 8 2
61 6 performed in the following order: 5 1
123 30 13 3
91 6 2
8 2
214 36 Column ∆ : 30 + 6 = 36; 36 + 6 = 42; 42 + 6 = 48 21 5
127 6 13 3
341 42 34 8
169 6 Column ∆: 91 + 36 = 127; 127 + 42 = 169; 169 + 48 = 217 21 5
510 48 55 13
217 34
727 Column n: 214 + 127 = 341; 341 + 169 = 510; 510 + 217 = 727 89
The final answers to the examples are the ninth items in each sequence, the items in bold red.

Chapter 1 Basics
Algebra
Real Number Sets
Number Set Symbol Definition Examples
Natural (or, N or Numbers that you would 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, …

Counting) Numbers Z+ normally count with.
Add the number zero to the

Whole Numbers W 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, …
set of Natural Numbers
Whole numbers plus the set

Integers Z … ‐3, ‐2, ‐1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …
of negative Natural Numbers
Any number that can be All integers, plus fractions and

Rational Numbers Q expressed in the form , mixed numbers, such as:
where a and b are integers 2 17 4
, , 3
and 𝑏 0. 3 6 5
Any number that can be All rational numbers plus roots

Real Numbers R written in decimal form, and some others, such as:
even if that form is infinite. √2 , √12 , π, e
Real Number Set Tree

Real Numbers
Rational Irrational
Integers Fractions and

Mixed Numbers
Whole Negative
Numbers Integers
Natural Zero
Numbers

Chapter 2 Operations
Algebra
Operating with Real Numbers
Absolute Value
The absolute value of something is the distance it is from zero. The easiest way to get the
absolute value of a number is to eliminate its sign. Absolute values are always positive or 0.
| 5| 5 |3| 3 |0| 0 |1.5| 1.5
Adding and Subtracting Real Numbers
Adding Numbers with the Same Sign: Adding Numbers with Different Signs:
 Add the numbers without regard  Ignore the signs and subtract the
to sign. smaller number from the larger one.
 Give the answer the same sign as  Give the answer the sign of the number
the original numbers. with the greater absolute value.
 Examples:  Examples:
6 3 9 6 3 3
12 6 18 7 11 4
Subtracting Numbers:
 Change the sign of the number or numbers being subtracted.
 Add the resulting numbers.
 Examples:
6 3 6 3 3
13 4 13 4 9
Multiplying and Dividing Real Numbers

Numbers with the Same Sign: Numbers with Different Signs:
 Multiply or divide the numbers  Multiply or divide the numbers without
without regard to sign. regard to sign.
 Give the answer a “+” sign.  Give the answer a “-” sign.
 Examples:  Examples:
6 ∙ 3 18 18 6 ∙ 3 18
12 3 4 4 12 3 4

Algebra
Properties of Algebra
Properties of Addition and Multiplication. For any real numbers a, b, and c:
Property Definition for Addition Definition for Multiplication
Closure Property 𝑎 𝑏 is a real number 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 is a real number
Identity Property 𝑎 0 0 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎∙1 1∙𝑎 𝑎
1 1
Inverse Property 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 0 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎 0, 𝑎 ∙ ∙𝑎 1
𝑎 𝑎
Commutative Property 𝑎 𝑏 𝑏 𝑎 𝑎∙𝑏 𝑏∙𝑎
Associative Property 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎∙𝑏 ∙𝑐 𝑎∙ 𝑏∙𝑐
Distributive Property 𝑎∙ 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎∙𝑏 𝑎∙𝑐
Properties of Zero. For any real number a:
Multiplication by 0 𝑎∙0 0∙𝑎 0
0 Divided by Something 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎 0, 0
Division by 0 is undefined even if a 0

Algebra
Operational Properties of Equality. For any real numbers a, b, and c:
Property Definition
Addition Property 𝐼𝑓 𝑎 𝑏, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 𝑐 𝑏 𝑐
Subtraction Property 𝐼𝑓 𝑎 𝑏, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 𝑐 𝑏 𝑐
Multiplication Property 𝐼𝑓 𝑎 𝑏, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 ∙ 𝑐 𝑏∙𝑐
Division Property 𝐼𝑓 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 𝑐 𝑏 𝑐
Other Properties of Equality. For any real numbers a, b, and c:
Property Definition
Reflexive Property 𝑎 𝑎
Symmetric Property 𝐼𝑓 𝑎 𝑏, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑏 𝑎
Transitive Property 𝐼𝑓 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 𝑐, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 𝑐
Substitution Property If 𝑎 𝑏, then either can be substituted for the

other in any equation (or inequality).

Chapter 3 Solving Equations
Algebra
Solving Multi‐Step Equations
Reverse PEMDAS
One systematic way to approach multi‐step equations is Reverse PEMDAS. PEMDAS describes
the order of operations used to evaluate an expression. Solving an equation is the opposite of
evaluating it, so reversing the PEMDAS order of operations seems appropriate.
The guiding principles in the process are:

 Each step works toward isolating the variable for which you are trying to solve.
 Each step “un‐does” an operation in Reverse PEMDAS order:
Inverses
Subtraction Addition Note: Logarithms are the
Inverses inverse operator to exponents.
Division Multiplication This topic is typically covered in
Exponents Inverses Logarithms

the second year of Algebra.
Parentheses Inverses Remove Parentheses (and repeat process)
The list above shows inverse operation relationships. In order to undo an operation, you
perform its inverse operation. For example, to undo addition, you subtract; to undo division,
you multiply. Here are a couple of examples:
Example 1 Example 2
Solve: 3𝑥 4 14 Solve: 2 ∙ 2𝑥 5 3 5
Step 1: Add 4 4 4 Step 1: Add 3 3 3
Result: 3𝑥 18 Result: 2 ∙ 2𝑥 5 2
Step 2: Divide by 3 3 3 Step 2: Divide by 2 2 2
Result: 𝑥 6 Result: 2𝑥 5 1
Step 3: Remove parentheses
Notice that we add and subtract before we
multiply and divide. Reverse PEMDAS. Result: 2𝑥 5 1
Step 4: Subtract 5 5 5
Result: 2𝑥 6
With this approach, you will be able to
Step 5: Divide by 2 2 2
solve almost any multi‐step equation. As
you get better at it, you will be able to use Result: 𝑥 3
some shortcuts to solve the problem faster.
Since speed is important in mathematics, learning a few tips and tricks with regard to solving
equations is likely to be worth your time.

Chapter 3 Solving Equations
Algebra
Tips and Tricks in Solving Multi‐Step Equations
Fractional Coefficients
Fractions present a stumbling block to many students in solving multi‐step equations. When
stumbling blocks occur, it is a good time to develop a trick to help with the process. The trick
shown below involves using the reciprocal of a fractional coefficient as a multiplier in the
solution process. (Remember that a coefficient is a number that is multiplied by a variable.)
Example 1
Solve: 𝑥 8 Explanation: Since is the reciprocal of ,

when we multiply them, we get 1, and 1 ∙
Multiply by : ∙ ∙ 𝑥 𝑥. Using this approach, we can avoid
dividing by a fraction, which is more difficult.
Result: 𝑥 ∙8 12
Example 2 Explanation: 4 is the reciprocal of , so

Solve: 𝑥 2 when we multiply them, we get 1. Notice
the use of parentheses around the negative
Multiply by 4: ∙ 4 ∙ 4 number to make it clear we are multiplying
Result: 𝑥 2 ∙ 4 8 and not subtracting.
Another Approach to Parentheses

In the Reverse PEMDAS method, parentheses Example 3
are handled after all other operations. Solve: 2 ∙ 2𝑥 5 3 5
Sometimes, it is easier to operate on the Step 1: Distribute the lead multiplier (2)
parentheses first. In this way, you may be able Result: 4𝑥 10 3 5
to re‐state the problem in an easier form before Step 2: Combine constants
solving it.
Result: 4𝑥 7 5
Example 3, at right, is another look at the Step 3: Subtract 7 7 7
problem in Example 2 on the previous page. Result: 4𝑥 12
Use whichever approach you find most to your Step 4: Divide by 4 4 4
liking. They are both correct. Result: 𝑥 3

Chapter 4 Probability & Statistics
Algebra
Probability and Odds
Probability
Probability is a measure of the likelihood that an event will occur. It depends on the number of
outcomes that represent the event and the total number of possible outcomes. In equation terms,
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕

𝑷 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒔
Example 1: The probability of a flipped coin landing as a head is 1/2. There are two equally likely events
when a coin is flipped – it will show a head or it will show a tail. So, there is one chance out of two that
the coin will show a head when it lands.
1 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 1
𝑃 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
2 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 2
Example 2: In a jar, there are 15 blue marbles, 10 red marbles and 7 green marbles. What is the
probability of selecting a red marble from the jar? In this example, there are 32 total marbles, 10 of
which are red, so there is a 10/32 (or, when reduced, 5/16) probability of selecting a red marble.
10 𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠 10 5
𝑃 𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑙𝑒
32 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠 32 16
Odds
Odds are similar to probability, except that we measure the number of chances that an event will occur
relative to the number of chances that the event will not occur.
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕

𝑶𝒅𝒅𝒔 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒔 𝑵𝑶𝑻 𝒓𝒆𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕
In the above examples,
1 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 1 10 𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠 10 5

𝑂𝑑𝑑𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑂𝑑𝑑𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑙𝑒
1 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙 1 22 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠 22 11
 Note that the numerator and the denominator in an odds calculation add to the total number of
possible outcomes in the denominator of the corresponding probability calculation.
 To the beginning student, the concept of odds is not as intuitive as the concept of probabilities;
however, they are used extensively in some environments.

Algebra
Probability with Dice
Single Die
Probability with a single die is based on the number of chances of an event out of 6 possible
outcomes on the die. For example:
𝑃 2 𝑃 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑃 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 5
Two Dice
Probability with two dice is based on the number of chances of an event out of 36 possible
outcomes on the dice. The following table of results when rolling 2 dice is helpful in this regard:
1st Die
2nd Die 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
5 6 7 8 9 10 11
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
The probability of rolling a number with two dice is the number of times that number occurs in
the table, divided by 36. Here are the probabilities for all numbers 2 to 12.
𝑃 2 𝑃 5 𝑃 8 𝑃 11
𝑃 3 𝑃 6 𝑃 9 𝑃 12
𝑃 4 𝑃 7 𝑃 10
𝑃 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑃 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 3
𝑃 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑃 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 4
𝑃 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 6

Algebra
Combinations
Single Category Combinations
The number of combinations of items selected from a set, several at a time, can be calculated
relatively easily using the following technique:
Technique: Create a ratio of two products. In the numerator, start with the number of
total items in the set, and count down so the total number of items being multiplied is
equal to the number of items being selected. In the denominator, start with the
number of items being selected and count down to 1.
Example: How many Example: How many Example: How many

combinations of 3 items can combinations of 4 items can combinations of 2 items can
be selected from a set of 8 be selected from a set of 13 be selected from a set of 30
items? Answer: items? Answer: items? Answer:
8∙7∙6 13 ∙ 12 ∙ 11 ∙ 10 30 ∙ 29
56 715 435
3∙2∙1 4∙3∙2∙1 2∙1
Multiple Category Combinations
When calculating the number of combinations that can be created by selecting items from
several categories, the technique is simpler:
Technique: Multiply the numbers of items in each category to get the total number of
possible combinations.
Example: How many different Example: How many different Example: How many designs
pizzas could be created if you outfits can be created if you for a car can be created if you
have 3 kinds of dough, 4 kinds have 5 pairs of pants, 8 shirts can choose from 12 exterior
of cheese and 8 kinds of and 4 jackets? colors, 3 interior colors, 2
toppings? interior fabrics and 5 types of
Answer: Answer: wheels? Answer:
3∙4∙8 96 5∙8∙4 160 12 ∙ 3 ∙ 2 ∙ 5 360

Algebra
Statistical Measures
Statistical measures help describe a set of data. A definition of a number of these is provided in the table below:
Concept Description Calculation Example 1 Example 2
Data Set Numbers 35, 35, 37, 38, 45 15, 20, 20, 22, 25, 54
Add the values and

35 35 37 38 45 15 18 22 22 25 54
Mean Average divide the total by the 38 26
5 6
number of values
Arrange the values from
(1)
Median Middle low to high and take the 37 21(1)
middle value(1)
The value that appears
Mode Most most often in the data 35 20
set
The difference between
Range Size the highest and lowest 45 – 35 = 10 54 – 15 = 39
values in the data set
Values that look very
(2) different from the other
Outliers Oddballs none 54
values in the data set
Notes:
(1) If there are an even number of values, the median is the average of the two middle values. In Example 2, the median is 21,
which is the average of 20 and 22.
(2) The question of what constitutes an outlier is not always clear. Although statisticians seek to minimize subjectivity in the
definition of outliers, different analysts may choose different criteria for the same data set.

Chapter 5 Functions
Algebra
Introduction to Functions
Definitions
 A Relation is a relationship between variables, usually expressed as an equation.
 In a typical x‐y equation, the Domain of a relation is the set of x‐values for which y‐
values can be calculated. For example, in the relation 𝑦 √𝑥 the domain is 𝑥 0
because these are the values of x for which a square root can be taken.
 In a typical x‐y equation, the Range of a relation is the set of y‐values that result for all
values of the domain. For example, in the relation 𝑦 √𝑥 the range is 𝑦 0 because
these are the values of y that result from all the values of x.
 A Function is a relation in which each element in the domain has only one
corresponding element in the range.
 A One‐to‐One Function is a function in which each element in the range is produced by
only one element in the domain.
Function Tests in 2‐Dimensions

Vertical Line Test – If a vertical line passes through the graph of a relation in any two locations,
it is not a function. If it is not possible to construct a vertical line that passes through the graph
of a relation in two locations, it is a function.
Horizontal Line Test – If a horizontal line passes through the graph of a function in any two
locations, it is not a one‐to‐one function. If it is not possible to construct a horizontal line that
passes through the graph of a function in two locations, it is a one‐to‐one function.
Examples:
Figure 1: 𝒚𝟐 𝒙 Figure 2: 𝒚 𝒙𝟐 Figure 3: 𝒚 𝒙𝟑

Not a function. Is a function, but not a one‐ Is a one‐to‐one function.
Fails vertical line test. to‐one function. Passes vertical line test.
Passes vertical line test. Passes horizontal line test.
Fails horizontal line test.

Chapter 5 Functions
Algebra
Special Integer Functions
Greatest Integer Function

Also called the Floor Function, this function gives the
greatest integer less than or equal to a number. There
are two common notations for this, as shown in the
examples below.
Notation and examples:

3.5 3 2.7 3 6 6
⌊2.4⌋ 2 ⌊ 7.1⌋ 8 ⌊0⌋ 0
In the graph to the right, notice the solid dots on the left of the segments (indicating the points are
included) and the open lines on the right of the segments (indicating the points are not included).
Least Integer Function

Also called the Ceiling Function, this function gives the
least integer greater than or equal to a number. The
common notation for this is shown in the examples
below.

⌈3.5⌉ 4 ⌈ 2.7⌉ 2 ⌈6⌉ 6
In the graph to the right, notice the open dots on the

left of the segments (indicating the points are not included) and the closed dots on the right of the
segments (indicating the points are included).
Nearest Integer Function

Also called the Rounding Function, this function gives
the nearest integer to a number (rounding to the even
number when a value ends in .5). There is no clean
notation for this, as shown in the examples below.

𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡 3.5 4 𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡 2.7 3 𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡 6 6
In the graph to the right, notice the open dots on the
left of the segments (indicating the points are not
included) and the closed dots on the right of the segments (indicating the points are included).

Chapter 5 Functions
Algebra
Operations with Functions
Function Notation
𝒇 𝒙 𝒙𝟐 𝟐 𝒈 𝒙 𝒆𝒙 𝒍𝒏 𝒙 𝒉 𝒙 𝟑𝒙 𝟒
Function notation replaces the variable y with a function name. The x in parentheses indicates
that x is the domain variable of the function. By convention, functions tend to use the letters f,
g, and h as names of the function.
Operations with Functions
Adding Functions 𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 The domain of the combination

of functions is the intersection
Subtracting Functions 𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 of the domains of the two
individual functions. That is,
Multiplying Functions 𝑓∙𝑔 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 ∙𝑔 𝑥 the combined function has a
value in its domain if and only if
𝑓 𝑓 𝑥 the value is in the domain of
Dividing Functions 𝑥 , 𝑔 𝑥 0
𝑔 𝑔 𝑥 each individual function.
Examples:
Let: 𝑓 𝑥 𝑥 1 Then: 𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑔 𝑥 𝑥 1 𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 2
𝑓∙𝑔 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 1
𝑓
𝑥 𝑥 1, 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑥 1
𝑔
Note that in 𝑥 there is the requirement 𝑥 1. This is because 𝑔 1 0 in the

denominator would require dividing by 0, producing an undefined result.
Other Operations
Other operations of equality also hold for functions, for example:
𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 ∙𝑓 𝑥 ∙𝑓 𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 ∙ 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 ∙𝑔 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 ∙ℎ 𝑥

Chapter 5 Functions
Algebra
Composition of Functions
In a Composition of Functions, first one function is performed, and then the other. The
notation for composition is, for example: 𝒇 𝒈 𝒙 or 𝒇 𝐨 𝒈 𝒙 . In both of these notations,
the function g is performed first, and then the function f is performed on the result of g.
Always perform the function closest to the variable first.
Double Mapping
A composition can be thought of as a double mapping. First g maps from its domain to its
range. Then, f maps from the range of g to the range of f:
Range of g
Domain of g Range of f
Domain of f
g f
The Words Method

In the example,
Example: Let 𝑓 𝑥 𝑥  The function 𝒇 says square the argument.
and 𝑔 𝑥 𝑥 1  The function 𝒈 says add 1 to the argument.
𝟐
Sometimes it is easier to think of the functions in
Then: 𝒇𝐨𝒈 𝒙 𝒙 𝟏
words rather than in terms of an argument like x.
And: 𝒈𝐨𝒇 𝒙 𝒙𝟐 𝟏
𝒇 𝐨 𝒈 says “add 1 first, then square the result.”
𝒈 𝐨 𝒇 says “square first, then add 1 to the result.”
Using the words method,
Calculate: 𝑓 o 𝑔 12𝑦𝑧 Calculate: 𝑔o𝑓 2

g: add 1 to it 12𝑦𝑧 1 f: square it 2 4
𝟐
f: square it 𝟏𝟐𝒚𝒛 𝟏 g: add 1 to it 4 1 𝟓

Chapter 5 Functions
Algebra
Inverses of Functions
In order for a function to have an inverse, it must be a one‐to‐one function. The requirement
for a function to be an inverse is:
𝟏 𝟏
𝒇𝐨𝒇 𝒙 𝒇 𝐨𝒇 𝒙 𝒙
𝟏
The notation 𝒇 𝒙 is used for the Inverse Function of 𝒇 𝒙 .
𝟏
Another way of saying this is that if 𝒇 𝒂 𝒃, then 𝒇 𝒃 𝒂 for all 𝒂 in the domain of 𝒇.
Deriving an Inverse Function

The following steps can be used to derive an inverse function. This process assumes that the
original function is expressed in terms of 𝑓 𝑥 .
 Make sure the function is one‐to‐one. Otherwise it has no inverse. You can accomplish
this by graphing the function and applying the vertical and horizontal line tests.
 Substitute the variable y for𝒇 𝒙 .
 Exchange variables. That is, change all the x’s to y’s and all the y’s to x’s.
 Solve for the new y in terms of the new x.
 (Optional) Switch the expressions on each side of the equation if you like.
 Replace the variable y with the function notation 𝒇 𝟏 𝒙 .
 Check your work.
Examples:
Derive the inverse of: 𝑓 𝑥 𝑥 2 Derive the inverse of: 𝑓 𝑥 2𝑥 1

Substitute 𝑦 for 𝑓 𝑥 : 𝑦 2𝑥 1
Substitute 𝑦 for 𝑓 𝑥 : 𝑦 𝑥 2
Exchange variables: 𝑥 2𝑦 1
Exchange variables: 𝑥 𝑦 2
Add 1: 𝑥 1 2𝑦
Subtract 2: 𝑥 2 𝑦
Divide by 2: 𝑦
Multiply by 3: 3𝑥 6 𝑦
Switch sides: 𝑦
Switch sides: 𝑦 3𝑥 6
𝟏 𝒙 𝟏
𝟏
Change Notation: 𝒇 𝒙
Change Notation: 𝒇 𝒙 𝟑𝒙 𝟔 𝟐
To check the result, note that:

To check the result, note that:
1 𝑓 𝑥 1 2𝑥 1 1
𝑓 o𝑓 𝑥 3𝑓 𝑥 6 3 𝑥 2 6 𝑥 𝑓 o𝑓 𝑥 𝑥
3 2 2

Chapter 5 Functions
Algebra
Transformation – Translation
A Translation is a movement of the graph of a relation to a different location in the plane. It

preserves the shape and orientation of the graph on the page. Alternatively, a translation can
be thought of as leaving the graph where it is and moving the axes around on the plane.
In Algebra, the translations of primary interest are the vertical and horizontal translations of a
graph.
Vertical Translation
Starting form: 𝒚 𝒇 𝒙
Vertical Translation: 𝒚 𝒇 𝒙 𝒌
At each point, the graph of the translation is 𝒌 units higher or

lower depending on whether 𝒌 is positive or negative. The
letter 𝒌 is used as a convention when moving up or down. In
algebra, 𝒌 usually represents a y‐value of some importance.
Note:
 A positive 𝒌 shifts the graph up.
 A negative 𝒌 shifts the graph down.
Horizontal Translation
Horizontal Translation: 𝒚 𝒇 𝒙 𝒉
At each point, the graph of the translation is 𝒉 units to

the left or right depending on whether 𝒉 is positive or
negative. The letter 𝒉 is used as a convention when
moving left or right. In algebra, 𝒉 usually represents an
x‐value of some importance.
Note:
 A positive 𝒉 shifts the graph to the left.
 A negative 𝒉 shifts the graph to the right.
For horizontal translation, the direction of movement of the graph is counter‐intuitive; be
careful with these.

Chapter 5 Functions
Algebra
Transformation – Vertical Stretch and Compression
A Vertical Stretch or Compression is a stretch or compression in the vertical direction, relative

to the x‐axis. It does not slide the graph around on the plane like a translation. An alternative
view of a vertical stretch or compression would be a change in the scale of the y‐axis.
Vertical Stretch
Vertical Stretch: 𝒚 𝒂∙𝒇 𝒙 , 𝒂 1
At each point, the graph is stretched vertically by a factor of

𝒂. The result is an elongated curve, one that exaggerates all
of the features of the original.
Vertical Compression
Vertical Compression: 𝒚 𝒂∙𝒇 𝒙 , 𝟎 𝑎 1
At each point, the graph is compressed vertically by a

factor of 𝒂. The result is a flattened‐out curve, one that Note: The forms of the equations
mutes all of the features of the original. for vertical stretch and vertical
compression are the same. The
only difference is the value of "𝒂".
Value of "𝒂" in
Resulting Curve
𝒚 𝒂∙𝒇 𝒙
𝒂 0 reflection
𝒂 𝟎 x‐axis
𝟎 𝑎 1 compression
𝒂 𝟏 original curve
𝒂 1 stretch

Chapter 5 Functions
Algebra
Transformation – Horizontal Stretch and Compression
A Horizontal Stretch or Compression is a stretch or compression in the horizontal direction,

relative to the y‐axis. It does not slide the graph around on the plane like a translation. An
alternative view of a horizontal stretch or compression would be a change in the scale of the x‐
axis.
Horizontal Stretch
Horizontal Stretch: 𝒚 𝒇 𝒃𝒙 , 𝟎 𝒃 𝟏
At each point, the graph is stretched horizontally

by a factor of . The result is a widened curve, one
that exaggerates all of the features of the original.
Horizontal Compression
Starting form: 𝒚 𝒇 𝒙 Note: The forms of the equations
Horizontal Compression: 𝒚 𝒇 𝒃𝒙 , 𝒃 𝟏 for the horizontal stretch and the
horizontal compression are the
At each point, the graph is compressed horizontally by a same. The only difference is the
𝟏
factor of . The result is a skinnier curve, one that mutes value of "𝒃".
𝒃
all of the features of the original.
Value of "𝒃" in
Resulting Curve
𝒚 𝒇 𝒃𝒙
𝒃 0 reflection
𝒃 𝟎 horizontal line
𝟎 𝒃 1 stretch
𝒃 𝟏 original curve
𝒃 1 compression
Note: For horizontal stretch and compression, the change in the graph caused by the value
of “b” is counter‐intuitive; be careful with these.

Chapter 5 Functions
Algebra
Transformation – Reflection
A Reflection is a “flip” of the graph across a mirror in the plane. It preserves the shape the
graph but can make it look “backwards.”
In Algebra, the reflections of primary interest are the reflections across an axis in the plane.
X‐Axis Reflection Y‐Axis Reflection

Starting form: 𝒚 𝒇 𝒙 Starting form: 𝒚 𝒇 𝒙
x‐axis Reflection: 𝒚 𝒇 𝒙 y‐axis Reflection: 𝒚 𝒇 𝒙
Note the following: Note the following:

 At each point, the graph is  At each point, the graph is
reflected across the x‐axis. reflected across the y‐axis.
 The form of the transformation is  The form of the transformation is
the same as a vertical stretch or the same as a horizontal stretch
compression with 𝒂 𝟏. or compression with 𝒃 𝟏.
 The flip of the graph over the x‐  The flip of the graph over the y‐
axis is, in effect, a vertical axis is, in effect, a horizontal
transformation. transformation.

Chapter 5 Functions
Algebra
Transformations – Summary
For purposes of the following table, the variables h and k are positive to make the forms more
like what the student will encounter when solving problems involving transformations.
Transformation Summary
Form of Transformation Result of Transformation
𝒚 𝒇 𝒙 𝒌 Vertical translation up k units.

𝒚 𝒇 𝒙 𝒌 Vertical translation down k units.
𝒚 𝒇 𝒙 𝒉 Horizontal translation left h units.

𝒚 𝒇 𝒙 𝒉 Horizontal translation right h units.
𝒚 𝒂∙𝒇 𝒙 , 𝒂 1 Vertical stretch by a factor of 𝑎.

𝒚 𝒂∙𝒇 𝒙 , 𝟎 𝑎 1 Vertical compression by a factor of 𝑎.
𝒚 𝒇 𝒃𝒙 , 𝒃 1 Horizontal compression by a factor of .

𝒚 𝒇 𝒃𝒙 , 𝟎 𝑏 1 Horizontal stretch by a factor of .
𝒚 𝒇 𝒙 Reflection across the x‐axis (vertical).

𝒚 𝒇 𝒙 Reflection across the y‐axis (horizontal).
Transformations based on the values

of “a” and “b” (stretches,
compressions, reflections) can be
represented by these graphics.

Chapter 5 Functions
Algebra
Building a Graph with Transformations
The graph of an equation can be built with blocks made up of transformations. As an example,
we will build the graph of 𝑦 2 𝑥 3 4.
Step 1: Start with the basic Step 2: Translate 3 units to Step 3: Stretch vertically by
quadratic equation: 𝒚 𝒙𝟐 the right to get equation: a factor of 2 to get equation:
𝒚 𝒙 𝟑 𝟐 𝒚 𝟐 𝒙 𝟑 𝟐
Step 4: Reflect over the Step 5: Translate up 4 Final Result: Show the graph
x-axis to get equation: units to get equation: of the final equation: 𝒚
𝒚 𝟐 𝒙 𝟑 𝟐 𝒚 𝟐 𝒙 𝟑 𝟐 𝟒 𝟐 𝒙 𝟑 𝟐 𝟒

Chapter 6 Linear Functions
Algebra
Slope of a Line
The slope of a line tells how fast it rises or falls as it moves from left to right. If the slope is
rising, the slope is positive; if it is falling, the slope is negative. The letter “m” is often used as
the symbol for slope.
The two most useful ways to calculate the slope of a line are discussed below.
Mathematical Definition of Slope

The definition is based on two points with
coordinates 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 and 𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 . The definition,
then, is:
𝒚𝟐 𝒚𝟏
𝒎
𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟏
Comments:
 You can select any 2 points on the line.
 A table such as the one at right can be helpful for doing
your calculations. x‐value y‐value
𝒚𝟐 𝒚𝟏 𝒚𝟏 𝒚𝟐 Point 2 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
 Note that 𝒎 implies that 𝒎 .
𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐
Point 1 𝒙𝟏 𝒚𝟏
So, it does not matter which point you assign as Point 1
and which you assign as Point 2. Therefore, neither does Difference 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟏 𝒚𝟐 𝒚𝟏
it matter which point is first in the table.
 It is important that once you assign a point as Point 1 and another as Point 2, that you use
their coordinates in the proper places in the formula.
Examples:
For the two lines in the figure above, we get the following:
Green Line x‐value y‐value Red Line x‐value y‐value

Point A 1 4 Point D 4 ‐2
Point C ‐3 ‐4 Point B ‐4 2
Difference 4 8 Difference 8 ‐4
𝟖 𝟒 𝟏
Green Line: 𝒎 𝟐 Red Line: 𝒎
𝟒 𝟖 𝟐

Algebra
Slope of a Line (cont’d)
Rise over Run

An equivalent method of calculating slope that is more
visual is the “Rise over Run” method. Under this
method, it helps to draw vertical and horizontal lines
that indicate the horizontal and vertical distances
between points on the line.
The slope can then be calculated as follows:
𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆

𝒎 =
𝒓𝒖𝒏 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒛𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆
The rise of a line is how much it increases (positive) or decreases (negative) between two
points. The run is how far the line moves to the right (positive) or the left (negative) between
the same two points.
Comments:
 You can select any 2 points on the line.
 It is important to start at the same point in measuring both the rise and the run.
 A good convention is to always start with the point on the left and work your way to the
right; that way, the run (i.e., the denominator in the formula) is always positive. The only
exception to this is when the run is zero, in which case the slope is undefined.
 If the two points are clearly marked as integers on a graph, the rise and run may actually be
counted on the graph. This makes the process much simpler than using the formula for the
definition of slope. However, when counting, make sure you get the right sign for the slope
of the line, e.g., moving down as the line moves to the right is a negative slope.
Examples:
For the two lines in the figure above, we get the following:
𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝟒 𝒕𝒐 𝟒 𝟖
Green Line: 𝒎 𝟐 Notice how similar the
𝒓𝒖𝒏 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝟑 𝒕𝒐 𝟏 𝟒 calculations in the examples
are under the two methods
𝒇𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝟐 𝒕𝒐 𝟐 𝟒 𝟏
Red Line: 𝒎 of calculating slopes.
𝒓𝒖𝒏 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝟒 𝒕𝒐 𝟒 𝟖 𝟐

Algebra
Slopes of Various Lines
𝑚 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
line is vertical
When you look at a line, you

4 should notice the following
𝑚 2 𝑏𝑖𝑔 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 about its slope: 1
5 𝑚 3 𝑏𝑖𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
2
line is steep and going down  Whether it is 0, positive,
line is steep and going up
negative or undefined.
 If positive or negative,
whether it is less than 1,
about 1, or greater than 1.
The purpose of the graphs on

this page is to help you get a feel
for these things.
This can help you check: 𝑚 1

𝑚 1
 Given a slope, whether you line goes up at a 45⁰ angle
line goes down at a 45⁰ angle
drew the line correctly, or
 Given a line, whether you
calculated the slope
correctly.
3 2
𝑚 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑚 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
17 11
line is shallow and going down line is shallow and going up
𝑚 0
line is horizontal

Algebra
Various Forms of a Line
There are three forms of a linear equation which are most useful to the Algebra student, each
of which can be converted into the other two through algebraic manipulation. The ability to
move between forms is a very useful skill in Algebra, and should be practiced by the student.
Standard Form
The Standard Form of a linear equation is: Standard Form Examples
𝑨𝒙 𝑩𝒚 𝑪 3𝑥 2𝑦 6
where A, B, and C are real numbers and A and B are not both zero. 2𝑥 7𝑦 14
Usually in this form, the convention is for A to be positive.
Why, you might ask, is this “Standard Form?” One reason is that this form is easily extended to
additional variables, whereas other forms are not. For example, in four variables, the Standard
Form would be: 𝑨𝒙 𝑩𝒚 𝑪𝒛 𝑫𝒘 𝑬. Another reason is that this form easily lends itself
to analysis with matrices, which can be very useful in solving systems of equations.
Slope‐Intercept Form
Slope‐Intercept Examples
The Slope‐Intercept Form of a linear equation is the one most
familiar to many students. It is: 𝑦 3𝑥 6
3
𝒚 𝒎𝒙 𝒃 𝑦 𝑥 14
4
where m is the slope and b is the y‐intercept of the line (i.e., the
value at which the line crosses the y‐axis in a graph). m and b must also be real numbers.
Point‐Slope Form
The Point‐Slope Form of a linear equation is the one used least by
the student, but it can be very useful in certain circumstances. In Point‐Slope Examples
particular, as you might expect, it is useful if the student is asked for 𝑦 3 2 𝑥 4
the equation of a line and is given the line’s slope and the 2
coordinates of a point on the line. The form of the equation is: 𝑦 7 5 𝑥
3
𝒚 𝒚𝟏 𝒎 𝒙 𝒙𝟏
where m is the slope and 𝑥 , 𝑦 is any point on the line. One strength of this form is that
equations formed using different points on the same line will be equivalent.

Algebra
Slopes of Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
Parallel Lines
Two lines are parallel if their slopes are equal.
 In 𝑦 𝑚𝑥 𝑏 form, if the values of 𝑚 are
the same.
Example: 𝑦 2𝑥 3 and
𝑦 2𝑥 1
 In Standard Form, if the coefficients of 𝑥 and
𝑦 are proportional between the equations.
Example: 3𝑥 2𝑦 5 and
6𝑥 4𝑦 7
 Also, if the lines are both vertical (i.e., their
slopes are undefined).
Example: 𝑥 3 and
𝑥 2
Perpendicular Lines
Two lines are perpendicular if the product of their
slopes is 𝟏. That is, if the slopes have different
signs and are multiplicative inverses.
 In 𝑦 𝑚𝑥 𝑏 form, the values of 𝑚
multiply to get 1..
Example: 𝑦 6𝑥 5 and
𝑦 𝑥 3
 In Standard Form, if you add the product of

the x‐coefficients to the product of the y‐
coefficients and get zero.
Example: 4𝑥 6𝑦 4 and
3𝑥 2𝑦 5 because 4∙3 6∙ 2 0
 Also, if one line is vertical (i.e., 𝑚 is undefined) and one line is horizontal (i.e., 𝑚 0).
Example: 𝑥 6 and
𝑦 3

Algebra
Parallel, Perpendicular or Neither
The following flow chart can be used to determine whether a pair of lines are parallel,
perpendicular, or neither.
First, put both lines in:

𝒚 𝒎𝒙 𝒃 form.
Are the
yes Result: The
slopes of the
lines are
two lines the
parallel.
same?
no
Is the Result: The lines

yes
product of are
the two perpendicular.
slopes = ‐1?
no
Result: The
lines are
neither.

Algebra
Parallel, Coincident or Intersecting
The following flow chart can be used to determine whether a pair of lines are parallel,
coincident, or intersecting. Coincident lines are lines that are the same, even though they may
be expressed differently. Technically, coincident lines are not parallel because parallel lines
never intersect and coincident lines intersect at all points on the line.
First, put both lines in:

𝒚 𝒎𝒙 𝒃 form.
Are the Are the y‐ Result: The

yes yes
slopes of the intercepts of lines are
two lines the the two lines coincident.
same? the same?
no no
Result: The Result: The

lines are lines are
intersecting. parallel.
The intersection of the two lines is:

 For intersecting lines, the point of intersection.
 For parallel lines, the empty set, .
 For coincident lines, all points on the line.

Chapter 7 Inequalities
Algebra
Properties of Inequalities
For any real numbers a, b, and c:
Property Definition
Addition 𝐼𝑓 𝑎 𝑏, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 𝑐 𝑏 𝑐
Property
𝐼𝑓 𝑎 𝑏, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 𝑐 𝑏 𝑐
Subtraction 𝐼𝑓 𝑎 𝑏, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 𝑐 𝑏 𝑐
Property
𝐼𝑓 𝑎 𝑏, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 𝑐 𝑏 𝑐
Multiplication For 𝒄 0, For 𝒄 0,

Property
𝐼𝑓 𝑎 𝑏, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 ∙ 𝑐 𝑏∙𝑐 𝐼𝑓 𝑎 𝑏, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 ∙ 𝑐 𝑏∙𝑐
𝐼𝑓 𝑎 𝑏, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 ∙ 𝑐 𝑏∙𝑐 𝐼𝑓 𝑎 𝑏, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 ∙ 𝑐 𝑏∙𝑐
Division For 𝒄 0, For 𝒄 0,

Property
𝐼𝑓 𝑎 𝑏, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 𝑐 𝑏 𝑐 𝐼𝑓 𝑎 𝑏, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 𝑐 𝑏 𝑐
𝐼𝑓 𝑎 𝑏, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 𝑐 𝑏 𝑐 𝐼𝑓 𝑎 𝑏, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 𝑐 𝑏 𝑐
Note: all properties which hold for “<” also hold for “≤”, and all properties which hold for “>”
also hold for “≥”.
There is nothing too surprising in these properties. The most important thing to be obtained
from them can be described as follows: When you multiply or divide an inequality by a
negative number, you must “flip” the sign. That is, “<” becomes “>”, “>” becomes “<”, etc.
In addition, it is useful to note that you can flip around an entire inequality as long as you keep
the “pointy” part of the sign directed at the same item. Examples:
One way to remember this
4 𝑥 is the same as 𝑥 4
is that when you flip around
an inequality, you must also
3𝑥 2 𝑦 is the same as 𝑦 3𝑥 2
flip around the sign.

Algebra
Graphs of Inequalities in One Dimension
Inequalities in one dimension are generally graphed on the number line. Alternatively, if it is
clear that the graph is one‐dimensional, the graphs can be shown in relation to a number line
but not specifically on it (examples of this are on the next page).
One‐Dimensional Graph Components

 The endpoint(s) – The endpoints for the ray or segment in the graph are shown as either
open or closed circles.
o If the point is included in the solution to the inequality (i.e., if the sign is ≤ or ≥), the
circle is closed.
o If the point is not included in the solution to the inequality (i.e., if the sign is < or >),
the circle is open.
 The arrow – If all numbers in one direction of the number line are solutions to the
inequality, an arrow points in that direction.
o For < or ≤ signs, the arrow points to the left ( ).
o For > or ≥ signs, the arrow points to the right ( ).
 The line – in a simple inequality, a line is drawn from the endpoint to the arrow. If there are
two endpoints, a line is drawn from one to the other.
Examples:

Algebra
Compound Inequalities in One Dimension
Compound inequalities are a set of inequalities that must all be true at the same time. Usually,
there are two inequalities, but more than two can also form a compound set. The principles
described below easily extend to cases where there are more than two inequalities.
Compound Inequalities with the Word “AND”

An example of compound inequalities with the word “AND” would be:
𝒙 12 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 2 or 𝟐 𝒙 1𝟐 These are the same conditions,
(Simple Form) (Compound Form) expressed in two different forms.
Graphically, “AND” inequalities exist at points where the graphs of the individual inequalities
overlap. This is the “intersection” of the graphs of the individual inequalities. Below are two
examples of graphs of compound inequalities using the word “AND.”
A typical “AND” example: The result is a “AND” compound inequalities sometimes result
segment that contains the points that overlap in the empty set. This happens when no
the graphs of the individual inequalities. numbers meet both conditions at the same time.
Compound Inequalities with the Word “OR”

Graphically, “OR” inequalities exist at points where any of the original graphs have points. This
is the “union” of the graphs of the individual inequalities. Below are two examples of graphs of
compound inequalities using the word “OR.”
A typical “OR” example: The result is a pair of “OR” compound inequalities sometimes result in
rays extending in opposite directions, with a the set of all numbers. This happens when every
gap in between. number meets at least one of the conditions.

Algebra
Inequalities in Two Dimensions
Graphing an inequality in two dimensions involves the following steps:

 Graph the underlying equation.
 Make the line solid or dotted based on whether the inequality contains an “=” sign.
o For inequalities with “<” or “>” the line is dotted.
o For inequalities with “≤” or “≥” the line is solid.
 Determine whether the region containing the solution set is above the line or below the
line.
o For inequalities with “>” or “≥” the shaded region is above the line.
o For inequalities with “<” or “≤” the shaded region is below the line.
 Shade in the appropriate region.
Example:
Graph the solution set of the following system of inequality: 𝒚 𝑥 1
Step 1: Graph the underlying

equation.
Step 2: Determine whether the line

should be solid or dotted:
𝑦 𝑥 1 the > sign does not
contain “=”, so the line is dotted
Step 3: Determine the region to be

shaded based on the sign in the
equation:
𝑦 𝑥 1 the > sign indicates
shading above the line
The solution set is the shaded area.

Algebra
Graphs of Inequalities in Two Dimensions
𝑳𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝑻𝒉𝒂𝒏 𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑻𝒉𝒂𝒏

Dashed Line Dashed Line
Below the Line Above the Line
𝑳𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝑻𝒉𝒂𝒏 𝒐𝒓 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑻𝒉𝒂𝒏 𝒐𝒓 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒍

Solid Line Solid Line
Below the Line Above the Line

Algebra
Absolute Value Functions
Equations
Graphs of equations involving absolute values generally have a “V” pattern. Whenever you see
a “V” in a graph, think “absolute value.” A general equation for an absolute value function is of
the form:
𝒚 |𝒎 𝒙 𝒉 | 𝒌 𝒐𝒓 𝒚 |𝒎 𝒙 𝒉 | 𝒌
where,
 the sign indicates whether the graph opens up (“ ” sign) or down (“ “ sign).
 |𝑚|is the absolute value of the slopes of the lines in the graph.
 (h, k) is the location of the vertex (i.e., the sharp point) in the graph.
Examples:
Equation: 𝑦 |𝑥 1| 2
Vertex = 1, 2
𝑚 1; |slopes| 1
Graph opens up
Equation: 𝑦 | 2 𝑥 1 | 3
Vertex = 1, 3
𝑚 2; |slopes| 2
Graph opens up
Equation: 𝑦 𝑥 3
Vertex = ,3
𝑚 ; |slopes|
Graph opens down

Algebra
Absolute Value Functions (cont’d)
Inequalities
Since a positive number and a negative number can have the same absolute value, inequalities
involving absolute values must be broken into two separate equations. For example:
The first new equation is simply the original

𝑥 3 4
equation without the absolute value sign.
|𝑥 3| 4
In the second new equation, two things
Sign that determines 𝑥 3 4 change: (1) the sign flips, and (2) the value on
use of “AND” or “OR” the right side of the inequality changes its sign.
At this point the absolute value problem has converted into a pair of compound inequalities.
Equation 1 Equation 2
Solve: 𝑥 3 4 Solve: 𝑥 3 4
Step 1: Add 3 3 3 Step 1: Add 3 3 3
Result: 𝑥 7 Result: 𝑥 1
Next, we need to know whether to use “AND” or “OR” with the results. To decide which word
to use, look at the sign in the inequality; then …
Note: the English is poor, but the math
 Use the word “AND” with “less thand” signs.
is easier to remember with this trick!
 Use the word “OR” with “greator” signs.
The solution to the above absolute value problem, then, is the same as the solution to the
following set of compound inequalities:
𝑥 7 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 1 The solution set is all x in the range (‐1, 7)
Note: the solution set to this example is given in “range” notation. When using this notation,
 use parentheses ( ) whenever an endpoint is not included in the solution set, and
 use square brackets [ ] whenever an endpoint is included in the solution set.
 Always use parentheses ( ) with infinity signs ( ∞ 𝑜𝑟 ∞).
Examples:
The range: 𝑥 6 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 2 The range: 𝑥 2
Notation: 2, 6 Notation: ∞, 2

Chapter 8 Systems of Equations
Algebra
Systems of Equations
A system of equations is a set of 2 or more equations for which we wish to determine all
solutions which satisfy each equation. Generally, there will be the same number of equations
as variables and a single solution to each variable will be sought. However, sometimes there is
either no solution or there is an infinite number of solutions.
There are many methods available to solve a system of equations. We will show three of them
below.
Graphing a Solution
In the simplest cases, a set of 2 equations in 2 unknowns can be solved using a graph. A single
equation in two unknowns is a line, so two equations give us 2 lines. The following situations
are possible with 2 lines:
 They will intersect. In this case, the point of intersection is the only solution.
 They will be the same line. In this case, all points on the line are solutions (note: this is
an infinite set).
 They will be parallel but not the same line. In this case, there are no solutions.
Examples
Solution Set: Solution Set: Solution Set:
The point of intersection The empty set; All points on the line.
can be read off the graph; these parallel lines Although the equations look
the point (2,0). will never cross. different, they actually
describe the same line.

Algebra
Systems of Equations (cont’d)
Substitution Method
In the Substitution Method, we eliminate one of the variables by substituting into one of the
equations its equivalent in terms of the other variable. Then we solve for each variable in turn
and check the result. The steps in this process are illustrated in the example below.
Example: Solve for x and y if: 𝒚 𝒙 𝟐

and: 2𝒙 𝟑𝒚 𝟗.
Step 1: Review the two equations. Look for a variable that can be substituted from one
equation into the other. In this example, we see a single “y” in the first equation; this is a prime
candidate for substitution.
We will substitute 𝒙 𝟐 from the first equation for 𝒚 in the second equation.
Step 2: Perform the substitution.

𝟐𝒙 𝟑𝒚 𝟗 becomes: 𝟐𝒙 𝟑 𝒙 𝟐 𝟗
Step 3: Solve the resulting equation for the single variable that is left.
𝟐𝒙 𝟑 𝒙 𝟐 𝟗 𝟐𝒙 𝟑𝒙 𝟏𝟓
𝟐𝒙 𝟑𝒙 𝟔 𝟗 𝟓𝒙 𝟏𝟓
𝟐𝒙 𝟑𝒙 𝟏𝟓 𝒙 𝟑
Step 4: Substitute the known variable into one of the original equations to solve for the
remaining variable.
𝒚 𝒙 𝟐
After this step, the solution is tentatively identified as:
𝒚 𝟑 𝟐 𝒙 𝟑, 𝒚 𝟏, meaning the point (3, ‐1).
𝒚 𝟏
Step 5: Check the result by substituting the solution into the equation not used in Step 4. If the
solution is correct, the result should be a true statement. If it is not, you have made a mistake
and should check your work carefully.
𝟐𝒙 𝟑𝒚 𝟗
𝟐 𝟑 𝟑 𝟏 𝟗 Since this is a true mathematical
statement, the solution (3, ‐1)
𝟔 𝟑 𝟗
can be accepted as correct.

Algebra
Elimination Method
In the Substitution Method, we manipulate one or both of the equations so that we can add
them and eliminate one of the variables. Then we solve for each variable in turn and check the
result. This is an outstanding method for systems of equations with “ugly” coefficients. The
steps in this process are illustrated in the example below. Note the flow of the solution on the
page.
Example: Solve for x and y if: 𝒚 𝒙 𝟐

and: 2𝒙 𝟑𝒚 𝟗.
Step 1: Re‐write the equations in Step 2: Multiply each equation by a value

standard form. selected so that, when the equations are added,
a variable will be eliminated.
𝒙 𝒚 𝟐 (Multiply by 2) 𝟐𝒙 𝟐𝒚 𝟒
2𝒙 𝟑𝒚 𝟗 (Multiply by ‐1) 2𝒙 𝟑𝒚 𝟗
Step 3: Add the resulting equations.

𝟐𝒙 𝟐𝒚 𝟒
Step 5: Substitute the result into
one of the original equations and 2𝒙 𝟑𝒚 𝟗
solve for the other variable. 𝟓𝒚 𝟓
𝒚 𝒙 𝟐
𝟏 𝒙 𝟐 Step 4: Solve for the variable.
𝒙 𝟏 𝟐 𝟓𝒚 𝟓
𝒙 𝟑 𝒚 𝟏
Step 6: Check the result by substituting

𝟐𝒙 𝟑𝒚 𝟗
the solution into the equation not used in
𝟐 𝟑 𝟑 𝟏 𝟗
Step 5. If the solution is correct, the
𝟔 𝟑 𝟗
result should be a true statement. If it is
not, you have made a mistake and should Since this is a true mathematical statement, the
check your work. solution (3, ‐1) can be accepted as correct.

Algebra
Classification of Systems
There are two main classifications of systems of equations: Consistent vs. Inconsistent, and
Dependent vs. Independent.
Consistent vs. Inconsistent

 Consistent Systems have one or more solutions.
 Inconsistent Systems have no solutions. When you try to solve an inconsistent set of
equations, you often get to a point where you have an impossible statement, such as
“1 2.” This indicates that there is no solution to the system.
Dependent vs. Independent

 Linearly Dependent Systems have an infinite number of solutions. In Linear Algebra, a
system is linearly dependent if there is a set of real numbers (not all zero) that, when
they are multiplied by the equations in the system and the results are added, the final
result is zero.
 Linearly Independent Systems have at most one solution. In Linear Algebra, a system is
linearly independent if it is not linearly dependent. Note: some textbooks indicate that
an independent system must have a solution. This is not correct; they can have no
solutions (see the middle example below). For more on this, see the next page.
Examples
One Solution No Solution Infinite Solutions

Consistent Inconsistent Consistent
Independent Independent Dependent

ADVANCED
Algebra
Linear Dependence
Linear dependence is a concept from Linear Algebra, and is very useful in determining if
solutions to complex systems of equations exist. Essentially, a system of functions 𝒇𝒊 is defined
to be linearly dependent if there is a set of real numbers 𝒂𝒊 (not all zero), such that:
𝑎 𝑓 𝑎 𝑓 𝑎 𝑓 … 𝑎 𝑓 0 or, in summation notation, 𝑎𝑓 0
If there is no set of real numbers 𝒂𝒊 , such that the above equations are true, the system is said
to be linearly independent.
The expression 𝑎 𝑓 𝑎 𝑓 ⋯ 𝑎 𝑓 is called a linear combination of the functions 𝑓 . The

importance of the concept of linear dependence lies in the recognition that a dependent
system is redundant, i.e., the system can be defined with fewer equations. It is useful to note
that a linearly dependent system of equations has a determinant of coefficients equal to 0.
Example:
Consider the following system of equations:
𝒇𝟏 𝟑𝒙 𝟐𝒚 𝒛 𝟏 Notice that: 𝒇𝟑 𝒇𝟏 𝟐𝒇𝟐 .
𝒇𝟐 𝒙 𝒚 𝟐𝒛 𝟐 Therefore, the system is linearly
dependent.
𝒇𝟑 𝒙 𝟓𝒛 𝟑
Checking the determinant of the coefficient matrix:

3 2 1
2 1 3 1 3 2
𝐷 1 1 2 1 0 5 1 5 0 7 5 1 0.
1 2 1 2 1 1
1 0 5
It should be noted that the fact that D 0 is sufficient to prove linear dependence only if there
are no constant terms in the functions (e.g., if the problem involves vectors). If there are
constant terms, it is also necessary that these terms combine “properly.” There are additional
techniques to test this, such as the use of augmented matrices and Gauss‐Jordan Elimination.
Much of Linear Algebra concerns itself with sets of equations that are linearly independent. If
the determinant of the coefficient matrix is non‐zero, then the set of equations is linearly
independent.

Algebra
Systems of Inequalities in Two Dimensions
Systems of inequalities are sets of more than one inequality. To graph a system of inequalities,
graph each inequality separately (including shading in the appropriate region). The solution set,
then, is either the overlap of the regions of the separate inequalities (“AND” Systems) or the
union of the regions of the separate inequalities (“OR” Systems).
Examples:
Graph the solution set of the following system of inequalities:
(a) 𝑦 2𝑥 3 AND 𝑦 𝑥 1 (b) 𝑦 2𝑥 3 OR 𝑦 𝑥 1
Step 1: Graph the underlying equations.
Step 2: Determine whether each line should be

solid or dotted:
 𝑦 2𝑥 3 the ≤ sign contains “=”, so the
line is solid
 𝑦 𝑥 1 the > sign does not contain “=”,
so the line is dotted
Step 3: Determine the regions to be shaded based on the signs in the equations:
 𝑦 2𝑥 3 the ≤ sign indicates shading below the line
 𝑦 𝑥 1 the > sign indicates shading above the line
Step 4: Determine the final solution set.

(a) If the problem has an “AND” between (b) If the problem has an “OR” between
the inequalities, the solution set is the the inequalities, the solution set is the
overlap of the shaded areas (i.e., the union of all of the shaded areas (i.e.,
green part in the graph below). the blue part in the graph below).

Algebra
Parametric Equations
Parametric Equations in 2 dimensions are functions that express each of the two key variables
in terms of a one or more others. For example,
𝒙 𝒕 𝟏
𝒚 𝟐𝒕 𝟑
Parametric equations are sometimes the most useful way to solve a problem.
Pythagorean Triples
As an example, the following parametric equations can be used to find Pythagorean Triples:
Let 𝒔, 𝒕 be relatively prime integers and let 𝒔 𝑡. Then, the following equations produce a set
of integer values that satisfy the Pythagorean Theorem:
𝒂 𝒔𝟐 𝒕𝟐 𝒃 𝟐𝒔𝒕 𝒄 𝒔𝟐 𝒕𝟐
Examples:
s t a b c Pythagorean Relationship
3 2 5 12 13 5 12 13
4 3 7 24 25 7 24 25
5 2 21 20 29 21 20 29
5 3 16 30 34 16 30 34
Creating a Standard Equation from Parametric Equations

To create a standard equation from a set of
parametric equations in two dimensions, Example: Create a standard equation for the
parametric equations:
 Solve one parametric equation for t.
𝒙 𝒕 𝟏 𝒚 𝟐𝒕 𝟑
 Substitute this value of t into the other
Solving for t in the first equation, we get:
equation.
 Clean up the remaining expression as 𝒕 𝒙 𝟏
necessary. Substituting into the second equation gives:
Note: any other method of solving 𝒚 𝟐 𝒙 𝟏 𝟑
simultaneous equations can also be used for Cleaning this up, we get the solution we seek:
this purpose. 𝒚 𝟐𝒙 𝟏

Chapter 9 Exponents
Algebra
Exponent Formulas
Word Description Math Description Limitations

Examples
of Property of Property on variables
𝒙𝟒 ∙ 𝒙𝟑 𝒙𝟕
Product of Powers 𝒂𝒑 ∙ 𝒂𝒒 𝒂𝒑 𝒒
𝒙𝟓 ∙ 𝒙 𝟖
𝒙 𝟑
𝒂𝒑 𝒚𝟓
Quotient of Powers 𝒂𝒑 𝒒
𝒂 𝟎 𝒚𝟑
𝒂𝒒 𝒚𝟐
𝒛𝟒 𝟑
𝒛𝟏𝟐
Power of a Power 𝒂𝒑 𝒒
𝒂 𝒑∙𝒒
𝟑 𝟓
𝒙 𝒙𝟏𝟓
𝟗𝟏𝟎 𝟏
Anything to the zero power is 1 𝒂𝟎 𝟏 𝒂 𝟎
𝒙𝒚𝒛𝟑 𝟎
𝟏, if 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛 𝟎
𝟑
𝟏
Negative powers generate the 𝟏 𝒙
𝒑 𝒙𝟑
reciprocal of what a positive 𝒂 𝒂 𝟎
power generates 𝒂𝒑 𝟏 𝟓
𝒙𝟓
𝒙
𝟑
𝒑 𝟑𝒚 𝟐𝟕𝒚𝟑
Power of a product 𝒂∙𝒃 𝒂𝒑 ∙ 𝒃𝒑
𝟒
𝒙 𝟏 𝒛 𝒙 𝟏 𝟒 𝒛𝟒
𝒂 𝒑 𝒂𝒑 𝒙 𝟑 𝒙𝟑
Power of a quotient 𝒃 𝟎
𝒃 𝒃𝒑 𝟒 𝟔𝟒
Converting a root to a power 𝒏 𝟏 𝒏 𝟎 𝟏

√𝒂 𝒂 𝒏 √𝒙 𝒙 𝟐

Chapter 9 Exponents
Algebra
Scientific Notation
Format
A number in scientific notation has two parts:
 A number which is at least 1 and is less than 10 (i.e., it must have only one digit before
the decimal point). This number is called the coefficient.
 A power of 10 which is multiplied by the first number.
Here are a few examples of regular numbers expressed in scientific notation.
32 3.2 𝑥 10 0.00034 3.4 𝑥 10 1 1 𝑥 10

1,420,000 1.42 𝑥 10 1000 1 𝑥 10 450 4.5 𝑥 10
How many digits? How many zeros?

There are a couple of simple rules for converting from scientific notation to a regular number or
for converting from a regular number to scientific notation:
 If a regular number is less than 1, the exponent of 10 in scientific notation is negative.
The number of leading zeros in the regular number is equal to the absolute value of this
exponent. In applying this rule, you must count the zero before the decimal point in the
regular number. Examples:
Original Number Action Conversion

0.00034 Count 4 zeros 3.4 x 10‐4
6.234 x 10‐8 Add 8 zeros before the digits 0.000 000 062 34
 If the number is greater than 1, the number of digits after the first one in the regular
number is equal to the exponent of 10 in the scientific notation.
Original Number Action Conversion

4,800,000 Count 6 digits after the “4” 4.8 x 106
9.6 x 103 Add 3 digits after the “9” 9,600
 As a general rule, multiplying by powers of 10 moves the decimal point one place for
each power of 10.
o Multiplying by positive powers of 10 moves the decimal to the right.
o Multiplying by negative powers of 10 moves the decimal to the left.

Chapter 9 Exponents
Algebra
Adding and Subtracting with Scientific Notation
When adding or subtracting numbers in scientific notation:

 Adjust the numbers so they have the same power of 10. This works best if you adjust
the representation of the smaller number so that it has the same power of 10 as the
larger number. To do this:
o Call the difference between the exponents of 10 in the two numbers “n”.
o Raise the power of 10 of the smaller number by “n”, and
o Move the decimal point of the coefficient of the smaller number “n” places to
the left.
 Add the coefficients, keeping the power of 10 unchanged.
 If the result is not in scientific notation, adjust it so that it is.
o If the coefficient is at least 1 and less than 10, the answer is in the correct form.
o If the coefficient is 10 or greater, increase the exponent of 10 by 1 and move the
decimal point of the coefficient one space to the left.
o If the coefficient is less than 1, decrease the exponent of 10 by 1 and move the
decimal point of the coefficient one space to the right.
Examples:
Explanation: A conversion of the smaller
3.2 𝑥 10 0.32 𝑥 10
number is required prior to adding because the
9.9 𝑥 10 9.90 𝑥 10 exponents of the two numbers are different.
10. 22 𝑥 10 After adding, the result is no longer in scientific
notation, so an extra step is needed to convert it
1.022 𝑥 10 into the appropriate format.
6.1 𝑥 10 6.1 𝑥 10 Explanation: No conversion is necessary

because the exponents of the two numbers are
2.3 𝑥 10 2.3 𝑥 10 the same. After adding, the result is in scientific
8. 4 𝑥 10 notation, so no additional steps are required.
Explanation: A conversion of the smaller

1.2 𝑥 10 1.20 𝑥 10
number is required prior to subtracting because
4.5 𝑥 10 0.45 𝑥 10 the exponents of the two numbers are different.
0.75 𝑥 10 After subtracting, the result is no longer in
scientific notation, so an extra step is needed to
7.5 𝑥 10 convert it into the appropriate format.

Chapter 9 Exponents
Algebra
Multiplying and Dividing with Scientific Notation
When multiplying or dividing numbers in scientific notation:

 Multiply or divide the coefficients.
 Multiply or divide the powers of 10. Remember that this means adding or subtracting
the exponents while keeping the base of 10 unchanged.
o If you are multiplying, add the exponents of 10.
o If you are dividing, subtract the exponents of 10.
 If the result is not in scientific notation, adjust it so that it is.
o If the coefficient is at least 1 and less than 10, the answer is in the correct form.
o If the coefficient is 10 or greater, increase the exponent of 10 by 1 and move the
decimal point of the coefficient one space to the left.
o If the coefficient is less than 1, decrease the exponent of 10 by 1 and move the
decimal point of the coefficient one space to the right.
Examples:
4 𝑥 10 Explanation: The coefficients are multiplied and

the exponents are added. After multiplying, the
∙ 5 𝑥 10
result is no longer in scientific notation, so an
20 𝑥 10 extra step is needed to convert it into the
2.0 𝑥 10 appropriate format.
1.2 𝑥 10 Explanation: The coefficients are multiplied and

the exponents are added. After multiplying, the
∙ 2.0 𝑥 10 result is in scientific notation, so no additional
2. 4 𝑥 10 steps are required.
3.3 𝑥 10 Explanation: The coefficients are divided and

the exponents are subtracted. After dividing,
5.5 𝑥 10
the result is no longer in scientific notation, so
0.6 𝑥 10 an extra step is needed to convert it into the
appropriate format.
6.0 𝑥 10

Chapter 10 Polynomials – Basic
Algebra
Introduction to Polynomials
What is a Polynomial?
A polynomial is an expression that can be written as a term or a sum of terms, each of which is
the product of a scalar (the coefficient) and a series of variables. Each of the terms is also called
a monomial.
Examples (all of these are polynomials):
Monomial 3𝑥 4𝑥 𝑦
Binomial 2𝑥 8 15𝑥𝑦𝑧 12𝑥𝑦𝑧
Trinomial 𝑥 6𝑥 9 𝑥 7𝑥 3𝑥
Other 𝑥 4𝑥 6𝑥 4𝑥 1 2𝑥𝑦𝑧 6𝑥𝑧 3𝑦𝑧 8𝑥𝑧 2𝑧
Definitions:
Scalar: A real number.
Monomial: Polynomial with one term.
Binomial: Polynomial with two terms.
Trinomial: Polynomial with three terms.
Degree of a Polynomial
The degree of a monomial is the sum of the exponents on its variables.
The degree of a polynomial is the highest degree of any of its monomial terms.
Examples:
Polynomial Degree Polynomial Degree
6 0 3𝑥 𝑦𝑧 6𝑥 𝑦𝑧 6
3𝑥 1 15𝑥𝑦𝑧 12𝑥𝑦𝑧 9
3𝑥𝑦𝑧 3 𝑥 7𝑥 3𝑥 5

Algebra
Adding and Subtracting Polynomials
Problems asking the student to add or subtract polynomials are often written in linear form:
Add: 3𝑥 2𝑥 4 2𝑥 4𝑥 6
The problem is much more easily solved if the problem is written in column form, with each
polynomial written in standard form.
Definitions
Standard Form: A polynomial in standard form has its terms written from highest degree to
lowest degree from left to right.
Example: The standard form of 𝑥 3𝑥 4 is 3𝑥 𝑥 4
Like Terms: Terms with the same variables raised to the same powers. Only the numerical
coefficients are different.
Example: 2𝑥𝑧 , 6𝑥𝑧 , and 𝑥𝑧 are like terms.
Addition and Subtraction Steps

Step 1: Write each polynomial in standard form. Leave blank spaces for missing terms. For
example, if adding 3𝑥 2𝑥 4 , leave space for the missing 𝑥 ‐term.
Step 2: If you are subtracting, change the sign of each term of the polynomial to be subtracted
and add instead. Adding is much easier than subtracting.
Step 3: Place the polynomials in column form, being careful to line up like terms.
Step 4: Add the polynomials.
Examples:
𝐀𝐝𝐝: 3𝑥 2𝑥 4 2𝑥 4𝑥 6 𝐒𝐮𝐛𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭: 3𝑥 2𝑥 4 2𝑥 4𝑥 6
Solution: Solution:
3𝑥 2𝑥 4 3𝑥 2𝑥 4
2𝑥 4𝑥 6 2𝑥 4𝑥 6
3𝑥 2𝑥 6𝑥 2 3𝑥 2𝑥 2𝑥 10

Algebra
Multiplying Binomials
The three methods shown below are equivalent. Use whichever one you like best.
FOIL Method
FOIL stands for First, Outside, Inside, Last. To multiply using the FOIL method, you make four
separate multiplications and add the results.
Example: Multiply 2𝑥 3 ∙ 3𝑥 4 The result is obtained by adding the results of

First: 2𝑥 ∙ 3𝑥 6𝑥 the 4 separate multiplications.
Outside: 2𝑥 ∙ 4 8𝑥 F O I L
Inside: 3 ∙ 3𝑥 9𝑥 2𝑥 3 ∙ 3𝑥 4 6𝑥 8𝑥 9𝑥 12
Last: 3∙ 4 12 6𝑥 𝑥 12
Box Method
The Box Method is pretty much the same as the FOIL method, except for the presentation. In
the box method, a 2x2 array of multiplications is created, the 4 multiplications are performed,
and the results are added.
Example: Multiply 2𝑥 3 ∙ 3𝑥 4
The result is obtained by adding the results of
Multiply 3x 𝟒 the 4 separate multiplications.
2x 6𝑥 8𝑥 2𝑥 3 ∙ 3𝑥 4 6𝑥 8𝑥 9𝑥 12
6𝑥 𝑥 12
+3 9𝑥 12
Stacked Polynomial Method

A third method is to multiply the binomials 2𝑥 3
like you would multiply 2‐digit numbers. ∙ 3𝑥 4
The name comes from how the two 8𝑥 12
polynomials are placed in a “stack” in 6𝑥 9𝑥
preparation for multiplication. 6𝑥 𝑥 12
Example: Multiply 2𝑥 3 ∙ 3𝑥 4

Algebra
Multiplying Polynomials
If the polynomials to be multiplied contain more than two terms (i.e., they are larger than
binomials), the FOIL Method will not work. Instead, either the Box Method or the Stacked
Polynomial Method should be used. Notice that each of these methods is essentially a way to
apply the distributive property of multiplication over addition.
The methods shown below are equivalent. Use whichever one you like best.
Box Method
The Box Method is the same for larger polynomials as it is for binomials, except the box is
bigger. An array of multiplications is created; the multiplications are performed; and like terms
are added.
Example: Multiply 𝑥 2𝑥 2𝑥 3 ∙ 2𝑥 3𝑥 4
Multiply 𝟐𝒙𝟐 𝟑𝒙 𝟒 Results:

𝑥 2𝑥 2𝑥 3 ∙ 2𝑥 3𝑥 4
𝒙𝟑 2𝑥 3𝑥 4𝑥
2𝑥
𝟐𝒙𝟐 4𝑥 6𝑥 8𝑥
4𝑥 3𝑥
𝟐𝒙 4𝑥 6𝑥 8𝑥
4𝑥 6𝑥 4𝑥
𝟑 6𝑥 9𝑥 12
6𝑥 6𝑥 8𝑥
9𝑥 8𝑥
Stacked Polynomial Method

Results:
In the Stacked Polynomial Method, the 𝑥 2𝑥 2𝑥 3
polynomials are multiplied using the same
∙ 2𝑥 3𝑥 4
technique to multiply multi‐digit numbers
One helpful tip is to place the smaller 4𝑥 8𝑥 8𝑥 12
polynomial below the larger one in the 3𝑥 6𝑥 6𝑥 9𝑥
stack.
2𝑥 4𝑥 4𝑥 6𝑥
2𝑥 7𝑥 6𝑥 8𝑥 17𝑥 12

Algebra
Dividing Polynomials
Dividing polynomials is performed much like dividing large numbers long‐hand.
Long Division Method

This process is best described by example:
Example: 2𝑥 5𝑥 𝑥 2 𝑥 2
Step 1: Set up the division like a typical long hand
division problem. 𝑥 2 2𝑥 5𝑥 𝑥 2
Step 2: Divide the leading term of the dividend by

2𝑥
the leading term of the divisor. Place the result
above the term of like degree of the dividend. 𝑥 2 2𝑥 5𝑥 𝑥 2
2𝑥 𝑥 2𝑥
2𝑥
Step 3: Multiply the new term on top by the divisor 𝑥 2 2𝑥 5𝑥 𝑥 2
and subtract from the dividend. 2𝑥 4𝑥
2𝑥 𝑥 2 2𝑥 4𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 2
Step 4: Repeat steps 2 and 3 on the remainder of 2𝑥 𝑥 1

the division until the problem is completed.
𝑥 2 2𝑥 5𝑥 𝑥 2
This process results in the final answer appearing 2𝑥 4𝑥
above the dividend, so that: 𝑥 𝑥 2
𝑥 2𝑥
2𝑥 5𝑥 𝑥 2 𝑥 2 2𝑥 𝑥 1
𝑥 2
Remainders 𝑥 2
If there were a remainder, it would be appended to 0
the result of the problem in the form of a fraction, just like when dividing integers. For
example, in the problem above, if the remainder were 3, the fraction would be added to
the result of the division. 2𝑥 5𝑥 𝑥 1 𝑥 2 2𝑥 𝑥 1
Alternatives
This process can be tedious. Fortunately, there are better methods for dividing polynomials
than long division. These include Factoring, which is discussed next and elsewhere in this
Guide, and Synthetic Division, which is discussed in the chapter on Polynomials – Intermediate.

Algebra
Factoring Polynomials
Polynomials cannot be divided in the same way numbers can. In order to divide polynomials, it
is often useful to factor them first. Factoring involves extracting simpler terms from the more
complex polynomial.
Greatest Common Factor

The Greatest Common Factor of the terms of a polynomial is determined as follows:
Step 1: Find the Greatest Common Factor of the coefficients.
Step 2: Find the Greatest Common Factor for each variable. This is simply each variable taken
to the lowest power that exists for that variable in any of the terms.
Step 3: Multiply the GCF of the coefficients by the GCF for each variable.
Example:
Find the GCF of 18𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 42𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 30𝑥 𝑧 GCF 18, 42, 30 6
GCF 𝑥 , 𝑥 , 𝑥 𝑥
The GCF of the coefficients and each variable are shown
GCF 𝑦 , 𝑦 , 1 1
in the box to the right. The GCF of the polynomial is the
product of the four individual GCFs. GCF 𝑧, 𝑧 , 𝑧 𝑧
So, GCF polynomial 6𝑥 𝑧
Factoring Steps
Step 1: Factor out of all terms the GCF of the polynomial.
Step 2: Factor out of the remaining polynomial any binomials that can be Note: Typically only
steps 1 and 2 are
extracted.
needed in high school
Step 3: Factor out of the remaining polynomial any trinomials that can algebra problems.
be extracted.
Step 4: Continue this process until no further simplification is possible.
Examples:
Factor: 3𝑥 𝑦 18𝑥 𝑦 27𝑥 𝑦 Factor: 6𝑥 𝑦 24𝑥𝑦

3𝑥 𝑦 𝑥 6𝑥 9 6𝑥𝑦 𝑥 4
3𝑥 𝑦 𝑥 3 6𝑥𝑦 𝑥 2 𝑥 2
The factoring of the blue trinomial (2nd line) into The factoring of the blue binomial (2nd line) into
the square of a binomial is the result of binomials of lower degree is the result of
recognizing the special form it represents. Special recognizing the special form it represents. Special
forms are shown on the next two pages. forms are shown on the next two pages.

Algebra
Special Forms of Quadratic Functions
It is helpful to be able to recognize a couple special forms of quadratic functions. In particular,

if you can recognize perfect squares and differences of squares, your work will become easier
and more accurate.
Perfect Squares
Perfect squares are of the form: 𝒂𝟐 𝟐𝒂𝒃 𝒃𝟐 𝒂 𝒃 𝟐
𝒂𝟐 𝟐𝒂𝒃 𝒃𝟐 𝒂 𝒃 𝟐
Identification and Solution

The following steps allow the student to identify and solve a trinomial that is a perfect square:
Step 1: Notice the first term of the trinomial is a square. Take its square root.
Step 2: Notice the last term of the trinomial is a square. Take its square root.
Step 3: Multiply the results of the first 2 steps and double that product. If the result is the
middle term of the trinomial, the expression is a perfect square.
Step 4: The binomial in the solution is the sum or difference of the square roots calculated in
steps 1 and 2. The sign between the terms of the binomial is the sign of the middle
term of the trinomial.
Example:
𝟒𝒙𝟐 – 𝟏𝟐𝒙𝒚 𝟗𝒚𝟐 Notice that the middle term is double the product
of the two square roots (𝟐𝒙 and 𝟑𝒚). This is a
telltale sign that the expression is a perfect square.
√𝟒𝒙𝟐 𝟐𝒙 𝟗𝒚𝟐 𝟑𝒚
Identify the trinomial as a perfect square:

 Take the square roots of the first and last terms. They are 2𝑥 and 3𝑦.
 Test the middle term. Multiply the roots from the previous step, then double the result:
2𝑥 ∙ 3𝑦 ∙ 2 12𝑥𝑦. The result (with a “ ” sign in front) is the middle term of the
original trinomial. Therefore, the expression is a perfect square.
To express the trinomial as the square of a binomial:

 The square roots of the first and last terms 2𝑥 and 3𝑦 make up the binomial we seek.
 We may choose the sign of the first term, so let’s choose the “ ” sign.
 Having chosen the “ ” sign for the first term, the second term of the binomial takes the
sign of the middle term of the original trinomial (“ ”). Therefore, the result is:
𝟒𝒙𝟐 𝟏𝟐𝒙𝒚 𝟗𝒚𝟐 𝟐𝒙 𝟑𝒚 𝟐

Algebra
Special Forms of Quadratic Functions
Differences of Squares
Differences of squares are of the form: 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒂 𝒃 ∙ 𝒂 𝒃
These are much easier to recognize than the perfect squares because there is no middle term
to consider. Notice why there is no middle term:
𝒂 𝒃 ∙ 𝒂 𝒃 𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝒃 𝒂𝒃 𝒃𝟐 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐
these two
terms cancel
Identification
To see if an expression is a difference of squares, you must answer “yes” to four questions:
1. Are there only two terms?
2. Is there a “ ” sign between the two terms?
3. Is the first term a square? If so, take its square root.
4. Is the second term a square? If so, take its square root.
The solution is the product of a) the sum of the square roots in questions 3 and 4, and b) the
difference of the square roots in steps 3 and 4.
Note: A telltale sign of when an expression might be the difference of 2 squares is when the
coefficients on the variables are squares: 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, etc.
Examples:
(1) 𝟒𝒙𝟐 𝟐𝟓𝒚𝟐 𝟐𝒙 𝟓𝒚 ∙ 𝟐𝒙 𝟓𝒚
(2) 𝒙𝟐 𝟒𝟗 𝒙 𝟕 ∙ 𝒙 𝟕
(3) 𝟖𝟏 𝟗𝒛𝟐 𝟗 𝟑𝒛 ∙ 𝟗 𝟑𝒛
𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝒙 𝒚 𝒙 𝒚
(4) ∙
𝟗 𝟏𝟔 𝟑 𝟒 𝟑 𝟒
ADVANCED: Over the field of complex numbers, it is also possible to factor the sum of 2 squares:
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒂 𝒃𝒊 ∙ 𝒂 𝒃𝒊
This is not possible over the field of real numbers.

Algebra
Factoring Trinomials – Simple Case Method
A common problem in Elementary Algebra is the factoring of a trinomial that is neither a

perfect square nor a difference of squares.
Consider the simple case where the coefficient of 𝒙𝟐 is 1. The general form for this case is:
𝒙 𝒑 ∙ 𝒙 𝒒 𝒙𝟐 𝒑 𝒒 𝒙 𝒑𝒒
sign 1 sign 2
coefficient constant
of x
In order to simplify the illustration of factoring a polynomial where the coefficient of 𝑥 is 1, we

will use the orange descriptors above for the components of the trinomial being factored.
Simple Case Method Example: Factor 𝒙𝟐 𝟑𝒙 𝟐𝟖
Step 1: Set up parentheses for a pair of binomials. Put “x” in the

𝑥 ∙ 𝑥
left hand position of each binomial.
Step 2: Put sign 1 in the middle position in the left binomial. 𝑥 ∙ 𝑥
Step 3: Multiply sign 1 and sign 2 to get the sign for the right
binomial. Remember: 𝑥 ∙ 𝑥
∙ ∙
∙ ∙
Step 4: Find two numbers that: The numbers we seek are

Fill in: 4 and 7 because:
(a) Multiply to get the constant, and ___ ∙ ___ ___ 4∙ 7 28, and
(b) Add to get the coefficient of 𝒙 ___ ___ ___ 4 7 3
Step 5: Place the numbers in the binomials so that their signs

𝒙 𝟕 ∙ 𝒙 𝟒
match the signs from Steps 2 and 3. This is the final
answer.
Step 6: Check your work by multiplying the two binomials to see 𝑥 7 ∙ 𝑥 4

if you get the original trinomial. 𝑥 4𝑥 7𝑥 28
𝑥 3𝑥 28

Algebra
Factoring Trinomials – AC Method
There are times when the simple method of factoring a trinomial is not sufficient. Primarily this
occurs when the coefficient of 𝒙𝟐 is not 1. In this case, you may use the AC method presented
here, or you may use either the brute force method or the quadratic formula method
(described on the next couple of pages).
AC Method
The AC Method derives its name from the first step of the Example: Factor 𝟔𝒙𝟐 𝒙 𝟐
process, which is to multiply the values of “𝑎” and “𝑐” from the
general form of the quadratic equation: 𝒚 𝒂𝒙𝟐 𝒃𝒙 𝒄
6𝑥 𝑥 2
Step 1: Multiply the values of “𝑎” and “𝑐”.

12
Step 2: Find two numbers that:
Fill in:
(a) Multiply to get the value of 𝒂𝒄,
___ ∙ ___ ___ 4 ∙3 12
and
___ ___ ___ 4 3 1
(b) Add to get the coefficient of 𝒙
Step 3: Split the middle term into two terms, with coefficients 6𝑥 4𝑥 3𝑥 2
equal to the values found in Step 2. (Tip: if only one of
the coefficients is negative, put that term first.)
Step 4: Group the terms into pairs. 6𝑥 4𝑥 3𝑥 2
Step 5: Factor each pair of terms. 2𝑥 3𝑥 2 1 3𝑥 2
Step 6: Use the distributive property to combine the 𝟐𝒙 𝟏 ∙ 𝟑𝒙 𝟐

multipliers of the common term. This is the final
answer.
Step 7: Check your work by multiplying the two binomials to 2𝑥 1 ∙ 3𝑥 2

see if you get the original trinomial. 6𝑥 4𝑥 3𝑥 2
6𝑥 𝑥 2

Algebra
Factoring Trinomials – Brute Force Method
When the coefficient of 𝒙𝟐 is not 1, the factoring process becomes more difficult. There are a
number of methods that can be used in this case.
If the question being asked is to find roots of the equation, and not to factor it, the student may
want to use the quadratic formula whenever the coefficient of 𝑥 is not 1. Even if you are
required to factor, and not just find roots, the quadratic formula may be a viable approach.
Brute Force Method

This method is exactly what it sounds like. Multiple equations are possible and you must try
each of them until you find the one that works. Here are the steps to finding which equations
are candidate solutions:
Example: Factor 𝟒𝒙𝟐 𝟒𝒙 𝟑
Step 1: Find all sets of whole numbers that multiply to
get the coefficient of the first term in the Combinations that produce a product
trinomial. If the first term is positive, you need of 4 are:
1 and 4 or 2 and 2
only consider positive factors.
Step 2: Find all sets of whole numbers that multiply to Combinations that produce a product
get the coefficient of the last term in the of 3 are:
trinomial. You must consider both positive and 1 and 3 or 1 and 3
negative factors.
𝑥 1 4𝑥 3
𝑥 1 4𝑥 3
Step 3: Create all possible products of binomials that 𝑥 3 4𝑥 1
contain the whole numbers found in the first 𝑥 3 4𝑥 1
two steps. 2𝑥 1 2𝑥 3
2𝑥 1 2𝑥 3
𝑥 1 4𝑥 3 4𝑥 𝑥 3
Step 4: Multiply the binomial pairs until you find one 𝑥 1 4𝑥 3 4𝑥 𝑥 3
𝑥 3 4𝑥 1 4𝑥 11𝑥 3
that results in the trinomial you are trying to 𝑥 3 4𝑥 1 4𝑥 11𝑥 3
factor. 2𝑥 1 2𝑥 3 4𝑥 4𝑥 3
2𝑥 1 2𝑥 3 4𝑥 4𝑥 3
Step 5: Identify the correct solution. 𝟐𝒙 𝟏 𝟐𝒙 𝟑 4𝑥 4𝑥 3
Notice the patterns in the candidate solutions in Step 4. Each pair of equations is identical except for
the sign of the middle term in the product. Therefore, you can cut your work in half by considering only
one of each pair until you see a middle term coefficient that has the right absolute value. If you have
everything right but the sign of the middle term, switch the signs in the binomials to obtain the correct
solution. Remember to check your work!

Algebra
Factoring Trinomials – Quadratic Formula Method
Quadratic Formula Method

The Quadratic Formula is designed specifically to find roots of a second degree equation.
However, it can also be used as a back‐door method to factor equations of second degree. The
steps are:
Step 1: Apply the quadratic formula to determine the roots of the equation.
Step 2: Put each root into the form: 𝑥 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 0.
Step 3: Show the two 𝑥 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 binomials as a product. Note that these binomials may
contain fractions. We will eliminate the fractions, if possible, in the next step.
Step 4: Multiply the binomials in Step 3 by the coefficient of 𝑥 the following way:
(a) Break the coefficient of 𝑥 into its prime factors.
(b) Allocate the prime factors to the binomials in a way that eliminates the fractions.
Step 5: Check your work.
Example:
Factor: 𝟒𝒙𝟐 𝟒𝒙 𝟑
√ √
Step 1: 𝑥 or
Step 2: The two equations containing roots are: 𝑥 0 and 𝑥 0.
Step 3: 𝑥 𝑥
Step 4: The coefficient of 𝑥 in the original equation is 4, and 4 2 ∙ 2. An inspection of the

binomials in Step 3 indicates we need to multiply each binomial by 2 in order to
eliminate the fractions:
2∙ 𝑥 2𝑥 3 and 2∙ 𝑥 2𝑥 1
So that: 4𝑥 4𝑥 3 𝟐𝒙 𝟑 ∙ 𝟐𝒙 𝟏 in factored form
Step 5: Check (using FOIL) 2𝑥 3 ∙ 2𝑥 1 4𝑥 2𝑥 6𝑥 3 4𝑥 4𝑥 3,

which is the equation we were trying to factor.


Algebra
Solving Equations by Factoring
There are a number of reasons to factor a polynomial in algebra; one of the most common
reasons is to find the zeros of the polynomial. A “zero” is a domain value (e.g., x‐value) for
which the polynomial generates a value of zero. Each zero is a solution of the polynomial.
In factored form, it is much easier to find a polynomial’s zeros. Consider the following:
𝑥 2 𝑥 4 𝑥 8 𝑥 𝜋 𝑥 3 is the factored form of a polynomial.
If a number of items are multiplied together, the result is zero whenever any of the individual
items is zero. This is true for constants and for polynomials. Therefore, if any of the factors of
the polynomial has a value of zero, then the whole polynomial must be zero. We use this fact
to find zeros of polynomials in factored form.
Example 1:
Find the zeros of 𝑦 𝑥 2 𝑥 4 𝑥 8 𝑥 𝜋 𝑥 3 .
Step 1: Set the equation equal to zero.
𝑥 2 𝑥 4 𝑥 8 𝑥 𝜋 𝑥 3 0
Step 2: The whole equation is zero whenever any of its factors is zero. For the example, this
occurs when:
𝑥 2 0, or The solution set, then, is:
𝑥 4 0, or 𝑥 2, 4, 8, 𝜋, 3
𝑥 8 0, or or, more conventionally, the x‐values are put
in numerical order from smallest to largest:
𝑥 𝜋 0, or
𝑥 4, 3, 2, 𝜋, 8
𝑥 3 0
Set Notation: We may list the set

Example 2: of solutions to a problem by
Find the zeros of 𝑦 𝑥 7𝑥 6 placing the solutions in braces {},
separated by commas.
𝑥 7𝑥 6 0
𝑥 6 𝑥 1 0
The solution set contains the two
domain values that make the original
𝑥 6 0 𝑥 1 0 equation zero, namely:
𝑥 6 𝑥 1 𝑥 1, 6

Chapter 11 Quadratic Functions
Algebra
Introduction to Quadratic Functions
Standard Form of a Quadratic Function

The Standard Form of a second degree polynomial is:
𝐲 𝒂𝒙𝟐 𝒃𝒙 𝒄 with 𝑎 0
An equation of this form is called a quadratic function.
The graph of this equation is called a parabola.
Up or down?
The direction in which the parabola opens on a graph is
based on the sign ( or ) of 𝑎 in the equation.
 If 𝑎 0, the parabola points down and it opens up.
 If 𝑎 0, the parabola points up and it opens down.
If you forget this rule, just remember that “up or down”

depends on the sign of 𝑎, and do a quick graph of 𝑦 𝑥 ,
where 𝑎 1 on your paper.
Vertex and Axis of Symmetry

In Standard Form, the vertex of the parabola has coordinates: , 𝑦 where “y” is calculated
by substituting for “x” in the equation. The vertex is either the highest point on the graph
(called a maximum) or the lowest point on the graph (called a minimum). It also lies on the axis
of symmetry of the graph.
𝑏
The equation 𝒙 is called the axis of symmetry of the parabola.
2𝑎
Vertex Form of a Quadratic Function

A second useful form of a quadratic function is based on the vertex, and is called Vertex Form:
𝟐
𝐲 𝒂 𝒙 𝒉 𝒌 where h, k is the vertex of the parabola
It is possible to convert from Standard Form to Vertex Form and from Vertex Form to Standard
Form. Both are equally correct.

Algebra
Completing the Square
A very useful method for solving quadratic equations is Completing the Square. In fact, this is
the method used to derive the quadratic formula from the general quadratic equation in
Standard Form. The steps involved in Completing the Square and an example are provided
below:
Consider the starting equation: 𝒂𝒙𝟐 𝒃𝒙 𝒄 𝟎
Step 1: Modify the equation so that the coefficient of 𝑥 is 1. To do this, simply divide the
whole equation by the value of “𝑎”.
Example: Consider the equation: 3𝑥 18𝑥 21 0
Divide by 3 to get: 𝑥 6𝑥 7 0
Step 2: Get rid of the pesky constant. We will generate our own.
Example: Add 7 to both sides : 𝑥 6𝑥 7
Step 3: Calculate a new constant. The required constant is the square of one half of the
coefficient of 𝑥. Add it to both sides of the equation.
Example: 𝑥 6𝑥 7
Half it, then square the result: 3, 3 9.
Result: 𝑥 6𝑥 9 7 9
Step 4: Recognize the left hand side of the equation as a perfect square. After all, that was the
reason we selected the new constant the way we did.
Example: 𝑥 3 16
Step 5: Take the square root of both sides. Remember the “ ” sign on the constant term.
Example: 𝑥 3 √16
𝑥 3 4
Step 6: Break the resulting equation into two separate equations, and solve.
Example: 𝑥 3 4 𝑥 3 4
𝑥 1 𝑥 7
Solution: 𝒙 𝟕, 𝟏

Algebra
Table of Powers and Roots
Square Root Number Square Cube 4th Power

√1 1.000 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
√2 1.414 2 2 4 2 8 2 16
√3 1.732 3 3 9 3 27 3 81
√4 2.000 4 4 16 4 64 4 256
√5 2.236 5 5 25 5 125 5 625
√6 2.449 6 6 36 6 216 6 1,296
√7 2.646 7 7 49 7 343 7 2,401
√8 2.828 8 8 64 8 512 8 4,096
√9 3.000 9 9 81 9 729 9 6,561
√10 3.162 10 10 100 10 1,000 10 10,000
√11 3.317 11 11 121 11 1,331 11 14,641
√12 3.464 12 12 144 12 1,728 12 20,736
√13 3.606 13 13 169 13 2,197 13 28,561
√14 3.742 14 14 196 14 2,744 14 38,416
√15 3.873 15 15 225 15 3,375 15 50,625
√16 4.000 16 16 256 16 4,096 16 65,536
√17 4.123 17 17 289 17 4,913 17 83,521
√18 4.243 18 18 324 18 5,832 18 104,976
√19 4.359 19 19 361 19 6,859 19 130,321
√20 4.472 20 20 400 20 8,000 20 160,000
√21 4.583 21 21 441 21 9,261 21 194,481
√22 4.690 22 22 484 22 10,648 22 234,256
√23 4.796 23 23 529 23 12,167 23 279841
√24 4.899 24 24 576 24 13,824 24 331,776
√25 5.000 25 25 625 25 15,625 25 390,625

Algebra
The Quadratic Formula
The Quadratic Formula is one of the first difficult math formulas that students are asked to
memorize. Mastering the formula, though difficult, is full of rewards. By knowing why it works
and what the various parts of the formula are, a student can generate a lot of knowledge in a
short period of time.
For a quadratic function of the form: 𝒚 𝒂𝒙𝟐 𝒃𝒙 𝒄
𝒃 𝒃𝟐 𝟒𝒂𝒄 Quadratic
The formula for the roots (i.e., where y = 0) is: 𝒙
𝟐𝒂 Formula
How Many Real Roots?

The discriminant is the part under the radical: 𝒃𝟐 𝟒𝒂𝒄
 If the discriminant is negative, the quadratic function has 0 real roots. This is because a
negative number under the radical results in imaginary roots instead of real roots. In
this case the graph the graph will not cross the x‐axis. It will be either entirely above the
x‐axis or entirely below the x‐axis, depending on the value of “a”.
 If the discriminant is zero, the quadratic function has 1 real root. The square root of
𝑏
zero is zero, so the radical disappears and the only root is 𝑥 . In this case, the
2𝑎
graph will appear to bounce off the x‐axis; it touches the x‐axis at only one spot – the
value of the root.
 If the discriminant is positive, the quadratic function has 2 real roots. This is because a
real square root exists, and it must be added in the formula to get one root and
subtracted to get the other root. In this case, the graph will cross the x‐axis in two
places, the values of the roots.
Where are the Vertex and Axis of Symmetry?

The x‐coordinate of the vertex is also easily calculated from the quadratic formula because the
vertex is halfway between the two roots. If we average the two roots, the portion of the
𝑏
formula disappears and the resulting x‐value is 𝑥 . The y‐value of the vertex must still
2𝑎
be calculated, but the x‐value can be read directly out of the quadratic formula.
Also, once the x‐value of the vertex is known, the equation for the axis of symmetry is also
𝑏
known. It is the vertical line containing the vertex: 𝒙 .
2𝑎

Algebra
Quadratic Inequalities in One Variable
Note: The same process works for

Solve the inequality of the form: 𝑎𝑥 𝑏𝑥 𝑐 0 inequalities with <, ≤, or > signs.
Step 1: If "𝑎" is negative, multiply the whole inequality by "– 1". This will make the problem
easier to work with. Don’t forget to change the sign of the inequality.
Example: convert 3𝑥 9𝑥 6 0 to 3𝑥 9𝑥 6 0
Step 2: Factor out any scalars that divide into all of the terms of the inequality. This will also
make the problem easier to work with.
Example: factor 3𝑥 9𝑥 6 0 to 3 𝑥 3𝑥 2 0
then divide by 3 to get: [ 𝑥 3𝑥 2 0
Step 3: Solve the equation that corresponds to the inequality. The solutions of the equation
are the critical values in the solution of the inequality.
Example: solve [ 𝑥 3𝑥 2 0 , which gives: 𝑥 1, 𝑥 2
The solution to the inequality, when shown on a number line, must be either outside
the solutions or between the solutions. That is, either:
 𝑥 1 or 𝑥 2
 𝑥 1 and 𝑥 2
But, which one? 1 2
Step 4: “Or” vs. “And”. Look at the inequality you are working with (at the end of Step 2). As in
solving inequalities with absolute values, use the following trick to remember if the
answer uses “Or” vs. “And”.
 If the inequality contains a sign, use “and.” Think: less thand
 If the inequality contains a sign, use “or.” Think: greator
 Don’t forget to use , instead of , if they are in the original inequality.
Example: Using this method, we start with 𝑥 3𝑥 2 0 and note the part of
the inequality. This means the result in the example would be 𝒙 𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒙 𝟐 .
In interval notation this solution set is shown as: 𝒙 ∈ 𝟏, 𝟐
In set notation, this solution is shown as: 𝒙|𝟏 𝒙 𝟐

Algebra
Quadratic Inequalities in One Variable (cont’d)
Step 5: Checking your “Or” vs. “And” decision. The solutions to the equation in Step 3 break
the number line into 3 distinct pieces; in the example:
 Less than 1 a b c
 Between 1 and 2
 More than 2 1 2
Test to see if the original inequality is correct for a number in each of these segments of
the number line. Although you could test a derivation of the original inequality (e.g.,
after Steps 1 or 2), it is best to work with the original when checking your work.
So, you might test values like the following:

a. Less than 1: try the value 0
b. Between 1 and 2: try the value
c. More than 2: try the value 3
In the example, you find that works, but 0 and 3 do not work. The answer must then
be in the middle interval. This matches the answer obtained in Step 4.
Step 5 Alternative: Another way to check your work.

An alternative way to check your work is to graph the
equation corresponding to the inequality.
 Use the equation 𝑥 3𝑥 2 0 from Step 2
only if you are sure you performed Steps 1 and 2
correctly.
 The graph of the corresponding equation is at right.
 Notice that the portion of the graph that is below
zero is the portion between 1 and 2.
 Because the “≤” sign includes the equals sign, the
endpoints of the intervals are included in the solution set.
 Therefore, the solution of the inequality is:
The portion of the graph below the 𝑥‐axis
𝒙|𝟏 𝒙 𝟐 is where the 𝑥 3𝑥 2 0
 This matches the answer obtained in Step 4.

ADVANCED
Algebra
Fitting a Quadratic Equation through Three Points
It takes three points to define a quadratic equation, just like it takes 2 points to define a line. In
general, it takes (n+1) points to define a polynomial of degree “n”.
Starting with:
 the basic quadratic equation: 𝑦 𝑎𝑥 𝑏𝑥 𝑐, and
 three points: 𝑥 ,𝑦 , 𝑥 ,𝑦 , 𝑥 ,𝑦 ,
it is possible to calculate the coefficients of the quadratic equation by substituting in the x and
y values of the 3 points to create a system of 3 equations in 3 unknowns:
𝑦 𝑎𝑥 𝑏𝑥 𝑐
Now, that’s a lot of symbols, so let’s look at an example.
Example:
Find the quadratic equation that passes through the three points:
1, 8 , 1, 4 , 2, 13
Using the basic quadratic equation, and substituting in x‐values and y‐values, we get 3
equations in 3 unknowns:
8 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
4 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
13 4𝑎 2𝑏 𝑐
These 3 equations can be solved by eliminating variables or by using Cramer’s Rule, whichever
the student finds more comfortable. Solving by either method gives:
𝒂 𝟏, 𝒃 𝟔, 𝒄 𝟑
So that: 𝒚 𝒙𝟐 𝟔𝒙 𝟑
The odd thing about this process is that in most algebra problems the student is asked to solve
for 𝒙 or 𝒚, but that is not the case in curve fitting. Instead, the student is asked to derive a
quadratic equation given 3 sets of 𝒙’s and 𝒚’s, which requires solving for 𝒂, 𝒃, and 𝒄 instead.

Chapter 12 Complex Numbers
Algebra
Complex Numbers – Introduction
Definitions
𝒊 √ 1.
Imaginary Number – Any number that can be expressed in the form 𝑎 ∙ 𝑖 where a is real.
Examples: √ 7, 6𝑖, √ 23 , √3 ∙ 𝑖
Complex Number – Any number that can be expressed in the form 𝑎 𝑏𝑖 where a, b are real.
Examples: 6 √2 𝑖, √6 3𝑖
Note: all real numbers and all imaginary numbers are also complex numbers.
In the form 𝑎 𝑏𝑖,
 𝑎 is called the real part of the complex number, and
 𝑏𝑖 is called the imaginary part of the complex number.
Absolute Value of a Complex Number

The absolute value of a complex number is also called its magnitude. Algebraically, it is:
|𝑎 𝑏𝑖| 𝑎 𝑏
Conjugate of a Complex Number

The conjugate of a complex number 𝑎 𝑏𝑖 is denoted 𝑎 𝑏𝚤 ; 𝑎 𝑏𝚤 𝑎 𝑏𝑖 .
Examples:
Complex Number Conjugate Complex Number Conjugate
2 3𝑖 2 3𝑖 6 𝑖 6 𝑖
6𝑖 6𝑖 2 √2𝑖 2 √2𝑖
2 2 √7 √3𝑖 √7 √3𝑖
Comments about conjugates:

1. The conjugate of a conjugate is the number you stated with.
𝑎 𝑏𝚤 𝑎 𝑏𝑖 , 𝑎 𝑏𝚤 𝑎 𝑏𝑖 ,
2. The product of conjugates is a real number.
𝑎 𝑏𝑖 ∙ 𝑎 𝑏𝑖 𝑎 𝑏
3. Conjugate numbers have the same absolute value.
|𝑎 𝑏𝑖| |𝑎 𝑏𝑖| √𝑎 𝑏

Algebra
Operations with Complex Numbers
Adding and Subtracting

Add or subtract both the Real and Imaginary parts:
𝑎 𝑏𝑖 𝑐 𝑑𝑖 𝑎 𝑐 𝑏 𝑑 𝑖
𝑎 𝑏𝑖 𝑐 𝑑𝑖 𝑎 𝑐 𝑏 𝑑 𝑖
Example: 1 3𝑖 3 6𝑖 2 3𝑖
Multiplying
Step 1: Multiply like you multiply binomials.
Step 2: Substitute 1 for 𝑖 and simplify.
𝑎 𝑏𝑖 ∙ 𝑐 𝑑𝑖 𝑎𝑐 𝑏𝑑 𝑎𝑑 𝑏𝑐 𝑖
Example: 1 3𝑖 ∙ 3 6𝑖 3 6𝑖 9𝑖 18𝑖
3 6𝑖 9𝑖 18
15 15𝑖
Dividing
Step 1: Multiply by a fraction whose numerator and denominator are the conjugate of the
original expression’s denominator.
Step 2: Substitute 1 for 𝑖 and simplify.
The resulting complex number will have a denominator that is free of imaginary numbers.
Remember the method, not the formula!
𝑎 𝑏𝑖 𝑎 𝑏𝑖 𝑐 𝑑𝑖 𝑎𝑐 𝑏𝑑 𝑏𝑐 𝑎𝑑
∙ 𝑖
𝑐 𝑑𝑖 𝑐 𝑑𝑖 𝑐 𝑑𝑖 𝑐 𝑑 𝑐 𝑑
Example:
1 3𝑖 1 3𝑖 3 6𝑖 3 6𝑖 9𝑖 18𝑖
∙
3 6𝑖 3 6𝑖 3 6𝑖 9 36𝑖
3 6𝑖 9𝑖 18 21 3𝑖 𝟕 𝟏
𝒊
9 36 45 𝟏𝟓 𝟏𝟓

ADVANCED
Algebra
The Square Root of i
If 𝒊 √ 𝟏, what is √𝒊?
This is an interesting question and solving it will illustrate a very useful method in working with
complex numbers. You can use this method to calculate the square root of any complex
number.
 Recall that each complex number is of the form 𝑎 𝑏𝑖, where a and b are real.
 We want a complex number that, when squared, generates 𝑖.
So, we want to calculate a and b such that 𝑎 𝑏𝑖 𝑖
Let’s solve that equation: 𝑎 𝑏𝑖 𝑖

𝑎 𝑏𝑖 ∙ 𝑎 𝑏𝑖 𝑖
𝑎 𝑎𝑏𝑖 𝑎𝑏𝑖 𝑏 𝑖 𝑖
𝑎 𝑏 2𝑎𝑏𝑖 𝑖
Now, break this into 2 equations, one for the real part, and one for the imaginary part.
Here are the 2 equations: 𝑎 𝑏 0 and 2𝑎𝑏 1
𝑎 𝑏 and 𝑏
Substituting for 𝑏, 𝑎
Since 𝑎 0, and 𝑎 is real, 𝑎 ⎯⎯⎯ 𝑎
√ √
⎯⎯⎯ 𝑎 or 𝑎
Since 𝑎 𝑏 𝑏 𝑎 or 𝑏 𝑎
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
So, our candidates for √𝑖 are: 𝑖 or 𝑖 or 𝑖 or 𝑖
√ √ √ √
Let’s try them: 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
Results:
√ √ √ √ √2 √2
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 √𝑖 𝑖
2 2
So, we have found not only the two square roots of 𝑖, but √2 √2
√ 𝑖 𝑖
also the two square roots of – 𝑖. 2 2

Algebra
Complex Numbers – Graphical Representation
Complex numbers of the form 𝑎 𝑏𝑖 can be represented on a set of axes that represent Real
and Imaginary numbers instead of 𝑥 and 𝑦. Consider the complex number 3 4𝑖. It would
look like this on a set of Real (R) and Imaginary (I) axes:
I
4i
Graphical
R representation of 3
3 4𝑖
Polar Coordinates
Represented in this manner, complex numbers have interesting properties (see the next page
for some of these). Each complex number can be thought of as not only a pair of rectangular
coordinates, e.g., (3,4), but also as a set of polar coordinates with magnitude (i.e., length) 𝜌 and
angle 𝜃. Then, to multiply complex numbers, you multiply their magnitudes and add their
angles.
Powers of i
This is a useful bit of information for seeing the value of 𝒊𝒏 in graphical terms. Since 𝑖 √ 1,
algebraically, we have:
𝑖 √ 1 𝑖 1 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 1
𝑖 √ 1 𝑖 1 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 1 etc.
Since 𝒊 has magnitude 1, all powers 𝒊𝒏 also have magnitude 1. Each succeeding power of 𝒊,
then, results only in a change of the angle θ, and can be considered a 90⁰rotation in the
coordinate plane containing the Real and Imaginary axes, like so:
I I I I
R R R R
𝒊 𝒊𝟐 𝟏 𝒊𝟑 𝒊 𝒊𝟒 𝟏
This shows the rotating pattern in the values of the powers of 𝒊 every 4 increments. After 4
rotations you return to where you started.

ADVANCED
Algebra
Complex Number Operations in Polar Coordinates
Polar Coordinates
If a complex number is expressed in terms of its polar coordinates, many calculations are made
much easier. First, let’s investigate the relationship between a point’s rectangular coordinates
𝑥, 𝑦 and its polar coordinates 𝜌, 𝜃 .
The magnitude, ρ, is the distance of the point from the

origin: 𝜌 𝑥 𝑦
The angle, θ, is the angle the line from the point to the
origin makes with the positive portion of the x‐axis.
Generally, this angle is expressed in radians, not degrees.
tan 𝜃 or 𝜃 tan
Conversion from polar coordinates to rectangular coordinates is straightforward:

𝑥 𝜌 ∙ cos 𝜃 and 𝑦 𝜌 ∙ sin 𝜃
Example: In the illustration above, the point shown has:

 Rectangular coordinates: 4, 4
 Polar Coordinates: 4√2,
Complex Number Formulas:

To see how useful this can be, consider the following formulas for complex numbers:
Multiplication: 𝜌 ,𝜃 ∙ 𝜌 ,𝜃 𝜌 ∙𝜌 , 𝜃 𝜃
So, to multiply complex numbers, you multiply their magnitudes and add their angles.
Division: 𝜌 ,𝜃 𝜌 ,𝜃 𝜌 𝜌 , 𝜃 𝜃
So, to divide complex numbers, you divide their magnitudes and subtract their angles.
Powers: 𝜌, 𝜃 𝜌 , 𝑛∙𝜃 Note on √𝒊:

This results directly from the multiplication rule. Since i in polar coordinates is 1, ,
Using the root formula, √𝑖 1,
Roots: 𝜌, 𝜃 𝜌, 𝜃 𝑛
In rectangular coordinates, then,
This results directly from the power rule if the √𝒊
√𝟐 √𝟐
𝒊
𝟐 𝟐
exponent is a fraction.

Algebra
Complex Solutions to Quadratic Equations
Over the field of real numbers there are no roots to a quadratic function if the discriminant is
less than zero. Over the field of complex numbers, however, such a quadratic function has two
roots.
Quadratic Refresher
For a quadratic function of the form: 𝒚 𝒂𝒙𝟐 𝒃𝒙 𝒄
𝒃 𝒃𝟐 𝟒𝒂𝒄 Quadratic
The formula for the roots (i.e., where y = 0) is: 𝒙
𝟐𝒂 Formula
The discriminant is the part under the radical: 𝒃𝟐 𝟒𝒂𝒄
How Many Roots?

The following table tells us how many real or complex roots exist for a function, based on its
discriminant:
Value of Discriminant Number of Roots
𝑏 4𝑎𝑐 0 2 complex
𝑏 4𝑎𝑐 0 1 real
𝑏 4𝑎𝑐 0 2 real
Note: because of the “ ” sign in the quadratic formula, when there are 2 complex roots they
are conjugates.
Example 1: Solve 𝑥 2𝑥 10 0
𝑏 √𝑏 4𝑎𝑐 2 2 4 1 10 2 √ 36 2 6𝑖
𝑥 𝟏 𝟑𝒊
2𝑎 2 1 2 2
Example 2: Solve 2𝑥 4𝑥 7 0
𝑏 √𝑏 4𝑎𝑐 4 4 4 2 7 4 √ 40 4 2√10𝑖 √𝟏𝟎

𝑥 𝟏 𝒊
2𝑎 2 2 4 4 𝟐

Chapter 13 Radicals
Algebra
Radical Rules
Simple Rules Involving Radicals
General Radical Rule Rule for Square Roots Example
√ ∙ √ ∙√ √ ∙ √ ∙√ √12 √4 ∙ √3 2√3
√ √ 5 √5 √5
√ √ 4 √4 2
Note also that: √

e.g., √ , so the rules for exponents also apply for roots.
Rationalizing the Denominator
Mathematicians prefer to keep radicals out of the denominator. Here are two
methods to accomplish this, depending on what’s in the denominator.
Case 1: Simple radical in the denominator. Solution: multiply the beginning

expression by a fraction which is the offending radical divided by itself.
√ √ √ √ √
Example: ∙
√ √ √
Case 2: Number and radical in the denominator. Solution: multiply by the

beginning expression by a fraction which is designed to eliminate the radical from
the denominator. The numerator and denominator of the fraction are created by
changing the sign between the number and the radical in the denominator.
√ √ √ √ √ √ √
Example: ∙
√ √ √

Chapter 13 Radicals
Algebra
Simplifying Square Roots – Two Methods
Method 1: Extracting Squares
In this method, you pull squares out from under the radical. This is the quickest
method if you are comfortable with what the squares are and with dividing them
out of larger numbers.
1 1 11 121
Examples: (1) √98 √49 ∙ √2 2 4 12 144
7√2
3 9 13 169
(2) √9600 √100 ∙ √96 4 16 14 196
√100 ∙ √16 ∙ √6 5 25 15 225

10 ∙ 4 ∙ √6 6 36 16 256
40√6
7 49 17 289
8 64 18 324
Method 2: Extracting Prime Numbers
9 81 19 361
If you are not comfortable with Method 1, you can pull
10 100 20 400
prime numbers out from under the radical and pair them
up to simplify the square root.
Example: √54 √2 ∙ √27 Method 2 may take a lot longer than

Method 1, but it works. A good use for
√2 ∙ √3 ∙ √9
Method 2 is when you try using the
√2 ∙ √3 ∙ √3 ∙ √3 quicker Method 1 but get stuck – then
√2 ∙ √3 ∙ √3 ∙ √3 working with primes can get you back
on track toward solving the problem.
√2 ∙ 3 ∙ √3
3 ∙ √2 ∙ √3
3 ∙ √6 Note that the last step is to re‐combine roots
that do not come in pairs.

Chapter 13 Radicals
Algebra
Solving Radical Equations
When an equation involves radicals, the radicals must be eliminated in order to obtain a
solution. The one special thing about these equations is that, in the process of eliminating the
radical, it is possible to add another solution that is not a solution to the original problem.
Solutions that are added by the process used to solve the problem are called Extraneous
Solutions. At the end of the problem, we must check for extraneous solutions and eliminate
them.
Solving a Radical Equation

The steps to solving an equation involving radicals are:
 Isolate the radical on one side of the equation. To do this, add or subtract any variables
or constants that are on the same side of the equation as the radical.
 If the radical is a square root, square both sides of the equation. If the radical is a cube
root, cube both sides, etc. This should get rid of the radical.
 If there are any radicals remaining in the problem, repeat the first two steps until they
are gone.
 Solve the equation that remains.
 Check all solutions to the problem using the equation in the original statement of the
problem.
 Discard extraneous roots.
Example: Solve √2 6 1
Starting Problem: √2 6 1
Subtract 1 from both sides: √2 6 1 If we allowed to
Square both sides: 2 6 2 1 be ‐2, the equation would
work and ‐1 would work as a
Subtract from both sides: 4 5 0 solution. However, the
Factor: 5 1 0 square root of a number is
defined to be the positive
Obtain Preliminary Solutions: 1, 5 root only. So, ‐1 fails as a
Test as a solution: 2 1 6 1 1 ? solution to the problem.
Test as a solution: 4 5 5 5 ? 
Identify the final Solution Set:

Chapter 13 Radicals
Algebra
Solving Radical Equations (cont’d)
Why Only Positive Square Roots?

It is generally taught in high school algebra that square roots have both positive and negative
roots. So why are we now saying that the square root of a number is defined to be a positive
number only?
The answer lies in the missing step, which is often not taught to high school students. What
you learn is this:
, . And, that is correct, but not because √ which it does not!
The Missing Step

In the box to the right is the development with the
missing step included. Notice that: Starting Problem:
 √ | | Take square roots: | |
 When we take square roots, we have positive
Solve for x:
numbers on each side of the resulting equation.
Both | | and 2 are positive.
 The two possible values for x come from solving the middle equation | | .
This solves the apparent arbitrariness of when a root is only positive and when it is both
positive and negative.
Inequalities
The “missing step” also provides an explanation for the method used to solve inequalities.
Consider the inequality: 9. The process for solving this with the missing step included is:
Starting Problem: 9
Take square roots: | | 3 Notice that | | converts to in Case I and to
– in Case ii. By the end of the problem, you
Case i Case ii see that the sign in Case ii has been flipped
around from the original problem. This is not
3 and 3 magic; it is the result of “The Missing Step”
3 and 3 being applied in all its mathematical glory!
Solution: | 3

Chapter 14 Matrices
Algebra
Matrix Addition and Scalar Multiplication
What is a Matrix?
A matrix is an ordered set of objects (typically real or complex numbers) set up in a two‐
dimensional array. Matrices are very useful in algebra, statistics and other applications because
they provide a concise way to carry out complex mathematical processes and methods.
Matrices have dimensions, expressed as the number of rows x the number of columns. For
example, a 2x3 matrix (read “2 by 3 matrix”) has 2 rows and 3 columns. Knowing the
dimensions of a matrix is important because many matrix operations can only occur on
matrices with certain dimensions.
Adding Matrices
Each object in a matrix is called an element. Matrices are added by adding the corresponding
elements in the matrices. Matrices must have the same dimensions if they are to be added.
Example:
2 3 1 1 2 4 1 1 5
5 1 2 2 1 0 3 2 2
1st row, 1st column: 2 + (-1) = 1

1st row, 2nd column: (-3) + 2 = -1
Scalar Multiplication
Multiplying a matrix by a scalar (i.e., a number) is accomplished by multiplying each element in

the matrix by the scalar. The term scalar simply refers to “scaling” the matrix by making its
values larger or smaller. Scalar multiplication can be performed on matrices of any dimensions.
Example:
1 2 4 3 6 12
3∙
2 1 0 6 3 0
1st row, 1st column: 3 ∙ (-1) = -3

1st row, 2nd column: 3 ∙ 2 = 6

Chapter 14 Matrices
Algebra
Matrix Multiplication
Multiplying Matrices
Multiplication of matrices is a more complex process. Although the student may find it difficult
at first, it is a powerful tool that is useful in many fields of mathematics and science.
Matrix multiplication can be performed only on matrices that are conformable (i.e., compatible
in size). In order for two matrices to be multiplied together, the number of columns in the first
matrix must equal the number of rows in the second matrix. If an m x n matrix is multiplied by
an n x p matrix, the result is an m x p matrix. This is illustrated as follows:
must match
𝑚x𝑛 ∙ 𝑛x𝑝 𝑚𝑥𝑝
size of resulting matrix
To multiply matrices, multiply the elements in a row of the first matrix, element by element, by
the corresponding elements in a column of the second matrix and add the results. If row i in
the first matrix is multiplied by row j in the second matrix, the result is placed in row i, column j
of the resulting matrix. The element in position i, j of a matrix 𝑨 is often denoted 𝒂𝒊,𝒋 .
Example 1:
Notice that multiplying a 2 x 3
1 2
2 3 1 1 0 matrix by a 3 x 2 matrix results
∙ 2 1
5 1 2 1 13 in a 2 x 2 matrix.
3 1
1st row, 1st column: [ 2 ∙ 1] + [ (-3) ∙ 2] + [ 1 ∙ 3] = -1

1st row, 2nd column: [ 2 ∙ (-2) ] + [ (-3) ∙ (-1) ] + [ 1 ∙ 1] = 0
2nd row, 1st column: [ 5 ∙ 1] + [ 1 ∙ 2] + [ (-2) ∙ 3] = 1
2nd row, 2nd column: [ 5 ∙ (-2) ] + [ 1 ∙ (-1) ] + [ (-2) ∙ 1] = -13
Example 2:
1 2 8 5 5 Notice that multiplying a 3 x 2
2 3 1
2 1 ∙ 1 7 4 matrix by a 2 x 3 matrix results
5 1 2 in a 3 x 3 matrix.
3 1 11 8 1
From these examples, it is clear that matrix multiplication is not commutative. That is, if we
name two matrices 𝑨 and 𝑩, it is generally not true that 𝑨 ∙ 𝑩 𝑩 ∙ 𝑨. Further, if matrices
are not square (i.e., having the same number of rows and columns), matrix multiplication is
never commutative; that is 𝑨 ∙ 𝑩 𝑩 ∙ 𝑨.

Chapter 14 Matrices
Algebra
Identity Matrices and Inverse Matrices
Identity Matrices
For real numbers, the multiplicative identity is 1 because for any real number 𝑥:
𝑥∙𝟏 𝟏∙𝑥 𝑥
That is, when a number is multiplied by 1, the result is the original number. It does not matter
whether we multiply by 1 on the left or the right; in either case, the result is the original
number.
The same is true for square matrices. If we multiply a square matrix by the identity matrix with
the same dimensions, the result will be the original matrix. It does not matter whether we
multiply by the identity matrix on the left or right; the result is the same.
Identity matrices exist for each square dimension. Identity matrices have 1’s along the diagonal
and 0’s in every other position. For example, the following are identity matrices of rank 2, 3
and 4. Identity matrices are generally denoted by the letter "𝑰":
1 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0
𝐼 𝐼 0 1 0 𝐼
0 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 0 1
Example: If we define square matrix 𝑨, then 𝑨 ∙ 𝑰 𝑰∙𝑨 𝑨 as follows:
2 1 3 1 0 0 1 0 0 2 1 3 2 1 3
1 4 2 ∙ 0 1 0 0 1 0 ∙ 1 4 2 1 4 2
3 1 2 0 0 1 0 0 1 3 1 2 3 1 2
Inverse Matrices
For real numbers, multiplying a number by its inverse results in the identity, 𝟏. For example,
3∙ ∙3 𝟏. Similarly, multiplying a matrix by its inverse results in the identity matrix with
the same dimensions as the original matrix.
𝟏 𝟏
Example: Using the same square matrix 𝑨 as above, 𝑨 ∙ 𝑨 𝑨 ∙𝑨 𝑰 as follows:
2 1 3 2.0 1 2.0 2.0 1 2.0 2 1 3 1 0 0

1 4 2 1.6 1 1.4 1.6 1 1.4 1 4 2 0 1 0
3 1 2 2.2 1 1.8 2.2 1 1.8 3 1 2 0 0 1

Chapter 14 Matrices
Algebra
Inverse of a 2x2 Matrix
Using matrix notation:

 Let the identity matrix of size 𝒏 𝐱 𝒏 be called 𝑰
 Let an 𝒏 𝐱 𝒏 matrix be called 𝑨
 Let the determinant of matrix 𝑨 be denoted |𝑨|
 Let the inverse of matrix 𝑨 be denoted 𝑨‐1
 Then, 𝑨‐1 ∙ 𝑨 𝑨 ∙ 𝑨‐1 𝑰
Not all square matrices have inverses. In order for a matrix to have an inverse, its determinant
must be non‐zero. That is, matrix 𝑨 has an inverse if and only if: |𝑨| 𝟎.
Formula for the Inverse of a 2x2 Matrix

𝒅 𝒃
𝒂 𝒃 𝒄 𝒂
If a 2x2 matrix has elements 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄 and d, such that 𝑨
𝒄 𝒅
, then: 𝑨‐1 𝒂 𝒃
𝒄 𝒅
In words, the inverse is calculated as follows:
 From the original matrix, switch elements a and d, and change the signs of b and c.
 Divide the resulting matrix by the determinant of the original matrix. (Note: the
determinant of a matrix is a scalar).
𝒂 𝒃 𝒂 𝒃
The determinant of matrix 𝑨 , is calculated as |𝑨| 𝒂𝒅 𝒃𝒄.
𝒄 𝒅 𝒄 𝒅
Example: 2x2 Matrix Inverse Calculation
𝟒 𝟏
Let: 𝑨
𝟐 𝟏
𝟒 𝟏
Then: |𝑨| 𝟒∙𝟏 𝟏 ∙ 𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 𝟏
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝟐 𝟒 𝟐 𝟒 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟎. 𝟓
So: 𝑨‐1 𝑨‐1
𝟒 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
𝟐 𝟏
Finally, check to make sure: 𝑨‐1 ∙ 𝑨 𝑨 ∙ 𝑨‐1 𝑰
𝟎. 𝟓 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟒 𝟏 𝟏 𝟎 𝟒 𝟏 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟏 𝟎
∙  and ∙ 
𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝟎 𝟏

Chapter 14 Matrices
Algebra
Determinants – The General Case
Determinants are very useful in matrix operations. The determinant of a 2 x 2 matrix is defined to be:
|𝑨| 𝒂 𝒃
𝒂𝒅 𝒃𝒄 note: alternative notation for |𝑨| is det 𝑨
𝒄 𝒅
In words, the diagonals are multiplied and the product of second diagonal is subtracted from the
product of the first diagonal. This process is generalized in determinants of larger matrices using what
are referred to as minors. A minor is what is left of a matrix when the row and column of the element
are eliminated.
The determinant of a matrix can be calculated by selecting a row or column and multiplying each
element of that row or column by the determinant of its corresponding minor. The results are
alternately added and subtracted to get the value of the determinant. The sign of each term is
determined by the row and column in which it resides. The sign for the element in row m and column n
𝒎 𝒏
is 𝟏 . The following matrices of signs show how they are applied to each row element:
2x2: 3x3: 4x4:
Using minors of the first row to evaluate a 3 x 3 matrix,

𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟏 𝒄𝟏
𝒃𝟐 𝒄𝟐 𝒂𝟐 𝒄𝟐 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒄𝟐 𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟏 𝒂 𝒄𝟑 𝒄𝟏
𝒃𝟑 𝒄𝟑 𝟑 𝒂𝟑 𝒃𝟑
𝒂𝟑 𝒃𝟑 𝒄𝟑
Or, using minors of the second column to evaluate the same 3 x 3 matrix,
𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟏 𝒄𝟏
𝒂𝟐 𝒄𝟐 𝒂𝟏 𝒄𝟏 𝒂𝟏 𝒄𝟏
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒄𝟐 𝒃𝟏 𝒂 𝒄𝟑 𝒃𝟐 𝒂 𝒄𝟑 𝒃𝟑 𝒂 𝒄𝟐
𝟑 𝟑 𝟐
𝒂𝟑 𝒃𝟑 𝒄𝟑
The results of the calculation will be the same, regardless of which row or column is selected, because of
the power of matrices and determinants.
Example for a 3 x 3 matrix using minors of the first row:

3 1 1 Note: this is the matrix that forms
2 1 1 1 1 2
1 2 1 3 1 1 the denominator in the solution of
2 3 2 3 2 2
2 2 3 the system of equations in the
Cramer’s Rule example.
3 4 1 1 1 2 𝟏𝟓
The same process is followed for larger determinants. For example, a 5 x 5 determinant is first reduced
to a sum of five elements each multiplied by their 4 x 4 minors. Each of the 4 x 4 minors is reduced to a
sum of four elements each multiplied by their 3 x 3 minors, etc. The process is calculation intensive;
today it would typically be performed using an advanced calculator or a computer.

Chapter 14 Matrices
Algebra
Matrix Division and Inverses
Multiplication and division are inverse processes with which the student is familiar when
working with real numbers. Multiplication of matrices, as described above is much more
complex than multiplication of real numbers. So, how do you divide matrices?
Division of real numbers can be considered to be the process of multiplying a number by the
inverse of the number by which you want to divide. For example:
 12 3 12 ∙ 4 (i.e., 12 divided by 3 is the same as 12 times ; the result is 4 either

way).
 Dividing by 3 is the same a multiplying by the inverse of 3, which is .
 3 and are “multiplicative inverses” because when multiplied, they result in 1, which is
the “multiplicative identity”.
Matrix division works in a similar fashion. It is typically handled by multiplying the dividend
(top) matrix by the inverse of the divisor (bottom) matrix. For matrices 𝑨 and 𝑩, if we want to
divide 𝑩 by 𝑨, we would instead multiply 𝑩 by 𝑨 𝟏 .
Some methods for calculating inverses of a square matrices are shown in the following pages.
Only square matrices have inverses. Identity matrices must also, by definition, be square.
Example:
𝟐 𝟏 𝟑 𝟏 𝟑 𝟑
Let: 𝑨 𝟏 𝟒 𝟐 𝑩 𝟓 𝟐 𝟏
𝟑 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒
2.0 1 2.0 (see the following pages for

𝟏
Then: 𝑨 1.6 1 1.4
2.2 1 1.8 methods to calculate this inverse)
𝑩 𝟏 𝟑 𝟑 2.0 1 2.0 3.8 1 3.2

𝟏
And: 𝑩∙𝑨 𝟓 𝟐 𝟏 ∙ 1.6 1 1.4 9.0 4 9.0
𝑨
𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 2.2 1 1.8 17.6 9 15.4
Note that because matrix multiplication is not commutative, you are very likely to get a
different result if you multiply 𝑩 by 𝑨 𝟏 on the left instead of the right. That is, in general,
𝟏 𝟏
𝑩∙𝑨 𝑨 ∙ 𝑩.

Chapter 14 Matrices
Algebra
Calculating Inverses – The General Case
The calculation of the inverse of a matrix of size greater than 2 x 2 can be performed by a
process called Gauss‐Jordan Elimination. The process is also called, more generically, Row
Reduction. In this process, you begin with two side‐by‐side matrices, the one you want to
invert (the subject matrix) and the identity matrix of the same size. Operations are performed
on both matrices, gradually converting the original matrix to the Identity Matrix.
Allowable operations are:

 Multiplying or dividing a row by a scalar (i.e., a number).
 Switching rows.
 Adding or subtracting a multiple of one row to or from another.
When this process is complete, the original identity matrix has been converted to the inverse
matrix. Below is an example of the development of an inverse of a 3 x 3 matrix using this
process:
Start with the identity

matrix to the right of the
original subject matrix.
Each operation
performed on the original
subject matrix is also
performed on the original
identity matrix.
End with the inverse

matrix to the right of the
new identity matrix.

Chapter 14 Matrices
Algebra
Calculating Inverses Using Adjoint Matrices
Definitions and Notation
 Minor: A minor 𝑀 is what is left of a matrix when the 𝑖‐th row and 𝑗‐th column (i.e.,
the row and column containing element 𝑎 ) of the original matrix 𝐴 are eliminated.
 Cofactor: The cofactor 𝑐 of 𝑎 is 1 multiplied by the determinant of the minor
𝑀 . That is, 𝑐 1 ∙ 𝑀 .
 Cofactor Matrix: The cofactor matrix is the matrix of cofactors of each element of the
original matrix. It is often denoted 𝐶.
 Adjoint Matrix: The adjoint matrix is the transpose of the cofactor matrix. That is,
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 𝐶 . The adjoint matrix is also called the adjugate matrix or adjunct matrix.
 Recall that the original matrix 𝐴 must be square and not singular (i.e., |𝐴| 0 in order
to have an inverse. A singular matrix has a determinant of zero.
The inverse of a matrix is equal to its corresponding adjoint matrix divided by the determinant
of the original matrix. That is:
𝟏
𝑪𝑻 Note: the transpose of a matrix interchanges
𝑨
|𝑨| rows and columns of the original matrix. For
example:
𝑻
Example: 2x2 Matrix Inverse Calculation 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
𝟏 𝟒 𝟐 𝟒
𝟒 𝟏
Let: 𝑨
𝟐 𝟏
Then: 𝑐 1 ∙𝟏 𝟏 Therefore:
𝑐 1 ∙ 𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
𝑐 1 ∙ 𝟏 𝟏 𝑪 , 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑨 𝑪𝑻
𝟏 𝟒 𝟐 𝟒
𝑐 1 ∙𝟒 𝟒
|𝑨| 𝟒 𝟏
And: 𝟒∙𝟏 𝟏 ∙ 𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 𝟏
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑻
𝑪 𝟐 𝟒 𝟐 𝟒 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟎. 𝟓
So: 𝑨‐1
𝑨 |𝑨| 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
Finally, check to make sure: 𝑨‐1 ∙ 𝑨 𝑨 ∙ 𝑨‐1 𝑰
𝟎. 𝟓 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟒 𝟏 𝟏 𝟎 𝟒 𝟏 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟏 𝟎
𝟏 𝟐
∙
𝟐 𝟏 𝟎 𝟏
 and
𝟐 𝟏
∙
𝟏 𝟐 𝟎 𝟏


Chapter 14 Matrices
Algebra
Calculating Inverses Using Adjoint Matrices (cont’d)
Example: 3x3 Matrix Inverse Calculation
𝟐 𝟏 𝟑 Example: How to Eliminate: Row 1

Let: 𝑨 𝟏 𝟒 𝟐 adjust 𝑨 to get 𝑀 : and column 1
𝟑 𝟏 𝟐
𝟒 𝟐
Cofactors: 𝑐 1 ∙𝑀 1 ∙ 𝟏𝟎
𝟏 𝟐
𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏
𝑐 1 ∙ 𝟖 𝑐 1 ∙ 𝟓
𝟑 𝟐 𝟑 𝟏
𝟏 𝟒 𝟏 𝟑
𝑐 1 ∙ 𝟏𝟏 𝑐 1 ∙ 𝟏𝟎
𝟑 𝟏 𝟒 𝟐
𝟏 𝟑 𝟐 𝟑
𝑐 1 ∙ 𝟓 𝑐 1 ∙ 𝟕
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
𝟐 𝟑 𝟐 𝟏
𝑐 1 ∙ 𝟓 𝑐 1 ∙ 𝟗
𝟑 𝟐 𝟏 𝟒
Adjoint:
𝟏𝟎 𝟖 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟎 𝟓 𝟏𝟎
𝑻
𝑪 𝟓 𝟓 𝟓 , 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑨 𝑪 𝟖 𝟓 𝟕
𝟏𝟎 𝟕 𝟗 𝟏𝟏 𝟓 𝟗
Determinant of 𝑨:
𝟐 𝟏 𝟑
𝟒 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟒
|𝑨| 𝟏 𝟒 𝟐 2∙ 1 ∙ 3∙
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟐 𝟑 𝟏
𝟑 𝟏 𝟐
2 ∙ 𝟏𝟎 1∙𝟖 3∙ 𝟏𝟏 𝟓
𝟏𝟎 𝟓 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎 𝟓 𝟏𝟎
𝟖 𝟓 𝟕 𝟖 𝟓 𝟕
𝑪𝑻 𝟐. 𝟎 𝟏. 𝟎 𝟐. 𝟎
𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟓 𝟗 𝟏𝟏 𝟓 𝟗
Inverse: 𝑨 𝟏. 𝟔 𝟏. 𝟎 𝟏. 𝟒
|𝑨| |𝑨 | 𝟓
𝟐. 𝟐 𝟏. 𝟎 𝟏. 𝟖
Finally, check to make sure: 𝑨‐1 ∙ 𝑨 𝑰

𝟐. 𝟎 𝟏. 𝟎 𝟐. 𝟎 𝟐 𝟏 𝟑 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝟏. 𝟔 𝟏. 𝟎 𝟏. 𝟒 ∙ 𝟏 𝟒 𝟐 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 
𝟐. 𝟐 𝟏. 𝟎 𝟏. 𝟖 𝟑 𝟏 𝟐 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
Note: If a square matrix has an inverse from either the left or the right, then that matrix is an
inverse from both the left and the right, and is, therefore, the inverse of the original matrix.

Chapter 14 Matrices
Algebra
Cramer’s Rule – 2 Equations
Cramer’s Rule provides a powerful and simple way to solve systems of two or three linear
equations. In larger systems of equations, it is a useful way to solve for just one of the
variables, without having to solve the entire system of equations. To solve an entire system of
four or more equations, a better technique would be Gauss‐Jordan Elimination, especially if the
student is aided by a computer and spreadsheet software such as Microsoft Excel.
Cramer’s Rule works as long as the determinant of variable coefficients (i.e., the determinant in
the denominator) is non‐zero. If this determinant is zero, then there is no unique solution to
the system of equations.
General Case for 2 Equations in 2 Unknowns
The standard form of the equations is: 𝑎 𝑥 𝑏𝑦 𝑘

𝑎 𝑥 𝑏 𝑦 𝑘
Using determinant notation, Cramer’s Rule states that the solutions for x and y are:
𝑥 𝑦
Notice that the determinants in the denominators are the same; the columns in these
determinants are the coefficients of the variables in the equations. The determinants in the
numerators are almost the same as the ones in the denominators; the only difference is that
the column of coefficients associated with the variable being evaluated is replaced by the
equations’ constant terms.
Example: Consider these equations: 3𝑥 6𝑦 18

𝑥 3𝑦 7
Then,
12
𝑥 𝟒 𝑦 𝟏
3

Chapter 14 Matrices
Algebra
Cramer’s Rule – 3 Equations
General Case for 3 Equations in 3 Unknowns
The standard form of the equations is: 𝑎 𝑥 𝑏𝑦 𝑐 𝑧 𝑘

𝑎 𝑥 𝑏 𝑦 𝑐 𝑧 𝑘
𝑎 𝑥 𝑏 𝑦 𝑐 𝑧 𝑘
Using determinant notation, Cramer’s Rule states that the solutions for x, y and z are:
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
As in the case with two equations, the determinants in the denominators are all the same; the
columns in these determinants are the coefficients of the variables in the equations. The
determinants in the numerators are almost the same as the ones in the denominators; the only
difference is that the column of coefficients associated with the variable being evaluated is
replaced by the equations’ constant terms.
Note that the determinant of

Example: Consider these equations: 3𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 7 variable coefficients must be non‐
𝑥 2𝑦 𝑧 2 zero in order to use Cramer’s
2𝑥 2𝑦 3𝑧 4 Rule. If this determinant is zero,
there is no unique solution to the
system of equations.
Using determinant notation:
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
Performing the required calculations, we obtain the unique solution:
𝑥 2 𝑦 3 𝑧 2

Chapter 14 Matrices
Algebra
Augmented Matrices
Solving Simultaneous Equations

One relatively advanced method of solving simultaneous equations is through the use of an
Augmented Matrix. A matrix is considered augmented if it consists of the matrix of the
coefficients of the variables, augmented by the constant terms. In order for a system of
equations to be solved in this form, they must be written in standard form.
Example:
To solve the 𝑥 3𝑦 13 The augmented 1 3 13

system: 2𝑥 𝑦 4 matrix would be: 2 1 4
Gauss‐Jordan Elimination
A process called Gauss‐Jordan Elimination (GJE) is used to manipulate the augmented matrix to
obtain a solution to the equations. GJE is also called Row Reduction because each step adjusts
the values in one row of the augmented matrix. At the end of the process, the rows of the
coefficient matrix are “reduced” to the Identity Matrix.
The following manipulations of the rows are allowed:

 Multiplying or dividing a row by a scalar (i.e., a number).
 Switching rows.
 Adding or subtracting a multiple of one row to or from another.
When this process is complete, the constant column of the augmented matrix has been
converted to the solution of the system of equations. Why does this work? The process used is
essentially the same as solving a system of equations by the elimination method. In GJE, you
ignore the variable names by using matrices, but the manipulations are the same.
Inverse Matrix
This process can also be used to develop an Inverse Matrix. To do this,
 Place an identity matrix to the right of the augmented matrix at the start.
 Perform all row operations on this matrix as you progress.
 At the end, the original identity matrix will have been converted to the inverse matrix.
In the following examples, augmented matrices are manipulated to develop solutions to

systems of equations and identity matrices are converted to inverse matrices.

Chapter 14 Matrices
Algebra
2x2 Augmented Matrix Examples
Problem: solve the following set of simultaneous equations using row reduction 2x + 8y = 36
(formally called Gauss‐Jordan Elimination) x + 5y = 10
Action Taken Why? Augmented Matrix Inverse Matrix

Start x y =
Starting Augmented Matrix 2 8 36 1 0
1 5 10 0 1
Adjust Top Row
(Row 1) ÷ (a11) ‐‐> Row 1 To get a "1" in column 1 1 4 18 0.5 0
Row2 (no change) 1 5 10 0 1
Adjust 2nd Row
Row1 (no change) 1 4 18 0.5 0
(Row 2) ‐ (a21 * Row 1) ‐‐> Row 2 To get a "0" in column 1 0 1 ‐8 ‐0.5 1
Adjust 2nd Row
Row1 (no change) 1 4 18 0.5 0
(Row 2) ÷ (a22) ‐‐> Row 2 To get a "1" in column 2 0 1 ‐8 ‐0.5 1
Adjust Top Row
(Row 1) ‐ (a12 * Row 2) ‐‐> Row 1 To get a "0" in column 2 1 0 50 = x 2.5 ‐4
Row2 (no change) 0 1 ‐8 = y ‐0.5 1
Inverse Matrix
Matrix Inverse Test Original Matrix Inverse Matrix Product Matrix

2 8 2.5 ‐4 1 0
1 5 ‐0.5 1 0 1
Problem: solve the following set of simultaneous equations using row reduction ‐x + 3y = 13
(formally called Gauss‐Jordan Elimination) 2x ‐ y = 4

Start x y =
Starting Augmented Matrix ‐1 3 13 1 0
2 ‐1 4 0 1
Adjust Top Row
(Row 1) ÷ (a11) ‐‐> Row 1 To get a "1" in column 1 1 ‐3 ‐13 ‐1 0
Row2 (no change) 2 ‐1 4 0 1
Adjust 2nd Row
Row1 (no change) 1 ‐3 ‐13 ‐1 0
(Row 2) ‐ (a21 * Row 1) ‐‐> Row 2 To get a "0" in column 1 0 5 30 2 1
Adjust 2nd Row
Row1 (no change) 1 ‐3 ‐13 ‐1 0
(Row 2) ÷ (a22) ‐‐> Row 2 To get a "1" in column 2 0 1 6 0.4 0.2
Adjust Top Row
(Row 1) ‐ (a12 * Row 2) ‐‐> Row 1 To get a "0" in column 2 1 0 5 =x 0.2 0.6
Row2 (no change) 0 1 6 =y 0.4 0.2
Inverse Matrix

‐1 3 0.2 0.6 1 0
2 ‐1 0.4 0.2 0 1

Chapter 14 Matrices
Algebra
3x3 Augmented Matrix Example
Problem: solve the following set of simultaneous 2x ‐ y + 3z = ‐7

equations using row reduction (formally called x + 4y ‐2z = 17
Gauss‐Jordan Elimination) 3x +y +2z = 2

Starting Augmented Matrix x y z =
Starting Augmented Matrix 2 ‐1 3 ‐7 1 0 0
1 4 ‐2 17 0 1 0
3 1 2 2 0 0 1
Work Down
Row1 * 1/2 ‐‐> Row1 To get a "1" in column 1 1 ‐0.5 1.5 ‐3.5 0.5 0 0
Row2 ‐ (new Row1) ‐‐> Row2 To get a "0" in column 1 0 4.5 ‐3.5 20.5 ‐0.5 1 0
Row3 ‐ (3 * new Row1) ‐‐> Row 3 To get a "0" in column 1 0 2.5 ‐2.5 12.5 ‐1.5 0 1
Work Down
Row1 (no change) 1 ‐0.5 1.5 ‐3.5 0.5 0 0
Switch Rows 2 and 3 New Row2 looks easier to work with 0 2.5 ‐2.5 12.5 ‐1.5 0 1
Switch Rows 2 and 3 New Row2 looks easier to work with 0 4.5 ‐3.5 20.5 ‐0.5 1 0
Work Down
Row1 (no change) 1 ‐0.5 1.5 ‐3.5 0.5 0 0
Row2 / 2.5 ‐‐> Row2 To get a "1" in column 2 0 1 ‐1 5 ‐0.6 0 0.4
Row3 * 2 ‐‐> Row3 To get rid of the fractions 0 9 ‐7 41 ‐1 2 0
Work Down
Row1 (no change) 1 ‐0.5 1.5 ‐3.5 0.5 0 0
Row2 (no change) 0 1 ‐1 5 ‐0.6 0 0.4
Row3 ‐ (9 * Row2) ‐‐> Row 3 To get a "0" in column 2 0 0 2 ‐4 4.4 2 ‐3.6
Work Down
Row1 (no change) 1 ‐0.5 1.5 ‐3.5 0.5 0 0
Row2 (no change) 0 1 ‐1 5 ‐0.6 0 0.4
Row3 * .5 ‐‐> Row3 To get a "1" in column 3 0 0 1 ‐2 2.2 1 ‐1.8
Work Up
Row1 ‐ (Row3 * 1.5) ‐‐> Row1 To get a "0" in column 3 1 ‐0.5 0 ‐0.5 ‐2.8 ‐1.5 2.7
Row2 + Row3 ‐‐> Row2 To get a "0" in column 3 0 1 0 3 1.6 1 ‐1.4
Row3 (no change) 0 0 1 ‐2 2.2 1 ‐1.8
Work Up
Row1 + (Row2 * .5) ‐‐> Row1 To get a "0" in column 2 1 0 0 1 =x ‐2 ‐1 2
Row2 (no change) 0 1 0 3 =y 1.6 1 ‐1.4
Row3 (no change) 0 0 1 ‐2 = z 2.2 1 ‐1.8
Inverse Matrix

2 ‐1 3 ‐2 ‐1 2 1 0 0
1 4 ‐2 1.6 1 ‐1.4 0 1 0
3 1 2 2.2 1 ‐1.8 0 0 1

Chapter 14 Matrices
Algebra
Characteristic Equation and Eigenvalues
Characteristic Equation
The characteristic polynomial or characteristic function of a square matrix 𝑨 is defined as:

𝑃 𝜆 |𝑨 𝜆𝑰| alternatively written as: 𝑃 𝜆 det 𝑨 𝜆𝑰
4 1
As a simple example, let’s find the characteristic polynomial of matrix 𝑨 .
2 1
|𝑨 4 1 𝜆 0 4 𝜆 1
𝑃 𝜆 𝜆𝑰|
2 1 0 𝜆 2 1 𝜆
4 𝜆 1 𝜆 1 2 𝜆 5𝜆 4 2
𝜆 5𝜆 6
The characteristic equation of a square matrix is determined by setting its characteristic

polynomial equal to zero. The characteristic equation of matrix 𝑨, above, is:
𝜆 5𝜆 6 0
Note that:
 𝑨 must be a square matrix.
 If 𝑨 is an 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 square matrix, then the characteristic polynomial is of degree 𝑛.
 There are 𝑛 roots of the characteristic equation, some of which may not be real.
Eigenvalues, Trace, and Determinant
The 𝑛 roots of the characteristic equation, i.e., the 𝑛 values of 𝜆, are called the eigenvalues of
the matrix. The prefix “eigen” comes from the Old Dutch meaning “to own,” referring to the
essence of something. So, the matrix owns its eigenvalues and they are key to its existence.
For matrix 𝑨 in the example above, the eigenvalues are 2 and 3 because:
𝜆 5𝜆 6 𝜆 2 𝜆 3 0 ⇒ 𝜆 2, 3
The trace of a square matrix, 𝑡𝑟 𝐴 , is the sum of its diagonal values (from upper left to lower
right). Two theorems relate the trace and determinant of a matrix to its eigenvalues:
Theorem: The trace of a square matrix is equal to the sum of its eigenvalues.
Theorem: The determinant of a square matrix is equal to the product of its eigenvalues.
In the example above: the trace of 𝑨 is: 𝑡𝑟 𝑨 4 1 5, and the sum of the eigenvalues of
𝑨 is: 3 2 5; |𝐴| 4 2 6, and the product of the eigenvalues of 𝑨 is: 3 ∙ 2 6.

Chapter 14 Matrices
Algebra
Eigenvectors
Eigenvectors
Associated with each eigenvalue of a matrix 𝑨 is a corresponding eigenvector of 𝑨. The
𝑥
eigenvectors of 𝑨, 𝐯 𝑦 , are obtained by solving the equation: 𝑨 𝜆𝑰 𝐯 𝟎 for each
value of 𝜆. Note that 𝟎 is the zero vector, which is size: 𝑛 x 1.
Example: For matrix 𝑨, defined in the example above, let us find the eigenvectors associated
with the eigenvalues 𝜆 2 and 𝜆 3.
Consider 𝜆 2:
4 2 1 𝑥 2 1 𝑥
𝑨 𝜆𝑰 𝐯 𝑦 𝑦 𝟎
2 1 2 2 1
2𝑥 𝑦 0
2𝑥 𝑦 0
Let 𝑥 be any arbitrary value except zero and we can solve for 𝑦. Letting 𝑥 1 gives:
2𝑥 𝑦 2 1 𝑦 2 𝑦 0 ⇒ 𝑦 2
1
So, an eigenvector associated with the eigenvalue 𝜆 2 of 𝑨 is 𝐯
. Note that any
2
𝑡
vector of the form satisfies the above equation and so it is also an eigenvector of 𝑨
2𝑡
associated with the eigenvalue 𝜆 2.
Consider 𝜆 3:
4 3 1 𝑥 1 1 𝑥
𝑨 𝜆𝑰 𝐯 𝑦 𝟎
2 1 3 2 2 𝑦
𝑥 𝑦 0
2𝑥 2𝑦 0
Again, let 𝑥 1. Then,
𝑥 𝑦 1 𝑦 1 𝑦 0 ⇒ 𝑦 1
1
So, an eigenvector associated with the eigenvalue 𝜆 3 of 𝑨 is 𝐯
. Note that any
1
𝑡
vector of the form satisfies the above equation and so it is also an eigenvector of 𝑨
𝑡
associated with the eigenvalue 𝜆 3.
1 1
Conclude: One set of eigenvectors of 𝑨 is: 𝐯 , .
2 1

Chapter 14 Matrices
Algebra
2x2 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors – General Case
Characteristic Equation
𝑎 𝑏
Let: 𝑨
𝑐 𝑑
|𝑨 𝑎 𝜆 𝑏
𝜆𝑰| 0
𝑐 𝑑 𝜆
𝑎 𝜆 𝑑 𝜆 𝑏𝑐 0
𝜆 𝑎 𝑑 𝜆 𝑎𝑑 𝑏𝑐 0
Eigenvalues
𝑎 𝑑 𝑎 𝑑 4𝑎𝑑 4𝑏𝑐 𝑎 𝑑 √𝑎 2𝑎𝑑 𝑑 4𝑎𝑑 4𝑏𝑐

𝜆
2 2
𝑎 𝑑 √𝑎 2𝑎𝑑 𝑑 4𝑏𝑐 𝑎 𝑑 𝑎 𝑑 4𝑏𝑐

2 2
Let: ∆ 𝑎 𝑑 4𝑏𝑐
𝑎 𝑑 ∆
𝜆
2
Eigenvectors
𝑥
𝑨 𝜆𝑰 𝐯 0, 𝐯 𝑦
𝑎 𝜆 𝑏 𝑥
𝑦 0
𝑐 𝑑 𝜆
Working with the top row: 𝑎 𝜆 𝑥 𝑏𝑦 0
𝜆 𝑎 𝑥 𝑏𝑦
𝑥 𝑏
For each 𝜆, then, 𝐯 𝑦 𝜆 𝑎
Finally, you may wish to simplify 𝐯 by reducing its elements to lowest terms, if possible.

Chapter 14 Matrices
Algebra
Calculating Inverses Using Characteristic Equations
Hamilton‐Cayley Theorem: Every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation.
That is, if a matrix 𝑨 is substituted for 𝜆 in matrix 𝑨’s characteristic equation, the result is a true
statement, i.e., 𝑃 𝑨 𝟎, where 𝑃 𝑨 is the characteristic polynomial of 𝑨.
4 1
Example: In the case of matrix 𝑨 , defined above, with characteristic equation
2 1
𝜆 5𝜆 6 0, it must be true that 𝑨 5𝑨 6𝑰 𝟎, where 𝟎 is the appropriate zero
matrix. Let’s demonstrate that this is true.
4 1 4 1 1 0
𝑨 5𝑨 6𝑰 5 6
2 1 2 1 0 1
4 1 4 1 4 1 1 0
5 6
2 1 2 1 2 1 0 1
14 5 4 1 1 0
5 6
10 1 2 1 0 1
14 5 4 6 5 5 1 0 0 0

10 5 2 0 1 5 1 6 0 0
Using Hamilton‐Cayley to Calculate Inverses
By setting 𝑃 𝑨 𝟎, we can develop another method for calculating inverse matrices.

Consider the case of a 3 x 3 matrix 𝑨. The characteristic equation of 𝑨 must be of the form:
𝑎𝜆 𝑏𝜆 𝑐𝜆 𝑑 0, for some values 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, with 𝑎 0.
Then, by the Hamilton‐Cayley Theorem, it must be true that:
𝑎𝑨 𝑏𝑨 𝑐𝑨 𝑑𝑰 𝟎
𝟏
Multiply both sides by 𝑨 on the right (or the left) to get:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑎𝑨 𝑨 𝑏𝑨 𝑨 𝑐𝑨𝑨 𝑑𝑰𝑨 𝟎
𝟏
𝑎𝑨 𝑏𝑨 𝑐𝑰 𝑑𝑨 𝟎
𝟏
𝑑𝑨 𝑎𝑨 𝑏𝑨 𝑐𝑰
𝟏
𝑎𝑨 𝑏𝑨 𝑐𝑰
𝑨
𝑑

Chapter 14 Matrices
Algebra
Calculating Inverses Using Characteristic Equations (cont’d)
2 1 3
Example: Find the inverse of the 3 x 3 matrix 𝑨 1 4 2
3 1 2
2 𝜆 1 3
|𝑨 𝜆𝑰| 1 4 𝜆 2 0
3 1 2 𝜆
4 𝜆 2 1 2 1 4 𝜆
2 𝜆 1 3 0
1 2 𝜆 3 2 𝜆 3 1
2 𝜆 𝜆 6𝜆 10 𝜆 8 3 3𝜆 11 0
𝜆 8𝜆 14𝜆 5 0 is the characteristic equation of 𝑨.
By the Hamilton‐Cayley Theorem, then,

𝑨 8𝑨𝟐 14𝑨 5𝑰 𝟎
𝟏
Multiply both sides by 𝑨 on the right (or the left) to get:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑨 𝑨 8𝑨 𝑨 14𝑨𝑨 5𝑰𝑨 𝟎
𝟏
𝑨 8𝑨 14𝑰 5𝑨 𝟎 (next, solve for 𝑨 𝟏 )
𝟏
𝑨 8𝑨 14𝑰 1
𝑨 𝑨 8𝑨 14𝑰
5 5
1 2 1 3 2 1 3 2 1 3 1 0 0
1 4 2 1 4 2 8 1 4 2 14 0 1 0
5
3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 0 0 1
1 12 3 14 2 1 3 1 0 0
0 13 9 8 1 4 2 14 0 1 0
5
13 3 11 3 1 2 0 0 1
12 8 2 14 3
8 1 14 8 3
1
0 8 1 13 8 4 14 9 8 2
5
13 8 3 3 8 1 11 8 2 14
1 10 5 10 2 1 2
8 5 7 1.6 1 1.4
5
11 5 9 2.2 1 1.8
This result matches the inverse developed using the augmented matrix method that was
illustrated earlier in this chapter.

Chapter 15 Exponents and Logarithms
Algebra
Exponent Formulas

Examples
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑 𝒒
𝒙𝟒 ∙ 𝒙𝟑 𝒙𝟕
Product of Powers 𝒂 ∙𝒂 𝒂
𝒙𝟓 ∙ 𝒙 𝟖
𝒙 𝟑
𝒂𝒑 𝒚𝟓
Quotient of Powers 𝒂𝒑 𝒒
𝒂 𝟎 𝒚𝟑
𝒂𝒒 𝒚𝟐
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑∙𝒒
𝒛𝟒 𝟑
𝒛𝟏𝟐
Power of a Power 𝒂 𝒂
𝟑 𝟓
𝒙 𝒙𝟏𝟓
𝟎
𝟗𝟏𝟎 𝟏
Anything to the zero power is 1 𝒂 𝟏 𝒂 𝟎
𝒙𝒚𝒛𝟑 𝟎
𝟏, if 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛 𝟎
𝟑
𝟏
Negative powers generate the 𝟏 𝒙
𝒑 𝒙𝟑
reciprocal of what a positive 𝒂 𝒂 𝟎
power generates 𝒂𝒑 𝟏 𝟓
𝒙𝟓
𝒙
𝟑
𝒑 𝒑 𝒑 𝟑𝒚 𝟐𝟕𝒚𝟑
Power of a product 𝒂∙𝒃 𝒂 ∙𝒃
𝟒
𝒙 𝟏 𝒛 𝒙 𝟏 𝟒 𝒛𝟒
𝒂 𝒑 𝒂𝒑 𝒙 𝟑 𝒙𝟑
Power of a quotient 𝒃 𝟎
𝒃 𝒃𝒑 𝟒 𝟔𝟒
Converting a root to a power 𝒏 𝟏 𝒏 𝟎 𝟏
√𝒂 𝒂 𝒏 √𝒙 𝒙 𝟐

Algebra
Logarithm Formulas

Examples
𝒃, 𝒙 0 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟑 𝒙 𝟒 implies 𝟑𝟒 𝒙
Definition of logarithm 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒃 𝒙 𝒂 implies 𝒃𝒂 𝒙
𝒃 𝟏 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟕 𝟒𝟗 is undefined
𝒃 0 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟑𝟐 𝟏 𝟎
Log (base anything) of 1 is 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒃 𝟏 𝟎
zero 𝒃 𝟏 𝐥𝐧 𝟏 𝟎
Exponents and logs are 𝒃, 𝒙 0 𝟑 𝐥𝐨𝐠𝟑 𝟗𝟐 𝟗𝟐

inverse operators, leaving 𝒃 𝐥𝐨𝐠𝒃 𝒙 𝒙
𝒃 𝟏 𝒆 𝒍𝒏 𝒙 𝒙
what you started with
Logs and exponents are 𝒃, 𝒙 0 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟔 𝟔𝒙𝒚𝒛 𝒙𝒚𝒛
inverse operators, leaving 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒃 𝒃𝒙 𝒙
𝒃 𝟏 𝐥𝐧 𝒆𝟒𝒚 𝟒𝒚
what you started with
The log of a product is the 𝒎, 𝒏, 𝒃 0 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟐 𝟑𝟐𝒙 𝟓 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟐 𝒙
sum of the logs 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒃 𝒎 ∙ 𝒏 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒃 𝒎 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒃 𝒏
𝒃 𝟏 𝐥𝐧 𝟖𝒆 𝐥𝐧 𝟖 𝟏
𝟑
𝒎, 𝒏, 𝒃 0 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟑 𝟏 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟑 𝒙
The log of a quotient is the 𝒎 𝒙
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒃 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒃 𝒎 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒃 𝒏
difference of the logs 𝒏 𝟏𝟐
𝒃 𝟏 𝐥𝐧 𝐥𝐧 𝟏𝟐 𝟏
𝒆
The log of something to a 𝒎, 𝒃 0 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟒 𝒙𝟐𝟑 𝟐𝟑 ∙ 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟒 𝒙
power is the power times the 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒃 𝒎𝒑 𝒑 ∙ 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒃 𝒎
𝒃 𝟏 𝐥𝐧 𝟑𝒛 𝒛 ∙ 𝐥𝐧 𝟑
log
Change the base to whatever 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒎 𝒎, 𝒂, 𝒃 0 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝒙
you want by dividing by the 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒃 𝒎 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒙
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒃 𝒂, 𝒃 𝟏 𝟐
log of the old base

ADVANCED
Algebra
e
What is “e”?
 e is a transcendental number, meaning that it is not the root of any polynomial with
integer coefficients.
 e is the base of the natural logarithms.
What Makes “e” so Special?

e shows up over and over in mathematics, especially in regard to limits, derivatives, and
integrals. In particular, it is noteworthy that:
1 𝑛 𝑑 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 lim 1 𝑒 lim 𝑒 𝑒 1
→ 𝑛 → √𝑛! 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
Perhaps, most interestingly, the following equation, called Euler’s Equation, relates five
seemingly unrelated mathematical constants to each other.
𝒆𝒊𝝅 𝟏 𝟎
Some Series Representations of e
1 1 1 1 1 There are many more series involving e.

𝑒 1 1 ⋯
𝑘! 2 6 24 120 A sampling of these is provided at:
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/e.html.
1 1
𝑒
𝑘! 1 1 1 1
1 1 ⋯
2 6 24 120
Decimal Expansion
𝑒 2.7 1828 1828 4590 4523 5360 2874 7135 2662 4977 5724 7093 6999 5957 4966 …
The web site http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/htmltest/gifcity/e.2mil shows the decimal
expansion of e to over 2 million digits.

Algebra
Table of Exponents and Logarithms
Definition: 𝒃𝒂 𝒄 if and only if 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒃 𝒄 𝒂
𝟐𝟎 𝟏 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟐 𝟏 𝟎 𝟔𝟎 𝟏 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟔 𝟏 𝟎
𝟐𝟏 𝟐 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏 𝟔𝟏 𝟔 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟔 𝟔 𝟏
𝟐𝟐 𝟒 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟐 𝟒 𝟐 𝟔𝟐 𝟑𝟔 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟔 𝟑𝟔 𝟐
𝟐𝟑 𝟖 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟐 𝟖 𝟑 𝟔𝟑 𝟐𝟏𝟔 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟔 𝟐𝟏𝟔 𝟑
𝟐𝟒 𝟏𝟔 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟐 𝟏𝟔 𝟒
𝟐𝟓 𝟑𝟐 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟐 𝟑𝟐 𝟓 𝟕𝟎 𝟏 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟕 𝟏 𝟎
𝟐𝟔 𝟔𝟒 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟐 𝟔𝟒 𝟔 𝟕𝟏 𝟕 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟕 𝟕 𝟏
𝟐𝟕 𝟏𝟐𝟖 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟐 𝟏𝟐𝟖 𝟕 𝟕𝟐 𝟒𝟗 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟕 𝟒𝟗 𝟐
𝟐𝟖 𝟐𝟓𝟔 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟐 𝟐𝟓𝟔 𝟖 𝟕𝟑 𝟑𝟒𝟑 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟕 𝟑𝟒𝟑 𝟑
𝟐𝟗 𝟓𝟏𝟐 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟐 𝟓𝟏 𝟐 𝟗
𝟐𝟏𝟎 𝟏024 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟐 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 𝟏𝟎 𝟖𝟎 𝟏 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟖 𝟏 𝟎
𝟖𝟏 𝟖 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟖 𝟖 𝟏
𝟑𝟎 𝟏 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟑 𝟏 𝟎 𝟖𝟐 𝟔𝟒 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟖 𝟔𝟒 𝟐
𝟑𝟏 𝟑 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟑 𝟑 𝟏 𝟖𝟑 𝟓𝟏𝟐 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟖 𝟓𝟏𝟐 𝟑
𝟑𝟐 𝟗 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟑 𝟗 𝟐
𝟑𝟑 𝟐𝟕 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟑 𝟐𝟕 𝟑 𝟗𝟎 𝟏 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟗 𝟏 𝟎
𝟑𝟒 𝟖𝟏 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟑 𝟖𝟏 𝟒 𝟗𝟏 𝟗 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟗 𝟗 𝟏
𝟑𝟓 𝟐𝟒𝟑 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟑 𝟐𝟒𝟑 𝟓 𝟗𝟐 𝟖𝟏 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟗 𝟖𝟏 𝟐
𝟗𝟑 𝟕𝟐𝟗 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟗 𝟕𝟐𝟗 𝟑
𝟒𝟎 𝟏 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟒 𝟏 𝟎
𝟒𝟏 𝟒 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟒 𝟒 𝟏 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
𝟒𝟐 𝟏𝟔 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟒 𝟏𝟔 𝟐 𝟏𝟎𝟏 𝟏𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎 𝟏
𝟒𝟑 𝟔𝟒 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟒 𝟔𝟒 𝟑 𝟏𝟎𝟐 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟐
𝟒𝟒 𝟐𝟓𝟔 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟒 𝟐𝟓𝟔 𝟒 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟑
𝟓𝟎 𝟏 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟓 𝟏 𝟎 𝟏𝟏𝟎 𝟏 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟏 𝟏 𝟎

𝟓𝟏 𝟓 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟓 𝟓 𝟏 𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟏
𝟓𝟐 𝟐𝟓 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟓 𝟐𝟓 𝟐 𝟏𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐𝟏 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟐𝟏 𝟐
𝟓𝟑 𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟓 𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝟑 𝟏𝟏𝟑 𝟏𝟑𝟑𝟏 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟑𝟑𝟏 𝟑
𝟓𝟒 𝟔𝟐𝟓 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟓 𝟔𝟐𝟓 𝟒

Algebra
Converting Between Exponential and Logarithmic Forms
To convert between an exponential expression and a logarithmic expression, it is often helpful

to use the “first‐last‐middle” rule to perform the conversion. If necessasy, set the expression
equal to 𝑥 before applying the rule.
Note: the “first‐last‐middle” rule requires that the logarithmic or exponential portion of the
expression be on the left‐hand side of the equation.
Converting from Logarithmic Form Converting from Exponential Form

to Exponential Form to Logarithmic Form
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝒃 𝒂 𝒙 𝒃𝒙 𝒂
𝒃𝒙 𝒂 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝒃 𝒂 𝒙
using “first‐last‐middle” using “first‐last‐middle”
Examples: Examples:
1) Solve for 𝑥: 𝑙𝑜𝑔 64 𝑥. 1 Convert the expression, 2 32 to

First is “4”, last is “𝑥” and middle is logarithmic form.
“64.” So, 4 64. First is “2”, last is “32” and middle is
Then, 4 4; 4 16; 4 64  “5”.
So, we have: 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 𝟑𝟐 𝟓
So, we have: 𝒙 𝟑
2 Solve for 𝑥: ln 𝑒 𝑥 2 Convert the expression, 7 343 to

(remember 𝑙𝑛 is shorthand for 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ) logarithmic form.
Using first-last-middle, Using first-last-middle,
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑒 𝑥 converts to: 𝑒 𝑒 7 343 converts to: 𝑙𝑜𝑔 343 3
So, we have: 𝒙 𝟏 So, we have: 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟕 𝟑𝟒𝟑 𝟑

Algebra
Expanding Logarithmic Expressions
Expanding a logarithmic expression is a process best described by example. Each step of the
process is described and illustrated in the example below.
Expand: 𝑙𝑜𝑔
When expanded:
 Each item in the numerator will become a term preceded by a “+” sign
 Each item in the denominator will become a term preceded by a “‐” sign.
 All exponents become term coefficients in expanded form.
Step 1: Simplify terms in the original expression, if possible:
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔
Step 2: Write the log of all of the items in parentheses in the simplified expression:
𝑙𝑜𝑔 2 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑏 𝑙𝑜𝑔 3 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑐
Step 3: Write the exponents from the simplified expression as coefficients of each log:
𝑙𝑜𝑔 2 𝟑𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎 𝟐𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑏 𝑙𝑜𝑔 3 𝟒𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑐
Step 4: Write the signs (“ ” for items in the numerator; “ “ for items in the denominator):
𝑙𝑜𝑔 2 3𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎 2𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑏 𝑙𝑜𝑔 3 4𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑐
Step 5: Simplify terms in the solution, if possible:

1 3𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎 2𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑏 𝑙𝑜𝑔 3 4𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑐
Result: 𝑙𝑜𝑔 1 3𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎 2𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑏 𝑙𝑜𝑔 3 4𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑐

Algebra
Condensing Logarithmic Expressions
Condensing a logarithmic expression is a process best described by example. Each step of the
process is described and illustrated in the example below.
Condense: 1 2 𝑙𝑜𝑔 2𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 3𝑦 4 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑧
Step 1: Review the expression and identify each element.

 The argument of each log will become the base of an exponential term.
 The coefficient of each log will become an exponent on that term
 The sign of each term determines whether the exponential term goes in the
numerator (+) or denominator of the condensed expression.
exponents When condensed, each term will

become exponential in form. All
terms in the numerator will be
1 2 𝑙𝑜𝑔 2𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 3𝑦 4 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑧 multiplied together. All terms in
the denominator will be multiplied
“‐“ indicates that a term together.
“+” indicates that a term
goes in the denominator goes in the numerator
Step 2: Set up the log expression with the proper base and parentheses to contain the various
terms. If there is at least one negative sign, set up a fraction inside the parentheses:
𝑙𝑜𝑔
Step 3: Convert any constants to powers of the base of the log:

…
𝑙𝑜𝑔
Step 4: Bring in each term containing a variable as an exponential expression with the proper
exponent and base:
𝑙𝑜𝑔
Step 5: Simplify to the extent possible:

∙
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔

Algebra
Condensing Logarithmic Expressions – More Examples
Suggestions for doing problems:
 Use parentheses liberally to help yourself see what is going on in the problem.
 Do the problems one step at a time, working carefully down the page.
 Leave yourself a lot of room to do the work; there may be a lot of steps.
Some additional examples to help see how the various rules fit together:
1 𝑥 ∙𝑦
8 log 𝑥 log 𝑦 2 log 𝑧 log
4 𝑧
6 ln 3𝑒 6 ln 3 ln 𝑒 11 ln 3
2 3 ∙ log 𝑥 log 1 log 16 log 𝑥 0 log 16𝑥
log 𝑥 3
log 𝑥 log 𝑥 log 𝑥 log 𝑥
log 100 2
1
log 6 2 4 6
16

Algebra
Graphing an Exponential Function
Graphing an exponential or logarithmic function is a process best described by example. Each

step of the process is described and illustrated in the examples over the next few pages.
Graph the function: 𝒚 𝟑𝒙 𝟏

𝟐
Step 1: The horizontal asymptote occurs at the 𝒚 𝟑𝒙 𝟏

𝟐
value of the constant term. This is because the
exponential term approaches zero as the
exponent becomes more and more negative.
𝒚 𝟐 is the asymptote.
Step 2: Select points for the graph:
In selecting points for an 𝑥 𝑦

In this example, select 𝑥 so that:
exponential curve, good
𝑥 1 1 so, 𝑥 0 0 𝑦 3 2 1.67
choices often relate to the
value of the exponent. 𝑥 1 0 so, 𝑥 1 1 𝑦 3 2 1
Choose values that make
𝑥 1 1 so, 𝑥 2 2 𝑦 3 2 1
the exponent ‐1, 0 and 1; or
‐1, 0 and 2.
Step 3: Graph the exponential function:
3A: Graph the

asymptote 𝑦 2 3B: Graph the points 3C: Sketch in the curve

Four Exponential Function Graphs Note: exponential and logarithmic

functions that are inverses of
Impact of varying base (above 1 and below 1) each other (on this page and the
one following) are the same color.
𝒙
𝟏 𝒇 𝒙 𝟑𝒙
𝒇 𝒙
𝟑
𝒙
𝟑
𝟏 𝒙 𝒇 𝒙 𝟑𝒙
𝒇 𝒙
𝟑
𝒙
𝟑

Algebra
Graphing a Logarithmic Function
Method 1: Direct Method
Graph the sample Function: 𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 1 3
Step 1: Find the vertical asymptote at the value of 𝒚 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟒 𝒙 𝟏 𝟑

x that makes the argument of the log zero.
𝑥 1 0 so, 𝒙 𝟏 is the asymptote.

In selecting points for a logarithmic curve, good choices often relate to the value of the argument.
Choose values that make the argument 1 and the base of the logarithm (1 and 4 in this example).
In this example, select 𝑥 so that: 𝑥 𝑦

𝑥 1 1 so, 𝑥 2 2 𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑔 2 1 3 𝑙𝑜𝑔 1 3 𝟑
𝑥 1 4 so, 𝑥 5 5 𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑔 5 1 3 𝑙𝑜𝑔 4 3 𝟒
See what happens when we do this By selecting x’s so that the values in parentheses are 1 and
in the table to the right: the base of the log, the calculation of y’s becomes easy.
Note that two points may be sufficient to graph the curve if we have also drawn the asymptote.
Step 3: Graph the logarithmic function:
3A: Graph the

asymptote 𝑥 1 3B: Graph the points 3C: Sketch in the curve

Algebra
Graphing a Logarithmic Function (cont’d)
Natural Logarithm Notation: 𝐥𝐧 …

"ln" stands for “logarithmus naturalis” (Latin for “natural logarithm”) and is the logarithm with base "𝑒".
The “ln” notation was invented in the late 1800’s, when a lot of work was done by hand (there were no
electronic calculators or computers). Those who worked with logarithms often used natural logarithms
extensively, so this shorthand notation became quite popular, and has survived to this day.
So, when you see: ln … think log … .
Method 1: Direct Method when the base of the logarithm is “𝒆”

Step 1: Find the vertical asymptote at the value of 𝒚 𝐥𝐧 𝒙 𝟏 𝟑
x that makes the argument of the log zero.
𝑥 1 0 so, 𝒙 𝟏 is the asymptote.

In selecting points for a logarithmic curve, good choices often relate to the value of the argument.
Choose values that make the argument 1 and the base of the logarithm (1 and e in this example).
In this example, select 𝑥 so that: 𝑥 𝑦

𝑥 1 1 so, 𝑥 2 2 𝑦 ln 2 1 3 ln 1 3 𝟑
𝑥 1 e so, 𝑥 𝑒 1 3.7 𝑦 ln 𝑒 1 1 3 ln 𝑒 3 𝟒
You need to know that 𝑒 ~ 2.7. By selecting x’s so that the values in parentheses are 1 and
So, 𝑒 1 ~ 3.7. the base of the log, the calculation of y’s becomes easy.
Note that two points may be sufficient to graph the curve if we have also drawn the asymptote.
Step 3: Graph the logarithmic function:
3A: Graph the


Algebra
Graphing a Logarithmic Function (cont’d)
Method 2: Double‐Inverse Method
Step 1: Find the inverse function: 𝒚 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟒 𝒙 𝟏 𝟑 Step 2: Find the vertical
Switch variables: 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑦 1 3 asymptote at the value of x
Subtract the constant: 3 3 that makes the argument of
the log zero.
Result: 𝑥 3 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑦 1
𝑥 1 0
Take powers of the log base: 4 4 so, 𝒙 𝟏 is the asymptote.
Simplify: 4 𝑦 1
Subtract the constant: 1 1
Resulting INVERSE Function: 4 1 𝑦 or 𝒚 𝟒𝒙 𝟑

𝟏
In selecting points for an 𝑥 𝑦

In this example, select 𝑥 so that:
exponential curve, good
𝑥 3 1 so, 𝑥 2 2 𝑦 4 1 1.25
choices often relate to the
value of the exponent. 𝑥 3 0 so, 𝑥 3 3 𝑦 4 1 2
Choose values that make
𝑥 3 1 so, 𝑥 4 4 𝑦 4 1 5
the exponent ‐1, 0 and 1; or
‐1, 0 and 2.
Step 4: Switch the x and y values to get points for the logarithmic function: 𝑥 𝑦
𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 𝟐
𝟐 𝟑
Step 5: Graph the logarithmic function: 𝟓 𝟒
5A: Graph the


Four Logarithmic Graphs Note: exponential and logarithmic functions that

are inverses of each other (on the earlier page and
Impact of varying base (above 1 and below 1) on this one) are the same color.
𝒇 𝒙 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟑 𝒙 𝒇 𝒙 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟑 𝒙
𝒇 𝒙 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏⁄𝟑 𝒙 𝒇 𝒙 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏⁄𝟑 𝒙
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟑 𝒙 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟑 𝒙

Algebra
Graphs of Various Functions
y = 2x y = (½)x
10.0 10.0
5.0 5.0
0.0 0.0
‐10.0 ‐5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 ‐10.0 ‐5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0
‐5.0 ‐5.0
‐10.0 ‐10.0
y = log2 x y = log½ x
10.0 10.0
5.0 5.0
0.0 0.0
‐10.0 ‐5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 ‐10.0 ‐5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0
‐5.0 ‐5.0
‐10.0 ‐10.0
y = x½ y = x2 y = x3
10.0 10.0 10.0
5.0 5.0 5.0
0.0 0.0 0.0

‐10.0 ‐5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 ‐10.0 ‐5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 ‐10.0 ‐5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0
‐5.0 ‐5.0 ‐5.0
‐10.0 ‐10.0 ‐10.0

Algebra
Applications of Exponential Functions
Exponential Growth and Decay
𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡 Note: if you let the end value be

∙ 1 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑡ℎ
𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 represented by 𝑨 𝒕 and the
start value by 𝑷, you get similar
𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡 formulas to the interest
∙ 1 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦
𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 formulas below.
Interest Formulas
Let: 𝐴 𝑡 = Amount of money at time 𝑡

𝑃 = Principal (starting amount of money); note that 𝑃 𝐴 0
𝑟 = the annual rate of interest (e.g., 4% or .04)
𝑛 = the number of times per year that interest is credited
Compound interest pays interest a number of times during the year; that is, in
periods after the first, interest is paid on the original amount invested plus
interest earned in prior periods.
𝒓 𝒏𝒕
Compound interest paid n times a year: 𝑨 𝒕 𝑷∙ 𝟏
𝒏
Simple case. If interest is compounded on an annual basis, we get the simplest

formula:
𝒕
Annual interest paid once a year: 𝑨 𝒕 𝑷∙ 𝟏 𝒓
Continuous compounding. The more frequent the compounding of interest, the

more money you get. The best return on your money occurs if interest is
compounded continuously. Because of the definition of the mathematical
constant "𝑒", we get the following formula (known as the “Pert” formula).
𝒓𝒕
Interest compounded continuously: 𝑨 𝒕 𝑷∙ 𝒆

Algebra
Solving Exponential and Logarithmic Equations
Logarithms and exponents are inverse operations in the same way addition and subtraction are,
and in the same way multiplication and division are. So, to undo an exponent, you take a
logarithm, and to undo a logarithm, you take an exponent.
Solving an Exponential Equation

Sometimes an equation has a variable in an exponent. To solve this kind of equation, follow
these steps:
 Isolate the term with the exponent on one side Example:
of the equation. That is, undo any additions,
Start: 2 4∙3 110
subtractions, multiplications, and divisions in
the equation. Subtract 2: 4∙3 108
 Take a logarithm of both sides of the equation. Divide by 4: 3 27

Use the base that exists in the exponential Take logs: log 3 log 27
term.
Simplify: 𝑥 2 3
Add 2: 𝒙 𝟓
Note: in the example at right, the base of 3 is selected
for the logarithms because it is the base of the exponent in the problem.
Solving a Logarithmic Equation

To solve an equation with a logarithm in it, follow these steps:
 Isolate the logarithm on one side of the
equation. That is, undo any additions, Example:
subtractions, multiplications, and divisions in
Start: 1 log 𝑥 1 1
the equation.
 Take the base of the logarithm to the power of Add 1: log 𝑥 1 2
both sides of the equation. Use the same base Multiply by : log 𝑥 1 3
that exists in the logarithmic term.
Exponentiate: 2 2
Simplify: 𝑥 1 8
Note: in the example at right, the base of 2 is selected
Subtract 1: 𝒙 𝟕
for use in exponentiation because it is the base of the
logarithm in the problem.

Chapter 16 Polynomials – Intermediate
Algebra
Polynomial Function Graphs
Definitions
 Local Maximum – The largest value that a function takes in a neighborhood around the
point. There must be smaller values on both sides of the local maximum.
 Local Minimum – The smallest value that a function takes in a neighborhood around the
point. There must be larger values on both sides of the local minimum.
 A function is Increasing over an interval if it
generates larger values as x increases over the
same interval.
 A function is Decreasing over an interval if it
generates smaller values as x increases over the
same interval.
The graph at the right has two local maxima and two local
minima. It also has three intervals where it is increasing
and two intervals where it is decreasing.
Characteristics of the Graph of a Polynomial

If 𝑃 𝑥 is a polynomial of degree 𝑛, then …
 𝑃 𝑥 is continuous over all values of x.
 Roots (i.e., zeros) of 𝑃 𝑥 exist wherever the graph intersects the x‐axis. There are at
most 𝑛 of them.
 The y‐intercept of the graph occurs at 𝑃 0 , which is the constant term of the
polynomial.
 𝑃 𝑥 will have at most 𝑛 1 local extrema (either maxima or minima). For example, a
5th degree polynomial will have at most 4 extrema; the example above has 4 extrema.
 At each extreme, the slope of a line tangent to the curve will be zero. However, if the
slope of the tangent line to the curve at a point is zero, the point is not necessarily an
extreme.
 At a local maximum, the polynomial must be increasing on the left and decreasing on
the right.
 At a local minimum, the polynomial must be decreasing on the left and increasing on
the right.

ADVANCED
Algebra
Finding Extrema with Derivatives
Derivatives
𝒅
The derivative of a monomial is: 𝒙𝒏 𝒏𝒙𝒏 𝟏
𝒅𝒙
𝒅
The notation means “take a derivative with respect to the variable x.” We need to know two
𝒅𝒙
other things about derivatives in order to find extrema with them.
 The derivative of a sum is the sum of the derivatives. That is:
𝒅 𝒅 𝒅
𝒇 𝒙 𝒈 𝒙 𝒇 𝒙 𝒈 𝒙
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
 Derivatives provide information about the slopes of lines tangent to the curve at each
point. Since the slope of a tangent line at a minimum or maximum is zero, we can
calculate the derivative of a polynomial and set it equal to zero to find the x‐values of its
extrema.
Finding Extrema with Derivatives

𝒅
If 𝑷 𝒙 is a polynomial, any extrema lie at points where 𝑷 𝒙 𝟎.
𝒅𝒙
Example 1: Take the general quadratic equation: 𝒚 𝒂𝒙𝟐 𝒃𝒙 𝒄

We know that the graph of this equation has a single maximum or minimum which is the vertex
of the parabola. Taking a derivative of this formula and setting it equal to zero, we get:
𝒅
𝒂𝒙𝟐 𝒃𝒙 𝒄 𝟐𝒂𝒙 𝒃 𝟎
𝒅𝒙
𝒃
Solving for x, we get : 𝒙 , which we already know is the x‐value of the vertex.
𝟐𝒂
Example 2:
Find local maxima and minima for the cubic equation: 𝒚 𝒙𝟑 𝟑𝒙𝟐 𝟗𝒙 𝟓
𝒅 𝟑
𝒙 𝟑𝒙𝟐 𝟗𝒙 𝟓 𝟑𝒙𝟐 𝟔𝒙 𝟗 𝟎
𝒅𝒙
Solving this for x, we find local maxima or minima may exist at 𝒙 𝟑, 𝟏 .
One caution: When a derivative is equal to zero, it only provides the possibility of an extreme;
it does not guarantee an extreme. It is possible for the slope of a curve to be zero and not have
either a local maximum or minimum. For an example of this, look at 𝑦 𝑥 where 𝑥 0.

Algebra
Factoring Higher Degree Polynomials
Sum and Difference of Cubes

The sum of cubes is of the form: 𝒂𝟑 𝒃𝟑 𝒂 𝒃 ∙ 𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝒃 𝒃𝟐
The difference of cubes is of the form: 𝒂𝟑 𝒃𝟑 𝒂 𝒃 ∙ 𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝒃 𝒃𝟐
Notice the following about these two formulas:

 Each formula factors into a binomial and a trinomial.
 Each term in the binomial is of degree 1.
 Each term in the trinomial is of degree 2.
 Each formula has one minus sign in its factorization.
 In each formula, the second term of the binomial factor takes the sign of the second
term of the original expression.
Identification
To see if an expression is a sum or difference of cubes, you must answer “yes”
to three questions: Table of
1. Are there only two terms? Cubes
2. Is the first term a cube? If so, take its cube root to get the value of a.
1 1
3. Is the second term a cube? If so, take its cube root to get the value of b.
2 8
The solution is based on the appropriate formula above, substituting the cube
roots of the two terms for a and b. Be careful! 3 27
4 64
Note: A telltale sign of when an expression might be the sum or difference of 2
cubes is when the coefficients on the variables are cubes and the exponents on 5 125
the variables are multiples of 3.
6 216
Examples: 7 343
(1) 𝟖𝒙𝟑 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝒚𝟔 𝟐𝒙 𝟓𝒚𝟐 ∙ 𝟒𝒙𝟐 𝟏𝟎𝒙𝒚𝟐 𝟐𝟓𝒚𝟒 8 512
(2) 𝒙𝟑 𝟖 𝒙 𝟐 ∙ 𝒙𝟐 𝟐𝒙 𝟒 9 729
(3) 𝟐𝟕 𝟔𝟒𝒛𝟑 𝟑 𝟒𝒛 ∙ 𝟗 𝟏𝟐𝒛 𝟏𝟔𝒛𝟐 10 1,000
𝒙𝟑 𝒚𝟑 𝒙 𝒚 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝒚 𝒚𝟐 11 1,331
(4) ∙ 12 1,728
𝟐𝟏𝟔 𝟐𝟕 𝟔 𝟑 𝟑𝟔 𝟏𝟖 𝟗

Algebra
Variable Substitution
On occasion you will encounter a polynomial that looks familiar except that the exponents on
the variables are higher than usual. In this case, a technique called Variable Substitution may
be useful.
The steps for variable substitution are:
 Identify which kind of equation the problem resembles.
 Identify what terms are likely to require substitution. Often there are only one or two
terms that need to be substituted.
 Create new variables for purposes of substitution.
 Re‐write the problem in terms of the new variables.
 Solve the problem in terms of the new variables.
 Substitute the original variables into the solution.
 Perform any additional work that is needed based on the original variables.
 Check your work.
Example 1:
Factor: 𝒙𝟒 𝟑𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝟒𝒚𝟒
This looks like a typical trinomial factoring problem except for the large exponents.
Create two new variables: 𝒖 𝒙𝟐 and 𝒗 𝒚𝟐
Re‐write the expression: 𝒖𝟐 𝟑𝒖𝒗 𝟒𝒗𝟐
Factor the expression: 𝒖 𝟒𝒗 𝒖 𝒗
Substitute original variables: 𝒙𝟐 𝟒𝒚𝟐 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
Perform additional work: 𝒙𝟐 𝟒𝒚𝟐 𝒙 𝒚 𝒙 𝒚
Check your work by multiplying the factored form to see if you get the original polynomial.
Example 2:
Factor: 𝟖𝒙𝟑 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝒚𝟔
This looks like a sum of cubes.
Create two new variables: 𝒖 𝟐𝒙 and 𝒗 𝟓𝒚𝟐
Use the sum of cubes formula: 𝒖𝟑 𝒗𝟑 𝒖 𝒗 ∙ 𝒖𝟐 𝒖𝒗 𝒗𝟐
Substitute original variables: 𝟐𝒙 𝟓𝒚𝟐 𝟒𝒙𝟐 𝟏𝟎𝒙𝒚𝟐 𝟐𝟓𝒚𝟒
Check your work by multiplying the factored form to see if you get the original polynomial.

Algebra
Synthetic Division
Synthetic Division is a short‐cut to dividing polynomials by a linear factor. Here’s how it works.
We will use an example to illustrate the process.
Example 1: 2𝑥 5𝑥 𝑥 2 𝑥 2
Step 1: In the linear term 𝒙 𝒓 take the value r as the divisor. In the example, the divisor
will be 𝟐. We use the letter r to indicate that the value is actually a root of the equation. So,
in synthetic division, the root is used as the divisor.
Step 2: Line up the coefficients of the terms from highest
-2 2 5 1 -2
degree to lowest degree in a row to the right of the divisor. If
a term is missing, use a zero for the coefficient of that term.
We will call this array of coefficients the dividend. 2
Step 3: Bring the leading coefficient down below the line.
Step 4: Multiply the divisor by the number just placed below -2 2 5 1 -2
the line and put the result above the line and one column to -4
the right. Add the two numbers in that column to get a
number below the line for that column. 2 1
Step 5: Repeat Step 4 until all of the columns have been -2 2 5 1 -2

completed.
-4 -2 2
The final result is a set of coefficients of the polynomial that
2 1 -1 0
results from the division. The exponents of the terms of the
resulting polynomial begin one lower than the degree of the 𝑥 𝑥 1 rem
original polynomial.
In the example, the result is 𝟐𝒙𝟐 𝒙 𝟏, with a remainder of 0. The remainder of 0 is a good
indication that the division was performed properly.
Example 2: 𝑥 3𝑥 4𝑥 𝑥 1
From the synthetic division to the right, we get: 1 1 0 3 0 -4 0
𝒙𝟓 𝟑𝒙𝟑 𝟒𝒙 𝒙 𝟏 𝒙𝟒 𝒙𝟑 𝟒𝒙𝟐 𝟒𝒙 1 1 4 4 0
1 1 4 4 0 0
There is no constant term and no remainder in the
solution to this example. 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 1 rem

Algebra
Comparing Synthetic Division to Long Division
Advantages of Synthetic Division

Synthetic division has the following advantages over long division:
 The divisor is a possible root of the polynomial; it is a root if the remainder is zero.
 It is shorter.
 It is much quicker.
 It works by addition and multiplication instead of by subtraction and division. Because
of this, it is much less prone to error.
Comparison of Methods
It is instructive to compare synthetic division and long division to get a better idea of why
synthetic division works. Consider the division: 2𝑥 5𝑥 𝑥 2 𝑥 2
The two methods of performing this division are laid out below. Notice the following
correspondences between the examples:
 Root vs. Factor. Synthetic division uses the root of the Synthetic Division
polynomial as the divisor. Long division uses the whole factor.
The signs on the root are opposite in the two methods. -2 2 5 1 -2
 Dividend. The dividends in the two methods are the same -4 -2 2
(except that synthetic division leaves out the variables).
2 1 -1 0
 Second Row. The second row in synthetic division
corresponds to the “secondary” coefficients of
each division in long division (but with opposite
Long Division
signs).
 Answer Row. In synthetic division the answer row
2𝑥 1𝑥 1
(of coefficients) is calculated directly by adding the
values in the rows above it. In long division, it is 𝑥 2 2𝑥 5𝑥 1𝑥 2
necessary to subtract expressions to determine 2𝑥 4𝑥
another expression that must be divided by the 𝑥 1𝑥 2
divisor to get the next term of the answer. 𝑥 2𝑥
 Adding Variables. In synthetic division, it is 1𝑥 2

1𝑥 2
necessary to add the variables after the answer is
determined. In long division, the answer is 0
provided directly.

Algebra
Zeros of Polynomials
Developing Possible Roots

If a polynomial has the form:
𝑷 𝒙 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏 𝒂𝒏 𝟏 𝒙𝒏 𝟏
⋯ 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 𝒂𝟎
Then,
 𝑷 𝒙 will have exactly 𝒏 complex roots. For example, a 5th degree polynomial will have
exactly 5 complex roots. Note: some of these roots may be the same, and some of
them may be real.
 𝑷 𝒙 will have exactly 𝒏 𝟐𝒌 real roots, where 𝑘 is a whole number. For example, a
5th degree polynomial will have either 5 real roots, 3 real roots, or 1 real root.
 Descartes’ Rule of Signs. (Note how this ties into the bullet above.)
o The number of positive real roots of a polynomial 𝑃 𝑥 is equal to the number of
sign changes in 𝑃 𝑥 , or is less than this by a multiple of 2.
o The number of negative real roots of a polynomial 𝑃 𝑥 is equal to the number
of sign changes in 𝑃 𝑥 , or is less than this by a multiple of 2. Note: to
generate 𝑃 𝑥 quickly, just change the signs of the terms with odd exponents.
 𝑷 𝒙 will have an even number of non‐real roots. For example, a 5th degree polynomial
will have either 0 non‐real roots, 2 non‐real roots, or 4 non‐real roots. Further, the
non‐real roots exist in conjugate pairs; so if 𝑎 𝑏𝑖 is a root of 𝑃 𝑥 , then so is 𝑎
𝑏𝑖 .
𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝒂𝟎
 Rational Root Theorem. Any rational roots have the characteristic 𝒓 . This
𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝒂𝒏
fact is especially useful if the lead coefficient of the polynomial is 1; in this case, any real
roots are factors of the constant term. This fact, in combination with the ease of
synthetic division, makes finding integer roots a quick process.
Example:
What can we say about the roots of 𝑷 𝒙 𝒙𝟒 𝟐𝒙𝟑 𝒙𝟐 𝟒𝒙 𝟒? (note: 4 sign changes)
 First, note that 𝑷 𝒙 𝒙𝟒 𝟐𝒙𝟑 𝒙𝟐 𝟒𝒙 𝟒 (note: zero sign changes)
 So, 𝑷 𝒙 has 4 complex roots. 0, 2, or 4 of them are real; all real roots are positive.
 The real roots must be 1, 2, or 4 (the positive factors of the constant term 4).
 To find out more, we have to test the possible real root values.

Algebra
Zeros of Polynomials
Testing Possible Roots

The following two theorems are very useful in testing possible roots (zeros) of Polynomials.
Factor Theorem: 𝑥 𝑟 is a factor of a polynomial 𝑃 𝑥 if and only if 𝑃 𝑟 0.

Remainder Theorem: If 𝑃 𝑥 is divided by 𝑥 𝑎 , then the remainder is 𝑃 𝑎 .
Methods of Testing Possible Roots

If a polynomial can be factored, then first, factor the polynomial; the problem will be easier to
solve after factoring. In addition, if you are able to produce linear or quadratic factors, the
roots of those factors will be roots of the polynomial.
After factoring, the following methods can be used to test possible roots of a polynomial.
 Use synthetic division to test possible roots. Because synthetic division is quick, several
potential roots can be tested in a short period of time.
 Substitute possible roots into the polynomial to see if the remainder is zero.
If 𝑷 𝒂 𝟎, then 𝒂 is a root of 𝑷 𝒙 .
 Graph the polynomial. Real roots exist wherever the graph crosses the x‐axis. Although
this method may help find the approximate location of roots, it is not a reliable method
for determining exact values of roots.
Example: Factor and find the roots of 𝑷 𝒙 𝒙𝟒 𝟐𝒙𝟑 𝒙𝟐 𝟒𝒙 𝟒

Using synthetic division:
Trying first the possible root 𝑥 1, then the possible root
1 1 -2 1 -4 4
𝑥 2, we find that they both work. So,
1 -1 0 -4
𝑷 𝒙 𝒙𝟒 𝟐𝒙𝟑 𝒙𝟐 𝟒𝒙 𝟒
1 -1 0 -4 0
𝒙 𝟏 𝒙 𝟐 𝒙𝟐 𝒙 𝟐
Using the quadratic formula on the quadratic factor in this

2 1 -1 0 -4
expression we find two non‐real roots. So the four roots are:
2 2 4
𝟏 𝒊√𝟕 𝟏 𝒊√𝟕
1 1 2 0 𝒙 𝟏, 𝟐, ,
𝟐 𝟐

Algebra
Intersections of Curves
General Case (Bezout’s Theorem)

Bezout’s Theorem states that the maximum number of intersections of two distinct curves in
the complex field is the product of the degrees of the curves. (Note: for these purposes, a line
is considered a curve of degree 1.) For graphs in two dimensions, if the degrees of two distinct
curves are r and s, then:
 There are at most 𝒓 ∙ 𝒔 intersections of the two curves.
 There are also cases where fewer than 𝒓 ∙ 𝒔 intersections exist.
 To solve for the points of intersection, either set the two equations equal to each other
or use variable substitution; then solve.
To apply this theorem, it is useful to set up each curve as an equation equal to zero. Examples
are provided below and on the pages that follow.
Two Lines
Two distinct lines may have either zero or one point of intersection, as shown in the following
illustrations:
Parallel Lines: Intersecting Lines:

0 points of intersection 1 point of intersection
Lines have the form: 𝒚 𝒎𝒙 𝒃, so the equations of any two lines can be written as:
𝑦 𝑚 𝑥 𝑏 0 and 𝑦 𝑚 𝑥 𝑏 0
Notice that both lines are of degree 1; i.e., 𝑟 1 and 𝑠 1. Using Bezout’s Theorem:
 The maximum number of intersections is: 𝟏 ∙ 𝟏 𝟏.
 There may be less than one intersection.

Algebra
A Line and a Parabola

The general forms for a line and a parabola are: Note: we use the letter “t” instead of
 Line: 𝒚 𝒎𝒙 𝒕 “b” in the equation of a line in order to
avoid confusion with the coefficient
 Parabola: 𝒚 𝒂𝒙𝟐 𝒃𝒙 𝒄
“b” in the equation of a parabola.
For purposes of Bezout’s Theorem, these convert to:
 Line: 𝒚 𝒎𝒙 𝒕 𝟎 𝑫𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝟏
 Parabola: 𝒚 𝒂𝒙𝟐 𝒃𝒙 𝒄 𝟎 𝑫𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝟐
Using Bezout’s Theorem, the maximum number of intersections is: 𝟏 ∙ 𝟐 𝟐. Cases for 0, 1,
and 2 intersections are provided below:
0 points of intersection 1 point of intersection 2 points of intersection
Finding the Point(s) of Intersection

In order to find any points of intersection, set the two original equations equal to each other
and solve:
𝒂𝒙𝟐 𝒃𝒙 𝒄 𝒎𝒙 𝒕
𝒂𝒙𝟐 𝒃 𝒎 𝒙 𝒄 𝒕 𝟎
This equation can be solved for x by any of the methods used to find the roots of a quadratic
equation. The value of y can be calculated for each value of x by substituting x into either of
the original equations.

Algebra
A Circle and an Ellipse

The general forms for a circle and an ellipse are:
 Circle: 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝒓𝟐
𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
 Ellipse: 𝟏
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐
For purposes of Bezout’s Theorem, these convert to:

 Circle: 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝒓𝟐 𝟎 𝑫𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝟐
𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
 Ellipse: 𝟏 𝟎 𝑫𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝟐
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐
Using Bezout’s Theorem, the maximum number of intersections is: 𝟐 ∙ 𝟐 𝟒. Cases for 0, 1, 2,
3 and 4 intersections are provided below:
0 points of intersection 1 point of intersection 2 points of intersection
3 points of intersection 4 points of intersection

Chapter 17 Rational Functions
Algebra
Domains of Rational Functions
Rational Expressions are fractions with polynomials in both the numerator and denominator. If
the rational expression is a function, it is a Rational Function.
Finding the Domain of a Rational Function

The domain (e.g., x‐values) of a rational function is the set of all values that result in valid range
values (e.g., y‐values). Generally, there are two situations where a value is not included in the
domain of a rational function:
 Any x that generates a zero in the denominator.
 Any x that generates a square root of a negative number.
Example 1:
𝒙𝟐 𝟒
Consider the rational function: 𝒇 𝒙 .
𝒙 𝟐
Since there are no square roots, the only value for which
we cannot calculate 𝒇 𝒙 is where 𝒙 𝟐 𝟎 or, where
𝒙 𝟐. So the domain is all real x except 𝒙 𝟐, or:
𝒙|𝒙 𝟐
Notice the hole in the graph of the function at the point
2, 4 . This indicates that the function does not have
a value for 𝒙 𝟐.
Example 2:
𝒙 𝟑
Consider the function: 𝒇 𝒙
𝒙 𝟐
This function has no valid x‐values for 𝑥 3 because
they would generate the square root of a negative
number in the numerator. In addition, the denominator
would be zero if 𝒙 𝟐. So the domain is all real x
greater than ‐3 except 𝒙 𝟐, or:
𝒙|𝒙 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 𝟐

Algebra
Holes and Asymptotes
Holes
A hole in a graph exists whenever a factor 𝒙 𝒂 occurs
more times in the numerator than in the denominator of a
rational function.
𝒙𝟐 𝟒
Example: In the function 𝒇 𝒙 the factor 𝒙 𝟐 is
𝒙 𝟐
in both the numerator and the denominator. In fact, the
function can be reduced to 𝒇 𝒙 𝒙 𝟐 except at the point
𝒙 𝟐 where the function is undefined.
Vertical Asymptotes
A vertical asymptote exists whenever a factor 𝒙 𝒂 occurs more times in the denominator
than in the numerator of a rational function.
𝟐𝒙𝟐 𝟒𝒙 𝟏 𝟐𝒙𝟐 𝟒𝒙 𝟏
Example: In 𝒇 𝒙 the
𝒙𝟐 𝟑𝒙 𝟐 𝒙 𝟏 𝒙 𝟐
factors 𝒙 𝟏 and 𝒙 𝟐 occur in the denominator but not
in the numerator of the function, so they generate vertical
asymptotes. The vertical asymptotes are shown as red
dotted lines at 𝒙 𝟏 and 𝒙 𝟐 in the graph at right.
Horizontal Asymptotes
𝑷 𝒙
There are three separate cases for horizontal asymptotes of a rational function :
𝑸 𝒙
1. If the degree of P(x) > the degree of Q(x), there is no horizontal asymptote.
2. If the degree of P(x) = the degree of Q(x), a horizontal asymptote exists at the line:
𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑷 𝒙
𝒚 .
𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑸 𝒙
3. If the degree of P(x) < the degree of Q(x), a horizontal asymptote exists at the line 𝒚 𝟎.
𝟐𝒙𝟐 𝟒𝒙 𝟏
Example: In the function 𝒇 𝒙 the degrees of the polynomials in the numerator
𝒙𝟐 𝟑𝒙 𝟐
𝟐
and denominator are the same, and the ratio of their lead coefficients is 𝟐. The location
𝟏
of the horizontal asymptote is shown as the red dotted line 𝒚 𝟐 in the graph above.

Algebra
Graphing Rational Functions
Rational functions are of two types:

𝒂
 Simple rational functions are of the form 𝒚 𝒌 or an equivalent form that does
𝒙 𝒉
not contain a polynomial of degree higher than 1 (i.e., no 𝑥 , 𝑥 , etc. – just 𝑥’s and
constants).
𝑷 𝒙
 General rational functions are of the form 𝒚 where either 𝑃 𝑥 or 𝑄 𝑥 is a
𝑸 𝒙
polynomial of degree 2 or higher (i.e., contains an 𝑥 , 𝑥 , 𝑒𝑡𝑐.).
In general, it is a good idea to find the asymptotes for a function first, and then find points that
help graph the curve. The domain and any holes can typically be easily identified during this
process. The range and the end behavior become identifiable once the function is graphed.
Simple Rational Functions

𝒂
If you can put a rational function in the form 𝒚 𝒌 , here’s what you get:
𝒙 𝒉
Vertical Asymptote: Occurs at 𝒙 𝒉. The vertical asymptote is easy to find because it occurs
at 𝑥 ℎ. At this value of 𝑥, the denominator is ℎ ℎ 0, and you cannot divide by zero.
Hence, as 𝑥 approaches ℎ, the denominator of becomes very small, and the graph shoots
off either up or down.
Horizontal Asymptote: Occurs at 𝒚 𝒌. The function cannot have a value of 𝑦 𝑘 because

that would require the lead term, to be zero, which can never happen since 𝑎 0.
Hence, the function will approach 𝑦 𝑘, but will never reach it.
Domain: All Real 𝒙 𝒉. No value of 𝑥 exists at any vertical asymptote.
Range: All Real 𝒚 𝒌. No value of 𝑦 exists at a horizontal asymptote in simple rational

functions.
Holes: None.
End Behavior: Both ends of the function tend toward the horizontal asymptote, so:
𝑨𝒔 𝒙 → ∞, 𝒚 → 𝒌 and 𝑨𝒔 𝒙 → ∞, 𝒚 → 𝒌

Algebra
Simple Rational Functions ‐ Example
Recall that the simple rational

Example: 𝑦 2 𝒂
form is: 𝒚 𝒌
𝒙 𝒉
First, note that 𝒉 𝟏 and 𝒌 𝟐
Vertical Asymptote: Occurs at 𝑥 1 because if 𝑥 1, the denominator, 𝑥 1, would be

zero.
Horizontal Asymptote: Occurs at 𝑦 2 because the lead term, , can never be

zero. Hence, the function can approach 𝑦 2, but will never reach it.
Domain: All Real 𝑥 1. No value of 𝑥 exists at any vertical asymptote.
Range: All Real 𝑦 2. No value of 𝑦 exists at a horizontal asymptote in a simple rational

function.
Holes: None.
End Behavior: Both ends of the function tend toward the horizontal asymptote, so:
𝐴𝑠 𝑥 → ∞, 𝑦 → 2 and 𝐴𝑠 𝑥 → ∞, 𝑦 → 2
Graphing:
Step 1. Graph the vertical and horizontal asymptotes
(the dashed horizontal and vertical lines shown).
Step 2. Pick some 𝑥‐values and calculate the

corresponding y‐values. I like to pick a couple of 𝑥‐
values to the left of the vertical asymptote (𝑥 1) and
a couple of x‐values to its right. So, let’s try some.
𝟓
x 𝒚 𝟐
𝒙 𝟏
‐2 3.67
‐1 4.5 Note that the intersection of the
asymptotes has coordinates ℎ, 𝑘 .
0 7
2 3 Step 3. Draw a curve on each side of
the vertical asymptote: through the
3 0.5 points on that side and approaching
4 0.33 both the horizontal and vertical
asymptotes.

Algebra
General Rational Functions
𝑷 𝒙
General rational functions are of the form: 𝒚
𝑸 𝒙
The easiest way to graph a general rational function is to factor both the numerator and
denominator and simplifying the resulting fraction.
Example: in 𝑦 the 𝑥 2 in the numerator and denominator can be

eliminated to obtain the function to be graphed: 𝑦 .
Vertical Asymptotes and Holes: Any root (also called a “zero”) of the denominator of a rational
function (prior to simplification) will produce either a vertical asymptote or a hole.
Vertical Asymptote: If 𝑟 is a root of the denominator is also a root of the simplified
denominator, then 𝑥 𝑟 is a vertical asymptote of the function.
Hole: If 𝑟 is a root of the denominator and is not a root of the simplified denominator, then
𝑥 𝑟 defines the location of a hole in the function.
Horizontal Asymptote: One way to find the horizontal asymptotes of a general rational
function (also, see the section on “Holes and Asymptotes”, above) is to eliminate all terms of
the polynomials in both the numerator and denominator except the ones with the single
greatest exponent of all the terms. Then,
 If all terms are eliminated from the numerator, the horizontal asymptote occurs at 𝑦
0.
𝒙 𝟑 𝒏𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈
Example: 𝒚 → 𝒚 has a horizontal asymptote at 𝑦 0.
𝒙𝟐 𝟓𝒙 𝟔 𝒙𝟐
Note that all terms in the numerator were eliminated because none of them had the
greatest exponent in the rational function, which in this example is 2.
 If a term remains in both the numerator and denominator, the horizontal asymptote
occurs at the reduced form of the remaining terms.
𝟐𝒙𝟐 𝟑 𝟐𝒙𝟐 𝟐
Example: 𝒚 → 𝒚 has a horizontal asymptote at
𝟑𝒙𝟐 𝟓𝒙 𝟔 𝟑𝒙𝟐 𝟑
𝑦 .
 If all terms are eliminated from the denominator, the function does not have a
horizontal asymptote.
𝒙𝟐 𝟓𝒙 𝟔 𝒙𝟐
Example: 𝒚 → 𝒚 does not have a horizontal asymptote.
𝒙 𝟑 𝒏𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈
Note that all terms in the denominator were eliminated because none of them had the
greatest exponent in the rational function, which in this example is 2.

Algebra
General Rational Functions (cont’d)
Domain: The domain is always “all Real 𝑥” except where there is a vertical asymptote or a hole.
No function value is associated with 𝑥 at either a vertical asymptote or a hole (or when an even
root of a negative number is required).
Range: The range is a bit trickier. You will need to look at the graph to determine the range.
You might think that no 𝑦‐value would exist at a horizontal asymptote, like in simple rational
functions. However, it is possible for a function to cross over its horizontal asymptote and then
work its way back to the asymptote as 𝑥 → ∞ or as 𝑥 → ∞. Odd but true (see below, right).
For oddities in the range of a function, check these out these two rational functions:
𝒙𝟐 𝟓 𝟏𝟎𝒙 𝟓
𝒚 𝒚
𝒙𝟐 𝟑 𝒙𝟐 𝟔𝒙 𝟓
End Behavior: Both ends of the function tend toward the horizontal asymptote if there is one.
However, if there is not one, you can look at the graph to determine end behavior. Note that
the function below does not have a horizontal asymptote:
In this function,
𝐴𝑠 𝑥 → ∞, 𝑦 → ∞,
𝒙𝟑 𝐴𝑠 𝑥 → ∞, 𝑦 → ∞
𝒚
𝒙𝟐 𝟔
Although this function does not have a

horizontal asymptote, it does have a
“slant asymptote”: the line 𝑦 𝑥.

Algebra
General Rational Functions ‐ Example
Example: 𝑦
Factor both the numerator and the denominator: 𝑦
: . ,
Get the Roots:
: ,
Simplify: Since 1 is a root of both the numerator and the denominator, the function may be
simplified as follows:
𝑦
Vertical Asymptotes and Holes: “ 1” and “1” are roots of the original denominator, so they
must generate either vertical asymptotes or holes.
Vertical Asymptote: After simplification, this function still contains “ 1” as a root in the
denominator. Therefore, 𝒙 𝟏 is a vertical asymptote of the function.
Hole: “1” is a root of the denominator of the original function but is not a root of the
denominator of the simplified function. Therefore, this function has a hole at 𝒙 𝟏.
Horizontal Asymptote: Eliminate all terms of both polynomials except any with the single
greatest exponent of all the terms. In this case:
𝟐𝒙𝟐
𝒚 → 𝒚 𝟐 is a horizontal asymptote. Since a term remains in both the
𝒙𝟐
numerator and denominator, the horizontal asymptote occurs at the reduced form of the
remaining terms.
Domain: All Real 𝑥 except where there is a vertical asymptote or a hole.

So, the domain is all Real 𝒙 𝟏 𝒐𝒓 𝟏.
We must graph the function in order to get a good look at its range and end behavior. We
must plot points on both sides of the vertical asymptote.
(graph on next page)

Algebra
General Rational Functions – Example (cont’d)
Graphing:
Step 1. Graph the vertical and horizontal asymptotes.
Step 2. Pick some 𝑥‐values on each side of the vertical asymptote and calculate the
corresponding y‐values.
Step 3. Draw a curve on each side of the vertical asymptote:

𝟐𝒙 𝟑 through the points on that side and approaching both the
x 𝒚 horizontal and vertical asymptotes.
𝒙 𝟏
‐4 1.67 Step 4: Draw an open circle at the point of any holes.
‐3 1.5
‐2 1
See the hole
0 3
at 𝟏, 𝟐. 𝟓 !
1 2.5 (a hole)
2 2.33
Range: The range can be determined from the graph.

It appears that the range excludes only the horizontal asymptote and the hole.
So the range is: all Real 𝒚 𝟏, 𝟐. 𝟓.
End Behavior: In this function,

𝑨𝒔 𝒙 → ∞, 𝒚 → 𝟏, 𝑨𝒔 𝒙 → ∞, 𝒚 → 𝟏

Algebra
Operating with Rational Expressions
Performing operations with rational expressions is very similar to performing operations with
fractions. After all, that’s really what rational expressions are – fractions involving polynomials.
Addition and Subtraction

To add or subtract rational expressions:
 Factor both the numerator and denominator as much as possible.
 Create a common denominator.
 Add or subtract expressions.
After the numerators are added, you must
 Simplify. check to see if the new numerator can be
factored. If so, further simplification may
Example: be possible. Note: no further
simplification is possible in this example.
∙ ∙
𝒙𝟐 𝟑𝒙 𝟏
𝒙 𝟐 𝒙 𝟏
Multiplication and Division

To multiply or divide rational expressions:
 Factor both the numerator and denominator as much as possible.
 Multiply or divide expressions. (Remember, to divide, “flip that guy and multiply.”)
Cancel all factors that appear in both the numerator and denominator.
 Simplify.
Note that you can cross out common
Example: ∙ factors in the numerator and
denominator across the expressions
that are being multiplied.
∙
𝒙 𝟐 𝒙 𝟏
∙
𝒙 𝟏 𝒙 𝟐

Algebra
Solving Rational Equations
Solving Rational Equations

Solving rational equations involves one main rule: Get rid of the denominators!
A fuller listing of the steps involved is:
 Multiply by whatever expressions are necessary to eliminate the denominators.
 Pay careful attention to which values make the expressions you use equal to zero
(because you are not allowed to multiply both sides of an equation by zero).
 Solve the remaining problem.
 Check each answer to see if it is a solution to the original problem. Note: as long as you
do not multiply by zero, your solutions are likely to be valid.
𝒙 𝟏 𝒙 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏
Example 1: Solve Example 2: Solve
𝒙 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏 𝒙 𝟖 𝒙 𝟑
First note that x cannot be 3 or ‐1 since First note that x cannot be ‐8 or ‐3 since
each of these creates an undefined each of these creates an undefined
fraction in the original problem. fraction in the original problem.
The easiest way to start this problem is to The easiest way to start this problem is to
cross multiply to get: cross multiply to get:
𝑥 1 𝑥 3 𝑥 3𝑥 𝑥 8
Then, 𝑥 2𝑥 1 𝑥 6𝑥 9 Then, 𝑥 2𝑥 8 0
So, 8𝑥 8 So, 𝑥 4 𝑥 2 0
And finally, 𝒙 𝟏 And finally, 𝒙 𝟒 𝒐𝒓 𝟐
Check work: 𝒙 𝟏
Check ‐4: ?
𝒙 𝟖 𝒙 𝟑
𝒙 𝟏 𝒙 𝟑
? 𝟒 𝟏
𝒙 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏 ?
𝟒 𝟖 𝟒 𝟑
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟑
? 𝟒 𝟏
𝟏 𝟑 𝟏 𝟏
𝟒 𝟏

𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
 𝟐 𝟏
Check 2: ?
𝟐 𝟖 𝟐 𝟑
𝟐 𝟏
𝟏𝟎 𝟓


Algebra
Solving Rational Inequalities
Solving Rational Inequalities

Solving Rational Inequalities is a bit more involved than solving Rational Equations. The key
issue in the Inequalities is whether in the step where you eliminate the denominator, you are
multiplying by a negative number. Remember, when you multiply by a negative number, you
must flip an inequality sign.
The steps involved are similar to those for solving rational equations:
 Multiply by whatever expressions are necessary to eliminate the denominators.
 Identify when the denominators are positive and when they are negative; set up cases
for each situation. Within each case, you will need to meet multiple conditions (i.e.,
using the word “and” between conditions within a case).
 Pay careful attention to which values make the expression you multiply equal to zero
(because you are not allowed to multiply both sides of an inequality by zero).
 Solve the remaining problems. Any of the cases produces valid results, so you must
combine the solutions for the various cases with “or’s.”
 Check sample answers in each range you develop to see if they are solutions to the
original problem. Alternatively, graph the solution to see if the results are correct.
𝟑𝒙 𝟓
Example: Solve 2
𝒙 𝟏
We want to eliminate the denominator 𝒙 𝟏 but we need to create 2 cases:
The combined result of the two cases is:
Case 1: 𝒙 𝟏 0 𝒙 1
𝒙 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 3
Then: 3𝑥 5 2𝑥 2
So, 𝑥 3 To check the result, we graph the function and see
The solution here requires: where it produces a y‐value above 2; this is the set
𝒙 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 3 of x‐values where the dark green curve intersects
Which simplifies to: 𝒙 3 the light green region in the graph below.
Case 2: 𝒙 𝟏 0 𝒙 1
Then: 3𝑥 5 2𝑥 2
So, 𝑥 3
The solution here requires:
𝒙 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 3
Which simplifies to: 𝒙 1

Chapter 18 Conic Sections
Algebra
Introduction to Conic Sections
The intersection of a cone and a plane is called a conic section.

There are four types of curves that result from these intersections
that are of particular interest:
 Parabola
 Circle
 Ellipse
 Hyperbola
Each of these has a geometric definition, from which the algebraic
form is derived.
Geometric Definitions
Parabola – The
set of all points
that are the
same distance
from a point
(called the
focus) and a
line (called the
Directrix).
Ellipse – The set of all points for

Circle – The set of all points that are the which the sum of the distances to
same distance from a point (called the two points (called foci) is constant.
center). The distance is called the radius.
Hyperbola –
The set of all
points for
which the
difference of
the distances
to two points
(called foci) is
constant.

Algebra
Parabola with Vertex at the Origin (Standard Position)
Horizontal Directrix Vertical Directrix
Characteristics of a Parabola in Standard Position
1 1
Equation 𝑦 𝑥 𝑥 𝑦
4𝑝 4𝑝
If 𝑝 0 opens up opens right
If 𝑝 0 opens down opens left
Eccentricity (“e”) 𝑒 1 𝑒 1
Value of p (in illustration) 𝑝 1 𝑝 1
Vertex 0, 0 ‐ the origin 0, 0 ‐ the origin
Focus 0, 𝑝 𝑝, 0
Directrix 𝑦 𝑝 𝑥 𝑝
Axis of symmetry 𝑥 0 (y‐axis) 𝑦 0 (x‐axis)

Algebra
Parabola with Vertex at 𝒉, 𝒌
Characteristics of a Parabola with Vertex at Point 𝒉, 𝒌
1 1
Equation 𝑦 𝑘 𝑥 ℎ 𝑥 ℎ 𝑦 𝑘
4𝑝 4𝑝
If 𝑝 0 opens up opens right
If 𝑝 0 opens down opens left
Vertex ℎ, 𝑘 ℎ, 𝑘
Focus ℎ, 𝑘 𝑝 ℎ 𝑝, 𝑘
Directrix 𝑦 𝑘 𝑝 𝑥 ℎ 𝑝
Axis of symmetry 𝑥 ℎ 𝑦 𝑘

Algebra
Parabola in Polar Form
Characteristics of a Parabolas in Polar Form

𝑝 𝑝
Equation (simplified) 𝑟 𝑟
1 sin 𝜃 1 cos 𝜃
opens up opens right
If " " in denominator
Directrix below Pole Directrix left of Pole
opens down opens left

If " " in denominator
Directrix above Pole Directrix right of Pole
𝑝 distance between the Directrix and the Focus

Focal Parameter (“p”)
Note: “p” in Polar Form is different from “p” in Cartesian Form
Coordinates of Key Points: (change all instances of “–p” below to “p” if “+” is in the denominator)
Vertex 0, 𝑝/2 𝑝/2, 0
Focus 0,0 0,0)
Directrix 𝑦 𝑝 𝑥 𝑝

Algebra
Circles
Characteristics of a Circle
in Standard Position
Equation 𝑥 𝑦 𝑟
Center 0,0 ‐ the origin
Radius 𝑟
In the example 𝑟 4
Centered at Point (h, k)
Equation 𝑥 ℎ 𝑦 𝑘 𝑟
Center ℎ, 𝑘
Radius 𝑟
in Polar Form
Equation 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Pole 0, 0
Radius 𝑟

Algebra
Ellipse Centered on the Origin (Standard Position)
Vertical Major Axis
Horizontal Major Axis
Characteristics of an Ellipse in Standard Position
Horizontal Major Axis Vertical Major Axis
In the above example 𝑎 5, 𝑏 4, 𝑐 3 𝑎 5, 𝑏 4, 𝑐 3
Equation 𝑥 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
1 1
𝑎 𝑏 𝑏 𝑎
Values of "𝑎" and "𝑏" 𝑎 𝑏
Value of "𝑐" 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏
Eccentricity (“e”) 𝑒 𝑐/𝑎 0 𝑒 1
Major Axis Vertices 𝑎, 0 0, 𝑎
Minor Axis Vertices 0, 𝑏 𝑏, 0
Foci 𝑐, 0 0, 𝑐
Directrixes (not shown) 𝑥 𝑎/𝑒 𝑦 𝑎/𝑒

Algebra
Ellipse Centered at 𝒉, 𝒌
Vertical Major Axis
Characteristics of an Ellipse Centered at Point 𝒉, 𝒌
Equation 𝑥 ℎ 𝑦 𝑘 𝑥 ℎ 𝑦 𝑘
1 1
𝑎 𝑏 𝑏 𝑎
Values of "𝑎" and "𝑏" 𝑎 𝑏
Value of "𝑐" 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏
Center ℎ, 𝑘
Major Axis Vertices ℎ 𝑎, 𝑘 ℎ, 𝑘 𝑎
Minor Axis Vertices ℎ, 𝑘 𝑏 ℎ 𝑏, 𝑘
Foci ℎ 𝑐, 𝑘 ℎ, 𝑘 𝑐
Directrixes (not shown) 𝑥 ℎ 𝑎/𝑒 𝑦 𝑘 𝑎/𝑒

Algebra
Ellipse in Polar Form (Pole = One Focus)
Vertical Major Axis
Characteristics of an Ellipse in Polar Form
𝑒𝑝 𝑒𝑝
Equation 𝑟 𝑟
1 𝑒 ∙ cos 𝜃 1 𝑒 ∙ sin 𝜃
Value of “a” 𝑎 distance from the Center to each major axis Vertex
Value of “c” 𝑐 distance from the Center to each Focus

Focal Parameter (“p”) 𝑝 distance from each Focus to its Directrix 𝑎/𝑒 𝑐
Coordinates of Key Points:

If " " in denominator all coordinate values are shown below
If " " in denominator change all instances of "𝑐", below, to " 𝑐"
Center 𝑐, 0 0, 𝑐
Major Axis Vertices 𝑐 𝑎, 0 0, 𝑐 𝑎
Foci 𝑐 𝑐, 0 0, 𝑐 𝑐
Directrixes 𝑥 𝑐 𝑎/𝑒 𝑦 𝑐 𝑎/𝑒

Algebra
Hyperbola Centered on the Origin (Standard Position)
Horizontal Transverse Axis Vertical Transverse Axis
Characteristics of a Hyperbola in Standard Position
In the above example 𝑎 3, 𝑏 4, 𝑐 5 𝑎 4, 𝑏 3, 𝑐 5
Equation 𝑥 𝑦 𝑦 𝑥
1 1
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
Value of “c” 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏
Eccentricity (“e”) 𝑒 𝑐/𝑎 𝑒 1
Vertices 𝑎, 0 0, 𝑎
Foci 𝑐, 0 0, 𝑐
𝑏 𝑎
Asymptotes 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦 𝑥
𝑎 𝑏
Directrixes (not shown) 𝑥 𝑎/𝑒 𝑦 𝑎/𝑒

Algebra
Hyperbola Centered at 𝒉, 𝒌
Characteristics of a Hyperbola Centered at Point 𝒉, 𝒌
Equation 𝑥 ℎ 𝑦 𝑘 𝑦 𝑘 𝑥 ℎ
1 1
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
Value of “c” 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏
Center ℎ, 𝑘
Vertices ℎ 𝑎, 𝑘 ℎ, 𝑘 𝑎
Foci ℎ 𝑐, 𝑘 ℎ, 𝑘 𝑐
𝑏 𝑎
Asymptotes 𝑦 𝑘 𝑥 ℎ 𝑦 𝑘 𝑥 ℎ
𝑎 𝑏
Directrixes (not shown) 𝑥 ℎ 𝑎/𝑒 𝑦 𝑘 𝑎/𝑒

Algebra
Hyperbola in Polar Form (Pole = One Focus)
Characteristics of a Hyperbola in Polar Form
𝑒𝑝 𝑒𝑝
Equation 𝑟 𝑟
1 𝑒 ∙ cos 𝜃 1 𝑒 ∙ sin 𝜃
Value of “a” 𝑎 distance from the Center to each Vertex
Value of “c” 𝑐 distance from the Center to each Focus

Focal Parameter (“p”) 𝑝 distance from each Focus to its Directrix 𝑐 𝑎/𝑒
Coordinates of Key Points:

If " " in denominator all coordinate values are shown below
If " " in denominator change all instances of "– 𝑐", below, to "𝑐"
Center 𝑐, 0 0, 𝑐
Vertices 𝑐 𝑎, 0 0, 𝑐 𝑎
Foci 𝑐 𝑐, 0 0, 𝑐 𝑐
Directrixes 𝑥 𝑐 𝑎/𝑒 𝑦 𝑐 𝑎/𝑒

Algebra
Hyperbola in Polar Form (Pole = One Focus)
Partial Construction Over the Domain: 𝟎 to 𝟐𝝅
It is instructive to look at partial constructions of a hyperbola in polar form. Let’s take a look at
a curve constructed by varying 𝜃 from 0 to 2𝜋, quadrant by quadrant:
𝟔
𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐯𝐞: 𝒓 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐚𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐬: 𝒂 𝟐, 𝒄 𝟒, 𝒆 𝟐, 𝒑 𝟑
𝟏 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
In the plots below, each quadrant in the domain is represented by a separate color. The
portion of the curve added in each illustration is presented as a thicker line than the rest of the
curve. The Foci of the curve are dark blue points and the Directrixes are light blue vertical lines.
The final curve looks like this. The cosine function has a major Q I: Domain 0 𝜃 𝜋/2. Note
The curve is plotted over the impact on how the curve graphs. that the curve starts out on the
domain 0 𝜃 2𝜋 but could Note the two yellow points left and switches to the right at
where cos 𝜃 0.5. At these 𝜃 𝜋/3, where the curve is
also be plotted over the domain
points, the curve is undefined. undefined.
𝜋 𝜃 𝜋.
Q II: Domain 𝜋/2 𝜃 𝜋. The Q III: Domain 𝜋 𝜃 3𝜋/2. Q IV: Domain 3𝜋/2 𝜃 2𝜋.
curve continues on the right side The curve continues its gentle The curve continues on the right
of the graph and gently curves swing below the x‐axis. Q III is and switches to the left at 𝜃
down to the x‐axis. essentially a reflection of the 5𝜋/3, where the curve is
curve in Q II over the x‐axis. undefined.

Algebra
General Conic Equation – Classification
The General Case of the Conic Equation is:
𝑨𝒙𝟐 𝑩𝒙𝒚 𝑪𝒚𝟐 𝑫𝒙 𝑬𝒚 𝑭 𝟎

The second term may be omitted if the curve is not rotated relative to the axes in the Cartesian
Plane, giving the simpler form:
𝑨𝒙𝟐 𝑪𝒚𝟐 𝑫𝒙 𝑬𝒚 𝑭 𝟎
Conic Classification Tree

In this form, it is relatively easy to identify which type of curve the equation represents, using
the following decision tree:
Examples:
Are 𝑨𝒙𝟐 and 𝑪𝒚𝟐 The equation is not 3𝑥 2𝑦 4 0

yes
both missing? a conic. It is a line. 2𝑥 7𝑦 1 0
𝐴 𝐶 0
no
Is either 𝑨𝒙𝟐 or 𝑪𝒚𝟐

yes The equation is a 3𝑦 2𝑥 7𝑦 3 0
missing?
parabola. 𝑥 4𝑥 2𝑦 1 0
𝐴∙𝐶 0
no
Are the signs on

yes The equation is a 4𝑥 9𝑦 8𝑥 27𝑦 2 0
𝑨𝒙𝟐 and 𝑪𝒚𝟐
hyperbola. 3𝑥 𝑦 6𝑥 12𝑦 15 0
different?
𝐴∙𝐶 0
no
Are 𝑨 and 𝑪 the

yes The equation is a 𝑥 𝑦 4𝑥 10𝑦 0
same number?
circle. 4𝑥 4𝑦 16𝑥 8𝑦 5 0
𝐴 𝐶
no
Are 𝑨 and 𝑪 The equation is an 5𝑥 3𝑦 20𝑥 12𝑦 3 0

yes
different numbers? ellipse. 𝑥 2𝑦 8𝑥 12𝑦 13 0
(𝐴 𝐶)

Algebra
General Conic Equation – Manipulation
After a conic equation is classified, it must be algebraically manipulated into the proper form.
The steps involved are:
1. If there are negative coefficients in front of the square terms (𝑨𝒙𝟐 and/or 𝑪𝒚𝟐 ), you may
choose to eliminate them by multiplying the entire equation by 1.
2. Group the x‐terms on the left, the y‐terms on the right, and move the constant to the
right side of the = sign. Set up parentheses around the x‐terms and the y‐terms.
3. Factor out the coefficients of the 𝒙𝟐 and 𝒚𝟐 terms.
4. Complete the squares for both the x‐terms and the y‐terms. Be careful to add the same
numbers to both the right and left sides of the equations.
5. Reduce the completed squares to squared‐binomial form.
6. If necessary, divide both sides by the required scalar and rearrange terms to obtain the
proper form.
Example 1:
Solve: Equation 3𝑥 𝑦 6𝑥 12𝑦 15 0
Step 1: Change signs 3𝑥 𝑦 6𝑥 12𝑦 15 0
Step 2: Group variables 3𝑥 6𝑥 ___ 𝑦 12𝑦 ___ 15
Step 3: Factor coefficients 3 𝑥 2𝑥 ___ 𝑦 12𝑦 ___ 15
Step 4: Complete Squares 3 𝑥 2𝑥 1 𝑦 12𝑦 36 15 3 36
Step 5: Reduce Square Terms 3 𝑥 1 𝑦 6 48
Step 6: Divide by 48 1
The final result is a hyperbola
with center (1, 6) and a
Rearrange Terms 1
vertical transverse axis.
Example 2:
Solve: Equation 4𝑥 4𝑦 16𝑥 8𝑦 5 0
Step 1: Change signs 4𝑥 4𝑦 16𝑥 8𝑦 5 0
Step 2: Group variables 4𝑥 16𝑥 ___ 4𝑦 8𝑦 ___ 5
Step 3: Factor Coefficients 4 𝑥 4𝑥 ___ 4 𝑦 2𝑦 ___ 5
Step 4: Complete Squares 4 𝑥 4𝑥 4 4 𝑦 2𝑦 1 5 16 4
Step 5: Reduce Square Terms 4 𝑥 2 4 𝑦 1 25
The final result is a circle with
Step 6: Divide by 4 𝑥 2 𝑦 1
center (2, ‐1) and radius .

ADVANCED
Algebra
Parametric Equations of Conic Sections
Parabola (note: 4𝑎𝑝 1
Parametric Equations Parametric Equations

Centered at the Origin Centered at (h, k)
𝒙 𝟐𝒑𝒕 𝒙 𝟐𝒑𝒕 𝒉
𝒚 𝒑𝒕𝟐 𝒚 𝒑𝒕𝟐 𝒌
Circle

𝒙 𝒓 ∙ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒕 𝒙 𝒓 ∙ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒕 𝒉
𝒚 𝒓 ∙ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕 𝒚 𝒓 ∙ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕 𝒌
Ellipse

𝒙 𝒂 ∙ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒕 𝒙 𝒂 ∙ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒕 𝒉
𝒚 𝒃 ∙ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕 𝒚 𝒃 ∙ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕 𝒌
Hyperbola

𝒙 𝒂 ∙ 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒕 𝒙 𝒂 ∙ 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒕 𝒉
𝒚 𝒃 ∙ 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒕 𝒚 𝒃 ∙ 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒕 𝒌

Chapter 19 Sequences and Series
Algebra
Introduction to Sequences and Series
Definitions
 A Sequence is an ordered set of numbers.
 A Term is an element in the set of ordered numbers.
 An Infinite Sequence has no end. A Finite Sequence has a final term.
 An Explicit Formula is one that specifically defines the terms of the sequence based on the
number of the term. By convention, the number of the term is usually expressed in terms
of the variables 𝑛 or 𝑘. We talk of the nth term or the kth term of the sequence or series.
 A Recursive Formula defines a term based on one or more previous terms.
 A Series is an ordered summation of a sequence.
Example (Sequence and Series):

Consider the sequence defined by the explicit formula: 𝑡 3𝑛 1.
The notation 𝑡 refers to the nth term of the sequence. So, we can construct both a sequence
and a series from this. Here are the first seven terms of the sequence and the series:
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
𝒕𝒏 4 7 10 13 16 19 22
Sum of 𝒕𝒏 4 11 21 34 50 69 91
Example (Recursive Formula):

One of the simplest and most famous recursive formulas is the Fibonacci Sequence, defined as:
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
This simply means that each term is the sum of the two terms before it. The Fibonacci
Sequence begins with a pair of ones, and uses the recursive formula to obtain all other terms:
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
𝒕𝒏 1 1 2 3 5 8 13
Sum of 𝒕𝒏 1 2 4 7 12 20 33
This sequence has some very interesting properties, which will be discussed on another page.

ADVANCED
Algebra
The Fibonacci Sequence
The Fibonacci Sequence was first published in 1202 by Leonardo Fibonacci (of Pisa). It starts
with a pair of ones and continues with the recursive formula: 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 . The beginning
of the sequence looks like this:
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610, 987, …
Properties of the Fibonacci Sequence

It is possible to spend a long time exploring the properties of this simple sequence. Here are a
few of the more interesting properties:
Illustration 1: Add the sequence to create a series.
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
𝒕𝒏 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55
𝒔𝒏 1 2 4 7 12 20 33 54 88 143
Notice that : 𝒔𝒏 𝒕𝒏 𝟐 𝟏.
That is, the nth sum is one less than the term of the original sequence two positions further to
the right!
Illustration 2: Calculate the squares and add the resulting sequence to create a series.
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
𝒕𝒏 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55
𝒕𝒏 𝟐 1 1 4 9 25 64 169 441 1156 3025
𝑺𝒏 1 2 6 15 40 104 273 714 1870 4895
Notice that : 𝑺𝒏 𝒕𝒏 ∙ 𝒕𝒏 𝟏 .
That is, the nth sum of the squares is the product of the two terms from the original sequence,
one of which is in the same position and one of which is one position to the right!
The Golden Ratio (f)

𝟏 √𝟓
Ratios of successive values of the Fibonacci Sequence approach the Golden Ratio: f .
𝟐
1.6 1.625 1.615 1.619 … One way to express this result is:
𝟏 √𝟓 𝒏
The approximate value of f 1.618034 𝒕𝒏 𝟏
𝟐 𝐥𝐢𝐦 f
𝒏→ 𝒕𝒏

Algebra
Summation Notation and Properties
Summation Notation
Mathematicians are fond of finding shorthand ways of expressing things, so they invented
notation for the summation of numbers. If we consider the series for 𝑡 3𝑛 1, the
notation for the series would be:
𝑠 3𝑘 1
This simply means that the nth term of the series is defined by adding the first n term of the
sequence for 𝑡 3𝑛 1.
Example:
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
𝒕𝒏 4 7 10 13 16 19 22
𝒔𝒏 4 11 21 34 50 69 91
Note that 𝑠 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 4 7 10 21.
Although it looks complicated at first, after you write a few series longhand, you will begin to
appreciate the shorthand notation.
Summation Properties
Here are a couple of useful properties of summations, all of which are based on the algebraic
properties of addition, multiplication and equality. 𝒂𝒌 and 𝒃𝒌 are two series. c and d are real.
𝒏 𝒏
𝒄 ∙ 𝒂𝒌 𝒄∙ 𝒂𝒌 You can factor a constant out of a

𝒌 𝟏 𝒌 𝟏 summation if is a factor of all the terms.
𝒏 𝒏 𝒏
𝒂𝒌 𝒃𝒌 𝒂𝒌 𝒃𝒌 The sum of two series can be broken out

𝒌 𝟏 𝒌 𝟏 𝒌 𝟏
into the summations for each series.
𝒏 𝒏 𝒏
This is basically the distributive property of
𝒄 ∙ 𝒂𝒌 𝒅 ∙ 𝒃𝒌 𝒄∙ 𝒂𝒌 𝒅∙ 𝒃𝒌
multiplication over addition.
𝒌 𝟏 𝒌 𝟏 𝒌 𝟏

Algebra
Some Interesting Summation Formulas
The following are a few interesting summation series. The development of some series like this
may be possible with algebra, but others require either calculus or the calculus of finite
differences. Note: parentheses are used in the formulas to aid reading them; the parentheses
are not required.
𝑐 𝑛𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 ⋯ 𝑐 𝑛𝑐
𝑛 𝑛 1 𝑛 𝑛 1
𝑘 1 2 ⋯ 𝑛
2 2
𝑛 𝑛 1 2𝑛 1 𝑛 𝑛 1 2𝑛 1
𝑘 1 2 ⋯ 𝑛
6 6
𝑛 𝑛 1 𝑛 𝑛 1
𝑘 1 2 ⋯ 𝑛
2 2
1 1
𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 1 𝑥 1 1 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 ⋯
1 𝑥 1 𝑥
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑒 1 𝑥 ⋯ 𝑒
𝑘! 2! 3! 4!
1 𝑥 1 1 𝑥 1 1 𝑥 1 1 𝑥 1
ln 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ⋯ ln 𝑥
𝑘 𝑥 2 𝑥 2 𝑥 3 𝑥
𝑥
1 ln 1 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑘 𝑥 ⋯ ln 1 𝑥
2 3 4
𝑓𝑜𝑟 1 𝑥 1
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
1 cos 𝑥 1 ⋯ cos 𝑥
2𝑘 ! 2! 4! 6!
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
1 sin 𝑥 𝑥 … sin 𝑥
2𝑘 1 ! 3! 5! 7!

Algebra
Arithmetic Sequences
An Arithmetic Sequence is one in which the terms are separated by a constant. The constant,
often indicated by the letter d, is called the Common Difference. Arithmetic sequences, then
meet the condition:
𝒕𝒏 𝟏 𝒕𝒏 𝒅, where d is the common difference.
Example:
n 1 2 3 4 5 6
𝒕𝒏 9 12 15 18 21 24
First Differences 3 3 3 3 3
In this sequence, the common difference is 3. If there is not a common difference, the
sequence is not arithmetic.
nth Term of an Arithmetic Sequence

The formula for the nth term of an arithmetic sequence is:
𝒕𝒏 𝒕𝟏 𝒏 𝟏 ∙𝒅
The problem with this formula is the 𝒏 𝟏 that gets multiplied by d. Sometimes this is hard
to remember. An alternative method would be to first calculate a term zero,
𝒕 𝟎 𝒕𝟏 𝒅
Then: 𝒕𝒏 𝒕𝟎 𝒏 ∙ 𝒅, which seems a nicer formula
The value of this alternative is that it also allows the student to establish a formula in 𝑦 𝑚𝑥
𝑏 form for the sequence, where 𝒕𝟎 is the y‐intercept, and 𝒅, the common difference, is the
slope.
Example: In the above example, the nth term of the sequence can be written:
𝒕𝒏 𝟗 𝒏 𝟏 ∙𝟑
These two equations
Or, first calculate: 𝒕𝟎 𝟗 𝟑 𝟔 are equivalent.
Then: 𝒕𝒏 𝟔 𝟑𝒏 or 𝒕𝒏 𝟑𝒏 𝟔
Either method works; the student should use whichever one they find more comfortable.

Algebra
Arithmetic Series
An Arithmetic Series is the sum of the elements of an arithmetic sequence. The sum of the first
n terms of an arithmetic sequence is:
𝒕𝟏 𝒕𝒏
𝒔𝒏 𝒏∙
𝟐
In words, the sum is the product of n and the average term.

Since 𝒕𝒏 𝒕𝟏 𝒏 𝟏 ∙ 𝒅, we can derive the following formula: Notice that the last term
is the sum of the first n
𝒏 𝟏 ∙𝒅 integers. That is,
𝒔𝒏 𝒏 ∙ 𝒕𝟏
𝟐
𝑛 𝑛 1
𝑘
𝒏 𝟏 ∙𝒅 2
Or, perhaps better: 𝒔𝒏 𝒏 ∙ 𝒕𝟎
𝟐
𝒏 𝒏 𝟏
𝒏 ∙ 𝒕𝟎 𝒅
𝟐
This last equation provides a method for solving many arithmetic series problems.
Example: Find the 8th sum of the sequence 𝒕𝒏 𝟔 𝟑𝒏.
3𝑘 6 6 3∙ 𝑘
𝒏 𝒏 𝟏
8∙9
8∙6 3∙ 48 108 156
2
𝒏 𝒕𝟎 𝒅
To check this, let’s build a table:
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
𝒕𝒏 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
𝒔𝒏 9 21 36 54 75 99 126 156


Algebra
Pythagorean Means
Consider a set of n values. We can take a mean of these n values in several ways. The three
classical methods of calculating a mean are called Pythagorean Means.
Arithmetic Mean
The arithmetic mean is the one that students are most familiar with. It is also called the
average. It is simply the sum of the n items, divided by n.
𝟏 𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 … 𝒙𝒏
𝐚𝐫𝐢𝐭𝐡𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐦𝐞𝐚𝐧 𝐀 𝒙𝒊
𝒏 𝒏
Example: Calculate the arithmetic mean of 5 test scores: 92, 94, 85, 72, 99
92 94 86 74 99
𝑨 89
5
Trick: A shortcut to calculating an arithmetic mean:

Trick Example:
 Estimate a value for the average by “eyeballing” the values. For Score Value vs. 90
the example above, it looks like 90 would be a good estimate.
92 +2
 Subtract the estimate from each value to get a set of n 94 +4
differences. 86 ‐4
 Add the n differences and divide by n. 74 ‐16
 Add the result to the original estimate. The result is the 99 +9
arithmetic mean of the original set of values. In the above Total ‐5
example, the result is: 90 1 89. Average ‐1
Geometric Mean
The geometric mean is the n‐th root of the product of the n values.
𝐠𝐞𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐦𝐞𝐚𝐧 𝑮 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 … 𝑥
Example: Calculate the geometric mean of 2, 9, and 12:
𝑮 √2 9 12 √216 6

Algebra
Pythagorean Means (cont’d)
Harmonic Mean
The harmonic mean is reciprocal of the arithmetic mean of the reciprocals of the n values. It
has applications in science.
1 1 1
𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐦𝐨𝐧𝐢𝐜 𝐦𝐞𝐚𝐧 𝐇 ∙
𝑛 𝑥 1 1 1 1
∙ ⋯
𝑛 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
Example: Since the harmonic mean looks so odd, it is useful to look at a real‐life example.
Consider a car that travels 15 miles at 30 miles per hour, then another 15 miles at 15 miles per
hour. The average speed of the car over this distance is generated by the harmonic mean.
First, calculate the average speed from basic principles:
 15 miles at 30 miles per hour takes 30 minutes.
 15 miles at 15 miles per hour takes 60 minutes.
 Total trip is 30 miles in 90 minutes, for an average speed of 20 miles per hour.
Now, calculate the harmonic mean of the two speeds:
2 2 60
𝑯 20 𝑚𝑝ℎ
1 1 3 3
30 15 30
Comparing Means
Compare the values of the three Pythagorean Means of 3, 6, and 12:
𝐀: arithmetic mean 𝟕
In general, it is true that:
𝐆: geometic mean √3 6 12 𝟔 𝑯 𝐺 𝐴
𝟏 However, if the values being
𝐇: harmonic mean 𝟓
𝟕
averaged are all the same,
𝑯 𝑮 𝑨

Algebra
Geometric Sequences
An Geometric Sequence is one in which the ratio of successive terms is the same. The ratio,
often indicated by the letter r, is called the Common Ratio. Geometric sequences, then meet
the condition:
𝒕𝒏 𝟏 𝒓 ∙ 𝒕𝒏 , where r is the common ratio.
Example:
n 1 2 3 4 5 6
𝒕𝒏 6 12 24 48 96 192
First Ratios 2 2 2 2 2
In this sequence, the common ratio is 2. If there is not a common ratio, the sequence is not
geometric.
nth Term of an Geometric Sequence

The formula for the nth term of an arithmetic sequence is:
𝒕𝒏 𝒕𝟏 ∙ 𝒓 𝒏 𝟏
The problem with this formula is the 𝒏 𝟏 that is the exponent of r. Sometimes this is hard
to remember. An alternative method would be to first calculate a term zero,
𝒕𝟏
𝒕𝟎
𝒓
Then: 𝒕𝒏 𝒕𝟎 ∙ 𝒓𝒏 , which seems a nicer formula
Example: In the above example, the nth term of the sequence can be written:
𝒕𝒏 𝟔∙𝟐 𝒏 𝟏
These two equations

𝟔
Or, first calculate: 𝒕𝟎 𝟑 are equivalent.
𝟐
Then: 𝒕𝒏 𝟑 ∙ 𝟐𝒏
Either method works; the student should use whichever one they find more comfortable.

Algebra
Geometric Series
An Geometric Series is the sum of the elements of an geometric sequence. The sum of the first
n terms of an geometric sequence is:
𝟏 𝒓𝒏
𝒔𝒏 𝒕𝟏 ∙
𝟏 𝒓
Infinite Geometric Series

Of particular interest are Infinite Geometric Series. These series never end; they go on forever.
An infinite geometric series may have a sum as the series goes to infinity. The sums along the
way are called Partial Sums. The formula above works for the partial sums of an infinite
geometric series.
Starting with the above formula, for a series that does not end, consider the case where |𝑟| 1:
1 𝑟
𝑆 lim 𝑡 ∙
→ 1 𝑟
𝟏
So, 𝑺 𝒕𝟏 ∙
𝟏 𝒓
The 𝒓𝒏 term shrinks as n gets larger, and in the infinite case, it disappears altogether.
Convergence
An infinite series converges if it approaches a single value as more terms are added. Otherwise
the series diverges.
𝟏
Example: Show examples of where the series: 𝟏 𝒙 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟑 𝒙𝟒 ⋯
𝟏 𝒙
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
For 𝒙 the series gives: 𝟐 𝟏 ⋯ This looks good!
𝟐 𝟐 𝟒 𝟖 𝟏𝟔
For 𝒙 𝟐 the series gives: 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝟒 𝟖 𝟏𝟔 ⋯ Uh oh! This looks very wrong!
Notice that in this series, the common ratio 𝒓 𝒙. The reason why the first value of x works
and the second does not is because this series converges only when |𝒙| 1. This is very
common for infinite series with increasing exponents.
The set of values for which a series converges is called the Interval of Convergence. For the
series in the example, the interval of convergence is |𝒙| 1 or 𝒙 | 𝟏 𝑥 1 .

Algebra
A Few Special Series
Series Involving 𝝅
1 𝜋 1 1 1 1 𝜋
𝑘 6 ⋯
1 2 3 4 6
1 𝜋 1 1 1 1 𝜋
𝑘 90 ⋯
1 2 3 4 90
Series Involving e
1 1 1 1 1
𝑒 1 1 ⋯ 𝑒
𝑘! 2! 3! 4! 5!
1 2𝑘 1 1 3 5 7 9 1
1 ⋯
2𝑘 ! 𝑒 2! 4! 6! 8! 10! 𝑒
Cubes of Natural Numbers

Consider the Series of cubes of the natural numbers:
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
𝒕𝒏 𝒏𝟑 1 8 27 54 125 216 343
𝒔𝒏 1 9 36 100 225 441 784
𝒔𝒏 𝟏𝟐 𝟑𝟐 𝟔𝟐 𝟏𝟎𝟐 𝟏𝟓𝟐 𝟐𝟏𝟐 𝟐𝟖𝟐
So, the sums of cubes are squares. In fact successive sums are the squares of the Triangle
Numbers. The Triangle Numbers are the sums of the sequence of natural numbers:
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
𝒕𝒏 𝒏 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
𝑻𝒏 1 3 6 10 15 21 28

Algebra
Pascal’s Triangle
Pascal’s Triangle starts with the number one at the top and creates entries in successive rows
by adding the two numbers above it. For example, in the 4th row, the number 6 is the sum of
the 3 to its upper left and the 3 to its upper right. The triangle continues forever and has some
very interesting properties.
1 Row 0
1 1 Row 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
Properties of Pascal’s Triangle

The Triangle starts with Row 0. The number of a row is the value of the second number in the
row. Then, the rth number in row n is given by:
𝒏!
𝒂𝒏,𝒓 𝒏𝑪𝒓
𝒓! 𝒏 𝒓 !
The symbol 𝒏𝑪𝒓 comes from Probability Theory, and represents the number of ways r items
can be selected from a set of n items. This value is also a Binomial Coefficient; the binomial
coefficients are the coefficients of the variables in the expansion of 𝒂 𝒃 𝒏 .
Here are a few other interesting properties of Pascal’s Triangle:
 It is symmetric along a vertical line containing the top entry.
 The 𝑛𝑡ℎ row contains 𝑛 1 elements.
 The sum of the entries in row 𝑛 is 2 .
 It contains the natural numbers in the second diagonal.
 It contains the triangle numbers in the third diagonal.
 𝒏 𝟏𝑪𝒓 𝒏𝑪𝒓 𝟏 𝒏𝑪𝒓 , which is how the triangle is formed in the first place.
Two‐Outcome Experiments
In a two‐outcome experiment, like flipping a coin, the probability of an
𝒏𝑪𝒓
event occurring exactly r times in an experiment of n trials is given by the 𝑷
expression at right. This is because there are 𝒏𝑪𝒓 outcomes for the
𝟐𝒏
event out of a total of 𝟐𝒏 total possible outcomes.

Algebra
Binomial Expansion
4 Steps to a Constructing a Binomial Expansion 𝒂 𝒃 𝒏

1. Start with the binomial coefficients
2. Add in the powers of the first term of the binomial
3. Add in the powers of the second term of the binomial
4. Simplify
𝟒
Consider the following example: Expand and simplify 𝟐𝒙 𝟑
Step 1: Start with the binomial coefficients
4 4 4 4 4
0 1 2 3 4
Step 2: Add in the powers of the first term of the binomial
4 4 4 4 4
2𝑥 2𝑥 2𝑥 2𝑥 2𝑥
0 1 2 3 4
Step 3: Add in the powers of the second term of the binomial
4 4 4 4 4
2𝑥 3 2𝑥 3 2𝑥 3 2𝑥 3 2𝑥 3
0 1 2 3 4
Step 4: Simplify:
1 16𝑥 1 4 8𝑥 3 6 4𝑥 9 4 2𝑥 27 1 1 81
𝟏𝟔𝒙𝟒 𝟗𝟔𝒙𝟑 𝟏𝟒𝟒𝒙𝟐 𝟐𝟏𝟔𝒙 𝟖𝟏
Notice the following about the expansion:

1. There are 𝒏 𝟏 terms, where 𝒏 is the exponent of the binomial being expanded.
2. 𝒏 is the top number in every binomial coefficient.
3. The bottom numbers in the binomial coefficients count up from 0 to 𝒏.
4. When a term of the original binomial is negative, the signs in the solution alternate.
5. The exponent of the first term in the original binomial counts down from 𝒏 to 0.
6. The exponent of the second term in the original binomial counts up from 0 to 𝒏.
7. The exponents of the two terms in the original binomial add to 𝒏 in every term of the
expansion.

ADVANCED
Algebra
Gamma Function and n!
Definition
The Gamma Function is defined by the following definite integral for 𝑥 0:
𝒕 𝒙 𝟏
𝚪 𝒙 𝒆 𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝟎
Initially, this integral appears daunting, but it simplifies nicely under certain conditions, and has
some very interesting properties.
Properties and Values

The following properties and values of the Gamma Function are of particular interest:
 𝚪 𝒙 𝟏 𝒙 ! for integer values of 𝑥

Factorials
 𝚪 𝒙 𝟏 𝒙∙𝚪 𝒙 for values of 𝑥 where Γ 𝑥 exists
𝚪 𝟏 𝟎! 𝟏
𝟏 𝚪 𝟐 𝟏! 𝟏
 𝚪 √𝝅
𝟐
𝚪 𝟑 𝟐! 𝟐
𝝅
 𝚪 𝒙 ∙𝚪 𝟏 𝒙 for 0 𝑥 1 𝚪 𝟒 𝟑! 𝟔
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝅𝒙
𝚪 𝟓 𝟒! 𝟐𝟒
 𝚪 𝒙 𝟎 for any value of 𝑥 𝚪 𝟔 𝟓! 𝟏𝟐𝟎
. . .
 Some other functions relate to the Gamma Function. Examples:
𝚪′ 𝒙 𝚪 𝒙 ∙𝚪 𝒚
𝐃𝐢𝐠𝐚𝐦𝐦𝐚 𝐅𝐮𝐧𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: 𝛙 𝒙 𝐁𝐞𝐭𝐚 𝐅𝐮𝐧𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: 𝜝 𝒙, 𝒚
𝚪 𝒙 𝚪 𝒙 𝒚
Stirling’s Formula
𝒏 𝒏
For large values of n, Stirling’s Formula provides the approximation: 𝒏! ~ √𝟐𝒏𝝅 ∙
𝒆
Example: Direct Calculation: 100! ~ 9.3326 x 10
Using Stirling’s Formula: 100! ~ √200 𝜋 ∙ ~ 9.3248 x 10
This represents an error of less than 0.1%.

ADVANCED
Algebra
Graphing the Gamma Function
Gamma Function Graph

Here is a graph of the Gamma Function. For 𝒙 0, the function is continuous and passes
through all the factorials.
 For 0 𝒙 1, the graph moves
asymptotically vertical as 𝑥 ⇒ 0.
 For 𝒙 0, the function has
vertical asymptotes at each
integer value and forms a “U”
between the integers, with
alternating positive and negative
values by interval.
 Γ 𝑥 approaches 𝒚 0 as 𝑥
becomes increasingly negative.
Calculating G(x)
Each value of G(x) can be calculated using the
definition of the Gamma Function on the previous
page. Recall that a definite integral is a measure
of the area under the curve of the function being
integrated. Based on this, we have the following
examples of G(x) values and graphs that illustrate
the curves which determine those values.
𝒆 𝒕
𝚪 𝟎 𝟎
𝒅𝒕
𝒕
𝒕
𝚪 𝟏 𝟎
𝒆 𝒅𝒕
𝒕
𝚪 𝟐 𝟎
𝒆 𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝒕 𝟐
𝚪 𝟑 𝟎
𝒆 𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝒕 𝟑
𝚪 𝟒 𝟎
𝒆 𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝒕 𝟒
𝚪 𝟓 𝟎
𝒆 𝒕 𝒅𝒕

Algebra Handbook
Index
Page Subject
15 Absolute Value
Absolute Value Functions
47 Equations
48 Inequalities
97 Adjoint Matrix
16 Algebraic Properties
169 Arithmetic Mean
16 Associative Property
Asymptotes
156, 157 Conic Sections
117 Exponential Functions
177 Gamma Function
119 ‐ 121 Logarithmic Functions
138 ‐ 144 Rational Functions
101 Augmented Matrix
175 Binomial Expansion
Box Method
62 Multiplying Binomials
10 Cartesian Plane
104 Characteristic Equation
152 Circles
16 Closure Property
97 Cofactor
97 Cofactor Matrix
22 Combinations
16 Commutative Property
Complex Numbers
80 Absolute Value
81 Adding and Subtracting
80 Conjugate
80 Definition
83 Graphical Representation
81 Multiplying and Dividing
84 Operations in Polar Coordinates
115 Condensing a Logarithmic Expression

Algebra Handbook
Index
Page Subject
Conic Equations
149, 157 Characteristics
160 Classification
148 Definitions
Conic Sections
161 Manipulation
162 Parametric Equations
(also see entries for specific curves)
52, 53 Consistent Lines
113 Converting Between Exponential and Logarithmic Expressions
10 Coordinates in a Plane
Cramer's Rule
99 2 Equations
100 3 Equations
128 Cubic Equations ‐ Sum and Difference Formulas
124 Decay (Exponential)
52, 53 Dependent Lines
132 Descartes’ Rule of Signs
93, 94 Determinants
93 2x2 Matrix
94 General Case
16 Distributive Property
64 Dividing Polynomials
111 e
104, 106 Eigenvalues
105, 106 Eigenvestors
Ellipse
154 Centered at Point (h, k)
153 Centered on the Origin (Standard Position)
155 Polar Form
72 Equations ‐ Solving by Factoring
111 Euler's Equation
114 Expanding a Logarithmic Expression
125 Exponential Equations
Exponential Function Graphs
117 Graphing a Function
118, 123 Sample Graphs

Algebra Handbook
Index
Page Subject
Exponents
113 Converting an Exponential Expression to Logarithmic Form
125 Exponential Equations
124 Exponential Functions ‐ Growth, Decay, Interest
56 Formulas
112 Table of Exponents
176 Factorials
Factoring
69 AC Method
70 Brute Force Method
71 Quadratic Formula Method
68 Simple Case Method
62 FOIL Method of Multiplying Binomials
Functions
27 Compositions
24 Definitions
124 Exponential (Growth, Decay, Interest)
123 Graphs of Various Functions
28 Inverses
24 Line Tests
26 Notation
26 Operations
29 Transformation ‐ Building a Graph
Gamma Function
177 Gamma Function ‐ Calculating
176 Gamma Function ‐ Definition
177 Gamma Function ‐ Graphing
96 Gauss‐Jordan Elimination
169 Geometric Mean
164 Golden Ratio (f)
Graph (look up the type of curve you are trying to graph)
25 Greatest Integer Function
124 Growth (Exponential)
170 Harmonic Mean

Algebra Handbook
Index
Page Subject
107 Hamilton‐Cayley Theorem

Hyperbola
157 Centered at Point (h, k)
156 Centered on the Origin (Standard Position)
158 Polar Form
159 Polar Form ‐ Construction Over the Domain: 0 to 2π
80 i
92 Identity Matrices
16 Identity Property
Imaginary Numbers
80 i
80 Definition
83 Powers of i
82 Square Root of i
52, 53 Inconsistent Lines
52, 53 Independent Lines
Inequalities
44 Compound in One Dimension
43 Graphs in One Dimension
46 Graphs in Two Dimensions
45 Two Dimensions
14 Integers
Integer Functions
25 Greatest Integer Function
25 Least Integer Functions
25 Nearest Integer Functions
Intersection of Curves
136 Circle and Ellipse
134 General Case
135 Line and Parabola
134 Lines
92‐98, 107 Inverse Matrices
16 Inverse Property
25 Least Integer Functions
53 Linear Dependence

Algebra Handbook
Index
Page Subject
Linear Equations
38 Point‐Slope Form of a Line
38 Slope‐Intercept Form of a Line
38 Standard Form of a Line
11 Linear Patterns
120 ln
125 Logarithmic Equations
Logarithmic Function Graphs
119 Graphing Methods
122, 123 Sample Graphs
Logarithms
115, 116 Condensing a Logarithmic Expression
113 Converting a Logarithmic Expression to Exponential Form
114 Expanding a Logarithmic Expression
110 Formulas
125 Logarithmic Equations
112 Table of Logarithms
64 Long Division of Polynomials
Matrices
90 Addition
97 Adjoint Matrix
101 Augmented Matrices
102 Augmented Matrix Examples (2x2)
103 Augmented Matrix Example (3x3)
104 Characteristic Equation
97 Cofactors
93, 94 Determinants
95 Division
104 Eigenvalues
105 Eigenvectors
107 Hamilton‐Cayley Theorem
92 Identity Matrices
93 Inverse of a 2x2 Matrix
92‐98, 107 Inverse of a General Matrix
97 Minors
91 Multiplication
90 Scalar Multiplication
104 Trace

Algebra Handbook
Index
Page Subject
169, 170 Means ‐ Pythagorean

97 Minor
Multi‐Step Equations
18 Reverse PEMDAS
19 Tips and Tricks
176 n!
120 Natural Logarithms
14 Natural Numbers
25 Nearest Integer Functions
Number Patterns
13 Completing Number Patterns
11 Converting a Linear Pattern to an Equation
12 Identifying Number Patterns
11 Recognizing Linear Patterns
14 Number Sets ‐ Real Numbers
20 Odds
15 Operating with Real Numbers
Order of Operations
9 Parenthetical Device
9 PEMDAS
Parabola
150 Vertex at Point (h, k)
149 Vertex at the Origin (Standard Position)
151 Polar Form
Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
39 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines ‐ Slopes
41 Parallel, Coincident or Intersecting Lines ‐ Flowchart
40 Parallel, Perpendicular or Neither Lines ‐ Flowchart
Parametric Equations
162 Conic Sections
55 General
9 Parenthetical Device
174 Pascal’s Triangle
9 PEMDAS
10 Plotting Points on a Coordinate Plane
38 Point‐Slope Form of a Line

Algebra Handbook
Index
Page Subject
83, 84 Polar Coordinates

Polynomials
60 Definition
60 Degree
132 Polynomials – Developing Possible Roots
65 Factoring
127 Finding Extrema with Derivatives
126 Graphs
65 Greatest Common Factor
62 Multiplying Binomials (FOIL, Box, Numerical Methods)
61 Standard Form
128 Sum and Difference of Cubes
130, 131 Synthetic Division
133 Testing Possible Roots
129 Variable Substitution
75 Powers and Roots Table
Probability
20 Probability and Odds
21 Probability with Dice
16 Properties of Addition and Multiplication
16 Properties of Equality
16 Properties of Zero
Properties of Inequality
42 Addition and Subtraction
42 Multiplication and Division
169, 170 Pythagorean Means
85 Quadratic Equations ‐ Complex Solutions
76 Quadratic Formula
Quadratic Functions
74 Completing the Square
67 Differences of Squares
79 Fitting with Three Points
73 Opening Up or Down
66 Perfect Squares

Algebra Handbook
Index
Page Subject
Quadratic Functions
73 Standard Form
73 Vertex and Axis of Symmetry
73 Vertex Form
77 Quadratic Inequalities in One Variable
88, 89 Radical Equations
146 Rational Equations
Rational Expressions
145 Addition and Subtraction
145 Multiplication and Division
Rational Functions
137 Domain
141 General Rational Functions
138 Holes and Asymptotes
140 Simple Rational Functions
147 Rational Inequalities
14 Rational Numbers
17 Reflexive Property
14 Real Numbers
Roots
132, 133 Polynomials (i.e., zeros)
86 Radical Rules
86 Rationalizing the Denominator
87 Simplifying Square Roots
Scientific Notation
57 Conversion to and from Decimals
57 Format
Sequences
167 Arithmetic
163 Definitions
171 Geometric

Algebra Handbook
Index
Page Subject
Series
168 Arithmetic
163 Definitions
172 Geometric
173 Special (π, e, cubes)
166 Summation Formulas
165 Summation Notation and Properties
Signs
15 Signs of Added or Subtracted Numbers
15 Signs of Multiplied or Divided Numbers
97 Singular Matrix
Slope
37 Slope of a Line ‐ 8 Variations
35 Slope of a Line ‐ Mathematical Definition
36 Slope of a Line ‐ Rise over Run
38 Slope‐Intercept Form of a Line
39 Slopes of Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
62 Stacked Polynomial Method of Multiplying Binomials
63 Stacked Polynomial Method of Multiplying Polynomials
38 Standard Form of a Line
23 Statistical Measures
176 Stirling's Formula
17 Substitution Property
Summation (S)
166 Formulas
165 Notation and Properties
17 Symmetric Property
Synthetic Division
131 Synthetic Division ‐ Comparison to Long Division
130 Synthetic Division ‐ Process
Systems of Equations
52 Classification
51 Elimination Method
49 Graphing a Solution
50 Substitution Method
54 Systems of Inequalities ‐ Two Dimensions
104 Trace (of a matrix)

Algebra Handbook
Index
Page Subject
Transformations
34 Building a Graph
31 Horizontal Stretch and Compression
32 Reflection
33 Summary
29 Translation
30 Vertical Stretch and Compression
97 Transpose of a Matrix
17 Transitive Property
14 Whole Numbers
132, 133 Zeros of Polynomials

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Math Handbook

of Formulas, Processes and Tricks

Algebra and PreCalculus

Prepared by: Earl L. Whitney, FSA, MAAA

August 22, 2021

Copyright 2008‐21, Earl Whitney, Reno NV. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 3: Solving Equations

Chapter 4: Probability & Statistics

Cover art by Rebecca Williams,

Version 3.3 Page 2 of 187 August 22, 2021

Chapter 6: Linear Functions

Chapter 8: Systems of Equations

Chapter 9: Exponents (Basic) and Scientific Notation

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Chapter 10: Polynomials – Basic

Chapter 11: Quadratic Functions

Chapter 12: Complex Numbers

Chapter 13: Radicals

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Chapter 14: Matrices

Chapter 15: Exponents and Logarithms

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Chapter 16: Polynomials – Intermediate

Chapter 17: Rational Functions

Chapter 18: Conic Sections

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Chapter 19: Sequences and Series

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Version 3.3 Page 8 of 187 August 22, 2021

To the non‐mathematician, there may appear to be multiple ways to evaluate an algebraic

 P Anything in Parentheses is evaluated first.

Initial Expression: 3∙4∙7 6∙5 Note: Any expression which is

Version 3.3 Page 9 of 187 August 22, 2021

 Two axes are defined (usually called the x‐ and y‐axes).

Plotting Points on the Plane

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Recognizing Linear Patterns

Consider this pattern:

Converting a Linear Pattern to an Equation

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n Consider in the examples the sequences of six n

‐1 differences until you get a column of constant 2

‐1 continue the constant differences (Example 1) or the 2

n ∆ ∆2 ∆3 Step 3: Work backwards (from right to left), filling in n ∆ ∆2 ∆3

Version 3.3 Page 13 of 187 August 22, 2021

Number Set Symbol Definition Examples

Natural (or, N or Numbers that you would 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, …

Add the number zero to the

Whole numbers plus the set

Any number that can be All integers, plus fractions and

Any number that can be All rational numbers plus roots

Real Number Set Tree

Integers Fractions and

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| 5| 5 |3| 3 |0| 0 |1.5| 1.5

Adding and Subtracting Real Numbers

Multiplying and Dividing Real Numbers

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