International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology (2023) 20:3385–3394

https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-021-03735-y

REVIEW

Role of social capital in disaster risk management: a theoretical

perspective in special reference to Odisha, India
J. K. Behera1

Received: 22 January 2021 / Revised: 8 June 2021 / Accepted: 9 October 2021 / Published online: 28 October 2021
© Islamic Azad University (IAU) 2021

Abstract
Social capital being the network of relationship plays a significant role in managing risk and crisis situation saving human
lives from an adverse effect and impact of disasters. The authors and scholars across many countries through their disaster
studies show that social capital with the form of bonding, bridging and linking rescued the victims of disasters, evacuated the
most vulnerable people to safer places, provided food and drinking water and other basic amenities to the victims of disasters,
provided homes to the homeless and solaced to those who were psychologically depressed. However, the literature review
further specified that while bonding and bridging social capital extended support to the victims of disasters in abundance,
the linking social capital on the other hand supported only to those who are in close contact with the persons and institutions
in power and authority. Review of literature is done purely through qualitative research methodology which has had read
86 relevant articles published within the last 10- to 12-year period of time. This review paper both contributes to the social
capital literature and helps those responsible for planning and policy framework to effectively manage future disasters and
safeguard lives and properties and enhance capacities of the most vulnerable people to absorb shocks and stress successfully.

Keywords Trust and solidarity · Social network · Risk and crisis management · Social capital · Empirical evidence ·
Natural disasters · Collective action and cooperation · Social values

Introduction witnessed multiple disasters and the adverse effect and

impact people encountered. The world leaders and devel-
Many natural calamities across the world occur every year opment planners headed by United Nations realized the
affecting millions of people today (Montz et al. 2017). In the pivotal importance of pre-disaster activities such as pre-
year 2016, 342 natural disasters hit globally where 564 mil- vention, mitigation, preparedness and early warning so as
lion people worldwide were affected severely (Guha-Sapir to minimize the deadly impact of disasters (O'Keefe et al.
et al. 2016). [p2] Therefore people in post-disaster situation 1976). Since the year 1970s, many researchers and scholars
suffer immensely due to damage of resources, infrastructure in and through their relevant study findings perceived that
and livelihood. (ibid). the negative impact of disasters on the lives, livelihood and
Disasters once considered as ‘natural’ and thus acts of infrastructures is largely due to people’s vulnerabilities and
God. The notions of people’s capacities and expertise were lack of pertinent capacities (ibid). Hence, the paradigm has
insufficient to reduce the occurrence of disasters. Since shifted from disaster response to disaster risk management
the time immemorial, many countries across the world (DRM).
United Nations organized the World Conference on Dis-
aster Risk Reduction and developed Hyogo Framework
Editorial responsibility: Xu Han. for Action from 2005 to 2015 that aimed to develop and
strengthen the capacities of people in all aspects of life in
* J. K. Behera order to reduce the impact of disasters (UN/ISDR 2005).
190506172003@cutm.ac.in
https://cutm.ac.in Subsequently, the second International Conference on Sen-
dai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction held in Sendai,
1
Department of Management, Centurion University Japan, on March 18, 2015, and developed plan of action
of Technology and Management, Ramchandrapur, Khurda from 2015 to 2030. The aim of this conference is to achieve
Road, Odisha state, Jatni, Bhubaneswar, India

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3386 International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology (2023) 20:3385–3394

substantial reduction of disaster risk and losses in lives, live- and through practicing COVID-19 protocol and guideline
lihood, physical, social and environmental assets of indi- and sensitized others to follow strictly to keep themselves
viduals, families and communities (UNSFDRR, 2015). The safe and allow others to be at safe (Bai et al. 2020; Barrios
focus turned to reducing vulnerability instead of strengthen- et al. 2020; Borgonovi and Andrieu 2020; Fraser and Aldrich
ing infrastructure (ibid). 2020).
Many scholars explore that human, financial, physi- The disaster risk management of individuals and commu-
cal, natural and social capitals are vast and very important nities depends on effective risk and crisis management, i.e.
resources to address disaster risk management. Among all preparedness, early warning, response and recovery meas-
these resources, the review paper envisages social capital ures (Dynes 2006; FEMA 2010). Social capital as resource
as one of the vital ingredients among all other capitals that helps people and community in pre, during and post-disaster
effectively facilitate reducing the effect and impact of disas- situation for better disaster risk management. Prior to a dis-
ters to a great extent (Koh 2008). As observed and witnessed aster, social capital facilitates series of activities such as
the response measures aftermath of the earthquake 1995 in vulnerability assessment, capacity assessment, stockpiling,
Kobe that when the local government had limited capacity shelter preparation, repairing of partially damaged houses,
to deal with an enormous crisis, people, volunteers, relatives early warning, preposition of rescue equipment, first aid and
and friends from the localities spontaneously responded to other lifesaving exercises (ibid).
the victims and saved their lives, cleared debris and provided During a disaster, social capital helps the communities
food to the disaster affected people (Nakagawa and Shaw to make better evacuation decisions, search and rescue and
2004). provide immediate and long-term relief and recovery meas-
According to Dynes (2006), disaster affects all four capi- ures. Social capital has also crucial role to play providing
tals such as economic, physical, natural, human and social food to the hungry, initiate debris removal, make provision
capital. However, among all these capitals, social capital of shelters for homeless, child care, financial aid, initiate
comparably least damaged by disaster moreover the capaci- immediate emotional and psychological support (Aldrich
ties and engagement of social capital in risk and crisis man- and Meyer 2015; Dynes 2005; Norris et al. 2002; Sanyal and
agement increased during disaster. Nevertheless, Social cap- Routray 2016). Moreover, linkages between social capital
ital stands as one of the vital resources for the individuals, and disaster risk management can bind community together
groups and communities to prepare for upcoming disasters and that ultimately enhance disaster resilience of the people
and hazards respond effectively to emergencies and recover (Berkes and Ross 2013).
people from the deadly impact of disasters (Aldrich 2012a, Social capital sometime get decreased with values by
2012b), 2012c; Dynes 2002; Granovetter 1983b; Norris et al. the impact of disasters as individual members, families
2002). and communities network get disconnected and naturally
Social capital intervenes in various fields of relevance as the built network get disassociated and the network ties
and when required. Health is one of such important sector breaks (Kaniasty and Norris 1993; Ritchie and Gill 2007;
where social capital plays pivotal role in preventing and con- Varda et al. 2009). Moreover, disasters can become a cause
trolling of diseases and virus effectively. For example, when of increasing social vulnerabilities by damaging social ties
the epidemics known as Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome and networks of resource as a result of which the capacity
(SARS) spread in 2003, the outbreak of Ebola Virus Disease of absorbing shocks may get decline further (Domínguez
in the year 2014 and the widespread epidemic of Zika fever and Watkins 2003; Tobin-Gurley et al. 2010; Aldrich 2012a,
caused by Zika virus in the year 2015, social capital played 2012b), 2012c). The objective of this review paper meant
crucial role in sensitizing people on preventive measures and to highlight what difference social capital can make for and
above all made people to be at peace and calm (Blair et al. with the disaster affected communities in pre-, during and
2017; Wilkinson and Fairhead 2017). post-disaster situation and how it could be best useful in
The Corona Virus Disease-19 has threatened the world disaster risk management reviewing the empirical evidences
communities on the safety and security of human life. The from many literature.
COVID-19 has claimed millions of people within a short The literature review has been carried out in special refer-
period of time, and millions of people of this century still ence to the Puri District, Odisha State, India, known as one
suffer with the deadliest killing effect of the virus today. of the most disasters-prone regions in India within the period
Different countries and communities have adopted varied from October 2020 to April 2021, and the deeper level field
steps to prevent and control the deadliest disease and so survey is in process. The researcher intended to make deeper
some countries and regions have better effect on prevent- research on the same subject as part of PhD research work.
ing the virus and others are not. According to the findings The prime objective of the literature review was to discover
of some scholars, social capital in some regions has played what role and contribution social capital made in pre-, dur-
a significant role in prevention and controlling measures in ing and post-disaster situation and saved the most vulnerable

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International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology (2023) 20:3385–3394 3387

and affected people from the adverse impact of disasters in connecting individuals, groups and families more hetero-
many countries and assisted them in short-term and long- geneous to each other although with the similar socio-eco-
term response and recovery programs. nomic and political status, whereas linking social capital
which is the vertical connection between people of different
strata of power and position and the individuals and com-
Methodology munities is able to develop network and benefit from linking
social capital (ibid).
Review of literature is done purely through qualitative On the one hand, bonding social capital is essential for
research methodology. The researcher tries to gather rel- strengthening social unity among individuals, families,
evance data and findings on the role of social capital in groups and communities, bridging social capital speaks for
disaster risk management and through secondary source of solidarity, respect and understanding in wider society, and
literature review from 86 relevant articles within the last linking social capital is a resource or capacity of the peo-
10- to 12-year period of time. ple and communities to mobilize various resources to their
essential needs for recovery and reconstruction purposes
(Poortinga 2012). Therefore, bonding, bridging and linking
Theoretical framework social capital offer a sense of belongingness, unity, coopera-
tion and mutual support among people, families and groups
Social capital to get access to needful resources and services as and when
require (UN/ISDR & UN/OCHA 2008).
Hanifan (1916) was the first social scientist who promoted Social capital is a relationship built between and among
social capital as goodwill, fellowship, mutual sympathy individuals, families and community as resource to work
and social intercourse among a group of individuals and together for common purposes and get benefit (Huvila
families who make up a social unit. Social capital as the et al. 2014). Sharing of information, trust and coopera-
theoretical concept further explored and publicized in the tion between and among the individuals, families, groups
works of Bourdieu (1986) Coleman (1988, 1990), Woolcock and social networks is also considered as social capital.
(1998) and Putnam (1994, 1995). Social Capital is defined (Bourdieu 1986; Woolcock 1998). Similarly, for Putnam
as exchange of information, trust, norms and values between (1995,2000) social capital is defined as the networks, con-
and among the individuals, groups, families and communi- nection and groups with shared values and understanding in
ties and with an existing network, while physical capital is the society that enable individuals and groups to trust each
fully tangible and the social capital merely exists invisibly other and work for positive result on the wake of disasters
in the form of relationship between and among individuals (Keeley, 2007). Social capital is created with filial relation-
(Coleman, 1988). ship, shared norms, values and understanding that promotes
A series of definitions on the concept of social capital are support and cooperation between and among individuals,
available in the literature. Broadly speaking, social capital families, groups and other networks (OECD 2001; Perry
is an ability of people to work together for common pur- 1979). For example, Siegler (2014) argues that social capital
poses in groups and organizations (Fukuyama 1995) with brings about networks, connections and human values that
the set of informal values or norms that motivates coopera- promote benefits due to tolerance, solidarity and or trust.
tion between and among groups. (ibid) The social scientists
(Bourdieu 1986; Coleman 1988; Putnam 1993, 1995; Lin
et al. 2008) have defined social capital that refers to the Social capital and disaster risk management
networks which connect individuals, families, groups with
each other either through weak or strong ties. Woolcock and Social relations, trust and solidarity, collective action and
Szreter showed a path in 2004 in which social capital can cooperation are the true resources and ingredients for the
be categorized into horizontal and vertical networks such as individuals, groups and communities to effectively man-
bonding, bridging and linking social capital which can be age risk and crisis situation (Aldrich 2012a, 2012b), 2012c;
widely used to save lives in emergencies (Adler & Kwon, Aldrich & Meyer 2015; Pfefferbaum et al., 2017). In addition
2014; Szreter and Woolcock 2004). Bonding social capital “how involvement and participation in groups can have posi-
in the first hand is explained as the close horizontal relations tive consequences for the individual and the community”
between and among immediate families, friends, business (Aldrich & Meyer, 2015, p. 256).
associates or individual members of the community sharing The thrust of successful disaster management as stated by
the same demographic characteristics and socio-economic UNDP lies in: “cooperation, coordination, collective action,
status homogenous to each other. Bridging social capital and information sharing” (UNDP, 2016b, p. 39). Such kind
is further explained stating a bit different from bonding as of positive relations, understanding and reciprocal action

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3388 International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology (2023) 20:3385–3394

embedded in social capital keeps the community, groups “People of Sai Noi with no training and skills could build
and individual together. William Robinson opines “social barriers and fill sand bags in the risky river embankment and
capital is the ‘oil that reduces friction in communities … monitored flood levels, delivered food and drinking water
[and is] an essential condition of social cohesion’ which is a to all the families in need, evacuated the residents trapped
critical component of DRR and resilience”. “Social capital in their homes, provided medical services to the sick and
creates bonds between individuals that incentivises them to injured and the volunteers were on constant watch on loot-
cooperate and encourages them to generate new ideas, uti- ers” (Roasa 2013: 1).
lise invisible resources, and grow as a community” (Sanyal According to Allen (2013), the past disasters like bush-
and Routray, 2016). “These bonds allow members to bring fires, cyclones, storms and floods impacted people in Aus-
shared problems to the attention of the community, facili- tralia very badly. At this critical juncture, the benevolent
tate discussion forums to find solutions, and act collectively Australians spontaneously helped those who were affected
to mobilise political will for the reduction of disaster risk” by the disasters. The neighbours, relatives and the people in
(Mayunga, 2007, p.7). Disaster risk management aims to the same locality came together and extended basic support
carry out activities by communities in a systematic manner and services before the government could reach and rescue
with a four pillars in mind including relief/response, recov- the victims [ibid]. Evidence is also found that bonding social
ery, mitigation, preparedness (Guha-Sapir et al. 2011). capital extended all necessary food and nonfood support to
the flood affected people in Myanmar and Taiwan in the year
2012 before government functionaries could reach them on
Empirical view on the Role and function time (James, 2012).
of social capital in disasters The post-cyclone Yasi of 2011 in Australia gave oppor-
tunity of activating social capital of bonding and bridging
Empirical evidence of social capital in disaster by dint of which local community, volunteers, groups and
response relatives helped those in need with labour and machinery
(Allen, 2013). Early warning and dissemination of perti-
In the year 1995 Kobe, Japan witnessed one of the deadli- nent information regarding relief received by the affected
est earthquakes. Hundreds and thousands of people killed; people are generally from relatives and friends. Although
hundreds of victims were stranded under debris and inside government is a prime support providing institution, social
the damaged houses. The first-hand responders who could capital played a pivotal role in proving support to the people
save lives and rescued the stranded ones were their own rela- affected by the disaster (Zhao et al. 2013).
tives, neighbours, passersby and friends (Aldrich, 2012a, During and after the Oakland California firestorm in
2012b), 2012c). 1991, people both young and old fleeing to rescue them-
Nakagawa and Shaw (2004) claimed that the communities selves were picked up by passing cars and motorbikes. As
with increased network of relationship exhibited effective part of bonding social capital, relatives and neighbour went
response and recovery measures aftermath of the earthquake house-to-house and rescued the victims from a flame of fire
in India and Japan. Dynes (2005) with his research findings (Oliver-Smith, 1999).
affirmed that social ties, social network, shared values and
reciprocity are the root for bouncing back from the adverse Empirical evidence of social capital in disaster
impact of disasters, as it extends support services like shar- recovery
ing of pertinent information and lifesaving resources at the
time of critical period. Such kind of benevolent acts is ren- According to Smith and Wenger, disaster recovery is “the
dered by Individuals, groups, family members, relatives and differential process of restoring, rebuilding, and reshaping,
friends (Poteyeva et al. (2007) the physical, social, economic, and natural environment
Thailand the capital city of Bankok faced the worst flood through pre-event planning and post event actions” (p 237).
in the year 2011 in its recorded history. $45 billion cost of The prime purposes of initiating activities during recovery
properties, assets and infrastructures got damaged as about phase are to restore the victims and affected families back
90% of some areas were submerged with flood water. The to the normal condition or better than what was before (Car-
severity and magnitude of disaster were so big that 9 million dona, 2004), Kates et al. 1977). As like response phase, sev-
family members were unable to move to the safer places and eral authors have highlighted strong role that social capital
managed to survive with the available food stock, water and played during recovery phase (Nakagawa and Shaw 2004),
other necessities preserved in advance. On the other hand, (Edgington, 2010), Patterson et al. (2010). Bonding, bridg-
the district of Sai Noi in the northwest suburbs of the city ing and linking social capital also have played very impor-
was different from the other affected areas. The people of tant role in contributing positively to the overall recovery of
Sai Noi worked together and fought the raging flood water. a disaster affected community (Sobel, 2002). For example,

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International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology (2023) 20:3385–3394 3389

although in Philippines the disaster network called Disas- Similarly, some regions in Japan as per the observation of
ter Response Network (CDRN) is active in all phases risk Fraser and Aldrich (2020) that people were more prone to
and crisis management and yet during recovery phase the infection of coronavirus due to physically and socially closer
network engaged in repairing and rebuilding homes, and to their relatives, neighbours and friends. But later on when
implemented the distribution of seed, livestock and tools people with collective action and cooperation followed
(Delica-Willson, and Wilson, 2004). COVID guideline strictly that made the drastic reduction
Normally community organizations have no core capac- in infection rate.
ity for disaster risk management, and yet instances indicate Some scholars and researchers in Italy observed closely
that many of the community organizations play extra role and reported that due to strong COVID guideline followed
and functions in pre-, during and post-disaster situation by the families, relatives and neighbours the high rise of
providing necessary support to the group members and infection lowered down (Bartscher et al., 2020). Another
individuals in the communities. For example, aftermath of research was carried out in the same region of Italy taking
the Indian Ocean tsunami in 2004, non-government organi- a few sample of professionals and officers and their mode
zations (NGOs) played lifesaving role in distributing relief of operation. The study report shows that the employers
both food and non-food items to the individuals, families and employees followed the strict COVID-19 guideline and
and groups mostly in need as the government relief materi- strictly followed social distance, sanitized hands, wear mask
als and resources were unable to reach to these communities and other preventive measures whenever they were working
(Kumaran et al. 2011). The community leaders and members in the offices (Kokubun 2020).
having strong and positive link with the local non-govern- As observed by Dynes, strong social networks and groups
ment organization could reach those most in need. Having become source of inspiration and motivation for others to take
successfully fighting with the 2004 tsunami in India, the part in preventive measures. Similarly, the USA (Committee
South Indian Federation of Fishermen Societies (SIFFS), on Disaster Research in Social Sciences, 2006) identified that
and Society for Nutrition, Education and Health Action community with high levels of social capital is more likely to
(SNEHA) built local networks to advocate for community engage in mitigation strategies as core business. For exam-
needs in coming days and in future (IFRCRCS. 2005). These ple, in Antique, Philippines, a country with high involvement
networks and organizations with one voice advocated before in local associations, community members come together to
the government to shape government policies concerned construct dams for flood control (Bankoff, (2007). These com-
with the provision of quality temporary housing and the munities show strong understanding of existing capacities,
reconstruction of permanent residences. which results in realistic and achievable mitigation strategies
that harness the community’s specific strengths.
Empirical evidence of social capital in prevention In Santa Cruz, California, Neighbourhood Survival Net-
and mitigation works (NSN) implemented series of risk and crisis manage-
ment activities in pre-, during and post-disaster situation,
Disaster prevention and mitigation are on-going processes especially aiding the minority and vulnerable populations in
known as risk reduction measures normally carried out in the aftermath of the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake (Commit-
pre-disaster situation so as to lessen or prevent exposure to tee on Disaster Research in the Social Sciences and National
loss of life and properties (Mitchell et al. 2010). On the one Research Council. 2006).
hand, preventive measure concerned with avoiding exposure
to hazard that may adversely impact people, and on the other Empirical evidence of social capital in preparedness
hand, mitigation measure is to minimize the impact of an
event may occur in future (Smith and Petley 2009). Disaster preparedness is the set of activities undertaken well
Treatment, prevention and controlling the COVID-19 in advance to ensure preparedness activities such as stockpil-
are not only the duties and responsibilities of Govern- ing, capacity building, planning and assessment effectively so
ment machineries but everyone's responsibilities to follow as to withstand future hazards and disasters (UNISDR, 2004).
COVID-19 guideline to be at safe and allow others also to be A well-prepared community, family and individuals are those
safe. The present-day scholars have critically made studies who have easy access to early warning, knowledge and train-
on COVID-19 and indicated the evidence that social capital ing on various pertinent subject on disasters management
has effectively carried out preventive measures, maintained and such type of communities will have better protection
social distances and exposed themselves to the outer world measures (Dynes 2006; FEMA 2010). Disaster prepared-
only when essentially required. This was one of the reasons ness speaks about set of activities planned and implemented
why the trend of rising the cases of infection in some areas well in advance to check and combat severity of upcoming
was lower than other areas (e.g. Bai et al. 2020; Barrios et al. disasters, for example, preserving essential food commodities
2020; Bartscher et al. 2020; Borgonovi and Andrieu 2020). for all, clothes, first aid box, medicines for sick, keep ready

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3390 International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology (2023) 20:3385–3394

with emergency shelters, assessing people, places and things 13). The members in a Self Help Groups benefit as group give
at risk, organize capacity building training and information easy access to finance without imposing any kind of strict and
sharing on safety procedure. long procedure and high rate of interest.
A resilient community is envisaged with a high degree of On the other hand, social capital can be harmful when it
social capital (Pelling, 2003) and is able to survive, respond brings benefit to its group members but disallow outsiders
to and recover from an extreme event. In Philippines, for to get access to resources (Portes 1998:16). For example, a
example, community-based organizations have designed community with same ethnic and socio-economic profile
early warning systems, evacuation plans and provided com- exclude others from using their resources. If these kinds of
munity awareness campaigns. Before Hurricane Katrina, the practices are not resolved, there may be conflict and break in
Mary Queen of Vietnam Catholic Church in New Orleans the bond of unity and cooperation. Another negative aspect
East had developed its own evacuation plans knowing that a of social capital is when social networks squeeze individual
large portion of the population was senior citizens and other freedom or importance, Berger, in his book ‘Pyramids of
vulnerable groups. Sacrifice’ gives an example of how a woman from Mexi-
In Australia, the Exmouth community are accustomed can village felt confused between two choices, i.e. whether
to prepare for probable cyclone, and whenever there is an to continue her study and get better job, or send money to
early warning, people quickly without any delay get ready her relatives. This kind of strict rules and norms curtails
and do all things required. As a cyclone-prone community, an individual’s freedom (Berger, 1974:217–224). Finally,
each and every new comer to the community is introduced social capital has also another negative effect when a group
on the risks of their environment through their neighbours of community members prefer to live in exclusive areas and
and various community groups. Households, which are part declined to be in contact with people from outside. The bond
of the local networks of Exmouth, are encouraged to keep all between and among the same ethnic groups is positive and
the assets and properties in safer places usually kept outside; beneficial, but the bond between and among the two different
the moment official warning on cyclone is disseminated. ethnic and cultural groups is not allowed become negative
The Orang Asli indigenous tribe in Malaysia faced two big aspect of social capital. Social capital instead of bridging
floods in 2013 and 2014. The floods occurred in these years were the gap between the two worlds (rich and poor) widens the
worst in these areas. As part of preparedness measures, the gov- gap among the two different communities. Social capital
ernment of Malaysia has established flood relief centres, which restricts individual freedom and gives importance to only
is known as the Balairaya in their local language. Immediately groups (Portes and Landolt 1996). Individuals undertaking
after early warning receives from the concern department, the any social enterprise need to obey certain rules, norms and
most vulnerable people move to the Balairaya and protect them- does and don’t and an individual not allowed to develop his
selves from possible hazards and disasters. Most of the Orang norms or practices. The group does not entertain personal
Asli families are aware of the existence of JAKOA (Department development; neither allows any innovative thought and
of Orang Asli Development) under the Ministry of Rural and ideas to explore. In such a scenario, it gives a sense as if it
Regional Development; Malaysia is dealing with improving the were creating unwanted results (Portes and Landolt 1996).
standard of living through increasing their income, infrastructure
facilities, social amenities and empowerment of the Orang Asli
people as part of preparedness measures. Discussion

From the time immemorial, many countries and regions

Limitations in social capital invest enormous amount of resource in relief, response and
rehabilitation program and least is invested on pre-disaster
Social capital can be valuable when social networks facili- intervention. Individuals, groups and communities can bet-
tate to strive for mutual benefit, norms, values of reciprocity ter respond to hazards and disasters when they are acquired
(Putnam, 2000: 21). Social network expects both individuals with pertinent skills, techniques and know-how. Therefore,
and organizations work together to mobilize joint resources to conscious efforts need to be given by the government, inter-
achieve common goal of trustworthiness and being tolerant to national non-government organizations and grass root level
each other’s needs and differences in diversity. For example, civil society organizations to invest resources on enhancing
every member in Women Self Help Group saves some amount capacities in all aspect of life so as to reduce vulnerabilities
of money into a common pool every month and whenever a of people, places and infrastructures.
woman needs some money to mitigate her needs and return The post-disasters response and recoveries in many
back to a group as per the term and condition. However, this countries clearly indicate that the relatives, neighbours and
kind of practices will not work when there is lack of trust and friends with the network of social relationship and collective
understanding between and among the members (Portes, 1998: action and cooperation rescue, evacuate, feed the hungry and

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International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology (2023) 20:3385–3394 3391

shelter the homeless immediately after disasters. Therefore, out. In disaster situation, a single volunteer with charged
the responsible administrations and other secondary stake- energy cannot do all the work, rather group of people with
holders must recognize the contribution of social capital in coordinated efforts can achieve good results. Therefore, all
day today affairs and promote user groups and nurture them efforts need to put in to make people united.
to take care the hopeless and hapless in the communities in
normal and in disaster situation.
Social relations, trust and solidarity and interpersonal Conclusion
relation are gradually declining due to individualistic life in
this modern world as a result of which more and more cases In and through the above evidence, the authors, researchers and
of social isolation and loneliness emerge and sooner or later scholars conclude that social is one of the very important liv-
people find no meaning in life and commit suicide. There- ing instruments to make disaster risk management effective and
fore, everyone needs to realize the importance of social rela- user-friendly. Individuals, groups and communities are solaced
tion, networking building, collective action and cooperation and empathized from social capital in times of emergency situ-
so that peace, harmony and brotherhood may be materialized ation. This review paper focuses on understanding that social
in the communities. capital plays pivotal role both in risk management (i.e. managing
The social scientist and the author of social capital Tristan pre-disaster situation) and in crisis management (i.e. managing
Clardge take the African and says “If you want to go fast, crisis situation during and after disasters). In all these systematic
go alone. If you want to go far, go together”. Going alone is phases of disaster risk management, i.e. response, recovery, pre-
exciting for some time, but in long run he or she gets worn vention, mitigation and preparedness, social capital is invaluable
Fig. 1  Role of social capital
in disaster management from 1995 Earthquake in Kobe, Japan
Aldrich, 2012
empirical evidence at a glance

2004, Earthquake in India and

Japan Nakagawa and Shaw
Disaster
Response
Hurricane Katrina in 2005 Fussell
2006

Thailand Flood 2011 Roasa 2013

Social Disaster
Capital Cyclone Yasi of 2011 in Australia
Risk
Allen, 2013
played Manage
ment
import
ant Indian Ocean tsunami in 2004
Kumaran and Torris, 2011
role Disaster
in... Recovery
Philippines Disaster Response
Network

COVID -19 prevention and

controlling measure by Barrios et
al. 2020

COVID -19 prevention and

controlling measure in Japan &
Disaster Italy by Fraser and Aldrich
Preventionand
Mitigation
Philippines flood control
measure author Bankoff, (2007

Philippines, Australia Malaysia

Disaster on early warning and flood-
Preparedness relief centres Olsen, (2011

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3392 International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology (2023) 20:3385–3394

driver for reducing risk of hazards and vulnerabilities and plays and disaster. The effective disaster risk management demands
a contributory role in enhancing capacities of people. It strives proper planning and implementation in and through public pri-
hard in normal and in crisis situation to prepare for, respond to vate partnership wherein government being enormous resource
and recover from adverse impact of disaster timely and success- institution must play a greater role engaging and capacitating
fully when government becomes indifferent providing psycho- communities and non-government organizations at large to be
logical and emotional support to those who are fully down losing a real help of victims during and after disasters.
their dear ones in disasters. Although the focus of this paper has been on social capital
Different types of social capital overlapped at times in action, in the context of disaster risk management, the operational
but among the three types of social capital, bonding social capi- mechanism of social capital needs to be critically looked into
tal was especially relevant in day-to-day activities like search, in order to create healthy and harmonious groups and com-
rescue and evacuation, supply of food, drinking water and first munities. Social capital needs to appreciate rather than depre-
aid services to the people affected by disasters. The beneficial ciate for use. Despite all strength in abundance, social capital
of bonding social capital was truly for lower-income groups. in the form of bonding, bridging and linking capital at times
Through evidence, the strength of bonding social capital was plays like a double-edge sword which likes to embrace group
seen in facilitating and mobilizing different resources to sur- and disown other one and this kind of practices and feeling
vive from the adverse impact of disasters and above all bonding in the groups, networks and communities may be harmful in
social capital was observed rendering psychological support responding to disasters effectively (Figs. 1 and 2).
which in long run help people building resilience to hazard

Bonding: Collecve acon and

cooperaon, early warning, informaon
disseminaon, stockpiling, skill building
inputs
Bridging: Informaon receiving and
disseminaon, spread awareness,
preparedness acvies.
Linking: NGOs capacitate the community
leaders, facilitate hazard, vulnerability
and capacity mapping, Lobby and
advocacy

Bonding: socio –
psychological support, Preparedness Bonding: Search, rescue,
financial and livelihood
evacuaon of the most
support for recovery
vulnerable in pre, during and
Bridging: Informaon sharing
Prevenon Response aer disaster situaon.
on rehabilitaon support,
Bridging: NGOs and
informaon on job
volunteers support in risk and
opportunity
crisis management program
Linking: Short and long term
rehabilitaon and Recovery Linking: Evacuaon
development work measures by external rescue
officers

Bonding: Search, rescue, evacuaon of

the most vulnerable in pre, during and
aer disaster situaon. Provide food,
water and shelter.
Bridging: Informaon sharing on relief
program, NGOs provide relief materials
Linking: Govt. provide relief like food
and non-food items, shelters the most
affected people

Fig. 2  Role of bonding, bridging and linking social capital in disaster management cycle (compiled referring to the empirical evidences from
across the many countries)

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International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology (2023) 20:3385–3394 3393

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