Basic Electronics Engineering GCOERC

Unit-IV: Electronic Instrumentation

1. Digital Multimeter:
Multimeter is an electronic instruments used to measure different electrical parameters
such as voltage, current, resistance etc. It is the common electronic instruments used to
troubleshoot the faults in all electrical and electronic devices. Digital multimeters are most
commonly used in electronics lab since they offer better precision and accuracy and are
cheaper compared to the analog versions. It will show the numerical values in its digital
display.

Digital Multimeter

Resistance Measurement:
To measure the value of a resistor, probes of the multimeter are connected across the
resistor. The multimeter is switched to resistance measurement mode (position 1). Then
current from the constant current source will flow through the resistor and a potential
difference is created across the resistor. According to ohm’s law, this potential difference is
proportional to its resistance. A buffer amplifier will amplify this voltage and feed it to an
analog to digital converter (ADC). The digital display will show the value in ohms based on
the output from the microprocessor.

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Block Diagram of Digital Multimeter

AC Voltage Measurement:
For measuring AC voltage, connect the AC voltage across the probes. Switch the
multimeter to AC measuring mode (position 2). The AC voltage passes through an attenuator
which attenuates the signal, if it is above the selected range. The rectifier circuit will rectify
AC voltage into DC. Analog to Digital Converter will produce a digital signal proportional
to the DC voltage, to get the digital display in volts.

AC Current Measurement:
For measuring AC current, the probes of the multimeter are connected in series to the
circuit. The multimeter is switched to AC current measurement mode (position 3). In this
case, it is to be ensured that the positive probe is connected to the current measurement plug
on the multimeter. The current to be measured is converted into proportional voltage by
current to voltage converter. AC voltage is rectified by a rectifier circuit. The rectifier output
voltage is converted into proportional digital signal by Analog to Digital Converter (ADC).
Then, Digital display will show the value in amperes.

DC Current Measurement:
To measure DC current connect the current to multimeter probes. Switch multimeter to
DC current measuring mode (position 4). Here also it is to be ensured that the positive probe
is connected to the current measurement plug on the multimeter. By the use of a current to

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voltage converter, the input signal is converted into a proportional voltage. Using this
voltage, analog to digital converter produces a digital signal to display the value in amperes.

DC Voltage Measurement:
If DC voltage is given as input, then we have to switch the multimeter to DC voltage
measuring mode (position 5). If the input is above the selected range, then the attenuator will
attenuate the signal. The voltage is then given as the input of an Analog to Digital Converter.
It will generate a digital signal and display the value in volts.

Advantages of digital multimeter:

 They are having high input impendence, So there is no loading effect.
 They are having higher accuracy.
 They are available in smaller sizes.
 It can be used for measurement of A.C. and D.C. both quantity.
 It can be used for measurement of various parameters such as resistance,
voltage, current etc.

Disadvantages of digital multimeter:

 There is a voltage limitation. If it is increased beyond the limit, the meter will be
damaged.
 It is more expensive than the analog type.

2. Function Generator:
Definition: Function Generator is basically a signal generator that produces different types
of waveforms at the output. It has the ability to produce waveforms such as sine wave,
square wave, a triangular wave, sawtooth wave etc. An adjustable frequency range is
provided by the function generator which is in the range of some Hz to several 100 KHz.

Block Diagram and Working of Function Generator:

The figure below shows the block diagram of the function generator-

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A frequency control network used here whose frequency is controlled by the variation in
the magnitude of current. The current sources 1 and 2 drives the integrator.
By using Function Generator, we can have a wide variety of waveforms whose
frequency changes from 0.01 Hz to 100 KHz. The two current sources are regulated by the
frequency controlled voltage.

A constant current is supplied to the integrator by current supply source 1. Due to this,
the voltage of the integrator rises linearly with respect to time. This linear rise is according
to the output signal voltage equation:

Any increase or decrease in the current will resultantly increase or decrease the slope of
the voltage at the output and thus controls the frequency.

The Voltage Comparator Multi-vibrator present here cause variation in the state of
the integrator output voltage at a previously determined maximum level. Due to this change
of state, the current supply from source 1 cuts off and switches to supply source 2.

A reverse current is supplied to the integrator by current source 2. This reverse current
cause drops in the output of integrator linearly with time. As before this time also, when the
output attains a predetermined level, the comparator again changes its state and switches to
current supply source 1.

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Thus we will have a triangular wave at the output of the integrator whose frequency
depends on current by the supply sources as we can see in the block diagram shown above.
A square wave signal is obtained at the output of the comparator.

The resistance diode network employed in the circuit changes the slope of that
triangular wave with distortion less than 1%. The output amplifier thus helps to provide
two waves at the output simultaneously. This captured signal can be displayed by using an
oscilloscope.

Applications of Function Generator:

Function generator provides a wide variety of applications such as in RF-related

operations, automotive applications, in educational, medical and industrial fields etc.

3. Digital Storage Oscilloscope:

Definition: Digital Storage Oscilloscope is an instrument that analyses the signal
digitally and stores the data in the electronic digital memory. By examining the stored
traces in memory, it can display visual as well as numerical values.

It digitizes the input signal in order to have subsequent digital signals. The input is stored
in digital memory in the form of 0 and 1. This stored digitized signal is then viewed on
the CRT screen after the signal reconstruction in analog form.

Here, the digital copy of input waveform is stored and further analysed using Digital
Signal Processing techniques. The maximum frequency that can be measured by using
Digital Oscilloscope basically depends on sampling rate and nature of converter.

Block Diagram of Digital Storage Oscilloscope:

The figure below shows the block diagram of the digital storage oscilloscope-

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Here, the CRT employed in the circuit displays the data stored in the electronic digital
memory.

As the data in memory is stored in digital form, the signal is reconstructed in analog form
in order to be displayed on the screen of CRT.

Working of Digital Storage Oscilloscope:

From the figure shown above, we can see that an analog input signal is fed into the pre-
amplifier unit. This unit amplifies the input so as to raise the level of the amplitude of the
signal.

This signal is then fed to an analog to digital converter (ADC) and the trigger detector.
As the voltage crosses the threshold value, the device starts recording on the application of
the signal sent by the trigger unit.

The output of the pre-amplifier is sampled by the ADC at regular intervals. The digital
output provided by the ADC is stored in memory at consecutive locations. The recording
of signal continues until the memory is full.

The DAC employed in the circuit produces analog signal to be displayed in CRT.

Any further changes in the applied input, re-triggers the oscilloscope which causes the
memory to reset. That means the memory is overwritten with the new upcoming data unless
the system is in HOLD mode.

By the application of HOLD mode, the signal traces can be analysed by the user
according to the user’s choice.

The size of the memory unit determines the number of samples stored in it. One can
alter the length of recording by changing the sampling frequency of ADC.

In the case of the digital oscilloscope, many different input channels are used. But, the
memory available to each channel gets reduced. When all the channels share a common
store. This is done through multiplexing.

Here, 40 channels oscillator are obtainable commercially having storage capability

of 25000 dots. Many oscillators employ floppy disc storage capability.

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At the time of digitization in order to make sure that no information is lost, according to
Sampling Theory, the sampling rate must be twice as fast as the highest frequency of input
signal. Failing of which will give rise to aliasing effect.

Waveform Reconstruction:
Although the input is sampled according to sampling theory, aliasing effect can still
occur. This is so because the output is present as series of dots,that corresponds to the
sampled value.
Digital storage oscilloscope uses interpolation technique, for visualization of final
waves.

Interpolation is a technique that creates new data points with the help of a discrete set of
known data points.

Advantages:
1. They possess infinite storage time.
2. It can be easily operated.
3. Digital storage oscilloscope allows flexible display property.
Applications
1. It is used in audio and video recording.
2. It is used in radio broadcasting for signal testing.
3. In circuit debugging, it is used for testing of the voltage of the signal.

4. Regulated DC Power Supply:

A regulated power supply converts unregulated AC (Alternating Current) to a constant
DC (Direct Current). A regulated power supply is used to ensure that the output remains
constant even if the input changes.

The regulated power supply will accept an AC input and give a constant DC output. The
figure below shows the block diagram of a typical regulated DC power supply.

The basic building blocks of a regulated DC power supply are :

a) Step-down transformer
b) Rectifier
c) Filter
d) Regulator

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Block Diagram of Regulated DC Power Supply

a) Step Down Transformer:

A step down transformer will step down the voltage from the ac mains to the required
voltage level. The turn’s ratio of the transformer is so adjusted such as to obtain the required
voltage value. The output of the transformer is given as an input to the rectifier circuit.

b) Rectifier:
Rectifier is an electronic circuit consisting of diodes which carries out the rectification
process. Rectification is the process of converting an alternating voltage or current into
corresponding direct (DC) quantity. The input to a rectifier is AC whereas its output is
unidirectional pulsating DC.

c) Filter:
The rectified voltage from the rectifier is a pulsating DC voltage having very high ripple
content. But this is not we want, we want a pure ripple free DC waveform. Hence a filter is
used. Different types of filters are used such as capacitor filter, LC filter, Choke input filter,
π type filter.

d) Regulator:
This is the last block in a regulated DC power supply. A regulator will maintain the
output constant even when changes at the input or any other changes occur. Transistor series
regulator, Fixed and variable IC regulators or a zener diode operated in the zener region can
be used depending on their applications. IC’s like 78XX and 79XX (such as the IC 7805)
are used to obtained fixed values of voltages at the output.

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5. Autotransformer:
An autotransformer is a kind of electrical transformer where primary and secondary
shares same common single winding. So basically it’s a one winding transformer.

In an auto transformer, one single winding is used as primary winding as well as

secondary winding. But in two windings transformer two different windings are used for
primary and secondary purpose. A circuit diagram of auto transformer is shown below.

The winding AB of total turns N1 is considered as primary winding. This winding is

tapped from point ′C′ and the portion BC is considered as secondary. Let’s assume the
number of turns in between points ′B′ and ′C′ is N2.

If V1 voltage is applied across the winding i.e. in between ′A′ and ′C′.

So voltage per turn in this winding is

Hence, the voltage across the portion BC of the winding, will be,

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As BC portion of the winding is considered as secondary, it can easily be understood that

value of constant ′k′ is nothing but turns ratio or voltage ratio of that auto transformer. When
load is connected between secondary terminals i.e. between ′B′ and ′C′, load current I2 starts
flowing. The current in the secondary winding or common winding is the difference of I2
and I1.

Copper Savings in Auto Transformer:

Now we will discuss the savings of copper in auto transformer compared to conventional
two winding transformer.

We know that weight of copper of any winding depends upon its length and cross-
sectional area. Again length of conductor in winding is proportional to its number of turns
and cross-sectional area varies with rated current.

So weight of copper in winding is directly proportional to product of number of turns

and rated current of the winding.

Advantages of Auto transformer:

 Less costly
 Better regulation
 Low losses as compared to ordinary two winding transformer of the same rating.

Disadvantages of Auto transformer:

 The secondary winding is not insulated from the primary winding.

 Used only in the limited places where a slight variation of the output voltage from input
voltage is required.

Applications of Auto transformer

 It is used as a starter to give upto 50 to 60% of full voltage to the stator of a squirrel
cage induction motor during starting.
 It is used to give a small boost to a distribution cable, to correct the voltage drop.
 It is also used as a voltage regulator
 Used in power transmission and distribution system and also in the audio system and
railways.

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6. Analog Ammeters, Voltmeters:

Ammeters: An ammeter (the name is a contraction of ‘ampere-meter’) is a device for
measuring the electric current through a wire or a circuit element. An ammeter is always
connected in series with the element.

Voltmeters: A voltmeter is a device for measuring potential difference (the voltage)

between two wires, usually across a circuit element or a group of elements. A voltmeter is
always connected in parallel with the element.

At the core of any analog ammeter or voltmeter is a galvanometer. By itself, a

galvanometer is a very sensitive ammeter: typically, it takes only 100 μA to make the
galvanometer arrow move all the way across the scale. The picture below gives the
schematics of the D’Arsonval / Weston type of a galvanometer:

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The electric current flows through a wire coil placed in a magnetic field of a permanent
magnet. The magnetic forces on the current-carrying wires create a net torque on the coil.
But when the coil turns, the torsion spring attached to the coil cancels the torque. The arrow
attached to the coil indicates the angle through which they turn. In a properly made
galvanometer, this angle is proportional to the current through the coil, so the scale behind
the arrow may be labelled in units of the current.

In more sensitive mirror galvanometers, the arrow is replaced with a mirror reflecting a
beam of light onto a distant scale. This way, even a small-angle turn of the coil and the mirror
can make the reflection move through easily notable distance.

To turn a galvanometer into a less sensitive ammeter, one connects a low-resistance shunt
in parallel with the galvanometer:

A galvanometer may also be turned into a voltmeter by connecting a large multiplier

resistance in series with the galvanometer:

Comparison between Ammeter and Voltmeter:

Parameter Ammeter Voltmeter

Definition The instruments used for It measures the voltage between

measuring the current. any two points of the circuit.

Symbolic
Representation

Resistance Low High

Connection It is connected in series with the It is connected in parallel with

circuit. the circuit.

Accuracy More Less

Changing of Range Not possible Possible

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