CHAPTER : RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

SYLLABUS: Types of relations: Reflexive, Symmetric, transitive and equivalence relations.

One to one and onto functions.

Definitions and Formulae:

➢ Types of Relations:

• Empty Relation: A relation 𝑅 in a set 𝐴 is called empty relation, if no element of 𝐴

is related to any element of 𝐴, i.e., 𝑅 = ∅ ⊂ 𝐴 × 𝐴.

• Universal Relation: A relation 𝑅 in a set 𝐴 is called universal relation, if each

element of 𝐴 is related to every element of 𝐴, i.e. , 𝑅 = 𝐴 × 𝐴.

• Trivial Relations: Both the empty relation and the universal relation are sometimes
called trivial relations.

• A relation R in a set A is called

a) Reflexive, if (𝑥, 𝑥) ∈ 𝑅 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴

b) Symmetric, 𝑖𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑅 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 (𝑦, 𝑥) ∈ 𝑅 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴

c) Transitive, 𝑖𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑦, 𝑧) ∈ 𝑅 implies that (𝑥, 𝑧) ∈ 𝑅 for all

𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝐴

• If A is a finite set with n elements,then

2
i) Total number of relations in A=2𝑛 .
2 −𝑛
ii) Total number of reflexive relations in A = 2𝑛 .
𝑛(𝑛+1)
iii) Total number of symmetric relations in A = 2 2 .

• Equivalence Relation:𝐴 relation 𝑅 in a set 𝐴 is said to be an equivalence relation if

𝑅 is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.

➢ Equivalence Class: Let 𝑅 be an equivalence relation on a non-empty set 𝐴 and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴.

Then the set of all those elements of 𝐴 which are related to 𝑎, is called the
equivalence class determined by 𝑎 and is denoted by [𝑎].i.e[𝑎] = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∶ (𝑥, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑅}

➢ Types of Functions:

• One-One (Injective) Function: A function 𝑓 ∶ 𝑋 → 𝑌 is defined to be one-one

(or injective), if the images of distinct elements of X under f are distinct, i.e., for
every 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ 𝑋, 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓( 𝑥2 ) 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 . Otherwise, f is called many-
one.

4
 • Onto (Surjective) Function: A function 𝑓 ∶ 𝑋 → 𝑌 is said to be onto (or
surjective), if every element of 𝑌 is the image of some element of 𝑋 under f. i.e., for
every 𝑦 ∈ 𝑌, there exists an element 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑋 such that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦.

NOTE: 𝒇: 𝑿 → 𝒀 is onto if and only if Range of 𝒇 = 𝑪𝒐𝒅𝒐𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏.

• Bijective Function: A function 𝑓 ∶ 𝑋 → 𝑌 is said to be bijective, if 𝑓 is both one-

one and onto.

• If A and B are two finite sets having 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 elements respectively, then

i) Number of functions from A to B is 𝑛𝑚 .

𝑛𝑝𝑚 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑚 ≤ 𝑛
ii) Number of one-one functions from A to 𝐵 = {
0 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑚 > 𝑛

iii) If the function is bijective i. e both one-one and onto then 𝑚 = 𝑛.

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Q.No QUESTIONS AND SOLUTIONS
1 If 𝐴 = {5,6,7} and
let R = {5,5), (6,6)), (7,7), (5,6), (6,5), (6,7), (7,6)}. Then R is
a) Reflexive, symmetric but not Transitive
b) Symmetric, transitive but not reflexive
c) Reflexive, Transitive but not symmetric
d) an equivalence relation

Answer: A
(5,6) ∈ R and (6,7) ∈ R but (5,7) does not belong to R
2 Let R be a relation defined on Z as follows:
(𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅 ⟺ 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 25. 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑅 𝑖𝑠
a) {3,4,5} b) {0,3,4,5}
c) {0,±3,±4,±5} d) None of these

Answer: C R={( 0, ,±5), (,±5,0),( ±3, ,±4),( ,±4, ±3)}

Domain of R is the set of all first elements of R.
3 The maximum number of equivalence relations on the set 𝐴 = {1 , 2 , 3} is
a) 1 b) 2 c) 3 d)5

Answer: D
Possible equivalence relations are
R1 = { (1,1) , (2,2) , (3,3) }
R2 = { (1,1) , (2,2) , (3,3), (1,2) ,(2,1)}
R3 = { (1,1) , (2,2) , (3,3), (1,3), (3,1)}
R4 = { (1,1) , (2,2) , (3,3), (2,3),(3,2) }
R5 = A×A
4 Consider the set 𝐴 = {1, 2}. The relation on A which is symmetric but neither
transitive nor reflexive is
a) {(1,1) (2,2)} b) { }
c) {(1,2)} d) { (1,2) (2,1) }

Answer: D

5
 CHAPTER: INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
SYLLABUS: Definition, range, domain, principal value branch. Graphs of inverse
trigonometric functions.

Definitions and Formulae:

Principal Value Branches:

Range (Principal Value

FUNCTION DOMAIN
Branch)
𝜋 𝜋
sin−1 𝑥 [−1, 1] [− , ]
2 2

cos −1 𝑥 [−1, 1] [0, 𝜋]

𝜋 𝜋
tan−1 𝑥 R (− , )
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
cosec −1 𝑥 𝑅 − (−1, 1) [− , ] − {0}
2 2
𝜋
sec −1 𝑥 𝑅 − (−1, 1) [0, 𝜋] − { }
2

cot −1 𝑥 R (0, 𝜋)

sin-1 (-x) = - sin-1(x) cos-1 (-x) = π - cos-1(x)

cosec-1 (-x) = - cosec-1(x) sec-1 (-x) = π - sec-1(x)

tan-1 (-x) = - tan-1(x) cot-1 (-x) = π - cot-1(x)

−𝜋 𝜋
𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥) = 𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ [ , ]
2 2

𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 ( 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥) = 𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ [0, 𝜋]

𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥) = 𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ [−1, ,1]

…

25
 CHAPTER: MATRICES
SYLLABUS: Concept, notation, order, equality, types of matrices, zero and identity matrix,
transpose of a matrix, symmetric and skew symmetric matrices. Operations on matrices:
Addition and multiplication and multiplication with a scalar. Simple properties of addition,
multiplication and scalar multiplication. Non- commutativity of multiplication of matrices and
existence of non-zero matrices whose product is the zero matrix (restrict to square matrices of
order 2). Invertible matrices and proof of the uniqueness of inverse, if it exists; (Here all
matrices will have real entries).

Definitions and Formulae:

• Matrix representation and order of matrix

• Types of Matrices
• Operations on Matrices
• Transpose of a Matrix
• Symmetric and Skew Symmetric Matrices
• Invertible Matrices
Order of Matrix:
If a matrix has 𝑚 𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛𝑠, then it is known as the matrix of order 𝑚 × 𝑛.
Representation of matrix
A general matrix of order 𝑚 × 𝑛 can be written as

= [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖 = 1,2, … 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑗 = 1,2, … 𝑛

Types of Matrices:

Depending upon the order and elements, matrices are classified as:

• Column matrix
• Row matrix
• Square matrix
• Diagonal matrix
• Scalar matrix
• Identity matrix
• Zero matrix

34
Type of Matrix Definition Example
COLUMN A matrix is said to be a column 2
[ ] 0𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟2 × 1
−9
MATRIX matrix if it has only one column
−√5
[ 0 ] 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 3 × 1
−12
ROW MATRIX A matrix is said to be a row [14 26]order1×2
matrix if it has only one row [0 √7 12] order1×3
SQUARE MATRIX A matrix in which the number of 2 4
[ ]
6 −8
rows is equal to the number of
5 0 −8
columns, is said to be a square [0 1 14 ]
matrix. 7 −8 4

DIAGONAL A square matrix 𝐴 is said to be a 6 0 0

[0 √6 0]
MATRIX diagonal matrix if all its non-
0 0 9
diagonal elements are zero
SCALAR MATRIX A diagonal matrix is said to be a 5 0 0
[0 5 0 ]
scalar matrix if its diagonal
0 0 5
elements are equal
IDENTITY A square matrix in which all the 1 0 0
[0 1 0 ]
MATRIX elements in the diagonal are all
0 0 1
equal to one and rest are all zero 1 0
[ ]
is called an identity matrix. And 0 1

generally it is denoted by I.
ZERO MATRIX A matrix is said to be zero matrix 0 0 0
A=[ ]
0 0 0
or null matrix if all its elements
0 0 0
are zero. B=[0 0 0]
0 0 0

➢ OPERATION OF MATRICES:

ADDITION OF MATRICES: Let 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛 be two

matrices of the same order. Then 𝐴 + 𝐵 is defined to be the matrix of order of 𝑚 × 𝑛

obtained by adding corresponding elements of 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵

i.e 𝐴 + 𝐵 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝑏𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛

35
 DIFFERENCE OF MATRICES: Let 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛 be two

matrices of the same order. Then 𝐴 − 𝐵 is defined to be the matrix of order of 𝑚 × 𝑛

obtained by subtracting corresponding elements of 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵

i.e 𝐴 − 𝐵 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 − 𝑏𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛

MULTIPLICATION OF MATRICES: The product of two matrices 𝐴 and 𝐵 is

defined if the number of columns of 𝐴 is equal to the number of rows of 𝐵.

Let = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑗𝑘 ]𝑛×𝑝 . Then the product of the matrices 𝐴 and 𝐵

is the matrix 𝐶 of order 𝑚 × 𝑝

4 3
2 3 5
Example: Let 𝐴 = [ ] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = [6 9]
1 6 8
5 8

2×4+3×6+5×5 2×3+3×9+5×8
𝐴𝐵 = [ ]
1×4+6×6+8×5 1×3+6×9+8×8

8 + 18 + 25 6 + 27 + 40 51 73
=[ ]=[ ]
4 + 36 + 40 3 + 54 + 64 80 121

MULTIPLICATION OF A MATRIX BY A SCALAR:

Let 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛 and 𝑘 is a scalar, then 𝑘𝐴 = 𝑘[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛 = [𝑘. 𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛

𝟐 𝟒 −𝟓 𝟑(𝟐) 𝟑(𝟒) 𝟑(−𝟓)

Example: 𝑨 = [ ] ⟹ 𝟑𝑨 = [ ]=
𝒚 𝒛 𝒙 𝟑𝒚 𝟑𝒛 𝟑𝒙
𝟔 𝟏𝟐 −𝟏𝟓
[ ]
𝟑𝒚 𝟑𝒛 𝟑𝒙

➢ TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX: If 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛 be an 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix, then the

matrix obtained by interchanging the rows and columns of 𝐴 is called the transpose of
𝐴. Transpose of the matrix 𝐴 is denoted by 𝐴′ or 𝐴T.

If 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛 , then 𝐴′ = [𝑎𝑗𝑖 ]𝑛×𝑚

1 2 3 1 4 5
𝑇
Example:𝐴 = [4 7 9] ⟹ 𝐴 = [2 7 1]
5 1 0 3 9 0

➢ SYMMETRIC MATRIX: A square matrix If 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] is said to be symmetric if

𝐴𝑇 = 𝐴

36
 2 5 12
Example:𝐴 = [ 5 7 3]
12 3 6

➢ SKEW-SYMMETRIC MATRIX: A square matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] is said to be skew

symmetric matrix if 𝐴𝑇 = −𝐴.

0 5 −12
Example:𝐴 = [−5 0 −3 ]
12 3 0

➢ INVERTIBLE MATRICES: If A is a square matrix of order m, and if there exists

another square matrix B of the same order m, such that AB = BA = I, then B is called
the inverse matrix of A and it is denoted by A– 1. In that case A is said to be invertible.

➢ PROPERTIES OF MATRICES:

• 𝐴+𝐵 =𝐵+𝐴

• 𝐴−𝐵 ≠𝐵−𝐴

• 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴

• (𝐴𝐵)𝐶 = 𝐴(𝐵𝐶)

• (𝐴′ )′ = 𝐴

• 𝐴𝐼 = 𝐼𝐴 = 𝐴

• 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 = 𝐼, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴−1 = 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 −1 = 𝐴

• 𝐴𝐵 = 0 ⟹ 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑛𝑒 of 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜.

• 𝐴(𝐵 + 𝐶) = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶

• Every square matrix can possible to express as the sum of symmetric and
skew-symmetric matrices.

1 1 1
𝐴 = 2 (𝐴 + 𝐴′ ) + 2 (𝐴 − 𝐴′ ), where 2 (𝐴 + 𝐴′ ) is symmetric matrix and
1
(𝐴 − 𝐴′ ) is skew-symmetric matrices.
2

37
 CHAPTER: DETERMINANTS
SYLLABUS: Determinant of a square matrix (up to 3 x 3 matrices), minors, co-factors and
applications of determinants in finding the area of a triangle. Adjoint and inverse of a square
matrix. Consistency, inconsistency and number of solutions of system of linear equations by
examples, solving system of linear equations in two or three variables (having unique solution)
using inverse of a matrix.

Definitions and Formulae:

To every square matrix we can assign a number called determinant

➢ Determinant:

𝑎 𝑏
• 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐴 = [ ] , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴) = |𝐴| = 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐
𝑐 𝑑
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝑑 𝑓 𝑑 𝑒
• 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐴 = [𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 ] , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 |𝐴| = 𝑎 |𝑒 𝑓
|−𝑏| |+𝑐| |
ℎ 𝑘 𝑔 𝑘 𝑔 ℎ
𝑔 ℎ 𝑘

• For easier calculations, we shall expand the determinant along that row or
column which contains maximum number of zeros

• The area of a triangle whose vertices are (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2) and (x3 , y3), is

𝑥1 𝑦1 1
1
Δ = 2 | 𝑥2 𝑦2 1|
𝑥3 𝑦3 1

Since area is a positive quantity, we always take the absolute value of the
determinant

• The area of the triangle formed by three collinear points is zero.

• Equation of line joining the points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2) is

𝑥 𝑦 1
| 𝑥1 𝑦1 1 |=0
𝑥2 𝑦2 1
➢ Minors: Minor of an element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 of a determinant is the determinant obtained by
deleting its ith row and jth column in which element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 lies. Minor of an element 𝑎𝑖𝑗
is denoted by 𝑀𝑖𝑗 .

➢ Co-Factors: Cofactor of an element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 , denoted by 𝐴𝑖𝑗 is defined by

𝐴𝑖𝑗 = (−1)𝑖+𝑗 . 𝑀𝑖𝑗 , where 𝑀𝑖𝑗 is minor of 𝑎𝑖𝑗

➢ The value of a determinant Δ = sum of the product of elements of any row (or
column) with their corresponding cofactors.

58
➢ If elements of a row (or column) are multiplied with cofactors of any other row (or
column), then their sum is zero. For example a11A31+a12A32+a13A33 =0

➢ Adjoint of a Matrix: The adjoint of a square matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] is defined as the

transpose of the matrix [𝐴𝑖𝑗 ] , where 𝐴𝑖𝑗 is the cofactor of the element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 .

Adjoint of the matrix A is denoted by adj A.

➢ To find adjoint of a 2×2 matrix interchange the diagonal elements and change the sign
of non – diagonal elements.

➢ Inverse of a Matrix: Let A be a square matrix.

1
𝐴−1 = 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴
|𝐴|

➢ Solution of system of linear equations by using matrix method:

Let the system of linear equations be

𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 𝑧 = 𝑑1

𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 𝑧 = 𝑑2

𝑎3 𝑥 + 𝑏3 𝑦 + 𝑐3 𝑧 = 𝑑3

These equations can be written as

𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑥 𝑑1
[𝑎 2 𝑏2 𝑦
𝑐2 ] [ ] = [𝑑2 ]
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝑧 𝑑3

𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵

𝑋 = 𝐴−1 𝐵

• 𝐴−1 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠, 𝑖𝑓 |𝐴| ≠ 0 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑒.

• 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑖𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠.

• 𝑖𝑓 |𝐴| = 0 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴)𝐵.

• 𝐼𝑓 |𝐴| = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴)𝐵 ≠ 𝑂 , (O being zero matrix), then solution does not
exist and the system of equations is called inconsistent.

• 𝐼𝑓 |𝐴| = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴)𝐵 = 𝑂, then system may be either consistent or

inconsistent according as the system have either infinitely many solutions or
no solution.

➢ Important notes:

• The matrix A is singular if |𝐴| = 0

59
 • A square matrix A is said to be non-singular if |𝐴| ≠ 0

• If A and B are nonsingular matrices of the same order, then AB and BA are also
nonsingular matrices of the same order

• If A is an invertible matrix, then |𝐴| ≠ 0 and (A-1) T = (AT)-1

• |𝜆𝐴| = 𝜆𝑛 |𝐴|, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝐴

• 𝐴(𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴) = (𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴)𝐴 = |𝐴|𝐼

• |𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴| = |𝐴|𝑛−1 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝐴

• |𝐴(𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴)| = |𝐴|𝑛 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝐴

• |𝐴𝐵| = |𝐴||𝐵|

• (𝐴𝐵)−1 = 𝐵 −1𝐴−1

• |𝐴−1 | = |𝐴|−1

• |𝐴𝑇 | = |𝐴|

• If A and B are square matrices of the same order, then 𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐴𝐵) = (𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐵). ( 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴)

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Q.No QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS
1 If A is a square matrix of order 3 such that |A| = - 5 , then value of |−A| is

(a) 125 (b) - 125 (c) 5 (d) – 5

Solution:-
|−𝐴| =(-1)3|𝐴|
= - (-5)
=5
Correct option: c

2 𝑐𝑜𝑠15 𝑠𝑖𝑛15
Evaluate | |
𝑠𝑖𝑛75 𝑐𝑜𝑠75
√3 1
(a) 1 (b) 0 (c) 2 (d) 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠15 𝑠𝑖𝑛15
Solution:- | |=cos15cos75-sin15sin75
𝑠𝑖𝑛75 𝑐𝑜𝑠75
=cos(15+75)
=cos900
=0
Correct option: b

3 What positive value of x makes the following pair of determinants equal

2𝑥 3 16 3
| |,| |
5 𝑥 5 2

60
 CHAPTER: CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY

SYLLABUS: Continuity and differentiability, Chain rule, Derivative of inverse trigonometric

functions, Derivative of implicit functions, Concept of exponential and logarithmic functions,
Derivatives of logarithmic and exponential functions, Logarithmic differentiation, derivative
of functions expressed in parametric forms. Second order derivatives.

Definitions and Formulae:

• Continuous function - A real valued function f(x) is said to be continuous, if it is

continuous at every point in the domain of f (x) .

Continuity of a function at a point – A real valued function f(x) is said to be

continuous at

𝑥 = 𝑎 if

LHL= RHL= f (a)

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = f (a)

𝑥→𝑎− 𝑥→𝑎

• Derivative of a function- The derivative of a function f(x) is defined by

𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑓(𝑎−ℎ)−𝑓(𝑎)
• Left Hand Derivative (LHD)= L𝑓 ′ (a)= lim
ℎ→0 −ℎ

𝑓(𝑎+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑎)
• Right Hand Derivative (RHD)= R𝑓 ′ (a)= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

• A real valued function f(x) is said to be differentiable at x= a if its LHD and RHD at
x=a exist and both are equal

Standard Derivatives

Sl. No Function Derivative

1 𝑥𝑛 n𝑥 𝑛−1
2 K (constant) 0
3 √𝑥 1
2√𝑥
4 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
5 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 −𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
6 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
7 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥

78
 8 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥
9 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 -𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
10 𝑒𝑥 𝑒𝑥
11 log 𝑒 𝑥 1
𝑥
12 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 1
√1 − 𝑥 2

13 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 −1
√1 − 𝑥 2

14 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 1
1 + 𝑥2
15 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑥 1
𝑥√𝑥 2 − 1

16 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑥 −1
𝑥√𝑥 2 − 1
17 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 𝑥 −1
1 + 𝑥2
18 𝑎𝑥 𝑎 𝑥 log 𝑒 𝑎

• Product Rule-
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
If y= u v then 𝑑𝑥 = u 𝑑𝑥 + v 𝑑𝑥

• Quotient Rule-
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑣 −𝑢
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
If y= then =
𝑣 𝑑𝑥 𝑣2

• Chain Rule-
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
If 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑡), then = .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥

• Derivative of implicit functions- Let 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 be an implicit function of 𝑥, then to

𝑑𝑦
find , first differentiate both sides of the equation w.r.t x and then take all the
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
terms containing 𝑑𝑥 to LHS and remaining terms to the right , then find 𝑑𝑥 .

• Logarithmic Differentiation-

Used to differentiate functions of the form 𝑢(𝑥)𝑣(𝑥)

• Parametric Differentiation-

79
 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
If x=f (t) and y= g (t) then 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡

• Second order derivative-

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦
If y= f(x) then the second order derivative is 𝑑𝑥 2 = 𝑑𝑥 (𝑑𝑥 )

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Q.NO QUESTIONS AND SOLUTION

1 𝑑2 𝑦
If y= a sin mx + b cos mx ,then 𝑑𝑥 2 is
(a) 𝑚2 𝑦 (b) −𝑚2 𝑦 (c) my (d) –my

SOLUTION: Option (b)

𝒅𝒚
= am cos mx – bm sin mx
𝒅𝒙

𝑑2 𝑦
= -a𝑚2 sin mx - b𝑚2 cos mx
𝑑𝑥 2

= -𝑚2 (a sin mx + b cos mx)

= -𝑚2 y

2 𝑑
𝑙𝑜𝑔(x+ √𝑥 2 + 1) is equal to
𝑑𝑥

(a) √𝑥 2 + 1 (b) 𝑥√𝑥 2 + 1

𝑥 1
(c) √𝑥 2 (d) √𝑥 2
+1 is +1

SOLUTION: Option (d)

𝑑𝑦 1 2𝑋
= [1+ ]
𝑑𝑥 x+ √𝑥 2 +1 2√𝑥 2 +1

1 x+ √𝑥 2 +1
= .
x+ √𝑥 2 +1 √𝑥 2 +1

1
= √𝑥 2
+1
3 −1 2𝑥 2𝑥 𝑑𝑢
If u = sin 1+𝑥 2 and v = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 1−𝑥 2 , then 𝑑𝑣 is

1 1−𝑥 2
(a) (b) x (c) 1+𝑥 2 (d) 1
2

SOLUTION: Option (d)

Put x= tan𝜃

2𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
u = sin−1 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃 = sin−1 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 =2𝜃= 2 tan−1 𝑥

80
 CHAPTER: APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
SYLLABUS: Applications of derivatives: rate of change of quantities, increasing/decreasing
functions, maxima and minima (first derivative test motivated geometrically and second
derivative test given as a provable tool). Simple problems (that illustrate basic principles and
understanding of the subject as well as real-life situations).

Definations and Formulae:

Derivative as Rate of Change

𝑑𝑦
• Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) be a function. Then 𝑑𝑥 denotes the rate of change of 𝑦 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 𝑥.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
• The value of at 𝑥 = 𝑥0 i.e (𝑑𝑥 ) i.e. represents the rate of change of 𝑦 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 𝑥 𝑎𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑥0
𝑥 = 𝑥0
• If two variables x and y are varying with respect to another variable t, i.e., if 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡) and
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
y= g(t), then by Chain Rule 𝑑𝑥 = ( 𝑑𝑥 ), provided ≠0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦
• is positive if 𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 increases and is negative if
𝑑𝑥
𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠.

Increasing and Decreasing Functions

• A function y = f (x) is said to be increasing on an interval (a, b) if x 1 < x 2 in (a, b) f(x1) ≤

f(x2) for all 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏)
Alternatively, a function y = f (x) is said to be increasing if f ′(x) ≥ 0 for each x in (a, b)
(a) strictly increasing on an interval (a, b) if x 1 < x 2 in (a, b) f(x1) < f(x2) for all x 1 , x 2
(a, b).
Alternatively, a function y = f (x) is said to be strictly increasing if f ′(x) > 0 for each x in
(a, b)
(b) decreasing on (a, b) if x 1 < x 2 in (a, b) f(x1) ≥ f(x 2 ) for all x 1 , x 2 (a, b). Alternatively,
a function y = f (x) ) is said to be decreasing if f ′(x) ≤ 0 for each x in (a, b)
(c) strictly decreasing on (a, b) if x 1 < x 2 in (a, b) f(x 1 ) > f(x 2 ) for all x 1 , x 2 (a, b).

Alternatively, a function y = f (x) is said to be strictly decreasing if f ′(x)<0 for each x in

(a, b)

(d) constant function in (a, b), if f (x) = c for all x (a, b), where c is a constant.
Alternatively , f(x) is a constant function if f ′ (x )= 0.

A point c in the domain of a function f at which either f ′(c) = 0 or f is not differentiable is

called a critical point of f.

103
 Maxima and Minima

Definition: Let f be a function defined on an interval I. Then

1) f is said to have a maximum value in I, if there exists a point c in I such that f(c) > f(x), for all
x I. The number f(c) is called the maximum value of f in I and the point c is called a point of
maximum value of f in I.
2) f is said to have a minimum value in I, if there exists a point c in I such that f (c) < f (x), for all
x I. The number f (c), in this case, is called the minimum value of f in I and the point c, in
this case, is called a point of minimum value of f in I.
3) f is said to have an extreme value in I if there exists a point c in I such that f (c) is either a
maximum value or a minimum value of f in I. The number f (c), in this case, is called an extreme
value of f in I and the point c is called an extreme point.

Local Maxima and Local Minima

Definition: Let f be a real valued function and let c be an interior point in the domain of f.
Then
(a) c is called a point of local maxima if there is an h > 0 such that 𝑓 (𝑐) ≥ 𝑓 (𝑥), for all x in
(𝑐 – ℎ, 𝑐 + ℎ), 𝑥 ≠ 𝑐. The value f(c) is called the local maximum value of f.
(b) c is called a point of local minima if there is an h > 0 such that f (c) ≤ f (x), for all x in (c – h,
c + h). The value f(c) is called the local minimum value of f.

Geometrically, the above definition states that if x = c is a point of local maxima of f, then the
graph of f around c will be as shown in Fig.(a) below. Note that the function f is increasing
(i.e., f ′(x) > 0) in the interval (c – h, c) and decreasing (i.e., f ′(x) < 0) in the interval (c, c + h).
This suggests that f ′(c) must be zero,

Similarly ,if x = c is a point of local minima of f, then the graph of f around c will be as shown
in Fig.(b) above. Note that the function f is decreasing (i.e., f ′(x) < 0) in the interval (c – h,

104
 c) and increasing (i.e., f ′(x) >0) in the interval (c, c + h). This again suggests that f ′(c) must
be zero,

Theorem: Let f be a function defined on an open interval I. Suppose c I be any point. If f has
a local maxima or a local minima at x = c, then either f ′(c) = 0 or f is not differentiable at c.

Definition: A point c in the domain of a function f at which either f ′(c) = 0 or f is not

differentiable is called a critical point of f.

Theorem: (First Derivative Test) Let f be a function defined on an open interval I. Let f be
continuous at a critical point c in I. Then
1) If f ′(x) changes sign from positive to negative as x increases through c, i.e.,
if f ′(x) > 0 at every point sufficiently close to and to the left of c, and f ′(x) < 0 at every point
sufficiently close to and to the right of c, then c is a point of local maxima.
2) If f ′(x) changes sign from negative to positive as x increases through c, i.e., if f ′(x) < 0 at every
point sufficiently close to and to the left of c, and f ′(x) > 0 at every point sufficiently close to
and to the right of c, then c is a point of local minima.
3) If f ′(x) does not change sign as x increases through c, then c is neither a point of local maxima
nor a point of local minima. In fact, such a point is called point of inflection.

Theorem: (Second Derivative Test) Let f be a function defined on an interval I and c I. Let
f be twice differentiable at c. Then
1) x = c is a point of local maxima if f ′(c) = 0 and f ″(c) < 0 The value f (c) is local maximum
value of f.
2) x = c is a point of local minima if f ′(c) 0 = and f ″(c) > 0 In this case, f (c) is local minimum
value of f.
3) The test fails if f ′(c) = 0 and f ″(c) = 0. In this case, we go back to the first derivative test and
find whether c is a point of local maxima, local minima or a point of inflexion.
Working rule for finding absolute maximum value and/or absolute minimum value
Step 1: Find all critical points of f in the interval, i.e., find points x where either f ′(x) = 0 or f
is not differentiable.
Step 2: Take the end points of the interval.
Step 3: At all these points (listed in Step 1 and 2), calculate the values of f.
Step 4: Identify the maximum and minimum values of f out of the values calculated in Step 3.

105
 This maximum value will be the absolute maximum value of f and the minimum value

will be the absolute minimum value of f.

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

S.NO QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS

1 The edge of a cube is increasing at the rate of 0.3 cm/s, the rate of change of its
surface area when edge is 3 cm is
(a) 10.8cm (b) 10.8 cm2 (c) 10.8 cm2/s (d) 10.8 cm/s

dx
Solution: (c) as dt = 0.3 cm/s ,x is edge of a cube.
Surface area S = 6x 2
ds dx dS
Then dt = 12x ⋅ dt = 12x × 0.3 dt = 3.6x
dS
And dt at x = 3 is 3.6 × 3 = 10.8 cm2/s
2 The total revenue in ₹ received from the sale of x units of an article is given by
R(x) =3x2+36x+5. The marginal revenue when x=15 is (in ₹)
(a) 126 (b) 116 (c) 96 (d) 90

Solution: (a), as Rʹ (x)=6x+36

Rʹ(15)=90+36=126
3 The point on the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 where the rate of change of 𝑥 −coordinate is equal
to the rate of change of 𝑦 −coordinate is
1 1 1 1
(a) 2 (b) 4 (c) (2 , 4) (d) (1,1)

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
Sol: (C), as y=x2⇒ 𝑑𝑡 = 2𝑥 𝑑𝑡 ; given 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡
1
1 = 2𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 =
2
1 1
Substituting in the equation of curve, we get point as (2 , 4)

4 The interval on which the function f(x)=2x3+9x2+12x-1 is decreasing ,is

(a) (−1, ∞) (b) (−2, −1)
(c) (−∞, −2) (d) [−1,1]

Sol: (b) We have, f(x)=2x3+9x2+12x-1

fʹ(x)=6x2+18x+12=6(x2+3x+2)= 6(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 1)
for f(x) to be decreasing, we must have
𝑓ʹ(𝑥) < 0 ⟹ 6(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 1) ≤ 0
⟹ (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 1) ≤ 0
−2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ −1.
Hence, f(x) is decreasing on (−2, −1).

5 If at 𝑥 = 1, the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 62𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 9 attains its maximum

value on the interval [0, 2]. Then the value of 𝑎 is
(a) 124 b) −124 c) 120 d) −120

Sol: (c)
As fʹ(x) = 4x3-124x+a,

106
 CHAPTER: INTEGRALS
SYLLABUS:

Integration as inverse process of differentiation. Integration of a variety of functions by substitution, by

partial fractions and by parts, Evaluation of simple integrals of the following types and problems based
on them.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑥 2 ±𝑎2 , ∫ 𝑎2 −𝑥 2 , ∫ √ , ∫ √𝑎2 , ∫ √𝑥 2 ± 𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 , ∫ √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥,
𝑥 2 ±𝑎2 −𝑥 2
𝑝𝑥+𝑞 𝑝𝑥+𝑞
∫ √𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑑𝑥 ∫ 𝑑𝑥, ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐 √𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (without proof). Basic properties of definite integrals and
evaluation of definite integrals.

Formulae and Definitions:

Indefinite Integrals

1. ∫ 1𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑐
2. ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑐
3. ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑐
4. ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐
5. ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = log 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐
6. ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = log|(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥)| + 𝑐
7. ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = log|𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥| + 𝑐
8. ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥| + 𝑐
9. ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐
10. ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 + 𝑐
11. ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥. 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐
12. ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥. 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐
13. ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑑𝑥
14. ∫ = log 𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑥

𝑎𝑥
15. ∫ 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = log 𝑎 + 𝑐

1 1 𝑥−𝑎
16. ∫ 𝑥 2 −𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑎 log |𝑥+𝑎| + 𝑐
1 1 𝑎+𝑥
17. ∫ 𝑎2 −𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑎 log |𝑎−𝑥| + 𝑐
1 1 𝑥
18. ∫ 𝑥 2 +𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 tan−1 (𝑎) + 𝑐

128
 1
19. ∫ √𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = log|𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 | + 𝑐
−𝑎2
1
20. ∫ √𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = log|𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 | + 𝑐
+𝑎2

1 𝑥
21. ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = sin−1 + 𝑐
√𝑎2 −𝑥 2 𝑎

𝑥 𝑎2
22. ∫ √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 − log|𝑥 + √𝑥2 − 𝑎2 | + 𝑐
2 2
𝑥 𝑎2
23. ∫ √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = 2 √𝑥2 + 𝑎2 + 2 log|𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 | + 𝑐

𝑥 𝑎2 𝑥
24. ∫ √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 + sin−1 + 𝑐
2 2 𝑎

25. ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓 𝑙 (𝑥))𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑐

26. ∫ 𝑢. 𝑣𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢 ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑢𝑙 [∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥]𝑑𝑥

Partial fractions
P(x)
• The rational function is said to be proper if the degree of P(x) is less than
Q(x)
the degree of Q(x)
• Partial fractions can be used only if the integrand is proper rational function

Definite Integrals
S.No Form of rational function Form of Partial fraction

1 1 𝐴 𝐵
+
(𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑏) (𝑥 − 𝑎) (𝑥 − 𝑏)
2 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 𝐴 𝐵
+
(𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑏) (𝑥 − 𝑎) (𝑥 − 𝑏)
2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
3 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑐
+ +
(𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑏)(𝑥 − 𝑐) (𝑥 − 𝑎) (𝑥 − 𝑏) (𝑥 − 𝑐)
4 1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
+ +
(𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑏)(𝑥 − 𝑐) (𝑥 − 𝑎) (𝑥 − 𝑏) (𝑥 − 𝑐)
5 1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
2
+ 2
+
(𝑥 − 𝑎) (𝑥 − 𝑏) (𝑥 − 𝑎) (𝑥 − 𝑎) (𝑥 − 𝑏)
6 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
2 + +
(𝑥 − 𝑎) (𝑥 − 𝑏) (𝑥 − 𝑎) (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 (𝑥 − 𝑏)
2 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟
+ 2
8 (𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) (𝑥 − 𝑎) 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
2
where 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 cannot be factorized further

Properties of Definite Integrals

𝑎
1. ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥=0
𝑏 𝑏
2. ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 =∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑏 𝑎
3. ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 =− ∫𝑏 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

129
 𝑏 𝑐 𝑏
4. ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥=∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥+∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥, where a<c<b
𝑏 𝑏
5. ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 =∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎
6. ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 =∫0 𝑓(𝑎 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
2𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
7. ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥=∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥+∫0 𝑓(2𝑎 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎
2𝑎 2∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(2𝑎 − 𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
8. ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥x={ 0
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(2𝑎 − 𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)
𝑎
𝑎 2 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
9. ∫−𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ={
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
Q.NO QUESTIONS AND SOLUTION S
1. 1
Evaluate ∫ dx ?
𝑥− √𝑥
a) 2 log √𝑥 + C b) log (√𝑥 - 1 ) + C c) 2 log (√𝑥 - 1 ) + C d ) None of the
above
1
Ans. I = ∫ 𝑥( 𝑥 −1) dx
√ √
Put √𝑥 − 1 = t then
I = 2 logt
= 2 log (√𝑥 − 1) + C (c)
2. 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
Evaluate ∫ dx ?
√𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 +4
a) log|√𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 + 4 | + 𝐶 b) log |tanx + √𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 + 4 | + 𝐶
1
c) 2 log |𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 | + 𝐶 d) tanx + C
Ans. Sub tan x = t then
𝑑𝑡
I = ∫ √𝑡 2 2
+2
=log |tanx + √𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 + 4 | + 𝐶 (b)
3. Evaluate ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥 . 𝑒 log 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 dx ?
1 1 1
𝑎) 3 sin3 x + C b) − 2 cos4 x + C c) − 4 cos4 x + C
1
d) − 3 sin3 x + C
Ans. Here elog sinx = sinx then
I = ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Let cosx = t
1
Ans : − 4 cos4 x + C (c)
𝜋
4 𝜋
∫0 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (𝑥 − 6 ) 𝑑𝑥 is equal to :
6

1 1
(a) (b) − (c) √3 (d) −√3
√3 √3

𝜋 𝜋
2 𝜋 𝜋 6 𝜋 𝜋 1
Ans: ∫0 𝑠𝑒𝑐 (𝑥 − 6 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝑥 − 6 )] = tan 0 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (− 6 )= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( 6 ) =
6
0 √3
Option: a

130
 CHAPTER: APPLICATION OF INTEGRALS
SYLLABUS: Applications in finding the area under simple curves, especially lines, circles/
parabolas/ellipses (in standard form only)

Definitions and Formulae:

Let f(x) be a function defined in [ a, b] , then the area bounded by the curve y = f(x) , x –
𝑏 𝑏
axis and the ordinates x = a and x = b is given by ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)dx or ∫𝑎 𝑦 𝑑𝑥

Let 𝑔(𝑦) be a function defined in [ c, d] , then the area bounded by the curve 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑦), y –
𝑑
axis and the ordinates 𝑦 = 𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑑 is given by ∫𝑐 𝑔(𝑦)𝑑𝑦

If the curve y = f(x) lies below x- axis ,then the area bounded by the curve y= f(x) , x-axis
𝑏
and the ordinates x = a and x= b is –ve. So the area is |∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) dx|

138
 .

CHAPTER: DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

SYLLABUS: Definition, order and degree, general and particular solutions of a differential
equation. Solution of differential equations by method of separation of variables, solutions of
homogeneous differential equations of first order and first degree. Solutions of linear
differential equation of the type:
𝑑𝑦
+py=q, where p and q are functions of x or constants.
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑥
+ px=q, where p and q are functions of y or constants.
𝑑𝑦

Definitions and Formulae:

Methods of solving First Order and First Degree Differential Equations

➤ Differential Equations with Variables separables

➤ Homogeneous differential equations

➤ Linear differential equations

Differential Equations with Variables separables

To solve the differential equation in variable separable form, write the differential equation as

(x terms) X dx = (y terms) X dy then integrate both sides.

𝑑𝑦 𝑓(𝑥)
• Let the differential equation 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑦)
then g(y)dy = f(x)dx
then integrate on both sides ∫ 𝑔(𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑔(𝑦)
• Let the differential equation 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
then 𝑔(𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
then integrate on both sides ∫ =∫
𝑔(𝑦) 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑑𝑦
• Let the differential equation 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑦)
𝑑𝑦
then 𝑔(𝑦) = f(x)dx
𝑑𝑦
then integrate on both sides ∫ 𝑔(𝑦) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

Homogeneous differential equations

❖ A function 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦) is said to be homogeneous function of degree n if

𝐹(𝜆𝑥, 𝜆𝑦) = 𝜆𝑛 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦)

149
 𝑑𝑦
❖ A differential equation of the form 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦) is said to be homogeneous if F(x,y)
is a homogeneous function of degree zero

i.e. if 𝐹(𝜆𝑥, 𝜆𝑦) = 𝜆0 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦)

𝒅𝒚 𝒚
Steps to solve the homogeneous differential equation of the type: 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒇(𝒙)

• Let 𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣
• = 𝑣 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑦 𝑦
• Substitute 𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥 and = 𝑣 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 in = 𝑓(𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

• Then use variables and separables in terms of 𝑦 and 𝑣 only

𝒅𝒙 𝒙
Steps to solve the homogeneous differential equation of the type: 𝒅𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒚)

• Let 𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑣
• 𝑑𝑦
= 𝑣 + 𝑦 𝑑𝑦

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
• Substitute 𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 and = 𝑣 + 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 in = 𝑓(𝑦)
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦

• Then use variables and separables in terms of 𝑥 and 𝑣 only

Linear differential equation

𝒅𝒚
Steps to solve the Linear differential equation of the type:𝒅𝒙 + 𝑷(𝒙)𝒚 = 𝑸(𝒙)

𝑑𝑦
❖ + 𝑃(𝑥)𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

❖ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐼𝐹) = 𝑒 ∫ 𝑝(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

❖ 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑦. (𝐼𝐹) = ∫(𝐼𝐹). 𝑄(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

𝒅𝒙
Steps to solve the Linear differential equation of the type:𝒅𝒚 + 𝑷(𝒚)𝒙 = 𝑸(𝒚)

𝑑𝑥
❖ + 𝑃(𝑦)𝑥 = 𝑄(𝑦)
𝑑𝑦

❖ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐼𝐹) = 𝑒 ∫ 𝑝(𝑦)𝑑𝑦

❖ 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑥. (𝐼𝐹) = ∫(𝐼𝐹). 𝑄(𝑦)𝑑𝑦

150
 CHAPTER: VECTORS
SYLLABUS: Vectors and scalars, magnitude and direction of a vector. Direction cosines
and direction ratios of a vector. Types of vectors (equal, unit, zero, parallel and collinear
vectors), position vector of a point, negative of a vector, components of a vector, addition of
vectors, multiplication of a vector by a scalar, position vector of a point dividing a line
segment in a given ratio. Definition, Geometrical Interpretation, properties and application
of scalar (dot) product of vectors, vector (cross) product of vectors.

Definitions and Formulae:

Scalar: those physical quantities which have only magnitude are called scalar

for example: time period, distance, work done, area, volume, mass, density, speed, temperature,
money voltage, resistance etc

Vector: Those physical quantities which are defined by both magnitude and direction are called
vector

For example: force, velocity, acceleration, displacement, weight, momentum, electric field
intensity etc

Zero vector: a vector whose initial and terminal points are same is called a zero vector or null
vector and is denoted by ⃗O

Co initial vectors: two or more vectors having the same initial point is called coinitial vectors

Collinear vectors: two or more vectors are said to be collinear if they are parallel to the same
line irrespective of their magnitudes

Equal vectors: two vectors 𝑎and𝑏⃗ are said to be equal, if they have the same magnitude and
direction regardless of the positions of their initial points and written as 𝑎 = 𝑏⃗

Negative of a vector: a vector whose magnitude is the same as that of a given vector but
direction is opposite to that of it is called negative of the given vector.

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐴 is the negative of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵

Important Properties

1. For any two vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ , 𝑎 + 𝑏⃗ = 𝑏⃗ + 𝑎 ( commutative property)

2. For any three vectors 𝑎 , 𝑏⃗ and𝑐 , (𝑎 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑏) + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + (𝑏⃗ + 𝑐 ) (associative property)
3. Triangle law of vector addition: A

B C

175
In the given triangle ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 +𝐵𝐶

4. If 𝑟 = x𝑖̂ + y𝑗̂ +z𝑘̂ then the magnitude of 𝑟 is ⃒𝑟⃒ =√𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2

5. Let 𝑎 be a given vector and λ a scalar. Then the product of the vector 𝑎 by the scalar λ is
denoted as λ𝑎 and ⃒λ𝑎⃒ = ⃒ λ⃒ ⃒𝑎⃒
𝑎⃗
6. The unit vector of 𝑎 is 𝑎̂ =
⃒𝑎⃒⃗
7. Direction ratios if 𝑟 = x𝑖̂ + y𝑗̂ +z𝑘̂ then 𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 are the direction ratios of vector 𝑟
8. Direction cosines: the direction cosines of 𝑟 are denoted by l, m, n (cosα, cosβ, cosγ)
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
l= , m= ,𝑛 =
⃒ 𝑟⃒ ⃒ 𝑟⃒ ⃒ 𝑟⃒
9. The product of two vectors is commutative 𝑎. 𝑏⃗ = 𝑏⃗. 𝑎
10. If l ,m ,n are the direction cosines then l2+m2+n2 = 1
11. 𝑖̂. 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂. 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂. 𝑘̂ = 1
12. 𝑖̂ × 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂ , 𝑗̂ × 𝑘̂ = 𝑖̂ , 𝑘̂ × 𝑖̂ =𝑗̂
13. 𝑗̂ × 𝑖̂ = −𝑘̂ , 𝑘̂ × 𝑗̂ = −𝑖̂ = 𝑖̂ × 𝑘̂ =−𝑗̂

14. 𝑖̂ × 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂ × 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂ × 𝑘̂ = 0

15. 𝑎. 𝑏⃗= |𝑎
⃗⃗⃗ ||𝑏⃗| 𝒄𝒐𝒔Ѳ
16. 𝑎×𝑏⃗= |𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗ ||𝑏⃗| 𝒔𝒊𝒏Ѳ𝑛̂ , where 𝑛̂ is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing
𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏⃗ ,
such that 𝑎 , 𝑏⃗, 𝑛̂ form right handed system of coordinate axes

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

S.NO QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1 Which of the following is correct?
a) 𝑎×𝑏⃗ = 𝑏⃗×𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗ × ⃗⃗⃗𝑎 = |𝑎|2
b) 𝑎
c) 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗ × ⃗⃗⃗𝑎 = |𝑎| d) 𝑎×𝑏⃗ = −𝑏⃗×𝑎
Solution: d) 𝑎×𝑏⃗ = -𝑏⃗×𝑎
2 Two vectors 𝑎 and⃗⃗𝑏 are parallel if
a) 𝑎×𝑏⃗ = 0 b) 𝑎.𝑏⃗ = 0
c) |𝑎×𝑏⃗| = |𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗ ||𝑏⃗| d) None of the above
Solution: a)
𝑎×𝑏⃗= |𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗ ||𝑏⃗| 𝒔𝒊𝒏Ѳ
if Ѳ = 0 then,
𝑎×𝑏⃗= |𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗ ||𝑏⃗| sin0
⸫ 𝑎×𝑏⃗ = 0
3 The unit vector in the direction of 𝑎= 3𝑖̂ - 2𝑗̂ + 6𝑘̂
1 1
a) 49 (3𝑖̂ - 2𝑗̂ + 6𝑘̂) b) 7 (3𝑖̂ - 2𝑗̂ + 6𝑘̂)
c) 7(3𝑖̂ - 2𝑗̂ + 6𝑘̂) d)49(3𝑖̂ - 2𝑗̂ + 6𝑘̂)

Solution: b)

176
 CHAPTER: THREE - DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY

SYLLABUS: Direction cosines and direction ratios of a line joining two points. Cartesian
equation and vector equation of a line, skew lines, shortest distance between two lines. Angle
between two lines.

Definitions and Formulae:

▪ Direction cosines of a line are the cosines of the angles made by the line with the
positive directions of the coordinate axes.
▪ Let a line makes the angles 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 with 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 axis respectively, then the Direction
Cosines of the line are 𝑙 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼, 𝑚 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽, 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾
▪ If 𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑛 are the direction cosines of a line, then l2 + m2 +n2 = 1.
▪ Direction ratios of a line joining two points 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) are
𝑎 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 , 𝑏 = 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 , 𝑎 = 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
▪ If 𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑛 are the direction cosines and 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐are the direction ratios of a line then
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝑙 = ± √𝑎2 , 𝑚 = ± √𝑎2 , 𝑛 = ± √𝑎2
+𝑏2 +𝑐 2 +𝑏2 +𝑐 2 +𝑏 2 +𝑐 2

▪ Direction cosines of a line joining two points P(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 , z2 ) are

x2 −x1 y2 −y1 z2 −z1

, , (where, PQ= √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2 )
PQ PQ PQ

▪ Direction ratios of a line are the numbers which are proportional to the direction
cosines of a line.
▪ Skew lines are lines in space which are neither parallel nor intersecting. They lie in
different planes.
▪ Angle between skew lines is the angle between two intersecting lines drawn from any
point (preferably through the origin) parallel to each of the skew lines.
▪ If 𝑙1 , 𝑚1 , 𝑛1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙2 , 𝑚2 , 𝑛2 are the direction cosines of two lines; and 𝜃 is the acute
angle between the two lines; then 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = |𝑙1 𝑙2 + 𝑚1 𝑚2 + 𝑛1 𝑛2 |
▪ If 𝑎1 , 𝑏1 , 𝑐1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎2 , 𝑏2 , 𝑐2 are the direction ratios of two lines and 𝜃 is the acute angle

𝑎1 𝑎2 +𝑏1 𝑏2 +𝑐1 𝑐2
between the two lines; then 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = | |
√𝑎12 +𝑏12 +𝑐12 √𝑎22 +𝑏22 +𝑐22

▪ Vector equation of a line that passes through the given point whose position vector is
𝑎 and parallel to a given vector𝑏⃗ 𝑖𝑠 𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝜆𝑏⃗ .
▪ Equation of a line through a point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and having direction cosines 𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑛 is
𝑥−𝑥1 𝑦−𝑦1 𝑧−𝑧1
= =
𝑙 𝑚 𝑛

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 ▪ The vector equation of a line which passes through two points whose position vectors
are 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏⃗ 𝑖𝑠 𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝜆(𝑏⃗ − 𝑎)
▪ Cartesian equation of a line that passes through two points (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 )
𝑥−𝑥1 𝑦−𝑦1 𝑧−𝑧1
is =𝑦 =𝑧 .
𝑥2 −𝑥1 2 −𝑦1 2 −𝑧1

▪ If 𝜃 is the acute angle between 𝑟 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑎1 + 𝜆𝑏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑎2 + 𝜆𝑏
⃗⃗⃗⃗ .𝑏
𝑏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = ||𝑏⃗⃗⃗⃗1||𝑏⃗⃗⃗⃗2 ||
1 2

𝑥−𝑥1 𝑦−𝑦1 𝑧−𝑧1 𝑥−𝑥2 𝑦−𝑦2 𝑧−𝑧2

▪ If = = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = = are the equations of two lines, then the
𝑙1 𝑚1 𝑛1 𝑙2 𝑚2 𝑛2

acute angle between the two lines is given by 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = |𝑙1 𝑙2 + 𝑚1 𝑚2 + 𝑛1 𝑛2 |.

▪ Shortest distance between two skew lines is the length of the line segment
perpendicular to both the lines.
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
▪ Shortest distance between 𝑟 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎1 + 𝜆𝑏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 𝑖𝑠 |(𝑏1 ×𝑏2 ).(𝑎⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗2 −𝑎⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗1 )|
𝑎2 + 𝜇𝑏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ×𝑏
|𝑏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ | 1 2

𝑥−𝑥1 𝑦−𝑦1 𝑧−𝑧1 𝑥−𝑥2 𝑦−𝑦2 𝑧−𝑧2

▪ Shortest distance between the lines: = = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = = 𝑖𝑠
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2

𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
| 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 |
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
√(𝑏1 𝑐2 − 𝑏2 𝑐1 )2 + (𝑐1 𝑎2 − 𝑐2 𝑎1 )2 + (𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 )2

⃗ ×(𝑎
𝑏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗1 )
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗2 −𝑎
▪ 𝑎1 + 𝜆𝑏⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
Distance between parallel lines 𝑟 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎2 + 𝜇𝑏⃗ 𝑖𝑠 | |𝑏 |⃗
|

▪ Two lines 𝑟 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑎1 + 𝜆𝑏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 are coplanar if (𝑎
𝑎2 + 𝜇𝑏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗1 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎1 ). (𝑏 𝑏2 ) = 0

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Q.NO QUESTIONS AND SOLUTIONS

1 What is the distance of point (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) from 𝑥 −axis?
𝐴. √𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 B. √𝑎2 + 𝑐 2 C. √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 D. a
Solution: Distance between ( a, b, c ) and (a, 0, 0) is √𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 .
Correct Option: A
2 What is the angle between the lines 2𝑥 = 3𝑦 = −𝑧 and 6𝑥 = −𝑦 = −4𝑧?
A. 0° B. 30° C. 45° D. 90°
1 1
Solution: DRs of first line are 2 , 3 and -1.
1 1
DRs of second line are 6 , −1, and −4
1 1 1 1−4+3
𝑎1 𝑎2 + 𝑏1 𝑏2 + 𝑐1 𝑐2 = −3+4= = 0.
12 12

So the lines are perpendicular.

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 CHAPTER : LINEAR PROGRAMMING
SYLLABUS: Introduction, related terminology such as constraints, objective function,
optimization, graphical method of solution for problems in two variables, feasible and
infeasible regions (bounded or unbounded), feasible and infeasible solutions, optimal feasible
solutions (up to three non-trivial constraints.)

Definitions and Formulae:

1) Let R be the feasible region (convex polygon) for a linear programming problem and
let Z = ax + by be the objective function. When Z has an optimal value (maximum or
minimum), where the variables x and y are subject to constraints described by linear
inequalities, this optimal value must occur at a corner point* (vertex) of the feasible
region.
2) Let R be the feasible region for a linear programming problem, and let
Z = ax + by be the objective function. If R is bounded**, then the objective
function Z has both a maximum and a minimum value on R and each of these occurs
at a corner point (vertex) of R
Remark: If R is unbounded, then a maximum or a minimum value of the
objective function may not exist. However, if it exists, it must occur at a corner
point of R.
➢ Solving linear programming problem using Corner Point Method.
The method comprises of the following steps:
1. Find the feasible region of the linear programming problem and determine its corner
points(vertices) either by inspection or by solving the two equations of the lines
intersecting at the point.
2. Evaluate the objective function Z=ax+ by at each corner point. Let M and m,
respectively denote the largest and smallest values of these points.
3. (i) When the feasible region is bounded, M and m are the maximum and
minimum value of Z.
(ii) In case, the feasible region is unbounded, we have:
(a) M is the maximum value of Z , if the open half plane determined by
ax+ by >M has no point in common with the feasible region.
Otherwise, Z has no maximum value.
(b) Similarly, m is the minimum value of Z, if the open half plane determined by
ax+ by<m has no point in common with the feasible region.
Otherwise, Z has no minimum value.

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 CHAPTER:PROBABILITY

SYLLABUS:

Conditional probability, multiplication theorem on probability, independent events, total

probability, Bayes’ theorem, Random variable and its probability distribution, mean of random
variable.

Definitions and Formulae:

Conditional Probability: If A and B are two events associated with any random experiment,
then 𝑃(𝐴/𝐵) represents the probability of occurrence of event A knowing that the event B
has already occurred.
𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
𝑃(𝐴/𝐵) = , 𝑃(𝐵) ≠ 0.
𝑃(𝐵)
𝑃(𝐵) ≠ 0, , means that the event B should not be impossible.

Multiplication Theorem on Probability: If the event A and B are associated with any
random experiment and the occurrence of one depends on the other, then
𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴). 𝑃(𝐵/𝐴), 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑃(𝐴) ≠ 0

Independent Events:
When the probability of occurrence of one event does not depend on the occurrence /non-
occurrence of the other event then those events are said to be independent events.
Then 𝑃(𝐴/𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃(𝐵/𝐴) = 𝑃(𝐵)
So, for any two independent events A and B ,𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴). 𝑃(𝐵).

Theorem on total probability:

𝐼𝑓𝐸𝑖 (𝑖 = 1,2,3, . . . 𝑛) be a partition of sample space and all 𝐸𝑖 havenon-zero
roabability.Abeanyeventassociatedwiththesamplespace, which occurs with
𝐸1 𝑜𝑟𝐸2 𝑜𝑟𝐸3 𝑜𝑟. . . 𝑜𝑟𝐸𝑛 then
𝑃(𝐴) = 𝑃(𝐸1 )𝑃(𝐴/𝐸1 ) + 𝑃(𝐸2 )𝑃(𝐴/𝐸2 ) + 𝑃(𝐸3 )𝑃(𝐴/𝐸3 )+. . . . +𝑃(𝐸𝑛 )𝑃(𝐴/𝐸𝑛 )

Bayes’ Theorem:
"Let " S "be the sample space and " 𝐸1 , 𝐸2 , . . . , 𝐸𝑛 " be " 𝑛" mutuallyexclusive and
"exhaustive events associated with " a" random experiment." If A is any event
which occurs with 𝐸1 𝑜𝑟 𝐸2 𝑜𝑟, . . 𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑃(𝐸𝑖 )𝑃(𝐴/𝐸𝑖 )
𝑃(𝐸𝑖 /𝐴) = 𝑛
∑𝑖=1 𝑃(𝐸𝑖 )𝑃(𝐴/𝐸𝑖 )

Random Variable: It is a real valued function whose domain is the sample space of random
experiment.

Probability Distribution: It is a system of number of random variable (X) such that

X X1 X2 …. Xn
P(X) P1 P2 …. Pn
𝑛
where P(Xi ) > 0 and ∑𝑖=1 𝑃(𝐸𝑖 ) = 1

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Mean: Mean or Expectation of a random variable X is denoted by E(X)

E(X)= ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 𝑃𝑖

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS:

Q. No QUESTIONS AND SOLUTIONS

1. If P(A/B)=0.3, P(A)= 0.4 and P(B)=0.8, then P(B/A) is equal to
(a) 0.6 (b) 0.3 (c) 0.06 (d) 0.4
Solution:
P(A  B) P(A  B)
P(A / B) = = = 0.3
P(B) 0.8
P(A  B) = 0.24
P(B / A) = 0.24 / 0.4 = 0.6
Ans: (a)
2. Ashima can hit a target 2 out of 3 times. She tried to hit the target twice. The
probability that the she missed the target exactly once is
(a) 2/3 (b) 1/3 (c) 4/9 (d) 1/9
Solution:
2 1
𝑃(𝐴) = , 𝑃(𝐴′) = (𝐴 − ℎ𝑖𝑡, 𝐴′ − 𝑛𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑡)
3 3
2 1 1 2
𝑃(𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑡) = . + . = 4/9.
3 3 3 3
Ans: (c)
3. 4 7
For any two events A and B, 𝑃(𝐴) = 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 10,

then 𝑃(𝐵/𝐴)is
(a) 1/10 (b) 1/8 (c) 17/20 (d) 7/8
Solution:
7/10
𝑃(𝐵/𝐴) = = 7/8.
4/5
Ans: (d)
4. Five fair coins are tossed simultaneously. The probability of the events that at
least one head comes up is
(a) 27/32 (b) 5/32 (c) 31/32 (d) 1/32
Solution:
𝑃(𝑎𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒𝐻) = 1 − 𝑃(𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑖𝑠𝐻)
= 1 − 1/32 = 31/32.
Ans: (c)

224