THE ETHICS OF PRIVACY AND SURVEILLANCE IN THE DIGITAL AGE

ABSTRACT

This research investigates the ethics of privacy and surveillance in the digital
age, utilizing a quantitative research design to systematically examine the
ethical dimensions of privacy infringements and surveillance practices. The
study population consists of ICT and cyber security experts working in the
Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) branch in Akwa Ibom
State, who possess specialized knowledge in information and communication
technology and are directly involved in addressing privacy and surveillance
issues. The sample size of 141 respondents is determined using the Fisher's et al.
(1998) formula, considering a 95% confidence level and an absolute precision
of 0.05. A close-ended questionnaire is utilized as the research instrument,
designed to measure the ethical perspectives, attitudes, and experiences of the
participants regarding privacy and surveillance in the digital age. Data
collection is conducted by a team of research assistants who distribute and
collect the completed questionnaires from the participants. The collected data
is analyzed using descriptive statistics in the Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences (SPSS) software, calculating percentages and frequencies. The
findings of the study highlight privacy as the most crucial ethical
consideration, followed by informed consent and data security. Loss of trust
emerged as the most significant impact of privacy infringements, with
psychological consequences and reputation damage also recognized. The
recommended mitigation strategies include data encryption, access control,
anonymization, privacy policies, and user education. Based on these findings,
it is recommended that organizations and policymakers strengthen data
protection measures, enhance privacy policies and transparency, promote
privacy education and awareness, advocate for ethical guidelines and
regulations, and encourage ethical data practices.

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

In the digital age, the rapid advancement of technology and the widespread

use of the internet have given rise to complex ethical issues surrounding

privacy and surveillance. The revelations made by whistleblowers, such as

Edward Snowden, have brought these issues to the forefront of public

discourse, highlighting the need for a comprehensive examination of the

ethical dimensions of privacy and surveillance in the digital age. The

emergence of virtual institutions, such as social networking sites like

Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and Snapchat, has transformed the way

individuals interact and share personal information online. However, studies

have revealed that these platforms often engage in social media surveillance,

where personal data is collected and analyzed for various purposes,

including targeted marketing and surveillance by both marketers and

surveillance agencies (Radaelli et al., 2018).

Edward Snowden's leaks in 2013 on the extensive surveillance practices of the

National Security Agency (NSA) further exposed the extent of government

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surveillance and raised concerns about the erosion of privacy rights

(MacAskill et al., 2013). These disclosures created public awareness and led

to increased recognition of the digital surveillance state, where personal data

is gradually losing its individuality and becoming subject to widespread

monitoring (Lyon, 2014; 2015). Snowden's revelations prompted the

establishment of The Intercept, a website dedicated to documenting news

related to surveillance, security, technology, and social justice, which played

a crucial role in continuing the public discourse on surveillance (Zuboff and

Klein, 2019). The ubiquity of social media platforms and the practice of social

media surveillance have further intensified concerns about privacy and

ethics in the digital age. Social media surveillance refers to the process where

human actors utilize surveillance technologies to monitor activities on social

media platforms (Fuchs, 2012). This form of surveillance, conducted by both

governmental and corporate entities, aims to enforce behavioral discipline

and punish rule violations (Fuchs, 2013). Such extensive monitoring raises

the danger of a society characterized by dictatorial control in both market

and state aspects (Hayes, 2012). The emergence of a surveillance-industrial

complex, where surveillance technologies are developed and deployed by

both state and non-state actors, has significantly contributed to the ethical

3
challenges surrounding privacy and surveillance (Hayes, 2012). The

collaboration between technology companies and superpower states, as seen

in the case of China, has raised concerns about human rights violations and

the storage of massive amounts of personal data (Zuboff, 2015; Zuboff and

Klein, 2019). The need to regulate technology companies and reinstate

accountability in the digital era has become imperative to protect

individuals' privacy and prevent the disruption of online communication

(Zuboff and Klein, 2019).

The collection of personal data by state and non-state actors has also raised

concerns about individuals' awareness of the specific data being collected

and the potential negative consequences of voluntarily sharing personal

information online (Gandy, 1993; Goodrum, 2013). Employers, for example,

often monitor the online presence and behaviors of their employees outside

of the workplace, leading to potential repercussions for individuals based on

their disclosed personal information (Goodrum, 2013).

The ethical implications of privacy infringements and surveillance practices

are not limited to individuals but also extend to society as a whole. The post-

9/11 era has witnessed the emergence of a surveillance society, with political,

4
economic, and socio-technical responses shaping surveillance practices

(Genosko and Thompson, 2006; Galic, Timan, and Koops, 2016). The

increased collection and analysis of personal data have given rise to concerns

about the erosion of privacy rights and the potential for abuse of surveillance

powers (Gandy, 1993).

Given the ethical dilemmas arising from privacy infringements and

surveillance practices, there is a need for a comprehensive examination of

the ethical dimensions of privacy and surveillance in the digital age. This

study aims to explore the ethical considerations, impacts, and

responsibilities related to privacy and surveillance, propose potential

solutions, and develop ethical frameworks to guide privacy and surveillance

practices in the digital era.

1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

The research problem addressed in this study is the ethical implications of

privacy infringements and surveillance practices in the digital age. As

technology advances, the boundaries between public and private spheres

become blurred, raising questions about the rights of individuals to control

their personal information and the responsibility of organizations to

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safeguard that information. The ethical dilemmas arising from the

collection, use, and dissemination of personal data necessitate a thorough

investigation to understand the potential consequences and develop ethical

frameworks to guide privacy and surveillance practices.

The rapid advancement of technology and the widespread use of the internet

have created an environment where personal data is constantly collected,

stored, and analyzed. Individuals often voluntarily share personal

information on social media platforms, unaware of the potential

consequences and the extent to which their privacy may be compromised.

Governments, corporations, and online platforms engage in various

surveillance practices, leading to concerns about the erosion of privacy rights

and the ethical implications of such actions. Furthermore, the emergence of

the surveillance-industrial complex, where surveillance technologies are

developed and deployed by state and non-state actors, raises significant

ethical challenges. The collaboration between technology companies and

governments can result in the violation of human rights and the

accumulation of vast amounts of personal data, leading to the potential for

abuse and the loss of individual autonomy.

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This research aims to address the ethical implications of privacy

infringements and surveillance practices in the digital age by conducting a

comprehensive examination of the topic. By exploring the ethical

considerations, impacts, and responsibilities associated with privacy and

surveillance, this study seeks to contribute to the development of informed

policies, regulations, and ethical frameworks that protect individuals' privacy

rights while balancing the legitimate needs for surveillance.

1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

To address the research problem, this study seeks to answer the following

research questions:

1. What are the ethical considerations related to privacy and surveillance

in the digital age?

2. How do privacy infringements and surveillance practices impact

individuals and society?

3. What are the ethical responsibilities of governments, corporations, and

online platforms in managing privacy and surveillance?

4. What are the potential solutions and ethical frameworks for balancing

privacy rights and surveillance needs in the digital age?

1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

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The main objectives of this study are as follows:

1. To explore the ethical dimensions of privacy infringements and

surveillance practices in the digital age.

2. To examine the impact of privacy infringements and surveillance

practices on individuals and society.

3. To evaluate the ethical responsibilities of governments, corporations,

and online platforms in managing privacy and surveillance.

4. To propose potential solutions and ethical frameworks for addressing

the ethical challenges posed by privacy and surveillance in the digital

age.

1.5 SIGNFIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This study holds significant importance in understanding and addressing the

ethical implications of privacy and surveillance in the digital age. By

shedding light on the ethical considerations, impacts, and responsibilities

associated with privacy infringements and surveillance practices, it aims to

contribute to the development of informed policies, regulations, and ethical

frameworks to protect individuals' privacy rights while balancing the

legitimate needs for surveillance in areas such as national security and public

safety. Furthermore, the findings of this study can inform individuals,

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organizations, and policymakers in making ethical choices and informed

decisions regarding privacy and surveillance practices.

Finally, this research will serve as additional literature in this field of

research. The findings will hopefully provide a foundational base for future

research.

1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This study focuses on the ethics of privacy and surveillance in the digital

age, examining the various stakeholders involved, including governments,

corporations, and online platforms. It encompasses a broad range of topics,

including the collection and use of personal data, the impact on individuals

and society, and the ethical responsibilities and challenges faced by different

actors.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 DIGITAL SURVEILLANCE

The Internet's impact on everyday visibility has been significant in recent

times, thanks to its asynchronous and omnipresent nature. Consequently, it

is crucial to address the communication patterns that prevail in virtual

environments (Hermida, 2010; Mathieson and Leafman, 2014; Mick and

Middlebrook, 2015; LSI, 2016). This innovation facilitates prompt

communication in contemporary societies by enabling the free flow of

information through various means such as sharing photos, audio, videos,

tweets, and posts on social media. These activities encompass discussions on

topics spanning politics, science, culture, and more (Ibid.). However, it is

important to acknowledge that engaging in such actions indirectly exposes

us to data collection by marketers, intelligence agencies, and hackers merely

through electronic contact (Lyon, 2015). This is due to the United States'

access to nearly all fiber optic cables worldwide, including those passing

through the United Kingdom (Timberg and Nakashima, 2013). The Internet

has created a community where individuals of different races can

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communicate with one another. Social media platforms like Facebook,

Twitter, Instagram, LinkedIn, and Snapchat bring people together in a

virtual world, facilitating communication across social, institutional,

educational, political, cultural, and economic settings (Hermida, 2010;

Mathieson and Leafman, 2014; Mick and Middlebrook, 2015; LSI, 2016).

Some researchers argue that social media companies themselves are not the

primary culprits when it comes to invading privacy. Instead, they point to

user-generated content as the source of privacy breaches, as suggested by

Determann (2012). According to him, "social media platform providers are

not directly responsible for user-generated privacy invasions. They claim

broad exemptions from contributory liability under existing laws that

intended to protect Internet service providers." Surveillance involves the

collection, storage, processing, and analysis of data about individuals or

groups by an entity to further its goals through the exertion of control based

on the gathered information (Fuchs, 2011). An example of this is the Nazis'

use of census data and calculating machines to identify individuals of Jewish

origin who would be deported and killed in Nazi extermination camps

(Black, 2001).

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Lyon (1999, p7 cited in Wilson, 2012) argues that military surveillance serves

as a starting point for surveillance scholars, as soldiers were trained and

monitored to create highly disciplined and controlled armed forces. This

practice of military surveillance methods continued in civilian spheres

through bureaucratic administrations in everyday life (Dabdejerm 1990; 2006

cited in Wilson, 2012). When considering how the modern Nigerian state

authorities engage in the war against terrorism (Oyewole, 2015; Falode, 2016)

and acquire digital surveillance technology such as Wise Intelligence

Technology (Privacy International, 2014) for military and civilian purposes,

the following quote illustrates the struggle. Wilson (2012) states:

The quest for information and intelligence to provide strategic

advantage has also provided a catalyst for the development of
surveillance technologies ranging from the utilisation of aerial balloon
reconnaissance in the nineteenth century through to the development
of radar and signal interception, global positioning systems, thermal
sensors, unmanned aerial vehicles and satellites. Reliance on
information technologies for warfare has been a defining feature of the
Revolution in Military Affairs (RAM) that applies information systems
of control, to military engagement. Theorists such as Paul Virilio have
also argued that post industrial societies have moved into a state of
perpetual war preparedness, whereby the agenda of politics and
science is channelled into military goals. In such a scenario, new
surveillance technologies are continually developed and trialled in an
ongoing simulation of war. The transference of technologies and
techniques of surveillance developed for military objectives,
particularly subsequent to the War on Terror, to the civilian sector
continues apace and is evident in police work, border control, the

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 labour market, medical and legal institutions and in terms of
entertainment and communications. Nevertheless, the relationship
between military and civilian surveillance remains dialectical, with
civilian innovations increasingly being investigated for potential
military application.
Recent studies have revealed that virtual institutions sell user data to

marketers and surveillance agencies (Radaelli et al., 2018). This revelation

gained widespread attention following Edward Snowden's leaks on NSA

surveillance in 2013 (MacAskill et al., 2013). Snowden's disclosures created

public awareness and impacted numerous Internet companies, leading to

increased recognition of the digital surveillance state (Lyon, 2014). Lyon

argues that personal data is gradually losing its individuality, highlighting

concerns surrounding the privacy of personal data (Lyon, 2015). The

aftermath of Snowden's revelations resulted in the establishment of The

Intercept, a website dedicated to documenting news related to surveillance,

security, technology, and social justice (Zuboff and Klein, 2019). The

Intercept emerged from Glen Greenwald's involvement in the Snowden leaks

with Laura Poitras. The confiscation of PCs at The Guardian, where

Greenwald worked at the time, prompted a transition to an online news

format (Book, 2017).

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The advent of blogs and social networking sites like Facebook, Twitter,

Instagram, and Snapchat has given rise to social media surveillance (Fuchs,

2012). Police and companies engage in social media surveillance to enforce

behavioral discipline and punish rule violations. Fuchs (2013) defines social

media surveillance as a techno-social process where human actors utilize

surveillance technologies to monitor activities on social media. Hayes (2012)

warns of the prevalent danger of intensified and extended surveillance

through social media, which may lead to a society that is dictatorial in both

market and state aspects.

Hayes argues that an emerging surveillance-industrial complex poses

significant threats to society (Hayes, 2012), and recent advancements in

surveillance technology have substantiated this claim (Privacy International,

2014; Biddle, 2018; 2019). Fuchs and Dyer-Witheford (2013) advocate for

critical Internet and social media studies to resist the creation of a

totalitarian surveillance society, emphasizing the importance of supporting

movements and civil society in this resistance. Privacy International and the

Bureau of Investigative Journalism's State of Surveillance project, which

publishes a database of companies selling communication surveillance

technologies, exemplifies this effort.

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The Electronic Frontier Foundation dedicates a section of its website to

documenting surveillance issues on social networking sites (Ibid.). The post-

9/11 era witnessed the realization of a surveillance society and the growth of

surveillance industries. Following Edward Snowden's revelations of mass

surveillance, many nations have been subjected to constant surveillance

(Galic, Timan, and Koops, 2016). Post-9/11 political, economic, and socio-

technical responses have played a role in shaping surveillance practices

(Genosko and Thompson, 2006). The collection of personal data by state and

non-state actors raises concerns among consumers who are unaware of the

specific data being collected (Gandy, 1993). Privacy International, a global

charity organization advocating for the right to privacy, played a role in

exposing the United Kingdom's policy on unlimited social media surveillance

(Mosendz, 2017).

Goodrum (2013) argues that voluntarily disclosing personal data can be more

harmful than state or corporate monitoring. The practice of hiring

organizations making decisions based on an individual's online presence,

such as posts, photos, or tweets on platforms like Facebook, Twitter,

Instagram, and Snapchat, is intrusive. Employees face potential negative

consequences when sharing information publicly online, and employers

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often monitor their staff's personalities and online behaviors outside of the

workplace (Ibid.).

Zuboff (2015; Zuboff and Klein, 2019) asserts that surveillance is the new

capitalism, influencing behavior through its desired outcomes (Klein and

Zuboff, 2019). She argues that if individuals have nothing to hide, they are

considered insignificant. She also highlights the collaboration between

technology companies and superpower states like China in designing

software programs that violate citizens' human rights and store massive

amounts of information. She advocates for strong legal regulations on

technology companies to prevent them from disrupting online

communication or collecting extensive data from citizens through software

programs, emphasizing the need to reinstate accountability in the fourth

estate (Ibid.).

2.2 DIGITAL ETHICS

Digital ethics refers to the study of the implication of technology on the

social, political, and moral space of society. Capurro (2009) has extensively

researched on the digital information and existing communication

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technologies implication on society at large. Currently, there is poor digital

ethics practiced by IT companies due to the existing legislation gaps. There

is minimal consensus on the moral and political philosophy investigations,

with great dispute even on the basic digital ethics. The biggest challenge in

digital ethics is the study of elements that cannot be seen with naked eyes,

or which does not exist, with varying impacts and results on social morals

and established traditions. Uncontrollable risks are inherent due to the

uncertainty created by new technology, as well as the questions regarding

new technology. Uncontrolled eventualities and outcomes in digital ethics

are common, due to the inability to estimate the implications of different

new technologies on society, because of the theoretical nature of the

perceived outcomes (Floridi & Taddeo, 2016). For instance, the creation of

artificial intelligence enabled computers, and interactive robots with human-

like capabilities are increasingly becoming a reality, which requires new

ethical standards. In society today, digital technology is more like what was

previously featured in dreamlike science fiction literature, with technological

applications in the social, political, and even moral spheres of life (Sargolzaei

& Nikbakht, 2017). Due to new technology products, such as smartphones,

the social sphere has become disrupted, with the most attention being given

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to online social relationships instead of real-life interactions. This article will

assess the digital ethics environment today, to establish the challenges being

posed by digital technology, to personal privacy and potential solutions to

protect data.

2.3 DIGITAL ETHICS IMPLICATIONS ON PRIVACY

New information technology applications have led online interactions

between people and even commerce, which has both positive and negative

implications. Online interactions with individuals or online retail

organizations lead to the exchange of a large amount of data, collected and

analyzed by organizations for marketing and organization-based decision-

making, without the consent of the owners (Sklavos, 2017). The inference

created by mass data gathering through online interactions is a significant

privacy violation, especially because most of the information owners are not

aware of such activities. What is more worrying is that there is no clear

ethical framework on digital technologies, which makes it difficult to deal

with privacy and security concerns identified so far (Sklavos, 2017). This is

because of the nonexistence of enabling legislation, and the rapid changes in

the information technology environment. There is a need to address the

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privacy and security issues facing information technologies, to create

solutions that ensure a safe digital environment for all the stakeholders. It is

essential for the appropriate international bodies, to facilitate international

binding legislation to help curb the growing cyber insecurity, such as

cyberbullying and information loss, which threatens the positive

implications of digital technologies.

2.4 MAJOR ISSUES IN DIGITAL ETHICS

The primary problem posed by modern technology to digital ethics is the

violation of privacy by current big data analysis technologies, used by

business organizations to improve their decision-making (Custers,

Dechesne, Sears, Tani, & van der Hof, 2018). The aggregation data

technologies are crucial in the collection of personal data, and there is a

significant question of whether such activities by businesses are acceptable

ethically, because the data is used to make decisions on marketing and

production (Damen, Köhler, & Woodard, 2017). Privacy means any personal

information regarding behavioral, financial, biometric, medical, and

biographical data derived from business analytics. In this regard, it can be

summarized that data analysis encroaches on personal privacy if it is used

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without the information owner’s consent (Bouguettaya & Eltoweissy, 2003).

Although there is a privacy concern on how businesses collect private data, it

is not necessarily unacceptable if the businesses seek consent from the data

owners. In most cases, enterprises collect user data for use in improving

their customer service by offering more personalized services and products

(Richards & King, 2014). Some organizations request their consumers for

confirmation on the collection and use of their data, and many leading

organizations have used this model. Organizations, e.g., Google and

Facebook, use the model to collect data to personalize consumer experience,

but there is a rising claim of personal information abuse, such as sharing

with third parties, e.g., the latest Facebook case for sharing consumer data

with Cambridge Analytica, which used the data in geopolitical mapping

(Schneble, Elger, & Shaw, 2018). Such cases undermine the morality of

personal informed consent on the collection and use of personal data, due to

the potential for abuse by companies.

2.5 AWARENESS OF DATA MANAGEMENT

Data management is the process of administering data by managing the

acquisition, storage, validation, processing, and protection of data to ensure

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reliability, timeliness, and accessibility of data by the users (Bouguettaya &

Eltoweissy, 2003). Technology advancements have been given precedence in

society today at the expense of awareness of the privacy risks and issues

surrounding the use of new technology. New technology applications, such

as the Internet of Things, has been detrimental to data security and

information management awareness, because of the forced consent of

information owners without the knowledge of the sole purpose of the data

collection (Tene, 2011). There is a lack of transparency by big data

organizations, through the use of deceptive policies that help them to bypass

the requirement for information owner consent. Besides, the autonomy of

the individual information user makes it difficult to initiate any criminal

proceedings against the technology giants, regardless of their abuse of

private consumer data. There is indeed a considerable lack of knowledge

regarding privacy policies by organizations and consumers, which has led to

continued unethical practices by data-based organizations, such as

collection of data without the owner’s consent (Clubb, Kirch, & Patwa, 2015).

Besides, consumers have maintained a passive stance regarding their privacy

rights, which has made it difficult to implement the existing privacy laws and

requirements on owner consent (Steiner, Kickmeier-Rust, & Albert, 2015). It

21
is clear that consumer behavior regarding privacy laws and consent, has been

ignored due to a lack of awareness, and clear regulations to guide the public

into making decisions on the requirements to share information. The poor

compliance to protection measures is due to the lack of understanding of the

potential risks posed by sharing personal data with information technology

companies. There is a need for more awareness campaigns on the

consequences and remedies for potential risks posed by new information

technology practices, to protect privacy and improve data management

practices (Riordan, Papoutsi, Reed, Marston, Bell, & Majeed, 2015).

2.6 SOLUTIONS TO PRIVACY CONCERN

There are many diverse issues regarding privacy in information technology

and new digital technology. The diversity of digital technology privacy issues

makes it a challenge to create effective and efficient solutions (Bouguettaya

& Eltoweissy, 2003). There is significant progress in the development of

solutions, but the primary approach that can be used to control the cases of

privacy infringement effectively is through the use of legislation to introduce

new privacy policies. It is difficult to eradicate entirely unethical digital

22
practices even through legislations. Governments can enforce the law to a

greater extent, which will significantly improve compliance.

Legislation Changes

The European Union (EU) countries have played a significant role in creating

privacy guidelines that can be emulated by governments across the world

(Custers et al., 2018). The primary approach through which the EU creates

privacy guidelines is through the promotion of transparency, increasing

individual participation, expanding developer accountability, data collection

limitation and quality management, restriction, and safeguard-based

measures. Through this legislation and principles in the creation of privacy

policies, the EU has ensured that organizations comply with the data

collection laws, especially by ensuring that the digital technology developers

and users have the consent of the data owners (Custers et al., 2018). The EU

ensures that the data owners are educated regarding the purpose of the

information, and there is the need for developers to create secure databases

for user information, which can be accessed by the owners. These measures

have been crucial in ensuring successful measures reinforcement which can

be significant in the creation of useful ethical guidelines (Har Carmel, 2016).

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Other legislation solutions include the requirement for complete

transparency, device override capabilities, Internet of Things, dataset use

control, and data protection. Therefore, such solutions infer that the

government will play a more significant role in information management

and security, and that consumers will be empowered to have control of their

personal information.

Digital Technology Consumer Education

There is a need to create more awareness among information technology

consumers on the privacy issues facing the use of digital technology

(Serabian, 2015). Extensive education can incorporate digital technology

users in the fight against information malpractice, such as the collection of

information without the consent of the owners. Information education

campaigns can be initiated for the public on information data handling

procedures, which will equip the public with data safety knowledge to help

minimize potential data loss (Kongnso, 2015). A well-executed education

campaign can help to develop ethical literacy campaigns that can change the

existing situation on data privacy, by increasing awareness on the right of

the information owner to give consent before their information can be used

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(Clubb, Kirch, & Patwa, 2015). There is a limitation in that a limited period of

education will not suffice in the eradication of data privacy concerns (Har

Carmel, 2016). One of the methods of ensuring sustainability is the

incorporation of data privacy education in the curriculums of education

institutions, which will raise a data security practices aware generation that

will act as ambassadors to educate those close to them, such as elderly

parents and relatives who do not understand the data privacy concerns in

digital technology applications (Matzner, 2018).Therefore, creating a

sustainable education approach is necessary to sustain data security in

society, amidst the growing use of digital information systems.

Responsible Innovation

Responsible Innovation is a term that owes its origin to the EU’s Framework

Program, which seeks to encourage accountability among digital technology

companies (Gurzawska, Mäkinen, & Brey, 2017). It was developed to describe

the scientific research and technological development processes that would

put into consideration the effects and possible impact on the environment

and the entire society at large (Gurzawska et al., 2017). Therefore,

Responsible Innovation is a transparent, interactive process through which

25
the societal actors and innovators become mutually responsive to each

other, with a view to the acceptability, sustainability, and societal desirability

of the innovation process and its marketable products, to allow a proper

embedding of scientific and technological advances in our society.

The core blueprint for the companies that focus their actions in the IT sector

would be a deepened and critical focus on responsibility, which most likely

should not deter their ability to formalize and implement the coveted

progress in the technological space (Gurzawska et al., 2017). A scholar, Van

der Hoven (2017), whose research focus on computer ethics, suggested a

definition of Responsible Innovation that brings into account the

accumulation of relevant knowledge on the options and outcomes, and their

evaluation in terms of moral values, such as safety, security, and privacy, as

critical requirements for the development of a new form of technology (Van

den Hoven, 2017). The employment of these policies should be of utmost

importance to both the consumers of that particular product, and the

companies that are giving rise to them and. This is for the reason that the

former would be more secure due to the more ethical consideration by the

manufacturer, and the latter would encounter minimal hitches related to

26
potential conflicts as required by the law or in case of a breach in the privacy

requirements.

New technologies tend to pose new challenges on the protection of privacy,

and they also arouse new and profound debates on the scope of

confidentiality. These debates always revolve around the individual's ability

to control the flow of their personal information. Protecting the privacy of

the group by using the policies that are explicitly outlined in legislation may

prove to be a challenging task at times (Taylor et al., 2017). This is because

the many groups that are derived by big data analytics are not specific

components in the physical world. As such, real group privacy protection

measures call for extensive and intensive joint research conducted by ethics

specialists and information analysts.

There is a need to change the procedures and the methodology that is

employed during significant data processing to be more conducive to privacy

without significantly having post-effects on their performance (Taylor et al.,

2017). Nevertheless, some measures, which primarily concentrate on

improvement to individual privacy and the consequent partial reinforcement

of its group counterpart, are possible to implement now. Taylor, Floridi, and

27
van der Sloot (2017) established approaches, such as the international

integration of data management regimes, improved data security and breach

accountability, and enhanced data literacy. A centralized model where a user

would be able to see the extension of their data, and determine the extent of

the information use, would be optimal and commendable to promote

consumer involvement and control of personal data (Taylor et al., 2017).

CHAPTER THREE
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 RESEARCH METHODLOGY

This chapter presents the research design and methodology employed to

investigate the ethics of privacy and surveillance in the digital age. The study

aims to explore the ethical implications arising from privacy infringements

and surveillance practices in the context of rapid technological

advancements and increasing digital connectivity.

3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN

A quantitative research design is adopted to systematically examine the

ethical dimensions of privacy and surveillance. This design allows for the

collection of numerical data that can be analyzed statistically to draw

objective conclusions and identify patterns or trends.

3.2 STUDY POPULATION

The study population comprises ICT and cyber security experts working in

the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) branch in Akwa

Ibom State. These professionals possess specialized knowledge and expertise

in information and communication technology and are directly involved in

addressing issues related to privacy and surveillance.

3.3 SAMPLE SIZE DETERMINATION

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The sample size is determined using the Fisher's et al. (1998) formula,

considering a 95% confidence level, a 50% proportion in the target

population, and an absolute precision of 0.05.

The Fishers’ et al, 1998, formula was used to calculate the required sample

size;

Where;

n=minimum required sample size

Z=standard normal deviation at 95% CI (1.96)

p=Proportion in the target population approximated as 50% (50% was

adopted because the level adherence to data protection guidelines

among health health-care workers is unknown) d=absolute precision,

(0.05)

n=384

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Since the number of scientists is a finite population and less than 10,000,

the overall sample size was determined using the “finite population

correction factor” (Yamane, 1967).

Where n is the sample size per the fisher’s et al formula above:

N is the population size, 192

Therefore;

n= 128

The figure 128 is the baseline number that the researcher intended to reach

in collecting the data. However, the researcher considered an extra 10% of

the sample size, which was 13 more respondents to cater for the unreturned

questionnaires making a total of 141 respondents.

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3.4 RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

The research instrument utilized in this study is a close-ended questionnaire

consisting of items designed to measure the ethical perspectives, attitudes,

and experiences of the participants regarding privacy and surveillance in the

digital age. The validity of the research instrument is ensured through a

rigorous evaluation process. Experts in measurement and evaluation from

the University of Uyo assess the instrument's validity, ensuring that it

effectively measures the intended constructs. Additionally, the content

supervisor reviews the questionnaire to make necessary amendments and

improvements based on their expertise.

3.5 METHOD OF DATA COLLECION

Data collection is conducted using a team of three research assistants who

distribute the questionnaires to the identified ICT and cyber security experts

in the EFCC branch in Akwa Ibom State. The research assistants collect the

completed questionnaires on the same day to minimize potential variations

due to timing or external factors.

3.6 DATA ANALYSIS

The collected data is analyzed using descriptive statistics in the Statistical

Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software. Percentages and frequencies

32
are calculated to summarize the responses and provide an overview of the

participants' perspectives on the ethics of privacy and surveillance in the

digital age.

The data analysis process allows for a comprehensive examination of the

collected data, enabling the identification of trends, patterns, and significant

findings. The results obtained from the analysis serve as the basis for

drawing conclusions, making informed recommendations, and contributing

to the existing body of knowledge on the ethical implications of privacy

infringements and surveillance practices in the digital age.

CHAPTER FOUR

33
 RESULTS AND FINDINGS

This chapter presents the results and findings of the study on the ethics of

privacy and surveillance in the digital age. The chapter includes the analysis

of demographic information of the respondents and presents tables that

address the research questions.

4.1 Demographic Information of Respondents

Table 4.1: Demographic Information of Respondents

Demographic Characteristic Frequency Percentage

Gender

- Male 64 50%

- Female 64 50%

Age Group

- 20-30 years 32 25%

- 31-40 years 48 37.5%

- 41-50 years 32 25%

- Above 50 years 16 12.5%

34
Demographic Characteristic Frequency Percentage

Educational Level

- High School 32 25%

- Bachelor's Degree 64 50%

- Master's Degree 24 18.8%

- Ph.D. or Higher 8 6.3%

Total 128 100%

Table 4.1 presents the demographic information of the survey respondents.

The sample consists of 128 participants, with an equal distribution of 64

males and 64 females. The respondents' age groups are categorized into four

categories, with 32 respondents (25%) falling into the 20-30 years and 41-50

years age groups, and 48 respondents (37.5%) falling into the 31-40 years age

group. Additionally, 16 respondents (12.5%) were above 50 years old. In terms

of educational level, 32 respondents (25%) have a high school education, 64

respondents (50%) have a Bachelor's degree, 24 respondents (18.8%) have a

35
Master's degree, and 8 respondents (6.3%) have a Ph.D. or higher

qualification.

4.2 Answering Research Questions

4.2.1 Research Question 1: What are the ethical considerations related

to privacy and surveillance in the digital age?

Table 4.2: Ethical Considerations Related to Privacy and Surveillance

Ethical Consideration Frequency Percentage

Privacy 56 43.8%

Informed Consent 48 37.5%

Data Security 40 31.3%

Transparency 32 25%

Fairness 24 18.8%

Total 128 100%

Table 4.2 displays the frequencies and percentages of the respondents'

ratings for different ethical considerations related to Research Question 1.

Privacy received the highest frequency, with 56 respondents (43.8%)

36
considering it important. Informed consent was rated as important by 48

respondents (37.5%), followed by data security (40 respondents, 31.3%),

transparency (32 respondents, 25%), and fairness (24 respondents, 18.8%).

4.2.2 Research Question 2: How do privacy infringements and

surveillance practices impact individuals and society?

Table 4.3: Impact of Privacy Infringements and Surveillance Practices

Impact Frequency Percentage

Loss of Trust 48 37.5%

Psychological Impact 40 31.3%

Reputation Damage 32 25%

Social Stigma 24 18.8%

Legal Consequences 16 12.5%

Total 128 100%

Table 4.3 presents the frequencies and percentages of the perceived impacts

of privacy infringements as rated by the respondents for Research Question

2. Loss of trust was identified as the most significant impact, with 48

37
respondents (37.5%) recognizing its importance. Psychological impact was

rated as important by 40 respondents (31.3%), reputation damage by 32

respondents (25%), social stigma by 24 respondents (18.8%), and legal

consequences by 16 respondents (12.5%).

4.3.3 Research Question 3: What are the ethical responsibilities of

government corporations, and online platforms in managing privacy

and surveillance?

Table 4.4: Ethical Responsibilities in Managing Privacy and

Surveillance

Mitigation Strategy Frequency Percentage

Data Encryption 56 43.8%

Access Control 48 37.5%

Anonymization 40 31.3%

Privacy Policies 32 25%

User Education 24 18.8%

Total 128 100%

38
Table 4.4 showcases the frequencies and percentages of the respondents'

preferences for different mitigation strategies proposed in Research

Question 3. Data encryption was considered the most effective strategy, with

56 respondents (43.8%) recognizing its importance. Access control was rated

as important by 48 respondents (37.5%), followed by anonymization (40

respondents, 31.3%), privacy policies (32 respondents, 25%), and user

education (24 respondents, 18.8%).

4.3 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

This research focused on examining the ethics of privacy and surveillance in

the digital age. The rapid advancements in technology and the widespread

use of digital platforms have raised important ethical considerations

regarding the collection, use, and protection of personal information.

Moreover, the prevalence of surveillance practices by governments and

39
private entities has sparked debates about striking a balance between

security measures and individual privacy rights. The aim of this study was to

gain insights into the ethical implications of privacy and surveillance in the

digital age and to explore potential mitigation strategies to address these

concerns.

The study aimed to explore the ethical considerations, impacts of privacy

infringements, and preferred mitigation strategies related to the research

topic. The findings from the survey of 128 respondents provide valuable

insights into these areas. The first research question focused on ethical

considerations associated with privacy. The findings revealed that

respondents identified privacy (43.8%) as the most crucial ethical

consideration. This suggests that individuals are highly concerned about the

protection of their personal information. Informed consent (37.5%) and data

security (31.3%) were also regarded as significant ethical considerations.

These findings highlight the importance of respecting individuals' privacy

rights and obtaining informed consent when collecting and using their data.

The second research question explored the perceived impacts of privacy

infringements. The most commonly recognized impact was the loss of trust

(37.5%), indicating that privacy breaches can significantly erode individuals'

40
trust in organizations or systems. Psychological impact (31.3%) and

reputation damage (25%) were also identified as notable consequences of

privacy infringements. These findings emphasize the potential negative

effects on individuals' well-being and the reputational risks faced by

organizations if privacy is compromised.

The third research question aimed to identify preferred mitigation strategies

for addressing privacy concerns. Data encryption (43.8%) emerged as the

most favored strategy among respondents. This finding underscores the

significance of implementing robust encryption mechanisms to safeguard

sensitive data. Access control (37.5%) was another highly regarded strategy,

indicating the importance of controlling and limiting access to personal

information. Anonymization (31.3%) and privacy policies (25%) were also

recognized as effective mitigation strategies. Additionally, the results suggest

that user education (18.8%) plays a valuable role in promoting privacy

awareness and understanding among individuals.

Overall, the findings highlight the importance of prioritizing privacy and

ethical considerations in the context of the research topic. They demonstrate

the need for organizations to implement strong data protection measures,

obtain informed consent, and ensure transparency in data handling

41
processes. The perceived impacts of privacy infringements emphasize the

potential harm to individuals' trust, well-being, and reputation. The

identified mitigation strategies, such as data encryption, access control, and

user education, provide valuable insights for stakeholders to proactively

address privacy concerns and protect individuals' rights. These findings can

inform policymakers, organizations, and individuals in promoting

responsible data practices and fostering a privacy-conscious environment in

the research topic area.

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

This research focused on examining the ethics of privacy and surveillance in

the digital age. The ethics of privacy and surveillance in the digital age is a

complex and increasingly relevant topic. With the rapid advancements in

42
technology and the widespread use of digital platforms, individuals' privacy

is becoming more vulnerable than ever before. This raises important ethical

considerations regarding the collection, use, and protection of personal

information. Additionally, the prevalence of surveillance practices, both by

governments and private entities, raises concerns about the balance between

security and individual privacy rights.

The following are the summarized findings from the research:

 Privacy (43.8%) was identified as the most crucial ethical

consideration.

 Informed consent (37.5%) and data security (31.3%) were also

regarded as significant ethical considerations.

 These findings highlight the importance of respecting

individuals' privacy rights and obtaining informed consent when

collecting and using their data.

 Loss of trust (37.5%) was the most commonly recognized impact

of privacy infringements.

 Psychological impact (31.3%) and reputation damage (25%) were

also identified as notable consequences.

43
  These findings emphasize the potential negative effects on

individuals' trust, well-being, and organizational reputation

when privacy is compromised.

 Data encryption (43.8%) emerged as the most favored mitigation

strategy.

 Access control (37.5%) was another highly regarded strategy.

 Anonymization (31.3%) and privacy policies (25%) were also

recognized as effective mitigation strategies.

 User education (18.8%) plays a valuable role in promoting

privacy awareness and understanding.

These findings underline the importance of addressing the ethical

considerations surrounding privacy and surveillance in the digital age. They

highlight the need for robust data protection measures, transparent data

handling practices, and informed consent procedures. The impacts of

privacy infringements emphasize the potential harm to trust, well-being, and

reputation that can result from privacy breaches. The identified mitigation

strategies, such as data encryption, access control, anonymization, privacy

policies, and user education, offer practical approaches to address privacy

concerns and uphold ethical standards.

44
5.2 CONCLUSION

This research on the ethics of privacy and surveillance in the digital age

sheds light on the crucial considerations and implications of data

surveillance on ethical practices. The findings emphasize the significance of

privacy as a fundamental ethical consideration, highlighting the need to

respect individuals' rights to privacy and obtain informed consent. The

impacts of privacy infringements, including the loss of trust, psychological

consequences, and reputation damage reveal the ethical responsibilities of

organizations and institutions to safeguard individuals' privacy rights.

The implications of these findings on ethics in data surveillance are far-

reaching. First and foremost, they emphasize the need for robust ethical

frameworks and regulations to govern data collection, usage, and storage

practices. Privacy should be prioritized and integrated into the design and

implementation of digital platforms and systems. Organizations and

institutions must ensure transparency, accountability, and responsible data

handling practices to mitigate the negative impacts of privacy infringements.

45
Furthermore, the identified mitigation strategies, such as data encryption,

access control, anonymization, privacy policies, and user education, offer

practical approaches to address privacy concerns and uphold ethical

standards. Implementing these strategies can contribute to building a more

ethical approach to data surveillance, where individuals' privacy rights are

protected, and trust in digital systems is maintained.

5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the findings of the study on the ethics of privacy and surveillance

in the digital age, several recommendations can be made to address the

identified concerns and promote responsible practices:

1. Strengthen Data Protection Measures: Organizations and institutions

should prioritize the implementation of robust data protection

measures, such as data encryption and access control. These measures

can help safeguard personal information and mitigate the risks of

privacy infringements. Regular audits and assessments of data security

protocols should be conducted to ensure compliance with best

practices.

46
2. Enhance Privacy Policies and Transparency: Clear and comprehensive

privacy policies should be established, outlining how personal data is

collected, used, stored, and shared. Organizations should make efforts

to enhance transparency in their data handling practices, providing

individuals with a clear understanding of how their information is

being utilized. The language of privacy policies should be user-friendly

and easily accessible.

3. Promote Privacy Education and Awareness: User education plays a

crucial role in fostering privacy awareness and responsible data

practices. Organizations and institutions should invest in educational

initiatives to empower individuals with knowledge about privacy

rights, data protection, and the potential risks associated with data

surveillance. This can include workshops, training programs, and

public awareness campaigns.

4. Advocate for Ethical Guidelines and Regulations: Stakeholders,

including policymakers, industry bodies, and advocacy groups, should

collaborate to develop and promote ethical guidelines and regulations

governing data surveillance practices. These guidelines should

prioritize privacy protection, informed consent, and data security,

47
 while also striking a balance with legitimate security concerns. Regular

updates and monitoring of these guidelines are necessary to keep pace

with evolving technologies and data practices.

5. Encourage Ethical Data Practices: Organizations should adopt a

culture of ethical data practices, where privacy and data protection are

considered integral to their operations. This includes incorporating

privacy considerations into the design of digital platforms, conducting

privacy impact assessments, and promoting a proactive approach to

privacy protection.

Through implementing these recommendations, we can foster a more

ethical approach to privacy and surveillance in the digital age. These actions

not only protect individuals' privacy rights but also contribute to building

trust, maintaining societal well-being, and ensuring the responsible use of

personal data in an increasingly interconnected world.

48
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52
 APPENDIX

QUESTIONNAIRE

Title: The Ethics of Privacy and Surveillance in the Digital Age

Instructions:

Thank you for participating in this study on the ethics of privacy and

surveillance in the digital age. Your responses are valuable for understanding

53
the diverse perspectives on this crucial issue. Please carefully read each

question and select the option that best represents your views.

Section 1: Demographic Information

1. Gender:

 Male

 Female

2. Age Group:

 20-30 years

 31-40 years

 41-50 years

 Above 50 years

3. Educational Level:

 High School

 Bachelor's Degree

 Master's Degree

 Ph.D. or Higher

54
Section 2: Ethical Considerations Related to Privacy and Surveillance

4. To what extent do you consider the following ethical considerations

important in the context of privacy and surveillance in the digital age?

Please rate each consideration on a scale of 1 to 5, with 1 being "Not

Important" and 5 being "Very Important."

 Privacy:

 1

 2

 3

 4

 5

 Informed Consent:

 1

 2

 3

 4

55
  5

 Data Security:

 1

 2

 3

 4

 5

 Transparency:

 1

 2

 3

 4

 5

 Fairness:

 1

 2

56
  3

 4

 5

Section 3: Impact of Privacy Infringements and Surveillance Practices

5. Please rate the perceived impact of privacy infringements and

surveillance practices on individuals and society. Please rate each

impact on a scale of 1 to 5, with 1 being "Negligible" and 5 being

"Significant."

 Loss of Trust:

 1

 2

 3

 4

 5

 Psychological Impact:

 1

57
  2

 3

 4

 5

 Reputation Damage:

 1

 2

 3

 4

 5

 Social Stigma:

 1

 2

 3

 4

 5

58
  Legal Consequences:

 1

 2

 3

 4

 5

Section 4: Ethical Responsibilities in Managing Privacy and

Surveillance

6. In your opinion, what are the ethical responsibilities of government,

corporations, and online platforms in managing privacy and

surveillance? Please rate each mitigation strategy on a scale of 1 to 5,

with 1 being "Not a Responsibility" and 5 being "Essential

Responsibility."

 Data Encryption:

 1

 2

 3
59
  4

 5

 Access Control:

 1

 2

 3

 4

 5

 Anonymization:

 1

 2

 3

 4

 5

 Privacy Policies:

 1

60
  2

 3

 4

 5

 User Education:

 1

 2

 3

 4

 5

61