CHAPTER 1.

1 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

LENGTH
• A rule (ruler) is used to measure length for distances between 1mm and 1meter.
• For even smaller lengths, we use a micrometre screw gauge or a vernier callipers
• SI unit for length is the meter (m)
‒ 1 decimetre (dm) = 10−1 m
‒ 1 centimetre (cm) = 10−2 m
‒ 1 millimetre (mm) = 10−3 m
‒ 1 micrometre (μm) = 10−6 m
‒ 1 nanometre (nm) = 10−9 m
‒ 1 kilometre (km) = 103 m = 1000 metres
‒ 1 gigametre (Gm) = 109 m = 1 billion metres
• Micrometre screw gauge – This has a revolving barrel with an extra scale on it. The barrel is connected to a
screw thread and, in the example shown below, each turn of thread closes (or opens) the gap by 1mm. First the
gap is opened wide. Then it is closed up until the object being measured just fits in it (a clicking sound is heard).
The diagram below shows you how to take the reading.

• Vernier Callipers – This is an extra sliding scale fitted to some length-measuring instruments. Its divisions are set
slightly closer together than normal so that one of them coincides with a division on the fixed scale.
AREA
• The SI unit of area is the square metre (m2)
• Area of a Square or Rectangle = Length × Breadth
• Area of Triangle = 1/2 × Base × Height
• Area of a Circle = πr2; r= Radius and π = 22/7 (or 3.14)
* Circumference of a circle = 2πr

MASS
• The mass of an object is the measure of the amount of matter in it. The SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg)
• One Kilogram is the mass of a piece of platinum–iridium alloy at the Office of Weights and Measures in Paris.
• The gram (g) is one-thousandth of a kilogram; 1g = 1/1000 kg = 10-3 kg = 0.001 kg
• The term weight is often used when mass is really meant. In science the two ideas are distinct and have
different units, as we shall see later. The confusion is not helped by the fact that mass is found on a balance by a
process we unfortunately call ‘weighing’!
• BEAM BALANCE (below left) and Digital balance (below right)

VOLUME
• Volume is the amount of space occupied by an object. The SI unit of volume is the cubic metre (m3) but as this is
rather large, for most purposes the cubic centimetre (cm3) is used.
• To find out volume of regular object, we use mathematical formula
‒ Volume of a Rectangle = Length × Breadth × Height
‒ Volume of a Cylinder = πr2h; r = radius, h = height
‒ Volume of a Sphere = 4/3 πr3; r = radius
• To find out volume of irregular object, put object into measuring cylinder with water. When object added, it
displaces water, making water level rise. Measure this rise. This is the volume.
TIME
• Interval of time is measured using clocks or a stopwatch
• SI unit for time is the second(s)
• Accuracy of time measurement can be improved by measuring longer time intervals.
• Period of a simple pendulum: Several oscillations (rather than just one) are timed to find the period of a
pendulum, to improve the accuracy of calculation. One oscillation is from A to O to B to O to A (Figure 1.8).
Repeat the timing a few times (e.g., 10 OR 25 times) for the same number of oscillations and work out the
average. The time for one oscillation is the period T. The frequency f of the oscillations is the number of
complete oscillations per second and equals 1/T.

SCALAR vs VECTOR QUANTITIES

• Many physical quantities such a force and velocity, have both magnitude and direction; they are termed vectors.
When combining two vectors, you need to take into account any difference in their directions
• A scalar quantity has magnitude (size) only e.g., time, distance, speed, mass, pressure, energy, temperature
• A vector quantity is described completely only if both its size (magnitude) and direction are stated e.g., weight,
velocity, acceleration, momentum, gravitational field strength, electric field strength etc.
• A scalar is a quantity that only has a magnitude (so it can only be positive) for example speed.
• A vector quantity has a direction as well as a magnitude, for example velocity, which can be negative.
• Calculating resultant force:

o A parallelogram has to be made with the acting forces (F1 and F2). The resultant force will be the diagonal.
o Make sure the same scale is used to convert between length and forces.
O Measure length of diagonal and use scale to convert value into force (FR).
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
• The number of figures, called significant figures, given for a measurement indicates how accurate we think it is
and more figures should not be given than are justified. E.g., a value of 4.5 for a measurement has 2 significant
figures and 0.0385 has 3 significant figures (3 being the most significant, and 5 the least significant)

CHAPTER 1.2 MOTION

• Speed is the distance an object moves in a time frame. It is measured in meters/second (m/s) or km/h.
∴ ࡿ࢖ࢋࢋࢊ ࢇ࢜ࢋ࢘ࢇࢍࢋ = ࢀ࢕࢚ࢇ࢒ ࡰ࢏࢙࢚ࢇ࢔ࢉࢋ / ࢀ࢕࢚ࢇ࢒ ࢀ࢏࢓ࢋ
 • Speed is a scalar quantity as it only shows magnitude.
• Speed in a specified direction is velocity, which is a vector quantity
• Distance moved in a stated direction is called displacement. Therefore, Velocity can also be defined as the
change in displacement in a unit time

DISTANCE TIME GRAPHS

• Distance-Time graphs show the distance covered at different times
• The slope (or gradient) of the plotted line shows Speed (= Distance/ Time) = ࢟૛−࢟૚ / ࢞૛−࢞૚ = Δ݀ / ‫ݐ‬
• Straight lines mean constant speed

• Therefore, distance:
o with constant speed: = ܵ‫݁݉݅ܶ × ݀݁݁݌‬
o with constant acceleration: = [(‫݀݁݁݌ܵ ݈ܽ݊݅ܨ‬+‫)݀݁݁݌ܵ ݈ܽ݅ݐ݅݊ܫ‬/ 2] ×ܶ݅݉݁
SPEED TIME GRAPHS

• Speed-Time graphs show speed at different times

• The slope (or gradient) of the plotted line shows acceleration (= Speed/ Time) = (‫ݕ‬2−‫ݕ‬1) / (‫ݔ‬2−‫ݔ‬1) = Δ‫ ݒ‬/ ‫ݐ‬
• The area under the line or the graph = the total distance covered (= Speed * Time)
• Straight lines mean constant acceleration
• Positive acceleration means the velocity of a body is increasing
• Deceleration or negative acceleration means the velocity of a body is decreasing
• If acceleration is not constant (that means that its changing), the speed time graph will be curved.
• Acceleration is the rate of change in velocity per unit of time, and a vector as its direction is specified

ACCELERATION (measured in m/s2)

• Equations for constant acceleration (Acceleration – a; Final Speed – v; Initial Speed – u; Time taken – t):
‒ 1st equation: Acceleration (a) = Change in Velocity / Time taken = (v – u)/ t
‒ 2nd equation: Average Speed = (u + v)/2; So, Distance = Average Speed X Time = [(v+u)/2] X t
• A negative acceleration is called deceleration or retardation
FALLING BODIES and ACCELERATION BY GRAVITY
• In air, a coin falls faster than a small piece of paper. In a vacuum they fall at the same rate. The difference in air
is due to air resistance having a greater effect on light bodies than on heavy bodies. The air resistance to a light
body is large, as compared to its weight. With a dense piece of metal, the air resistance is negligible.
• An object in free-fall near to the Earth has a constant acceleration caused by gravity due to the Earth’s uniform
gravitational field. All bodies falling freely under the force of gravity do so with uniform acceleration, if air
resistance is negligible.
• This acceleration, called the acceleration of free fall, is denoted by the italic letter g. Its value varies slightly over
the Earth but is constant in each place. On an average it’s about 9.8 m/s2 (roughly 10 m/s2)
• Given g = ~10 m/s2, the velocity of a free-falling body increases by ~10m/s every second. A ball shot upwards
with a velocity of 30 m/s decelerates by about 10 m/s every second and reaches its highest point after 3 seconds
• Objects are slowed down by air resistance. When deceleration caused by air resistance = acceleration by gravity,
i.e., there is no net force acting on a body in free fall, the body reaches terminal velocity. It then continues to
fall at a constant speed (terminal velocity), without any further acceleration (e.g., skydivers)
FREE FALL

CHAPTER 1.3 MASS AND WEIGHT

• Mass of an object is a measure of the amount of matter in it. It’s also the body’s resistance to motion.
• The standard unit of mass is kilogram (kg). I gm = 1/ 1000 kg = 10-3 kg = 0.001 kg
• Weight is the force of gravity on a body, because of its mass.
• ࢃࢋ࢏ࢍࢎ࢚ (W) = ࡹࢇ࢙࢙ (m) × ࡳ࢘ࢇ࢜࢏࢚࢟ (g). Weight is measured in Newton, N (like Force; its gravitational force)
• Weights (and hence masses) may be compared using a balance
• The gravitational field strength (g) is defined as the force acting per unit mass = W / m. It’s a vector and has
both magnitude and direction
• The weight of an object is directly proportional to its mass, which explains why g is the same for all objects
• Greater the mass of an object, the greater the force of gravity on it. While the mass of an object is always the
same, its weight varies depending on the value of the gravitational force, g (heavier on earth, lighter on moon)
CHAPTER 1.4 DENSITY
• ࡰࢋ࢔࢙࢏࢚࢟ (࣋) = ࡹࢇ࢙࢙ (࢓) / ࢂ࢕࢒࢛࢓ࢋ (ࢂ)
• Measuring Density of a liquid
‒ Place measuring cylinder on balance. Note the reading (= mass of the measuring cylinder)
‒ Add liquid. Take reading on the balance again (= mass of cylinder + liquid). Change in mass on balance = m.
‒ Take the reading on measuring cylinder = V, Use formula (Density = m/V).
 • Measuring Density of Solid:
‒ Finding the volume
o For volume of a regular object, use mathematical formula (e.g., Cuboid = L X B X H)
o For volume of an irregular object, put it into a measuring cylinder with water, measure the rise of water.
‒ Finding the mass: Use balance
‒ Use formula (Density = m/V).
• An object will float in a fluid if its density is lesser than the density of the liquid, i.e. The volume of fluid displaced
has a greater mass than the object itself.
• Example: an orange with its peel has a density of 0.84g/cm3, we can predict that it will float in water because it
is less than 1 g/cm3 (density of water). We can also say that an orange without its peel, which has a density of
1.16g/cm3, will sink because it is greater than 1g/cm3.
• A liquid of low density will float on a liquid of higher density, if the two liquids don’t mix

CHAPTER 1.5 FORCES

A force is a push or a pull. It can cause a body at rest to move, or if the body is already moving it can change its speed
or direction of motion. A force can also change a body’s shape or size. Force is measured in Newtons (N).
ࡲ࢕࢘ࢉࢋ = ࡹࢇ࢙࢙ × ࡭ࢉࢉࢋ࢒ࢋ࢘ࢇ࢚࢏࢕࢔
• 1 Newton is the amount of force needed to give 1kg an acceleration of 1m/s2
• The weight of a body is the force of gravity on it. It can be measured by hanging it on a spring balance marked in
newtons and letting the pull of gravity stretch the spring. The greater the pull, the more the spring stretches.
• The resultant of forces acting in the same dimension will be their sum, provided a convention for directions is
set. Therefore, the resultant of 2 forces acting in the same dimension, in the opposite direction will be the
difference in their magnitude in the direction of the greatest.
• If there is no resultant force acting on a body, it remains at rest or continues at constant speed in a straight line

RESISTIVE FORCES
• Friction: the force between two surfaces which impedes motion and results in heating. Friction is the force that
opposes one surface moving, or trying to move, over another. It can be a help or a hindrance. We could not walk
if there was no friction between the soles of our shoes and the ground. Our feet would slip backwards, as they
tend to if we walk on ice. On the other hand, engineers try to reduce friction to a minimum in the moving parts
of machinery by using lubricating oils and ball-bearings.
• Air resistance is a form of friction

NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

• First law of motion: If no external for is acting on it, an object will, if stationary, remain stationary, and if moving,
keep moving at a steady speed in the same straight line
• Second law of motion: ࡲ = ࢓ࢇ
• Third law of motion: Every action force has an equal and opposite reaction force. So, if object A exerts a force on
object B, then object B will exert an equal but opposite force on object A. For example, the force of the Earth’s
gravity on an object is equal and opposite to the force of the object’s gravity on the Earth.
For example, motion of a body falling in a uniform gravitational field (see the diagram above):
• Initially, there is no air resistance and the only force acting on it is weight
• As it falls, it accelerates which increases its speed and hence air resistance
• This causes the resultant force downwards to decrease
• Therefore, the acceleration decreases, so it is not speeding up as quickly
• Eventually they are equal and opposite and balance so there is no resultant force
• So, there is no acceleration, and the terminal velocity is reached

HOOKE’S LAW
• Springs extend in proportion to load, as long as they are under their proportional limit.
• Limit of proportionality: point at which load, and extension are no longer proportional
• Elastic limit: point at which the spring will not return to its original shape after being stretched
• ‫݊݋݅ݏ݊݁ݐݔ݁ × ݐ݊ܽݐݏ݊݋ܥ ݃݊݅ݎ݌ܵ = )ݏ݊݋ݐݓ݁ܰ ݊ܫ( ݀ܽ݋ܮ‬
• ࡲ = ࢑࢞

• Hooke’s law also holds when a force is applied to a straight metal wire or an elastic band, provided they are not
permanently stretched. For a rubber band, a small force causes a large extension.

CIRCULAR MOTION
• An object at steady speed in circular orbit is always accelerating as its direction is changing, but it gets no closer
to the center. The speed of the ball stays constant.
• For an object moving in a circle, with constant speed:
‒ The speed is constant, but the direction is always changing
‒ This means the velocity is always changing
‒ Therefore, its accelerating and there must be a force perpendicular to its velocity, towards centre of the circle.
• Centripetal force is the force acting towards the center of a circle. It is a force that is needed, not caused, by
circular motion. For example, when you swing a ball on a string round in a circle, the tension of the string is the
centripetal force. If the string is cut, then the ball will travel in a straight line at a tangent to the circle at the
point where the string was cut.
• Centrifugal force is the force acting away from the center of a circle. This is what makes a slingshot go outwards
as you spin it. The centrifugal force is the reaction to the centripetal force. It has the same magnitude but
opposite direction to centripetal force.
Rounding a bend - When a car rounds a bend, a frictional force is exerted inwards by the road on the car’s tyres,
so providing the centripetal force needed to keep it in its curved path (Figure 9.4a). Here friction acts as an
accelerating force (towards the centre of the circle) rather than a retarding force (p. 29). The successful negotiation
of a bend on a flat road, therefore, depends on the tyres and the road surface being in a condition that enables them
to provide a sufficiently large frictional force – otherwise skidding occurs.
Safe cornering that does not rely entirely on friction is achieved by ‘banking’ the road as in Figure 9.4b. Some of the
centripetal force is then supplied by the part of the contact force N, from the road surface on the car, that acts
horizontally. A bend in a railway track is banked, so that the outer rail is not strained by having to supply the
centripetal force by pushing inwards on the wheel flanges.

MOMENTS
• A moment is the measure of the turning effect on a body and is defined as:
ࡹ࢕࢓ࢋ࢔࢚(ࡺ࢓) = ࡲ࢕࢘ࢉࢋ(ࡺ) × ࡼࢋ࢘࢖ࢋ࢔ࢊ࢏ࢉ࢛࢒ࢇ࢘ ࢊ࢏࢙࢚ࢇ࢔ࢉࢋ ࢌ࢘࢕࢓ ࡼ࢏࢜࢕࢚(࢓)
• Therefore, increasing force or distance from the pivot increases the moment of a force
• This explains why levers are force magnifiers e.g., The handle on a door is at the outside edge so that it opens
and closes easily. A much larger force would be needed if the handle were near the hinge. Similarly, it is easier
to loosen a nut with a long spanner than with a short one (because the perpendicular distance from pivot is
massively increased, and so is the turning effect).
• In equilibrium, clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment there is no resultant force acting on the body.
• This can be proven by hanging masses of the same weight on opposite sides of a meter rule on a pivot at equal
distances from the pivot showing that the meter rule in stationary.

THREE TYPES OF LEVERS

CENTRE OF MASS
• Centre of mass: imaginary point in a body where total mass of body seems to be acting.
• An object will be in stable equilibrium when it returns to its original position given a small displacement.
• For an object that is displaced, it would stabilize only if the force caused by its weight is within its base.
• For an object to start rotating it needs to have an unbalanced moment acting on it
A self-righting toy shown above (Figure 11.9) has a heavy base and, when tilted, the weight acting through the centre
of mass has a moment about the point of contact. This restores it to the upright position.

The stability of a body is therefore increased by

(i) lowering its centre of mass, and
(ii) increasing the area of its base.

CHAPTER 1.6 MOMENTUM

Momentum: Momentum is defined as the product of mass and velocity.

Its unit is kilogram meters per second (kgm/s) and it is a vector quantity, as it has both size and direction. The
direction is given by its velocity (= its speed in a particular direction).

Momentum has the symbol “p” and can be written mathematically as:
p=mxv

Thus, the momentum of an object depends on its mass and its velocity. A 5000kg van travelling with a velocity
of 6m/s will have a greater momentum than a 2000kg car travelling at the same velocity of 6m/s. However, a
2000kg car travelling at a velocity of 20m/s will have greater momentum than 5000kg van travelling at 6m/s.
The greater the mass of a rugby player the greater is his momentum

Q1. Calculate the momentum of a rugby player, mass 120kg moving at 3m/s.
Answer: p = m x v
= 120kg x 3m/s
Therefore, Momentum = 360 kg m/s

Q2. Calculate mass of a car, which moving at 25m/s has momentum of 20000 kg m/s.
Answer: p = m x v
becomes: m = p ÷ v
= 20000 kg m/s ÷ 25 m/s
Therefore, Mass = 800 kg

Linking Force & Momentum: With a resultant force on it, an object will accelerate. Therefore, its velocity will
change, and so will its momentum.
Resultant Force: It is the rate of change of momentum.
Equation: Resultant Force = Change in momentum/ Time.

Impulse Reaction: The quantity of force with time is called impulse reaction.
Equation: Resultant Force x Time = Change in momentum

From Newton’s second laws we know that:

And that the acceleration is the change in velocity by the time taken:

By substituting the value of “a” into the force equation it gives:

The above equation can be written as: Resultant Force x time taken = change in momentum

This equation confirms that when a resultant force acts on an object it will cause a change of momentum in
the direction of the force and size of the change depends on size of the force and the time for which it acts.

This can be explained by considering a sportsman or sportswoman striking a ball. A good sportsperson will
always follow through when playing a shot. This means the force is applied for a longer time and so a greater
change in momentum can be achieved for a given force.

Let’s consider the following example. A batsman strikes a cricket ball of mass 0.15kg accelerating it from
10m/s to 25m/s. The illustration below shows the force required when the bat acts on the ball for 1/100th of
a second and for 1/10th of a second.

One Hundredth of a Second One Tenth of a Second

The above example illustrates that the longer the duration of contact or impact in a collision the smaller the
force exerted. Seat belts, airbags and crumple zones in cars also make use of this concept. During a car
accident the seat belt is designed to stretch slightly, thereby increasing its time of contact with the wearer.
This reduces the force of the impact on the seat belt wearer. Crumple zones in vehicles also increase the
length of time of impact with a colliding object thus reducing the force on the passengers.

Q3. Calculate the force required to change the momentum of a car by 24000 kgm/s over a 6 second period.
Answer: Force = Momentum change ÷ Time taken
= 24000 kgm/s ÷ 6 s
Therefore, Force = 4000N

Q4. Calculate the time taken for a force of 6000N to cause the momentum of truck to change by 42000
kgm/s.
Answer: force = momentum change ÷ time taken
Which becomes, time taken = momentum change ÷ force
= 42000 kgm/s ÷ 6000 N force
= 7 seconds

Conservation Of Momentum
We know that when a force acts on a body for a time it results in a change of momentum. Momentum is
conserved in any collision or explosion provided no external forces act on the colliding or exploding bodies.

When two bodies collide, they exert a force over the same period of time which results in a change in
momentum. From Newton’s third law we know if object A exerts a force on object B, then object B exerts an
equal and opposite force on object A. This means that the change in momentum will be equal and opposite.

Law of Conservation of Momentum:

In a closed system, the sum of the momentum of bodies before collision is equal to the sum of the momentum after
the collision. The principle of conservation of momentum is as follows:
Total momentum before collision = total momentum after collision
Equation: m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

For the principle of conservation to hold no external forces must act on the colliding bodies as this would
result in momentum being added to the system. As momentum is a vector, its direction must be allowed.

Q5. A truck of mass 0.5kg moving at 1.2m/s collides and remains attached to another, initially stationary
truck of mass 1.5kg. Calculate the common velocity of the trucks after the collision.

Answer:
total momentum before collision
p=mxv
0.5 kg truck: = 0.5 kg x 1.2 m/s = 0.6 kg m/s
1.5 kg truck: = 1.5 kg x 0 m/s = 0 kg m/s
total initial momentum = 0.6 kg m/s

Momentum is conserved in collision So, total momentum after collision = 0.6 kg m/s
total momentum = total mass x velocity
0.6 kg m/s = 2.0 kg x v
0.6 ÷ 2.0 = v
Therefore, common velocity = 0.3 m/s

Q6. A train wagon of mass 800 kg moving at 4 m/s collides and remains attached to another wagon of mass
1200 kg that is moving in the same direction at 2 m/s. Calculate the common velocity of the wagons after
the collision.
Answer:
Total momentum before collision
p=mxv
800 kg wagon: = 800 kg x 4 m/s = 3200 kg m/s
1200 kg truck: = 1200 kg x 2 m/s = 2400 kg m/s
total initial momentum = 5600 kg m/s

Momentum is conserved in collision. so total momentum after collision = 5600 kg m/s

total momentum = total mass x velocity
5600 kg m/s = 2000 kg x v
5600 ÷ 2000 = v
common velocity = 2.8 m/s

Q7. Choose appropriate words to fill in the gaps below:

conservation, momentum, forces, metres, mass, direction, same, conservation
Answer:
The momentum of an object is equal to its mass multiplied by its velocity. Momentum has direction, the same
as the velocity, and is measured in kilogram metres per second. In any interaction of bodies, where no
external forces act on the bodies, momentum is conserved. In snooker, a head-on collision of a white ball with
a red ball can result in the red ball moving off with the same initial velocity of the white ball. This is an
example of momentum conservation.

Head-on collisions: In this case bodies are moving in opposite directions. Momentum has direction. One
direction is treated as positive, the other as negative. In calculations the velocity of one of the colliding
bodies must be entered as a NEGATIVE number.

Q8. A car of mass 1000 kg moving at 20 m/s makes a head-on collision with a lorry of mass 2000 kg moving
at 16 m/s. Calculate their common velocity after the collision if they remain attached to each other.

Answer:
total momentum before collision
p=mxv
car: = 1000 kg x +20 m/s = +20000 kg m/s
lorry: = 2000 kg x -16 m/s = -32000 kg m/s
So, total initial momentum = -12000 kg m/s
Momentum is conserved in collision. So, total momentum after collision = -12000 kg m/s
total momentum = total mass x velocity
- 12000 kg m/s = 3000 kg x v
- 12000 ÷ 3000 = v

Common velocity = -4 m/s

The lorry/car combination will move in the original direction of the lorry.

Q9. A car of mass 1000 kg moving at 30 m/s makes a head-on collision with a lorry of mass 2000 kg moving
at 15 m/s. Calculate their common velocity after the collision if they remain attached to each other.

Answer:
Total momentum before collision
p=mxv
Car: = 1000 kg x +30 m/s = +30000 kg m/s
Lorry: = 2000 kg x -15 m/s = -30000 kg m/s

Total initial momentum = 0 kg m/s

Momentum is conserved in the collision. So total momentum after collision = 0 kg m/s
The lorry/car combination will not move after the collision.

Types of Collision:
‒ Elastic Collision: When the sum of the kinetic energy in a collision, before and after are equal; the collision is
called elastic collision. E.g., Smoker at soft speed.
‒ Inelastic collision: When the sum of the kinetic energy, before and after collision are not equal.

Newton’s Law of Motion:

‒ Newton’s 1st Law: Everybody continues its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line until an
external force acts on it.
‒ Newton’s 2nd Law: To every action there is a reaction of Motion.

Explosions: The principle of conservation of momentum also applies to explosions. Explosions are the
opposite to collisions. In explosions objects move apart. Before an explosion the total momentum is zero. As
momentum is conserved, the total momentum afterwards must also be zero. This means that the different
parts of the exploding body must move off in different directions.

An example of this is a rocket. A rocket gains momentum by the controlled explosion of fuel as the hot
exhaust gases move in one direction the rocket moves in the opposite direction. Thus, the momentum of hot
exhaust gases equals the momentum of the rocket.

Q10. An artillery gun of mass 1500kg fires a shell of mass 20kg at a velocity of 150m/s. Calculate the recoil
velocity of the gun.
`
Answer: The total momentum before and after the explosion is ZERO
p=mxv
Shell: = 20 kg x +150 m/s = +3000 kg m/s

This must cancel the momentum of the gun. Therefore, the gun’s momentum must be
- 3000 kg m/s
Gun: = 1500 kg x recoil velocity = - 3000 kg m/s
Recoil velocity = - 3000 ÷ 1500 = - 2m/s

The gun will recoil (move to the left) with a velocity of 2 m/s.

Q11. A girl of mass 60kg throws a boy, mass 90kg out of a swimming pool at a velocity of 2m/s. What is the
girl’s recoil velocity?

Answer:
The total momentum before and after throwing the boy is ZERO
p=mxv
boy: = 90 kg x +2 m/s = +180 kg m/s

This must cancel the girl’s momentum. Therefore, girl’s momentum must be -180 kg m/s
gun: = 60 kg x recoil velocity = - 180 kg m/s
recoil velocity = -180 ÷ 60 = -3m/s

The girl will recoil (move to the left) with a velocity of 3 m/s.

CAR SAFETY FEATURES

Crumple zones, air bags and a collapsible steering wheel are designed to increase the time taken for a driver
or passenger to change momentum to zero during a crash.

The equation: force = momentum change ÷ time taken, shows that if the time taken is increased for the same
momentum change the force exerted is decreased so is the injury to the driver or passenger.

Q12. The picture shows rubber tiles used for playground flooring. Explain how these
can reduce injury to children.

Answer:
When a child falls to the floor its momentum changes from a high value to zero.
The rubber flooring tiles increase the time taken for this change.
force = change in momentum ÷ time taken for the change
Therefore, the force on the child is reduced and so is the potential injury.

Q13. Choose appropriate words to fill in the gaps below:

Decreased, injury, velocity, increases, zero, crash, momentum, time, force
Answer:
The force exerted on an object is equal to the momentum change caused divided by the time taken for the
change. An airbag activates during a car crash. The inflated airbag increases the time taken for a driver’s or
passenger’s velocity to fall to zero. The time taken for their momentum to fall to zero is also increased.
Therefore, the force exerted on the driver or passenger is decreased and so is the potential injury caused.

Newton’s 3rd law of motion

Newton’s 3rd law of motion states that forces always occur in pairs. Each force has the same size but acts in
opposite directions. The law is often expressed as: “To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction”
Example 2: Rocket in flight
There are a pair of forces:
A = THRUST of the ROCKET ENGINES DOWNWARDS on the EJECTED GASES
B = CONTACT push of the EJECTED GASES UPWARDS on the ROCKET ENGINES

Example 3: Tyre-Road friction

A car is able to move forwards due to friction acting between its tyres and the road.
The force of friction of the road on the tyre acts in the forward direction and is equal
but in the opposite direction to the force of friction of the tyre on the road.

Rockets and jets - If you release an inflated balloon with its neck open, it flies off in the opposite direction to
that of the escaping air. In Figure 12.3 the air has momentum to the left and the balloon moves to the right
with equal momentum.
This is the principle of rockets and jet engines. In both, a high-velocity stream of hot gas is produced by
burning fuel and leaves the exhaust with large momentum. The rocket or jet engine itself acquires an equal
forward momentum. Space rockets carry their own oxygen supply; jet engines use the surrounding air.

Sport: impulse and collision time - A good cricketer or tennis player ‘follows through’ with the bat or racket
when striking the ball (Figure 12.4a). The force applied then acts for a longer time, the impulse is greater and
so also is the gain of momentum (and velocity) of the ball.
When we want to stop a moving ball such as a cricket ball, however, its momentum has to be reduced to
zero. An impulse is then required in the form of an opposing force acting for a certain time. While any
number of combinations of force and time will give a particular impulse, the ‘sting’ can be removed from the
catch by drawing back the hands as the ball is caught (Figure 12.4b). A smaller average force is then applied
for a longer time.

The use of sand gives a softer landing for long jumpers (Figure 12.5), as a smaller stopping force is applied
over a longer time. In a car crash the car’s momentum is reduced to zero in a very short time. If the time of
impact can be extended by using crumple zones (see Figure 14.6, p. 58) and extensible seat belts, the average
force needed to stop the car is reduced so the injury to passengers should also be less.

Q14. Choose appropriate words to fill in the gaps below:

direction, equal, object, contact, newtons, pairs, force, accelerate
Answer:
A force is a push or a pull. A force can cause an object to accelerate or change shape.
Force is measured in Newtons (N) with a newtonmeter. There are many types of force. Contact force occurs
when two bodies touch each other. Forces always occur in pairs. If a force is exerted on an object there will
always be another force, equal in size, acting in the opposite direction.

CHAPTER 1.7 ENERGY, WORK AND POWER

FORMS OF ENERGY
a) Chemical energy: Food and fuels, like oil, gas, coal, and wood, are concentrated stores of chemical energy. The
energy of food is released by chemical reactions in our bodies, and during the transfer to other forms we are able to
do useful jobs. Fuels cause energy transfers when they are burnt in an engine or a boiler. Batteries are compact
sources of chemical energy, which in use is transferred to electrical energy.
b) Gravitational Potential Energy: This is the energy a body has because of its position. A body above the Earth’s
surface, like water in a mountain reservoir, has potential energy stored in the form of gravitational potential energy.
c) Elastic Strain Energy: This is the energy a body has because of its condition. Work has to be done to compress or
stretch a spring or elastic material and energy is transferred to elastic strain energy (or elastic potential energy). If a
catapult (or bow) were to be released, the strain energy would be transferred to the projectile (or arrow).
d) Kinetic energy: Any moving body has kinetic energy and the faster it moves, the more kinetic energy it has. As a
hammer drives a nail into a piece of wood, there is a transfer of energy from the kinetic energy of the moving
hammer to other forms of energy.
e) Electrical energy: Electrical energy is produced by energy transfers at power stations and in batteries. It is the
commonest form of energy used in homes/ industry because of the ease of transmission and transfer to other forms.
f) Electrostatic energy: Energy can be stored by charged objects as electrostatic energy. This energy can be
transferred by an electric circuit
g) Nuclear energy: The energy stored in the nucleus of an atom is known as nuclear energy. It can be transferred to
other energy stores in nuclear reactions such as fission and fusion.
h) Internal energy: This is also called thermal or heat energy and is the final fate of other forms of energy. It is
transferred by conduction, convection, or radiation.

ENERGY TRANSFERS: Energy can be transferred between different forms including kinetic, gravitational potential,
chemical, elastic potential, nuclear and internal energy as a result of an event or process.
ଵ
• Kinetic energy: ࡱ࢑ = ଶ࢓࢜૛
• Gravitational potential energy: ‫݃݉ = ݌ܧ‬݉݃ℎ ℎ

Energy can be transferred in various ways including:

• Forces e.g., when gravity accelerates an object downwards and gives it kinetic energy.
• Electrical currents e.g., when a current passes through a lamp and it emits light and heat.
• Heating e.g., when a fire is used to heat up an object.
• Waves e.g., vibrations cause waves to travel through the air as sound.

WORK: In science the word work has a different meaning from its everyday use. Work is done when a force moves.
No work is done in the scientific sense by someone standing still holding a heavy pile of books: an upward force is
exerted, but no motion results. The work done is equal to the energy transferred.
If a building worker carries ten bricks up to the first floor of a building, he does more work than if he carries only one
brick because he has to exert a larger force. Even more work is required if he carries the ten bricks to the second
floor. The amount of work done depends on the size of the force applied and the distance it moves.
We therefore measure work by:
work = force × distance moved in direction of force
The unit of work is the joule (J); it is the work done when a force of 1 newton (N) moves through 1 metre
(m). For example, if you have to pull with a force of 50 N to move a crate steadily 3 m in the direction of the force,
the work done is 50 N × 3 m = 150 N m = 150 J. That is joules = newtons × metres
If you lift a mass of 3 kg vertically through 2 m, you have to exert a vertically upward force equal to the weight of the
body, i.e. 30 N (approximately) and the work done is 30 N × 2 m = 60 N m = 60 J.
Note that we must always take the distance in the direction in which the force acts.

MEASURING ENERGY TRANSFERS: In an energy transfer, work is done. The work done is a measure of the amount of
energy transferred. For example, if you have to exert an upward force of 10 N to raise a stone steadily through a
vertical distance of 1.5 m, the work done is 15 J. This is also the amount of chemical energy transferred from your
muscles to potential energy of the stone. All forms of energy, as well as work, are measured in joules.

POWER: The power of a device is the work it does per second, i.e., the rate at which it does work. This is the same
as the rate at which it transfers energy from one form to another. E.g., a lamp with a greater power will be brighter
because it transfers more energy from electrical energy to light and heat energy in a given time.
Power = Work done / Time taken = Energy transferred/ Time taken
ܲ=‫ܧ‬‫ܧ‬/‫ݐݐ‬
The unit of power is the watt (W) and is a rate of working of 1 joule per second, i.e., 1 W = 1 J/s. Larger units are the
kilowatt (kW) and the megawatt (MW):
1 kW = 1000 W = 103 W
1 mW = 1000000 W = 106 W
If a machine does 500 J of work in 10 s, its power is 500 J/10 s = 50 J/s = 50 W.

PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY: It’s a basic law of physics and is stated as “Energy cannot be created or
destroyed; it is always conserved”. However, energy is continually being transferred from one form to another.
Some forms, such as electrical and chemical energy, are more easily transferred than others, such as heat, for which
it is hard to arrange a useful transfer. Ultimately all energy transfers result in the surroundings being heated (as a
result of doing work against friction) and the energy is wasted, i.e., spread out and increasingly more difficult to use.
For example, when a brick falls its potential energy becomes kinetic energy; as it hits the ground, its temperature
rises, and heat and sound are produced. If it seems in a transfer that some energy has disappeared, the ‘lost’ energy
is often converted into non-useful heat. This appears to be the fate of all energy in the Universe and is one reason
why new sources of useful energy have to be developed

A mass m at height h above the ground has potential energy = mgh (Figure 14.3). When it falls, its velocity increases
and it gains kinetic energy at the expense of its potential energy. If it starts from rest and air resistance is negligible,
its kinetic energy on reaching the ground equals the potential energy lost by the mass

This is an example of the principle of conservation of energy

In the case of a pendulum (Figure 14.4), kinetic and potential energy are interchanged continually. The energy of the
bob is all potential energy at the end of the swing and all kinetic energy as it passes through its central position. In
other positions it has both potential and kinetic energy. Eventually all the energy is changed to heat as a result of
overcoming air resistance.
EFFICIENCY OF ENERGY TRANSFERS: The efficiency of a device is the percentage of the energy supplied to it that is
usefully transferred. It is calculated from the expression:

A device is efficient if it transfers energy mainly to useful forms and the ‘lost’ energy is small. Table 13.1 lists the
efficiencies of some devices and the energy transfers involved.

The efficiency of a system can be increased by:

• Reducing waste output (lubrication, thermal insulation, etc.)
• Recycling waste output (e.g., absorbing thermal waste and recycling it as input energy)
ENERGY SOURCES - It is important to note that apart from geothermal, nuclear, and tidal, the sun is the original
source of all energy on earth, released by nuclear fusion.

Renewable energy is energy which can be replenished as quickly as it is used. Examples include:
• Biofuel • Hydroelectricity • Tidal • Water waves
• Wind • Geothermal • Solar
It is often more costly and less reliable than non-renewable energy (e.g., the wind is intermittent and solar energy
relies on good weather). Non-renewable energy is used more for large-scale energy supplies due to the large energy
output per kilogram of fuel. Examples include Fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas) and Nuclear fuel.

It is usually cheaper than renewable energy but is becoming less popular because one day it will run out and it is
harmful for the environment (e.g., burning fossil fuels releases greenhouse gases which cause global warming).

Energy of food - When food is eaten it reacts with the oxygen we breathe into our lungs and is slowly ‘burnt’. As
a result chemical energy stored in food becomes thermal energy to warm the body and mechanical energy for
muscular movement. The energy value of a food substance is the amount of energy released when 1 kg is completely
oxidized. Energy value is measured in J/kg
CHAPTER 1.8 PRESSURE
To make sense of some effects in which a force acts on a body we have to consider not only the force but also the
area on which it acts. For example, wearing skis prevents you sinking into soft snow because your weight is spread
over a greater area. We say the pressure is less.
Pressure is the force (or thrust) acting on unit area (i.e., 1 m2) and is calculated from:
Pressure = Force / Area
‫ܨ=݌‬
‫ܨ‬/‫ܣ‬‫ܣ‬
The unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa); it equals 1 newton per square metre (N/m2) and is quite a small pressure. An
apple in your hand exerts about 1000 Pa.
The greater the area over which a force acts, the less the pressure. Figure 16.1 shows the pressure exerted on the
floor by the same box standing on end (Figure 16.1a) and lying flat (Figure 16.1b).
This is why a tractor with wide wheels can move over soft ground. The pressure is large when the area is small
and this is why nails are made with sharp points. Walnuts can be broken in the hand by squeezing two together but
not one. Why?
For example, lying down on a bed of nails compared to a single nail:
• The force applied is the weight of your body
• The total area is either a single pinpoint or many points spread out over a larger area ○ So on a bed of nails, the
pressure is lower as the area is greater.
LIQUID PRESSURE
1. Pressure in a liquid increases with depth because the further down you go, the greater the weight of liquid
above. In Figure 16.2a water spurts out fastest and furthest from the lowest hole.
2. Pressure at one depth acts equally in all directions. The can of water in Figure 16.2b has similar holes all
round it at the same level. Water comes out equally fast and spurts equally far from each hole. Hence the
pressure exerted by the water at this depth is the same in all directions.

3. A liquid finds its own level. In the U-tube of Figure 16.3a the liquid pressure at the foot of P is greater than at
the foot of Q because the left-hand column is higher than the right-hand one. When the clip is opened the
liquid flows from P to Q until the pressure and the levels are the same, i.e., the liquid ‘finds its own level’.
Although the weight of liquid in Q is now greater than in P, it acts over a greater area because tube Q is
wider. In Figure 16.3b the liquid is at the same level in each tube and confirms that the pressure at the foot
of a liquid column depends only on the vertical depth of the liquid and not on the tube width or shape.
 4. Pressure depends on the density of the liquid. The denser the liquid, the greater the pressure at any given
depth.

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM: A town’s water supply often comes from a reservoir on high ground. Water flows from it
through pipes to any tap or storage tank that is below the level of water in the reservoir (Figure 16.4). The lower the
place supplied, the greater the water pressure. In very tall buildings it may be necessary first to pump the water to a
large tank in the roof.

Reservoirs for water supply or for hydroelectric power stations are often made in mountainous regions by building a
dam at one end of a valley. The dam must be thicker at the bottom than at the top due to the large water pressure at
the bottom.
HYDRAULIC MACHINES: Liquids are almost incompressible (i.e., their volume cannot be reduced by squeezing) and
they ‘pass on’ any pressure applied to them. Use is made of these facts in hydraulic machines. Figure 16.5 shows the
principle on which they work.

Suppose a downward force f acts on a piston of area a. The pressure transmitted through the liquid is
Pressure = force / area = f / A
This pressure acts on a second piston of larger area A, producing an upward force,
F = pressure X area:
F = [f / a] × A
or
F=fXA/a
Since A is larger than a, F must be larger than f and the hydraulic system is a force multiplier; the multiplying factor is
A/a. For example, if f = 1 N, a = 1/100 m2 and A = ½ m2 then

= 50 N
A force of 1 N could lift a load of 50 N; the hydraulic system multiplies the force 50 times.

A hydraulic jack (Figure 16.6) has a platform on top of piston B and is used in garages to lift cars. Both valves open
only to the right and they allow B to be raised a long way when A moves up and down repeatedly. When steel is
forged using a hydraulic press there is a fixed plate above piston B and the sheets of steel are placed between B and
the plate.

Hydraulic fork-lift trucks and similar machines such as loaders work in the same way.

The pressure beneath a liquid surface increases with depth and density.
pressure = depth × density × g [where g is the acceleration of free fall]
࢖=࣋ࢍࢎ

Measuring pressure:
• A barometer consists of a tube filled with mercury with a vacuum at the top. Atmospheric pressure pushes
down at the sides causing the mercury to rise. The height of the mercury is measured to find atmospheric
pressure, where 760 mm or 29.92 in of mercury corresponds to 1 atm pressure.
• A manometer consists of a U-tube filled with mercury and with a gas at either end. The difference in the height
of mercury on either side can be measured to find the pressure difference between the two ends of the tube.