1

Using Psychological Assessment Models in the Selection of

Priests and Religious Applicants in the Southeast Nigerian Context

W
IE
Damian O. Nwafor
EV
A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of

The Chicago School of Professional Psychology

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

PR

For the Degree of PsyD Clinical Psychology

September 17, 2021

 2

Unpublished Work

Copyright 2021 by Damian O. Nwafor

All Rights Reserved

W
IE
EV
PR
 3

Using Personality Assessment Models in the Selection of Priests and Religious Applicants

in the Southeast Nigerian Context

A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of

The Chicago School of Professional Psychology

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of Doctor of Psychology in Clinical Psychology

Damian O. Nwafor

W
2021
IE
Approved By:
EV

Nahid Nasrat, Psy.D., Chairperson

Stephen Lally, Ph.D., Member

PR
 4

Acknowledgments

I express my sincere gratitude to my committee members, Dr. Nahid Nasrat and Dr.

Stephen Lally, for their invaluable support and guidance in planning and implementing this

research project. I offer my deepest appreciation to the Nigerian psychologists who participated

in this study. I extend my heartfelt gratitude to my General Superior, Mary Michael Okafor

(HFSN), for allowing me access to previous applicants' psychological reports. My appreciation

goes to my regional and community superior, Sr. Paschaline Uzochukwu (HFSN), for her

motherly support. Without their generous contributions of resources and time, this research

would not have been possible.

W
IE
EV
PR
 5

Dedication

To all my amazing family members and my religious community: Holy Family Sisters of

the Needy, both in Nigeria and in the United States of America, whose love and support have

helped turn this lifelong dream into a shared reality. I thank all of you, my friends and well-

wishers, especially Sr. Phyllis Thompson (RSM) for your prayerful support and encouragement

during this journey. God be with you always. My deepest gratitude goes to my Father Founder,

the late Rev. Father Denis Mary Joseph Ononuju-Obiaga, for his ceaseless fatherly-warmth and

support. May God grant you eternal rest in heaven. Amen.

W
IE
EV
PR
 6

Abstract

Psychological assessment is an important and recognizable aspect of the services provided by

psychologists in Western countries. Various countries use psychological assessment for various

reasons, such as recruitment, selection, placement, legal decisions, education, and classification

in commerce, industry, and the military. Research on cross-cultural psychological assessment

indicates that some countries can translate and adapt nonindigenous assessment instruments to

capture their cultural beliefs and experiences; whereas, others have not succeeded in doing so.

Because of the failure of successful adaptation and enculturation of Western instruments, many

non-Western countries are poorly served in using foreign psychological assessment instruments

W
in their own contexts. This study examines the existing personality assessment instruments used
IE
by Nigerian psychologists. It highlights the selection processes employed in choosing applicants

for clergy in the Nigerian setting. Its goal is to identify how evaluations are conducted and the
EV
degree to which nonnative psychological assessment tools are used and their potential impact.

Since Nigeria is among those countries that have not developed culturally valid psychological

assessment tests, future researchers are encouraged to examine possible ways of establishing
PR

culturally grounded and modified guidelines for the Nigerian clinician to be followed when

evaluating and interpreting the test results.

 7

Table of Contents
Title of Dissertation ....................................................................................................................... 1

Copyright Information ................................................................................................................... 2

Dissertation Committee ................................................................................................................. 3

Acknowledgement ......................................................................................................................... 4

Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... 5

Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... 6

Table of Content ............................................................................................................................. 7

W
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ 11
IE
Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................ 12

Background ................................................................................................................................ 12
EV

Problem Statement .................................................................................................................... 14

Purpose of this Study ................................................................................................................ 16

PR

Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 17

Significance of the Study .......................................................................................................... 18

Limitation of the Study ............................................................................................................. 19

Definition of the Key Terms ..................................................................................................... 19

Summary .................................................................................................................................... 20

Chapter 2: Literature Review ........................................................................................................ 21

History....................................................................................................................................... 22
 8

APA Guidelines on Personality Selections ............................................................................... 25

Fairness and Biases in personnel Assessment Selections ..................................................... 25

Utility of Selection Processes ................................................................................................... 26

Seminary Training and the Use of Assessment to Determine Admission ............................ 26

Criteria Used in the Selection Process ................................................................................. 30

Ways to Identify Traits of Unsuitable Candidates for Mission Work ................................. 31

Challenges of Cross-Cultural Assessment ................................................................................ 34

W
State of the Field and Profession of Psychology in Nigeria ................................................ 36

Setbacks in Using Western Psychological Evaluation with Non-Westerners ...................... 37

IE
Characteristics of Applicants and Cross-Cultural Implication ............................................. 38
EV
Some Unique Cultural Issues and Challenges in Nigeria .......................................................... 41

Implication of Differences in Ethnicity, Religion, and Culture ................................................. 43

PR

Traditional View of Illness and Heath in Nigeria ..................................................................... 44

Summary .................................................................................................................................... 49

Chapter 3: Research Design and Method ..................................................................................... 51

Research Design ........................................................................................................................ 51

The Reason for Choosing a Phenomenological Approach ....................................................... 52

Participants’ Recruitment Processes .......................................................................................... 53

Instrumentation .......................................................................................................................... 55

Analysis of the Data Procedures ............................................................................................... 57

 9

Research Questions and Selction Process ................................................................................. 57

Chapter 4: Data Analysis ............................................................................................................. 60

Setting ....................................................................................................................................... 61

Demographics ........................................................................................................................... 61

Results ........................................................................................................................................ 62

Nature and / Types of Current Assessment Tools ..................................................................... 64

Factors that Affect the Selection of the Psychological Evaluation Batteries ............................ 64

W
Types of Test Instrument Used ................................................................................................. 65

Characteristics of Applicants for Priesthood or Religious Life in Nigeria ............................... 66

IE
Distinguishing Desirable Traits for Religious Life ................................................................... 66
EV
Distinguishing Undesirable Traits for Priesthood and Religious Life ....................................... 68

Other General Issues .................................................................................................................. 70

PR

Social/ and Cultural Factors that Might Influence the Test Results ......................................... 70

When Western - Normed Psychological Interments Are Used ................................................ 70

Deeper Meaning of the Language Used in Assessment Tools .................................................. 73

Ways to Strengthen Psychological Services in Nigeria ............................................................ 74

Incorporating Cultural Barriers in Reports/ and Recommendations ......................................... 74

Using Modified Standard Guidelines and protocols .................................................................. 75

Findings from the Psychological Reports ................................................................................. 77

Findings ..................................................................................................................................... 79
 10

Summary .................................................................................................................................... 80

Chapter 5: Conclusions, Implications, and Recommendations ................................................... 81

Interpretation of Findings .......................................................................................................... 81

Limitations in Clinicians ........................................................................................................... 84

Recommendations ..................................................................................................................... 86

Implications................................................................................................................................ 89

Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 89

W
Suggested Mordificatiosn/Wayss to Make these Evaluations More Culturally Sensitive ......... 90

Suggested Elements for the Psychological Evaluation and Report .......................................... 91

IE
Barriers to Formation ................................................................................................................ 93
EV
Traits Needed from Mental Health Professionals ...................................................................... 93

Summary ................................................................................................................................... 95
PR

References ................................................................................................................................. 97

Appendix A: Study Information for Participants ..................................................................... 110

Appendix B: Informed Consent Form Example ..................................................................... 111

Appendix C: Interview Questions ............................................................................................ 113

 11

List of Tables

Table 1: Participant Demographics Information ......................................................................... 62

Table 2: The Last Thematic Outline.............................................................................................. 63

Table 3: Assessment Tool Use per Clinician and Percentage of Total Uses ................................ 78

W
IE
EV
PR
 12

Chapter 1: Introduction

Background

Psychological assessment, specifically personality testing, is a crucial component of the

services provided by psychologists in a majority of Western and many African countries.

Clinicians administer psychological assessments for various purposes, including screening

applicants for placement and classification in commerce, personnel selection, making legal

decisions, and recruitment in industry, the military, and medical environments (Olowookere,

2011). Rothstein and Goffin (2006) noted that administrators and human resource specialists use

personality evaluations to decide fitness for career positions. According to these authors,

W
personality evaluations assist in placing workers for suitable positions. Similarly, personality
IE
testing is uniquely important in helping employers make the right decisions while hiring new

employees. Wagner (2000) asserted that it improves employment suitability and performance by
EV
almost 70%. Moreover, psychological assessment is a central element of most forensic

evaluations, even though the exact tools used differ, based on the situation or setting (Archer et

al., 2006; Lally, 2003). In the same way, aspirants to religious orders and the Roman Catholic
PR

priesthood are routinely screened to determine if they are suited for the psychological demands

and personal sacrifices they will face in their vocation. Sunardi (2014) asserted that the aim of

screening applicants for clergy is to identify individuals’ suitability and overall mental health and

to predict perseverance of the applicant in the priesthood. Sundari claimed that psychological

assessments administered to those men who hope to become priests was to ascertain their

suitability for the calling, mental state, and the possibility that they would persevere in the

vocation.
 13

McGlone et al. (2010) examined the strategies and processes regarding the psychological

evaluation of applicants to the Catholic clergy in the United States of America. The researchers

established three research questionnaires, including a 178-item survey for vocation directors in

the diocese, 175-item survey for seminary rectors, and 117-item survey for psychologists. The

participants who were administered the third survey included 86 distinct mental health providers

who typically conduct psychological assessments for applicants to the Catholic clergy. The

findings from this research suggested that practically all the clinicians (93%) who participated in

this study indicated having performed psychological evaluations, which have been used to some

degree for screening candidates by the diocese, religious orders, or seminaries.

W
Globally, the instruments most frequently used for candidate assessment, including the
IE
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI; Hathaway & McKinley, 1983),

Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI; Morey, 2003), Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory
EV
(MCMI; Craig, 1992), and Rorschach Inkblot Test (Exner, 2003), were all developed by Western

psychologists and psychiatrists from Europe and North America (Mefoh, 2014). Some non-

Western countries, such as China, Japan, and other Asian countries (Butcher, 2004; Olowookere,
PR

2011), have developed and validated testing instruments to better fit their cultural context or

have successfully translated the above instruments to their native languages. However, in

Nigeria, instruments designed for West African communities and cultures are virtually

nonexistent, but the need for psychological assessment remains (Olowookere, 2011).

Olowookere asserted that almost all of the assessment instruments used in Nigeria by

psychologists are imported and not appropriate for the African cultural context.

Nigerian psychologists have initiated the process of improving the assessment tools to

accurately reflect Nigerian cultural values, but these attempts have been largely unsuccessful
 14

because of deficits in training in clinical psychology and in the number of psychometricians

(Olowookere, 2011). Olowookere suggested that Nigerian universities should consider offering

psychometrics as a specialty in clinical psychology, where psychologists will be able to develop

culturally and contextually proper instruments for Nigeria.

Nevertheless, although none of the current assessment instruments have been normed on

a Nigerian population, a research study conducted by Afolabi et al. (2018) suggested certain

utility in the MMPI-2. The participants included 409 patients who were recruited for the

neuropsychiatric clinical population in order to examine the utility of MMPI-2 in Nigeria.

According to Afolabi et al., male patients between 26 and 35 who coded 68/86 on the MMPI-2

W
seemed to be seen more in the Federal Neuropsychiatry Hospital. In contrast to the above
IE
mentioned studies by Mefoh (2014) and Olowookere (2011), which supported using culturally

contextual instruments for psychological services in Nigeria, the results from Afolabi et al.
EV
support the utility of the MMPI-2 in identifying and managing individuals with psychiatric

problems. According to Afolabi et al., this is especially true with patients who experience

symptoms related to paranoid schizophrenia.

PR

Problem Statement

Although psychological assessment is used for diverse purposes, in Nigeria, by far the

most common application for psychological assessments is for applicants for the priesthood and

religious life. In Nigeria, the vocation to the priesthood and religious life is enormously popular.

According to Cardinal Onaiyekan (2017), several vocations directors are not worried about how

to get applicants but faced with difficulty of properly screening the continuous number of

applicants. He stressed the necessity for appropriate selection of candidates to uphold the honesty

and sacredness of vocation to the priesthood. Nigerian psychologists employ psychological

 15

instruments developed in Western cultures when assessing indigenous applicants for the

priesthood and religious life (Ifeacho et al., 2015).

Among the instruments used by Nigerian clinicians is the MMPI-2, the most widely used

and accepted personality inventory (Olowookere, 2011). The MMPI instrument scales were

originally standardized primarily with a population selected from the Minnesota Neuropsychiatric

Hospital Unit in the United States of America and were later renormed with a broader United

States of American sample. This author recognizes the importance of the MMPI as an objective

personality assessment but questions the overall utility of using the instrument cross-culturally.

Olowookere (2011) noted that most of the items on the test were invented to fit American and

W
Western cultures. He further argued that racial and cultural diversity were not considered in the
IE
development of the test. He concluded that using a testing instrument such as the MMPI in Nigeria

or other non-Western countries without properly adapting the instrument to the cultural context
EV
would render the test results irrelevant because of cultural dissimilarities.

According to Butcher et al. (2006), objective personality tools might help uncover cultural

variances and similarities in character traits and psychiatric presentations. Additionally, the
PR

structured and systematized nature of objective personality tools helps reduce bias, which is more

likely to occur within a clinical interview. Objective assessment measures offer easily accessible

and quantifiable information about reliability and validity. However, the authors indicated that

these assessment measures are culture-specific. In other words, items incorporated in the tools

might mean one thing in Western culture and might have an entirely distinct meaning in a non-

Western culture. As a result, a personality assessment report, which may suggest symptoms of a

psychiatric disorder in one culture, might be interpreted differently in another culture. These

authors admitted that these tools remain the inventions of the culture where there were developed.
 16

At the same time, they also asserted that these Western objective measures might be used in

different cultures as a foundation or beginning point for comprehending personality and

psychiatric disorders. Furthermore, Butcher et al. (2006) indicated that it is not easy to

appropriately adapt Western tools to other cultures. When using assessment measures, providers

should be attentive to how they present the instrument to the examinee and establish a testing

setting that supports correct answering. Lastly, the responses provided by the examinee should be

sensitively interpreted within their cultural context. For example, Hass et al. (2016) suggested that

clinicians using Western tests with non-Westerners should consider the examinee’s primary

language, education, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and gender. Additionally, the authors

W
asserted that “before psychological measures can be confidently applied in countries different from
IE
the country of origin, an extensive adaptation process is required to assure effective test use” (p.

226).
EV
Use of the MMPI is primarily intended to identify different personality patterns and a

range of psychopathology and has been widely used in job selection evaluations. One of the uses

of the MMPI is to identify potential problems that would impact an applicant’s ability to be
PR

successful or to predict the mental health status of individuals who may be ultimately suffering

from mental illness. However, it is not clear whether the MMPI can be used to evaluate

applicants to the Nigerian clergy given the dynamics and intricacies of Nigerian cultural factors.

Purpose of the Study

This current study explored the overall psychological assessment instruments used by

Nigerian psychologists in Nigeria, specifically when selecting applicants for the clergy. In

exploring the tools, the project had three overall goals. The first purpose was to identify the

psychological assessment instruments used by clinicians in Nigeria, including the existing

 17

criteria for instrument selection, the referral source, and the purpose of the assessment. The

second goal was to highlight the qualifications of the practitioners who administer these

psychological evaluations and their area of expertise. The third goal was to evaluate the report

writing and examine whether Nigerian clinicians consider cultural context in their reports.

Moreover, given the unique and challenging lives embraced by priests and religious individuals,

this study aims ensure that accurate assessment and recommendations are provided so that

appropriate applicants are accepted and not hindered because of their Nigerian cultural

background.

Research Questions

W
The primary research question that guided this project was “How do psychologists in
IE
Nigeria use Western-normed psychological instruments in evaluating native applicants for the

priesthood and religious life?” To answer this question, additional questions were formulated.
EV
RQ1: What assessment tools do Nigerian clinicians use for assessing applicants

for the priesthood and religious life in Nigeria?

RQ2: What are the characteristics of applicants for religious life in Nigeria?
PR

RQ3: What are the current assessment tools used in Nigeria specifically for

assessing applicants for religious life?

RQ4: What sociocultural issues in Nigeria need to be considered during the

psychological evaluation of applicants for the priesthood and religious life?

RQ5: What are some unique cultural issues in Nigeria and how might they affect

the selection process for applicants for the priesthood and religious life?

A qualitative research methodology was used to address the research question. Kazdin

(2017) articulated that a qualitative research approach is used by researchers to draw out
 18

narrative accounts, descriptions, explanations, backgrounds, and meanings of participants’ views

of themselves and the world. Researchers ask applicants to report accounts of their life

experiences and how they see and evaluate the world. Employing this methodology allowed the

Nigerian psychologists to share practical information and experiences regarding the specific

assessment tools they use for evaluating applicants for the priesthood and religious life. This

researcher used a qualitative approach to evaluate the characteristics of applicants, the current

existing assessment tools, the unique issues specific to Nigerian culture, and how these factors

may affect the selection processes. This study explored the objective and projective

psychological assessment models used in the selection of applicants to the priesthood and

W
religious life in the Nigerian context. Using culturally relevant tools could yield a more

appropriate selection of applicants.

IE
Significance of the Study
EV
No available literature currently investigates the overall utility of personality assessments

in Nigeria, even though Nigerian psychologists regularly provide psychological evaluation

services. It is therefore important to examine the instruments they use and how they incorporate
PR

the cultural context in assessment, administration, responses, and writing of reports. This is

particularly true for institutions that rely on these tools for screening of applicants, such as

seminaries and religious communities. One cannot presume that assessment measures such as the

MMPI, MCMI, or PAI as they are used in the United States of America or other Western

countries should be adaptable for non-Western cultures or religious environments. A protocol to

inform assessment within religious communities from a Nigerian perspective is therefore highly

needed.
 19

Limitation of the Study

A strength of this study was on its West African–specific context, but this is also its

primary limitation. Findings and recommendations are highly tailored to be used in West Africa,

as among the Southeast Nigerian population, for admission and diagnostic clarifications,

especially when assessing applicants for clergy. Moreover, the results from this study are based

on a limited sample and thus have a limited power to be generalized to the entire population.

Definitions of Key Terms

Bishop. This is an individual who has succeeded the apostles of Jesus and has obtained

the completeness of Christ’s priesthood. A bishop has the unique power of ordaining priests and

W
other bishops (Beal et al., 2000).
IE
Clergy. These are individuals specifically ordained for Divine service, including deacons,

priests, and bishops. The clergy form the church’s order, rising from the rank of the deacon,
EV
which indicates the time of entrance into the clerical state (Hardon, 2013).

Consecrated life. This is a life sanctified to God by the profession of the evangelical

counsels of chastity, poverty, and obedience (Beal et al., 2000).

PR

Priesthood. As interpreted by Catholics, ordination to the priesthood is a sacrament

founded by Jesus Christ during the Last Supper with his disciples. With the virtue of the

priesthood, a man receives the authority to consecrate and offer the body and blood of Jesus

Christ in the Eucharistic sacrifice and to pronounce the forgiveness of sins. These individuals

exercise their priestly office publicly on behalf of people in the name of Jesus Christ (Hardon,

2013).

Religious congregation. Christian institutes for perfection whose members take public

vows either perpetually or temporarily. Individuals with temporary vows have to renew their
 20

vows after some fixed interval of time. These individuals live in a community such as a convent

(Hardon, 2013).

Religious life. A state in which persons strive to live their lives consecrated to God by

taken three evangelical vows: Obedience, chastity, and poverty. They usually live with others

dedicated to the same rules in community. In poverty they attempt to live simply. With

obedience ones listens to the commands or guidance of superiors as coming from the will of

God. Chastity is surrendering the body to God living in an unmarried state (Flannery, 1992).

Superior general or major superior. These are individuals who oversee the whole

institute or a province of an institute. The major superior may permit candidates to the novitiate

W
and profession, appoint members for offices including formators and apostolates, and supervise
IE
the life and discipline of the institute (Beal et al., 2000).

Summary
EV
Psychological personality assessments or evaluations prove helpful in various ways,

including diagnostic and treatment clarification, job selection, and varied admission purposes.

Currently in Nigeria, they are used for diverse purposes, including identifying the proper person
PR

for a given position or job. In the Church, assessments are used to seek out the best individuals

for shepherding the faithful as they strive to live their lives in the best way possible to serve God.

This dissertation questions the use of Western-normed or created tools when providing

psychological assessment to Nigerian populations and suggests the urgent need to establish

Nigerian normed instruments or at least consider cultural factors when using when using

Western tools. It further discusses the attempt to search for appropriate candidates for clergy in

the Nigerian context, which is one of the most frequent reasons for which Nigerian psychologists

make assessment referrals.

 21

Chapter 2: Literature Review

This section covers the importance of psychological personality evaluations. It gives a

brief history of psychological assessment and discusses the most frequent and widely used

personality assessment instrument, general introduction to personnel selection and use of

psychological tests, limitations of using Western psychological tools in assessing non-

Westerners, and cross-cultural implications. Also, it covers characteristics of applicants for the

priesthood and religious life. Scholars have always striven to comprehend human personality and

manner, but the contemporary age of personality evaluation started in Europe in the late 19th

century (Butcher, 2019). It was during that era that the possibility of effectively studying

W
individuals’ traits through close observation and research was established. That era is known for

recommending research methodologies based on personality. Additional attempts to comprehend

IE
personality and cognitive processes were made in the early 20th century. Many pioneering
EV
psychologists and psychiatrists attempted to examine behavior as they strove to comprehend and

heal mental illness. Personality assessment consists of methods of classifying the differences in

individuals’ ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving; it plays a unique role in the field of
PR

psychological sciences and practice (Weiner & Greene, 2008). For example, in studying

personality traits, it helps researchers to identify changes in people’s ways of responding, reveals

the sources of different patterns of behavior, and provides a snapshot of an individual’s evolving

adaptive way of living. Personality assessment is central because it helps mental health

professionals distinguish people’s mindsets and behavioral inclinations.

Information gathered from personality assessments can be used to draw important

conclusions about various areas, including clinical, forensic, healthcare, educational,

organizational, and job application (Weiner & Greene, 2008). Individuals’ traits and dispositions

can be assessed in various ways, such as through a diagnostic interview with the person
 22

involved, acquiring information about the person through the historical record, direct observation

of individuals’ behaviors, and by administering a battery of standardized tests for the

psychological evaluation of the person.

History

Butcher (2019) has argued that in effect human beings have always been involved in

personality assessment decisions and personality rulings. People engage in various means of

obtaining information, including observations for making personality-related decisions.

However, the zeal for gaining more precise awareness and knowledge about assessing basic

personality traits/characteristics gained more objective attention in the 19th century (Butcher,

W
2009). For instance, Galton (1949) projected that individuals’ traits could be examined through
IE
observation and research; he highlighted the possibility of standardizing observations and

assessing them through developmental standards. His concepts contributed to various subsequent
EV
personality evaluation providers (Van der Werff, 1985). Galton proposed that surveys could be

used for evaluating psychiatric disorders.

It was not until approximately 1919 that Woodworth established an initial self-report
PR

personality inventory, specifically for identifying individuals with psychiatric disorders for the

United States of American Army during the First World War (Gibby & Zickar, 2008). According

to Butcher et al. (2006), objective personality assessment originated from a personnel selection

procedure for the United States of American military during World War I. These authors noted

that using psychological tests in personnel-related decisions remains is a reliable and beneficial

means by which to assess personality. Psychologists use the results of those assessments to help

make recommendations when evaluating individuals for a position in public trust, including traits

related to emotional stability, judgment, and responsibility. Other recommendations include

 23

individuals' capability to manage stress, interpersonal skills, the presence of severe personality

disorders, or other psychological disorders, which might lead to rule violations or careless and

impulsive behavior patterns.

In the early 20th century, Woodworth and his colleagues observed case studies of military

personnel with neurotic traits and interviewed mental health professionals who had experience

working with similar patients (Gibby & Zickar, 2008). Following a series of interviews and

evaluations, Woodworth developed a category of neurotic traits. He assessed a group of people

with no neurotic symptoms, using his newly developed category, and removed those items with a

high occurrence. Later he tested 1,000 recruits and a smaller group of participants who had been

W
diagnosed with a mental illness. The outcomes were presented to a general, who proposed using
IE
the test to provide an initial assessment of recruits. If a recruit showed certain unfavorable

characteristics on the test, then a more detailed assessment was recommended. According to
EV
Woodworth (1918), even though the assessment tool was not finalized to be used during the war,

it was published soon after and became a commonly used assessment instrument, the Woodworth

Personal Data Sheet.

PR

Following Woodworth’s work, many personality inventories emerged to attend to

personality traits more widely (Butcher, 2009). A number of clinical personality evaluation

instruments were developed, including the Rorschach Inkblot Test (Exner, 2003), the Thematic

Apperception Test (TAT; Bellack, 1999), and the Minnesota Multiphasic Inventory (MMPI;

Hathaway & McKinley, 1983). In 1921 Hermann Rorschach described the analysis of responses

to inkblots to evaluate mental health signs and personality. In the United States of America,

interest in the inkblot test increased years later, when individuals including Beck started using

the plates in clinical settings to gauge clients’ personality and emotional traits (Shakow, 1941).
 24

Since then, the inkblot test has been a useful projective personality assessment tool used in

assessing personality traits (Butcher, 2009).

The TAT was developed by Murray and Morgan in the mid-1930s and early 1940s

(Morgan, 2000). This instrument contains several pictures, for which a patient is asked to create

a story relating to what is happening with the picture, what led to the incident displayed, the

emotions of the people revealed in the story, and the aftermath of the story.

The MMPI was developed by Hathaway and McKinley in 1937 (Colligan, 1985).

Observations made in their clinic persuaded them of the need to develop a multi-construct

inventory that focused on the mental health issues commonly viewed in their practice. Hathaway

W
and McKinley created the MMPI via item selection. Given that the MMPI was developed with a
IE
small clinical population sample size, drawn from a small part of the United States of America,

coupled with the need to establish recent standards and a nationwide normative instrument, the
EV
need to re-standardize the MMPI for American culture at large was crucial (Butcher, 2004). This

would imply a proper inclusion of minority groups and the modernization of the items. Although

the MMPI was originally developed and normed with a Western population (Butcher, 2004);
PR

about 29 countries have successfully adapted it and translated it into other languages, including

Bulgarian, Chinese, Croatian, Czech, Danish, Dutch/Flemish, French, German, Greek, Hebrew,

Hungarian, Italian, Korean, Norwegian, and Spanish for Mexico and Central America.

Reproduced with permission of copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.