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CHPE 605: Food Processing Technology: UNIT III

3.0 Dairy chemistry

3.1 Milk as a food and its composition
3.2 Quantitative analysis of milk
3.3 Milk processing
3.4 Pasteurization of milk
3.5 Milk products
3.6 Manufacturing process of milk
Milk cream, butter, evaporated milk, condensed milk, concentrated milk,
ice cream, skim milk, fermented milk, butter milk, whey.
3.7 Dried milk products
3.8 Beverages– carbonated and non-carbonated beverages.

Introduction
3.0 Dairy chemistry may be defined as that branch of dairy science which deals
with the chemistry of milk and milk products.
3.1 Milk The secretion of the mammary glands of mammals, its primarily for
new born.
• Milk of some animals, cows, buffaloes, goats and sheep,
• Used for human consumption, also in the form of dairy products.
• Processed dairy products such as cream, butter, fermented milk products
like dahi & yogurt, ice cream, cheese etc.
3.1.1 Composition of milk? Table:3.1 Composition of Milk
• It is a complex biological fluid in
which:
• Proteins & a portion of salts are
present as colloidal dispersion
• Fat- & fat-soluble vitamins as oil-in-
water emulsion
• Lactose, water soluble vitamins and a
portion of salts in true solution.
• Mineral substances - K, Na, Ca, Mg,
Cl
The chemical composition of milk largely
determines its nutritional value; the extent to
which microorganisms can grow in it; its
flavor; and the chemical reactions that can occur in milk. The latter include
reactions that cause off-flavours.
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3.1.2 Structural elements

Figure:3.1 Milk viewed at different magnifications.

Fat globules
Milk is an oil-in-water emulsion.
But the fat globules are more complicated than emulsion droplets. In particular,
the surface layer or membrane of the fat globule is not an adsorption layer of
one single substance but consists of many components; its structure is
complicated.
Milk minus fat globules is called milk plasma, i.e., the liquid in which the fat
globules float.

Casein micelles
It consists of water, protein, and salts. The protein is casein. Casein is present as
a caseinate, which means that it binds cations, primarily calcium and
magnesium. The other salts in the micelles occur as a calcium phosphate,
varying somewhat in composition and also containing a small amount of citrate.
This is often called colloidal phosphate. The whole may be called calcium-
caseinate/calcium-phosphate complex.

Milk serum, i.e., the liquid in which the micelles are dispersed, is milk minus
fat globules and casein micelles.
Serum proteins are largely present in milk in molecular form or as very small
aggregates. Lipoprotein particles, sometimes called milk microsomes, vary in
quantity and shape.
Cells, i.e., leukocytes, are always present in milk and contain all cytoplasmic
components such as enzymes. They are rich in catalase.
3.1.3 PROPERTIES OF MILK
• Milk as a Solution
Milk is a dilute aqueous solution
The pH of milk is about 6.7 at room temperature.
The viscosity is low, about twice that of water
The water activity is high, about 0.995.
Milk density is 1029 kg⋅m-3 at 20°C; it varies especially with fat content.
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• Milk as a Dispersion.
The fat globules can be concentrated in a simple way by creaming, occurs due
to gravity or more efficiently is induced by centrifugation. Likewise, casein
micelles can be concentrated and separated from milk, for instance, by
membrane filtration. Casein also aggregates and forms a gel when the pH of the
milk is lowered to about 4.6. Moreover, water can be removed from milk by
evaporation.
• Flavor
The flavor of fresh milk is fairly bland. The lactose produces some sweetness
and the salts some saltiness. Several small molecules present in very small
quantities also contribute to flavor. The fat globules are responsible for the
creaminess of whole milk.
• Nutritional value.
Milk is a complete food for the young calf, and contains virtually all nutrients,
provide good nutrition to humans.
VARIABILITY
Freshly drawn milk varies in composition, structure, and properties. The fat
globules vary in size and, to some extent, in composition, and the same applies
to casein micelles.
The main factors responsible for natural variation in milk are the
following:
• Genetic factors
• Illness of the cow
• Feed

Changes in the Characteristics of milk

Physical changes
occurring, when air is incorporated during milking.
Additional dissolution of oxygen and nitrogen occurs in milk.
By contact with the air bubbles, fat globules may become damaged, i.e., lose
part of their membrane. Fat globules may cream. On cooling, part of the milk
fat starts to crystallize, can strongly diminish the stability of fat globules against
clumping.
Chemical changes
Caused by the presence of oxygen.
Several substances may be oxidized. In particular, light may induce reactions,
often leading to off-flavors. Composition of salts can vary, for example, with
temperature.
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Biochemical changes
Occur because milk contains active enzymes.
Examples are lipase, causes lipolysis;
Proteinases, cause proteolysis;
Phosphatases, cause hydrolysis of phosphoric acid esters.
Microbial changes
Often the most conspicuous:
The best-known effect is production of lactic acid from lactose, causing an
obvious decrease in pH. Numerous other changes, such as lipolysis and
proteolysis, may result from microbial growth.
3.3 Milk Processing
Milk is a raw material in the manufacture of several food products. These
products are predominantly made in dairy factories (or dairies, for short). Their
mode of operation is dominated by the properties of the raw material. Some
typical characteristics of the dairy industry are as follows:
1. Milk is a liquid, and it is homogeneous (or it can readily be made
homogeneous). This implies that transport and storage are relatively simple and
it greatly facilitates the application of continuous processes.
2. Milk properties vary according to source, season, and storage conditions, and
during keeping. This may imply that processes have to be adapted to the
variation in properties.
3. Milk is highly perishable and the same is true of many intermediates between
raw milk and the final product. This requires strict control of hygiene and
storage conditions.
4. Raw milk may contain pathogenic bacteria, and some of these can thrive in
milk. This also requires strict control of hygiene and the application of
stabilization processes.
5. Generally, raw milk is delivered to the dairy throughout the year, but in
varying quantities.
6. Milk contains several components, and it can be separated in fractions in
various ways, e.g., in cream and skim milk, in powder and water, or in curd and
whey.
7. Relatively small amounts of raw material (besides milk) are needed for the
manufacture of most milk products, but consumption of water and energy may
be high.
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8. One and the same unit operation can often be applied in the manufacture of a
range of products. This includes heat treatment, cooling, cream separation, and
homogenization.
3.4 Pasteurization of milk
Pasteurization is a process which consists of heating milk to certain temperature
for a definite time to ensure destruction of pathogenic bacteria and enzymes.
At present, pasteurization is considered as an essential feature in the
manufacturing of processed milk and milk products such as butter, ice cream,
cheese, etc.
Pasteurization of milk destroys about 99 percent of all bacteria, yeasts and
moulds. It also inactivates some of the natural enzymes like lipase and improves
the keeping quality of milk.
There are three methods used to pasteurize milk:
• Holding Method (Batch type): Milk is heated to 62.80C temperature and
holding it for 30 minutes.
• High Temperature Short Time method (HTST): Milk is heated to
71.70C temperature for 15 seconds. This method does not impart cooked
flavor.
• UltraHigh Temperature Method (UHT): Milk is heated to 137.80C
temperature or more for 1 to 2 seconds. This method does not impart
cooked flavor. This helps in storing milk for long period, retaining its
palatability and protecting it from getting spoil.
Homogenization:
Homogenization, the process of breaking down fat globules into tiny particles in
milk so that they stay integrated rather than separating as cream. This is
achieved by passing warm milk or cream through a small aperture under high
pressure and velocity. Milk fat globules are formed to 1 to 20 micron in
diameter. It decreases the size of fat globules and increase their number with
surface area. Homogenized milk has a creamier thick consistency, bland flavour
and whiter appearance.
In the manufacturing of ice-cream, homogenization reduces the chances of
separation of fat globules resulting in a smoother texture of the finished product
as shown in fig. 1.1.
Sterilization:
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Milk is heated to a high temperature of 148.80C and held for 2 to 3 seconds. It

assures complete destruction of micro-organisms (bacteria, yeast and mould).
The milk is then aseptically packaged, usually in tin cans or tetra packs. Sterile
milk is very useful for extended shelf life where refrigeration is not available.
Bactofugation
The process of removal of microorganisms from milk using centrifugal force. It
is a special form of separation of microorganisms, mainly spore formers
(Bacilli/Clostridia) to enable milk to be sterilized at lower temperature-time
combinations. Most of the microorganisms are inactivated by pasteurization.
However, the highly heat resistant spores survive pasteurization. They can lead
to significant quality defects in hard cheese, semi-hard cheese or long-life
products due to proteolysis, lipolysis and gas formation. Therefore,
bactofugation is mainly used in the manufacture of these products.
The objectives of bactofugation are as follows:
• To improve hygienic quality of milk
• To avoid heat resistant bacteria without resorting to excessive heating
• To ensure exceptionally high degree of bacteriological purity in milk.
Bactofugation is important in foodstuffs infected with bacteria containing
thermostable endotoxins.
Concentration:
Condensed milk is one which has been concentrated from full cream milk by
removal of its water with or without addition of sugar. The removal of water is
achieved at a relatively lower temperature by bringing down the boilling point
to 550C to 630C by reducing pressure.
Skim milk (Vacuum concentration process):
Skim milk is a milk from which fat has been removed. Fat content is reduced to
0.5 to 2 percent by centrifugation. Skim milk has lower energy value, higher
protein, calcium and riboflavin content as compared to dried whole milk. Taste
and flavour is reduced and fat soluble vitamins like vitamin A and D are also
reduced. Skim milk is used for low calorie diets and for children who need high
protein.
Drying:
Various milk products are made by removing different percentages of water
from whole milk e.g. whole milk powder, skimmed milk powder, infant milk
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powder, butter milk powder, ice cream mix and malted milk powder. Milk
powder can be reconstituted in fluid milk.
Separation, usually by means of a flow-through centrifuge called a cream
separator, yields skim milk and cream.
The skim milk has a very low fat content, 0.05 to 0.08%.
Milk skimmed after gravity creaming has a much higher fat content.
Unless stated otherwise, the term skim milk will refer to centrifugally separated
milk.
By mixing skim milk and cream, milk may be standardized to a desired fat
content.

Evaporation removes water, producing milk that is more concentrated. Many

properties are altered; the pH decreases, for example.

Membrane processes may be applied to remove water; this is called reverse

osmosis. Ultrafiltration separates milk into a concentrate and a permeate that is
rather similar to milk serum. Electrodialysis removes some inorganic salts.

Fermentation or culturing of milk, usually by lactic acid bacteria, causes

considerable alteration. Part of the lactose is converted to lactic acid, causing a
decrease in pH to such an extent that the casein becomes insoluble. This makes
the milk much more viscous. The bacteria also produce other metabolites, the
kind and concentrations of which depend on the bacterial species.

Cheese making. As mentioned, milk can be clotted by adding rennet, which

contains a specific proteolytic enzyme. The enzyme transforms the casein
micelles in such a way that they start to coagulate. The resulting gel can be
broken into pieces; stirring the material then results in the formation of curd
particles and whey. The curd contains the micellar casein and most of the fat,
the liquid whey contains most of the water-soluble components of the milk and
some protein split off casein by the rennet. The curd is further processed to form
cheese.

3.5 Milk products

Children and adolescents should be encouraged to
consume milk products due to their nutritive value.
Milk product or dairy product covers a wide range of
products which are given below:
• Fresh milk, skimmed milk, toned milk,
condensed milk, flavoured milk, etc.
• Cream, butter, khoa, ghee, channa, paneer
• Curd (Dahi), Yogurt, Lassi, Buttermilk,
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• Chakka, Shrikhand, Cheese, etc

• Ice-cream, Kulfi, Softy, etc.
• Dried and condensed milk products: Milk powders (whole milk, skim
milk), whiteners, Fig. 3.1 Milk products
• etc.
• Dairy byproducts- casein, caseinate, whey, whey concentrate, lactose, ghee
residue, etc.

3.6 Manufacturing process of milk

The manufacturing process of standardized milk with flow chart.
It refers to the adjustment of fat and solid-not-fat percentage in standard milk &
milk products by raising or lowering these components is known as
standardization.
Standardization of the composition of a milk product is needed because it is
legally required or balance the manufacturer sets a standard for his product. It
mostly concerns the fat content, often also the dry matter content (or the degree
of concentration), sometimes the protein content or still another component.

The operation is carried out in two stages:

1.The cream and skim milk are separated by means of a disc centrifuge. At the
same time, the centrifugal force purifies and clarifies the milk
2.Thus, after separation, cream, and one carrying skim milk, which will be
subsequently re-blended in proportions to the desired fat content in the
standardized milk.
The process of standardization
Initially, the fat content of skim milk, and the desired fat content for the
standardized milk, are entered into the control system which collects data from
the viscous peripherals. Since the fat content of cream is inversely proportional
to the flow rate, this fat content is controlled by a flow meter. By establishing a
ratio between the flow rate of standardized milk and that of the added cream,
the control systems microprocessor is able to maintain a constant fat content in
the standardized milk.
Pasteurized milk
The pasteurization process involves heating milk or other fluid products to a
predetermined temperature, holding the product for a definite period of time and
cooling the same immediately to sufficiently low temperature 4.4oC and storing
at low temperature to arrest bacterial growth till released for sale. When
additional solids are present (chocolate milk, ice-cream mix), higher
temperatures are required for an equivalent microbial destruction. It is also
necessary to cool immediately to less than 10oC.
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Ice cream
Defined as a frozen dairy product made by suitable blending and processing of
cream and other milk products, together with sugar and flavor, with or without
stabilizer or color, and with the incorporation of air during the freezing process.

Classification of ice-cream

Chocolate ice cream: Flavored with cocoa or chocolate.

Fruit ice cream: It contains fruits, with or without additional fruit flavoring or
color.
Nut ice cream: Ice cream containing nuts, such as almonds, walnuts, cashew
nut.
Milk ices or milk lollies: Contain not greater than 2% milk fat.
Soft ice cream: It is sold directly from the freezer without being hardening.
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Chemical composition
Table Chemical Composition of ice cream (%)

Role of different ingredients in ice cream making

a. Milk fat
Increases the food value, but it is expensive.
Giving a full, rich, creamery flavor.
b. Milk solid not fat
It is known as serum solids, they consists of milk proteins, milk sugar and
mineral matter.
c. Sugar
To increase the stability of the ice cream.
Desired sweetening effect is produced by adding sucrose.
d. Stabilizers
To prevent the formation of objectionably large ice crystals in ice cream,
especially during storage.
e. Emulsifiers To provide a uniform whipping quality to the mixture.
f. Flavor and colors
Increases the acceptability of the ice cream product.
Improves appearance.
Aids in identifying flavors.
Preparation of Ice cream mix
The first step in making ice cream is to mix the ingredients in two different
situations, depending upon whether the ingredients used are
powders and other liquids, or
only liquids.
In the first case, the liquid ingredients are put into the tank, mixed and heated.
The powders are added before the temperature goes above 50oC.
To obtain better dispersion of the dry ingredients (powder milk, sugar,
stabilizer, etc.), they are mixed before pouring them into the tank.
If frozen cream or butter is used, it is essential to ensure that they are melted
before reaching the pasteurization temperature.
In the second case, where all ingredients are liquid, they are mixed by simply
controlling the valves and pumps to introduce into the tank the required
quantities of each ingredient. In this case, it is possible to use more advanced
automatic processes. The precision of the system must be in order of 0.1 % to
1.15 %.
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The manufacturing process of ice cream with flow chart.

Pasteurization of the mix

Heating is required to dissolve the ingredients, homogenize and pasteurize the
mix.
This can be carried out in three different ways:
• Batch process, at 68 to 70oC for 30 minutes. It is used mainly in small
operations.
• High temperature pasteurization (HTST), at 70 to 85oC, for 2 to 20 seconds.
This is most widely used process. It gives better results, produces ice cream
with better rheological and organoleptic qualities, is more economical, and is
well suited for automatic processing.
• Ultra high temperature process (U.H.T.), at 100 to 130 oC, for 1 to 40 seconds.
This process modifies the structure and properties of the proteins and improves
the body and texture of the products. The increased water retention capacity
makes it possible to use smaller amounts of stabilizers.
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Homogenization the mix

To obtain a more uniform and stable emulsion.
The diameter of fat globules varies between 0.5 and 4µm, with an average of 1
to 2 µm
The size of the fat globules affects the physicochemical properties of the mix, so
that viscosity, whipping ability, body, texture, and melting properties, are
improved.
Aging the mix
It consists of keeping the mix at -2o to -4oC for a period of 4 to 24 hrs, before
freezing.
This holding period allows the hydration and crystallization phenomena to take
place, and produce a mix with better physical properties.
Freezing the mix
During the freezing process, part of the water in the mix is converted into ice,
while, at the same time, air is added to obtain the desired overrun.
Two conditions are essential to obtain a quality product:
• Ice must be in the form of many small crystals, with a diameter of less than 35
µm.
• Air must be evenly distributed, in the form of cells, small and numerous
according to the overrun. These two physical conditions produce the
microstructure which determines the body and texture of the product.
During the freezing period, the temperature of the mix drops to about –5oC to –
6oC. Under these conditions, and in the case of a mix of average composition,
about 50% of the water is transformed into ice. More than 70% of the water
becomes ice at –10oC. The remaining liquid water is either associated with the
proteins and stabilizers, or forms parts of a "syrup" rich in sugars and minerals.
Concentrated milk, Evaporated milk, condensed milk,
Concentrated milks are liquid milk preserves with reduced water content.
Types of concentrated milk
• Evaporated or unsweetened condensed milk.
• Sweetened condensed milk. (Unsweetened condensed milk with addition
of sugar
• Powdered milk and instant milk powders.

Evaporated or unsweetened condensed milk.

Evaporated milk is milk concentrated to one-half or less its original bulk by
evaporation under high pressures and temperatures, without the addition of
sugar, and usually contains a specified amount of milk fat and solids.
• Evaporated milk is sterilized, concentrated, homogenized milk.
• Evaporation is done until reach 22% solids-nonfat in the evaporated milk.
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• The product can be kept without refrigeration and has a long shelf life.
• After dilution, flavor and nutritive value of the product are not greatly
different from that of fresh milk.

Preheating
Heating for 20 min at a temperature below 100oC or using UHT treatment
Inactivating enzymes
Killing microorganisms (including bacterial
spores)
Enhancing the heat stability of evaporated milk

Concentrating
Using evaporation/ reverse osmosis (rarely done).
Dry matter content must be standardized based on mass density or refractive
index determination.
A higher concentration of dry matter content will lead to a lower yield and a
poorer heat stability.

Homogenization
To prevent creaming and coalescence.
It should not be too intensive because the heat stability becomes to low.

Stabilization
Using a stabilizing salt (such as Na2HPO4). The addition of salt means
adjusting the pH of evaporated milk, due to the lessen pH to 6.1 – 6.2 after
preheating and evaporation steps. The stabilizing salt is added as an aqueous
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solution, which dilutes evaporated milk slightly need to re-standardize to the

correct dry matter content during stabilization.

Packaging
The common packaging used for evaporated milk is can.
Can tin plate of the cans is coated (provided with a protective layer of a suitable
polymer) to prevent iron and tin from dissolving into the product.
Sterilization
To kill all bacteria spores.
At 121oC for 4 -7 minutes
The most heat-resistant spores are those from Bacillus stearothermophilus, B.
subtilis, C. botulinum and C. perfringens are also absent.
UHT sterilization kills bacterial spores more effectively than in-bottle
sterilization.
Sweetened condensed milk.
Milk that is concentrated by evaporation, to which sucrose is added to form an
almost saturated sugar solution.
The high sugar concentration is primarily responsible for the keeping quality of
the product and for its fairly long shelf life.

Table Composition of
Condensed milk

Heating
Killing pathogens and potential spoilage microorganisms
Inactivate milk lipase, but not bacterial lipases.
UHT heating at about 130 – 140oC is commonly applied.
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Homogenization
Creaming is often not a major problem, and therefore homogenization is not
always done.
Sugar addition
Sugar can be simply added to the original milk & the sugar is pasteurized along
with the milk may cause extensive Maillard reactions during heating &
evaporation. Alternatively, a concentrated sugar solution is added at the end of
the evaporation.
Concentration
It is done by evaporation at high temperature (up to 80 oC).
A higher viscosity of the final cooled product.
The low water content of SCM implies a high viscosity and boiling point.
Cooling
Cooling of condensed milk is essential to control the texture of condensed milk.
Sweetened condensed milk is a highly concentrated solution of lactose and
sucrose. The quantity of sugar which milk can carry in solution varies according
to the temperature of milk. As the condensed milk is cooled, lactose which is
less soluble than sugar crystallizes out and if the lactose crystals are small
enough these crystals will not be detected but if they are too large, they will
impart sandy texture to condensed milk
Seeding
Crystallization of lactose is usually assisted by the addition of fine powder of
lactose or small quantity of condensed milk from previous batch in which the
lactose crystals are in minute form. Seeding refers to the introduction of lactose
in a very fine powder form during cooling process to provide nucleic for
crystallization. Lactose for seeding purpose is 375-500 gm per 1000 kg of initial
milk taken or 0.1 to 0.3 percent of condensed milk
Cooling and packaging
After seeding and forced crystallization, further cooling of the product is
continued slowly to 24-25°C for about an hour or longer when the product is
ready for packaging. The packed condensed milk is then stored until further use.
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3.7 Dried milk products

Powdered milk and instant milk powders.

3.8 Beverages– carbonated and non-carbonated beverages.

Refer Assignments