TOPICS

Unit 3: Theories of Development and Other Relevant Theories

1. Lesson 3 Moral (Kohlberg)
2. Lesson 4 Cognitive (Piaget)
3. Lesson 5 Emotional (Goleman)
4. Lesson 6 Multiple Intelligences (Gardner)
5. Lesson 7 Reciprocating Influences (Bell & Cairns)
6. Lesson 8 Family System Model (Minuchin)
7. Lesson 9 Ecological Context (Bronfenbrenner)
8. Lesson 10 Socio Cultural Contexts (Vygotsky)

Unit 4: Stages of Development During Pre-natal Period

9. Lesson 1: The Stages of Pre-natal Development
10. Lesson 2: Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal Development

Unit 5: Stages of Development During Infancy and Toddlerhood

11. Lesson 1: Physical Development of infants & Toddlers
12. Lesson 2 Cognitive Development of infants & Toddlers
13. Lesson 3 Socio-Emotional Development of infants & Toddlers

Unit 6: Stages of Development During Early Childhood (The Preschooler)

14. Lesson 1 Physical Development of the Preschooler
15. Lesson 2 Cognitive Development of the Preschooler
16. Lesson 3 Socio-Emotional Development of the Preschooler

Unit 7: Stages of Development During Middle Childhood (The Primary

Schooler)
17. Lesson 1 Physical Development of the Primary Schooler
18. Lesson 2 Cognitive Development of the Primary Schooler
19. Lesson 3 Socio-Emotional Development of the Primary Schooler
Unit 8: Stages of Development During Late Childhood (The Intermediate
Schooler)
20. Lesson 1 Physical Development of the Intermediate Schooler
21. Lesson 2 Cognitive Development of the Intermediate Schooler
22. Lesson 3 Socio-Emotional Development of the Intermediate Schooler

Unit 9: Stages of Development During Adolescence (The High School

Learner)
23. Lesson 1 Physical Development of the High School learner
24. Lesson 2 Cognitive Development of the High School learner
25. Lesson 3 Socio-Emotional Development of the High School learner
LESSON 1: Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

Moral development is the gradual development of an individuals

concept of right or wrong – conscious, religious values, social
attitudes and certain behaviour.
Kohlberg's theory
This theory is a stage theory. In other words, everyone goes through
the stages sequentially without skipping any stage.  However,
movement through these stages are not natural, that is people do
not automatically move from one stage to the next as they mature.
In stage development, movement occurs when a person notices
inadequacies in his or her present way of coping with a given moral
dilemma.  According to stage theory, people cannot understand
moral reasoning more than one stage ahead of their own. For
example, a person in Stage 1 can understand Stage 2 reasoning but
nothing beyond that.
Kohlberg’s Six Stages
Pre-Conventional Moral Development
 Stage 1
 Stage 2
Conventional Moral Development
 Stage 3
 Stage 4
Post-Conventional Moral Development
 Stage 5
 Stage 6
 Level 1: Preconventional Morality 0-9 years
Stage 1 - Obedience and Punishment
Especially common in young children, but adults are capable of
expressing this type of reasoning. At this stage, children see rules as
fixed and absolute.
 Obeys rules in order to avoid punishment
 Determines a sense of right and wrong by what is punished
and what is not punished
 Obeys superior authority and allows that authority to make the
rules, especially if that authority has the power to inflict pain
 Is responsive to rules that will affect his/her physical well-being

Stage 2 – Naively egotistical

At this stage of moral development, children account for individual
points of view and judge actions based on how they serve individual
needs. Reciprocity is possible, but only if it serves one's own
interests.
 Is motivated by vengeance or “an eye for an eye” philosophy
 Is self-absorbed while assuming that he/she is generous
 Believes in equal sharing in that everyone gets the same,
regardless of need
 Believes that the end justifies the means
 Will do a favor only to get a favor
 Expects to be rewarded for every non-selfish deed he/she does.

Level 2: Conventional Morality 10-15 years

Stage 3 - "good boy-good girl" orientation,
This stage of moral development is focused on living up to social
expectations and roles. There is an emphasis on conformity, being
"nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships.
 Finds peer approval very important
 Feels that intensions are as important as deeds and expects
others to accept intentions or promises in place of deeds
  Begins to put himself/herself in another’s shoes and think from
another perspective
Stage 4 – Law and Social Order
At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider
society as a whole when making judgments. The focus is on
maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing one’s duty,
and respecting authority

 Is a duty doer who believes in rigid rules that should not be
changed Respects authority and obeys it without question
 Supports the rights of the majority without concern for
those in the minority
 Is part of about 80% of the population that does not
progress past stage 4

Level 3: Postconventional Morality – 16+

Stage 5 - Legalistic Social Contract
At this stage, people begin to account for the differing values,
opinions, and beliefs of other people. Rules of law are important for
maintaining a society, but members of the society should agree upon
these standards.
 Is motivated by the belief in the greatest amount of good for
the greatest number of people
 Believes in consensus (everyone agrees), rather than in
majority rule
 Respects the rights of the minority especially the rights of the
individual
 Believes that change in the law is possible but only through the
system
Stage 6 – Universal ethical Principles
Kolhberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based upon universal
ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow
these internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws
and rules.
 Believes that there are high moral principles than those
represented by social rules and customs
 Is willing to accept the consequences for disobedience of the
social rule he/she has rejected
 Believes that the dignity of humanity is sacred and that all
humans have value

Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development:

 Does moral reasoning necessarily lead to moral behavior?

Kohlberg's theory is concerned with moral thinking, but there is
a big difference between knowing what we ought to do versus
our actual actions.

 Is justice the only aspect of moral reasoning we should

consider? Critics have pointed out that Kohlberg's theory of
moral development overemphasizes the concept as justice when
making moral choices. Other factors such as compassion, caring,
and other interpersonal feelings may play an important part in
moral reasoning.

 Does Kohlberg's theory overemphasize Western philosophy?

Individualistic cultures emphasize personal rights while
collectivist cultures stress the importance of society and
community. Eastern cultures may have different moral outlooks
that Kohlberg's theory does not account for.
LESSON 2: PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Who is Jean Piaget?

 Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was one of the 20th century’s most
influential researchers in the area of developmental psychology.
• He was originally trained in the areas of biology and philosophy
and considered himself a “Genetic Epistemologist”
 Piaget wanted to know how children learned through their
development in the study of knowledge.
 He administered Binet’s IQ test in Paris and observed that
children’s answers were qualitatively different.
 Piaget’s theory is based on the idea that the developing child
builds cognitive structures. He believes that the child’s cognitive
structure increases with the development.
 Piaget’s Theory of infant development were based on his
observations of his own three
What is Cognitive Development?
 Cognitive Development is the emergence of the ability to think
and understand.
 The acquisition of the ability to think, reason and problem
solve.
 It is the process by which people’s thinking changes across the
life span.
 Piaget studied Cognitive Development by observing children in
particular, to examine how their thought processes changed
with age.
• It is the growing apprehension and adaptation to the physical
 and social environment.
How Cognitive Development occurs?
 Cognitive Development is gradual and orderly changes by which
mental process becomes more complex and sophisticated.
  The essential development of cognition is the establishment of
new schemes.
 Assimilation and Accommodation are both the processes of the
ways of Cognitive Development.
 The equilibration is the symbol of a new stage of the Cognitive
Development.
KEY CONCEPTS
1. Schema :
Schema is an internal representation of the world. It helps an
individual understand the world they inhabit. They are cognitive
structures that represent a certain aspect of the world, and can be
seen as categories which have certain pre-conceived ideas in them.
For example, my schema for Christmas includes: Christmas trees,
presents, giving, money, green, red, gold, winter, Santa Claus etc.
Someone else may have an entirely different schema, such as Jesus,
birth, Church, holiday, Christianity etc.
2. Assimilation :
It is using an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation.
Here, the learner fits the new idea into what he already knows. In
Assimilation, the schema is not changed, it is only modified. Example
: A 2 years old child sees a man who is bald on top of his head and
has long frizzy hair on the sides. To his father’s horror, the toddler
shouts “Clown, clown”
3. Accommodation :
This happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not work
and needs to be changed to deal with a new object or situation.In
Accommodation, the schema is altered; a new schema may be
developed. Example : In the “clown” incident, the boy’s father
explained to his son that the man was not a clown and that even
though his hair was like a clown’s, he wasn’t wearing a funny
costume and wasn’t doing silly things to make people laugh. With
this new knowledge, the boy was able to change his schema of
“clown” and make this idea fit better to a standard concept of
“clown”.
 4. Equilibration :
Piaget believed that cognitive development did not progress at a
steady rate, but rather in leaps and bounds. Equilibrium occurs when
a child's schemas can deal with most new information through
assimilation. As a child progresses through the stages of cognitive
development, it is important to maintain a balance between
applying previous knowledge ( assimilation) and changing behavior
to account for new knowledge (accommodation). Equilibrium helps
explain how children are able to move from one stage of thought to
the next.

The-Sensorimotor-Stage
(Birth to 2 years) – Infancy
Infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating
sensory experiences (seeing, hearing) with motor actions (reaching,
touching).
 Develop Object Permanence (memory) - Realize that objects
exist even if they are out of sight.
 Infants progress from reflexive, instinctual actions at birth to
the beginning of problem solving (intellectual) and symbolic
abilities (language) toward the end of this stage.
Preoperational Stage (2-7 yrs) -Toddler and Early Childhood
 This stage begins when the child starts to use symbols and
language. This is a period of developing language and concepts.
So, the child is capable of more complex mental representations
(i.e, words and images). He is still unable to use 'operations',
i.e,logical mental rules, such as rules of arithmetic. This stage is
further divided into 2 sub-stages :
 Preconceptual stage (2-4 yrs) : Increased use of verbal
representation but speech is egocentric. The child uses symbols
 to stand for actions; a toy doll stands for a real baby or the child
role plays mummy or daddy.
 Intuitive stage (4-7 yrs) : Speech becomes more social, less
egocentric. Here the child base their knowledge on what they
feel or sense to be true, yet they cannot explain the underlying
principles behind what they feel or sense.
 The following are the key features of this stage :
 Egocentrism: The child's thoughts and communications are
typically egocentric (i.e, about themselves or their own point of
view). Eg.: "if i can't see you, you also can't see me". It is the
inability to see the world from anyone else's eyes. It is well
explained by Piaget as Three Mountain Task.
 Animism: Treating inanimate objects as living ones. Eg.:
children dressing and feeding their dolls as if they are alive.
 Concentration: The process of concentrating on one limited
aspect of a stimulus and ignoring other aspects. It is noticed in
Conservation. Conservation on the other hand is the knowledge
that quantity is unrelated to the arrangement and physical
appearance of objects. Children at this stage are unaware of
conservation.
 Concrete Operational Stage (7-12 yrs) –Childhood and Early
Adolescence
 The concrete operational stage is characterized by the
appropriate use of logic. Important processes during this stage
are:
 Seriation: The ability to sort objects in an order according to
size, shape or any other characterstic. Eg.: if given different-
sized objects, they may place them accordingly.
 Transitivity: The ability to recognize logical relationships among
elements in a serial order. Eg.: if A is taller than B and B is taller
than C, then A must be taller than C.
 Classification: The ability to group objects together on the basis
of common features. The child also begins to get the idea that
 one set can include another. Eg.: there is a class of objects
called dogs. There is also a class called animals. But all dogs are
also animals, so the class of animals includes that of dogs.
 Decentering: The ability to take multiple aspects of a situation
into account. Eg.: the child will no longer perceive an
exceptionally- wide but short cup to contain less than a
normally-wide, taller cup.
 Reversibility: The child understands that numbers or objects
can be changed, then returned to their original state. Eg.: the
child will rapidly determine that if 4+4=8 then 8-4=4, the
original quantity.
 Conservation: Understanding that the quantity, length or
number of items is unrelated to the arrangement or appearance
of the object or item.
 Elimination of Egocentrism: The ability to view things from
another's perspective.
 The child performs operations: combining, separating,
multiplying, repeating, dividing etc
 Formal Operational Stage (12 yrs & above) –
Adolescence and Adulthood
 The thought becomes increasingly flexible and abstract, i.e, can
carry out systematic experiments.
 The ability to systematically solve a problem in a logical and
methodological way.
 Understands that nothing is absolute; everything is relative.
 LESSON 3: EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCES BY DANIEL GOLEMAN

It’s essential to know what is going on in our head and talk about it.
Otherwise, we will feel lost, unproductive, unmotivated, and
susceptible to making the wrong choices.
Emotional intelligence impacts work performance, studies,
relationships, and even our health. Developing it will help you
communicate better, deal with anxiety in difficult situations, and feel
satisfied with your accomplishments.
Daniel Goleman redefines what it really means to be intelligent with
his book “Emotional Intelligence”, showing the importance of
understanding our feelings and emotions to achieve our goals and
solve our problems.

The book “Emotional Intelligence” is a great bestseller written

by Daniel Goleman and originally released in 1995. This work is
responsible for the author’s worldwide recognition, with more than
5 million copies sold.
Daniel talks about a type of intelligence that many people ignore,
but what they don’t know is that mastering it can positively
influence daily decisions, besides helping to understand different
personality traits.
The book is divided into five parts and has six appendices, covering
fundamentals, applications, and how to develop emotional
intelligence.
Who is Daniel Goleman?
Daniel Goleman is known worldwide as the “founding father” of
emotional intelligence. He completed his Ph.D. at Harvard University
and currently holds a chair at the American Association for the
Advancement of Science (AAAS).
He has received several awards, including the Lifetime Achievement
Award from the American Psychological Association for his great
contribution to the history of psychology during his career.
Daniel Goleman is also the author of other bestsellers, such
as “Focus” and “Working with Emotional Intelligence”

What can I learn from “Emotional Intelligence”?

 Rational intelligence is present in most of our decisions, but
what we don’t know is that emotional intelligence is equally
strong and influences our actions;
 The amygdalas are responsible for emotional memories, but
also for emotional hijacks;
 When we don’t know how to deal with interpersonal
intelligence, we are more susceptible to make wrong decisions
regarding our profession, relationships, friendships, etc.;
 Men, in general, have greater difficulty in recovering from
emotional stress than women, because they were not taught to
talk about their feelings;
 Understanding emotional intelligence requires mastering the
following areas: self-awareness, self-management, self-
motivation, empathy, and external management;
 Psychotherapy is a valid alternative that serves as an emotional
tutorial to understand your emotions and let go of old traumas;
 Children who are not instructed to develop emotional
intelligence can become complex adolescents or adults with
bad habits or addictions.
The emotional brain
With the use of the cognitive ability, the homo sapiens provided
great advances in society. We take rational intelligence into account
in most of our decisions. But what we don’t know is that emotional
intelligence affects our actions as much as rationality.
Our emotions generate impulses that affect the senses of our body
and the actions taken.
When we are angry, for example, the blood “boils” between the
hands, the heart rate speeds up, and we tend to act with much more
energy. While happiness gives us peace, gratitude, and a greater
aptitude for cooperation.
Daniel Goleman says that people who are dominated by emotions
and don’t control them – this doesn’t mean acting like a machine –
can have their cognitive capacity easily canceled out.

Emotional hijacking
There are moments when we act on “impulse”, which are called by
the author as emotional hijacking. The neural network takes control
and sends a faster response than the neocortex – the thinking brain
– to a situation, according to the book “Emotional Intelligence”.
These hijackings start from the two amygdalas, one in each
hemisphere of the limbic brain. Some instant reactions are laughing
at a joke or getting angry in a discussion. You are unable to notice or
control what you are feeling until the moment passes.
On the other hand, without amygdalas, we would lose the ability to
feel emotions related to objects, situations, or even people.
Basically, our emotional system is capable of emotional memories
that define whether or not we like a certain thing, for example.
The author Daniel Goleman states that, in a way, we have two
brains, two minds. And the best way to deal with hijacking and bad
decisions from purely logical thinking is to harmonize the two parts,
finding a balance between reason and emotion. But first, we need to
understand what it means to use emotions intelligently.

The nature of emotional intelligence

Understanding emotional intelligence consists of comprehending
and mastering the following domains:
  Self-awareness: recognizing your own emotions the moment
they arise;
 Self-regulation: knowing how to deal with your emotions;
 Motivation: staying motivated is essential to be more attentive
and be more productive;
 Empathy: recognizing and understanding the emotions of
others;
 Social skills: knowing how to deal with the emotions of others.
Daniel Goleman quotes Howard Gardner, a psychologist at Harvard
School of Education, to say that there is no intelligence more
important than interpersonal intelligence. When we don’t know how
to deal with it, we are much more likely to choose the wrong
profession or the wrong person to marry, for example.

Emotional intelligence applied

Relationships
In the book “Emotional Intelligence”, the author Daniel
Goleman affirms that there is a big difference between how
emotions are taught between boys and girls. While girls are
encouraged to talk about their own feelings, usually boys are not.
The result we have is men who do not know how to express their
feelings in a relationship, while women are misunderstood. As a
consequence, a barrier is built with each discussion generated.
It ends up causing emotional stress. Men, because they don’t
understand what they feel, have greater difficulty in recovering from
this stress than women.
That way, things get more and more difficult to resolve, and that’s
where emotional hijackings come into play, with people expressing
themselves in a harmful and uncontrolled way.

Feedback
Feedback is the basic currency of emotional intelligence in
management. Managers must learn to promote it and to accept it
intelligently.
Daniel Goleman points out the fact that the company’s progress is
highly influenced by the application and quality of feedbacks.
Without it, people are in the dark, and don’t know how they are
doing, how they can improve their performance at work, or in any
kind of relationship.
However, you will not motivate a person if you use harsh words. For
this, the author quotes Harry Levinson and his advice on how to
make a review:
 If you are not specific, people won’t know what they did wrong;
 Instead of just criticizing, help the person to improve, providing
a solution, for example;
 Criticism is most effective when spoken in person;
 Exercise your sense of empathy and be alert to the impact your
words can have on the other person.
Keep in mind that an optimistic speech is far more beneficial than
pessimistic words. Also, try to see the situation from a different point
of view, searching for reasons that are leading someone to have a
certain behavior.
People can change, but not so easily if they are not encouraged to do
so. Instead, feelings of remorse and frustration, and even
depression, can be triggered, as the author warns in the book
“Emotional Intelligence”.
Windows of opportunity
Some parents raise their children without regard to their feelings.
Sometimes, they ignore the moments of emotion to try to
understand why they are crying, for example.
These parents can be constantly rigid and critical, or they can be
those who expect the children to deal with their emotions alone.
The result, says Daniel Goleman, are children who believe that
nobody cares about their feelings.
And this influences their personality and decisions throughout life,
as a lack of self-confidence. They feel discouraged and resentful,
with difficulties in communication and possible disturbances.
The author of “Emotional Intelligence” mentions psychotherapy as
an emotional tutorial. It consists of understanding past events to
control post-traumatic stress, re-educating the emotional brain.
Emotional literacy
Children who are not instructed to develop emotional intelligence
can become complex adolescents and adults. Such problems involve
both personal dissatisfaction and the danger of affecting the ones
around them.
They can develop specific behaviors determined by Daniel
Goleman in four categories:
1. Social problems: they are alone, unmotivated, unhappy and
very dependent;
2. Anxiety and depression: they are fearful, worried, sad,
demanding too much of themselves and not feeling loved by
friends and family;
3. Lack of focus: they are impulsive, dispersed, and unable to
concentrate;
4. Delinquency or aggression: they are disobedient, liars,
desperate for attention, disobedient, temperamental, and
troublemakers.
The author defends the application of “emotional literacy” in
schools, since it is the only place that can improve the emotional and
social skills of a child with whom the family has failed.
The book “Emotional Intelligence” has an appendix that comments
on the results of a project applied in schools in Northern California,
where students demonstrated to be:
 More responsible;
  More assertive;
 More helpful and comprehensive;
 Better at resolving conflicts and problems.

SOURCE:https://pocketbook4you.com/en/read/emotional-
intelligence#google_vignette

LESSON 4: MULTIPLE INTELIIGENCES ---DONE—READY TO PRINT