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Sidi Mohammed Ben Abdellah University S2-Grammar 2

Faculty of letters-Dhar El Mehraz Prof. M. El Biadi
Department of English

The Verbal Group in English

I-Introduction
Verbal groups refer to actions, events and states. It is the grammatical unit by means of which
we most typically talk about events, actions, states:

-Mary and John bought a new house.

-The policemen caught the culprit.
-She became very angry when she heard the news.

Every time we encode an event of our experience through a finite clause, we select one or
other tense, one or other aspectual distinction (progressive, non-progressive, perfective).

II-The structure of the verbal group/phrase:

The verbal group consists of a main element (the main verb) and one or more optional
elements (auxiliaries) which precede it. All these elements are realised by verbs.
Examples:

- She arrived late to the train station

- They can go home tomorrow
- He is making too much noise.
- She might be leaving next week.
- He will have been waiting an hour.
- They have got to obey the orders
- He is due to arrive soon.
- How dare she speak to her mother this way?

The main element of the verbal group is realised by a lexical verb (a finite or non-finite
form of a lexical verb), whereas the optional elements are realised by auxiliary verbs. These
optional elements which are auxiliary verbs precede the main element in the verb phrase.

III-Lexical Vs Auxiliary verbs

The elements of the VG are realised by the following classes and forms of verbs :
Lexical/ full verbs: come, eat, feel, become, hits, like, think, etc.
Primary auxiliaries: be (am, is, are, was, were, being, been) have (has, had, having)
Do (does, did)
Modal auxiliaries: shall, should, will, would, can, could, may, might
Must, ought.
Semi-modals: need, dare (modals in certain uses)
Lexical auxiliaries: (i) be able to, be about to, be apt to, be bound to, be due to, be
Be going to, be liable to, be likely to, be certain to, be sure to, be meant to,
Be to, be unlikely to, be supposed to,
ii) have to, have got to
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iii) had better, would rather, would sooner

The primary auxiliaries ‘be’, ‘have’, ‘do’ can have two functions: They can function as main
elements or auxiliaries in the clause. For example:
Main element Auxiliaries
She does beautiful work. Does he enjoy himself there?
They have headaches They have been listening to music
They are soldiers. You are doing a beautiful job

IV-Types of verbal groups

The verbal group can be either simple or extended.
1-Simple verbal groups:
A simple verbal group (phrase) consists of a single element, usually the lexical element
realised by a finite of non-finite form of a lexical verb:

Finite forms:
-They drive on the left in the UK
-He congratulated his students for their success.
Non-finite forms
-Drive carefully (drive: imperative)
-She told him to refrain from smoking. (to refrain: infinitive)
-Driving to work this morning, I heard the 9 o’clock news. (driving: present participle)
-Driven away by night, the car was then abandoned. (driven: past participle)

Exercise
Are the verbal groups in the passage below simple or extended?

Rivers perhaps are the only physical feature of the world that appear at their best from the air.
Mountain ranges, no longer seen in profile, dwarf to anthills; seas lose their horizons, lakes
have no longer depth but look like bright pennies on the earth’s surface.; forests become a thin
impermanent film, a mass on the top of a wet stone, easily rubbed off. But rivers, which from
the ground one usually sees in cross sections, like a small sample of ribbon—rivers strech out
serenely ahead as far as the eye reaches.

2-Extended verbal group:

An ‘extended’ Verbal Group structure consists of a lexical verb preceded by up to four
auxiliaries. Consisting of one or more auxiliaries + a main verb:
The cat may have been running.

The auxiliaries in an extended VG can express one or more of the following grammatical
meanings:
Tense (past, present)
Finiteness (finite, non-finite)
Aspect (progressive, non-progressive, perfective, non-perfective)
Modality (certainty, probability, obligation, etc)
Polarity (negative, positive: They can’t speak French)
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Exercise
Read the passage below. Which type of verbal groups does it contain?

One day, as you are washing your hands, you happen to glance into the mirror over the basin
and a sudden doubt will flash across your mind: ‘Is that really me?’ ‘What am I doing here?
‘Who am I?’
Each one of us is so completely cut off from everyone else. How do you know you are
reading a book? The whole thing may be an illusion. How do you know that red is red? The
colour could appear blue in everyone else’s eyes. A similar doubt, differently expressed, is
inherent in the well-known question: ‘A tree that has fallen in the forest, far from the nearest
man—when it fell, did it make any noise?’
Magnus Pike, the Boundaries of Science

V-Transitive vs intransitive verbs

Intransitive verbs
When a verb has no object in the sentence, it is called an intransitive verb. They can be
divided into two types:
a-Pure intransitives:
They are almost exclusively intransitive, such as arrive, elapse, fade, vanish, rise, materialise
rain, snow. Many of these verbs express behaviour which is typically involuntary or semi-
involuntary like, cough, collapse, blush, die, cry, sleep, slip, smile, sneeze, scream, tremble,
yawn.

e.g. It is snowing/ raining

The money vanished
Her dreams materialised
She is coughing

b- Verbs that are used both transitively or intransitively

a- The Direct or Indirect Object may be left unexpounded when its referent is understood
by social convention (drive, park):
-Mary was driving (her/the car) when she saw them crossing the road
-He drinks.
Transitive verbs:
They are the type of verbs which prototypically take one Object (Direct Object) or a
Prepositional Object (object of preposition).
Mary broke the cup
The cat ate the fish

VI-Stative vs dynamic verbs

Sative verbs:
States are durative, in that they last throughout time; they are unbounded in that non end-point
is implied in the verb itself. The following are the four main types of stative verbs:
-Relational verbs: be, belong, consist, cost, depend, own, possess, see, sound
-Verbs of voluntary perception: see, hear, smell, taste, feel
-Verbs of cognition: know, think, understand, recognise, etc.
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-Verbs of affectivity: like, dislike, hate, detest, love (excp: I’m loving every minute of it).

Dynamic verbs
There are two types of dynamic verbs:
1- Durative: They are the type of verbs representing dynamic situations which extend
through time such as rain, read, sleep, etc. They can be either agentive (play, speak,
sing) or non-agentive (grow, rain, snow):
e.g. The passengers waited for six hours at the airport. (agentive)
Did they speak with the director? (agentive)
It was raining very hard yesterday. (non-agentive)
The apples will ripen in a few weeks time. (non-agentive)
The wall prevented people from crossing to the other side (non-agentive)

2- Punctual: They are the type of verbs which do not extend through time such as kick,
hit, swat, jump
e.g He swatted the mosquito with a newspaper (agentive)
The thief jumped out of the window (agentive)
Petrol prices went up rapidly because of the crisis. (non-agentive)
The mosquito stung him on his face.

Exercise:
Below are a number of sentences. What kind of verbs do they contain?
1-The children have gone off to play. 2-Trees blossom in the spring.
3-The footballer kicked the ball. 4-Temperatures decreased sharply.
5-We saw locusts everywhere 6-He bit into the apple
7-The hurricane destroyed everything in its path 8-I recognised her face from the moment I
saw her.
9-They are angry 10-She likes swimming
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Sidi Mohammed Ben Abdellah University S2- Grammar 2

Faculty of letters-Dhar El Mehraz Prof. M. El Biadi
Department of English

The verb phrase

The verb phrase in English has the following forms:

1) a main verb:

Verb
We are here.
I like it
Everybody saw. the accident
We laughed.

The verb may be in the present tense (are, like) or the past tense (saw, laughed). A verb
phrase with only a main verb expresses simple aspect

2) an auxiliary verb ("be") and a main verb in –ing form:

Auxiliary "be" Verb (-ing)

Everybody is watching
We were laughing

A verb phrase with "be" and –ing expresses continuous aspect.

3) an auxiliary verb ("have") and a main verb with past participle:

Auxillary "have" Verb (past participle)

They have enjoyed themselves.
Everybody has worked hard.
He had finished work.

A verb with "have" and the past participle expresses perfect aspect. A verb with have/has
expresses present perfect, and a verb with had expresses past perfect.

4) an auxiliary verb ("have" + "been") and a main verb in the –ing form:
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Auxiliary "have" + "been" Verb (-ing)

Everybody has been working hard
He had been singing

A verb with "have" and "been" and the present participle expresses perfect continuous
aspect. A verb with have/has expresses present perfect continuous, and a verb with had
expresses past perfect continuous.

5) a modal verb (can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would) and a main verb:

Modal Verb Main verb

They will come.
He might come.

6) We can use modal verbs with the auxiliaries "be", "have", and "have been":

Modal Auxiliary Verb

They will be listening
He might have arrived
She must have been listening

Active and passive:

Transitive verbs have a passive form as well as an active form:

The hunter killed the lion. (active) <> The lion was killed by the hunter. (passive)

Someone has cleaned the windows <> The windows have been cleaned.

The passive forms are made up of the verb "be" with a past participle:

"be" Past participle

English is spoken all over the world
The windows have been cleaned
Lunch was being served
The work will be finished soon
They might have been invited to the part
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Exercise 1

Identify the verb phrase in the following. Study what each one of them is composed of :

It is raining again

I have seen you somewhere before

We will be thinking about you

I may see you on Thursday

You should have gone to the doctor

He has been working very hard lately

Exercise 2

Decide if the verbs in the passage are active or passive

I (had been proceeding) in an easterly direction when I (heard) a scream from No. 15, Grove Street.
No-one (answered) when I (rang) the doorbell so I (entered) the building via the back door which was
open and (gave) access to the kitchen. The glass (had been smashed) and the lock (had been broken).
I (suspected) that force (may have been used) to gain entry, although the rest of the property (was
unexplored) at this point. I (noticed) that a quantity of blood (had been spilt) on the floor and several
cupboards (had been opened). The intruder (had left) muddy footprints on the floor. I (moved)
cautiously through the downstairs area, but (found) no-one in the other rooms. In the hall, the
telephone line (had been cut) and more blood (could be seen) on the wall. I (began) to climb the
stairs ...

Question forms

We make questions by:

1: moving an auxiliary to the front of the clause:

Everybody is watching >> Is everybody watching?

They had worked hard >> Had they worked hard?
He's finished work >> Has he finished work?
Everybody had been working Had everybody been working
>>
hard hard?
He has been singing >> Has he been singing?
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English is spoken all over the Is English spoken all over the
>>
world world?
The windows have been cleaned >> Have the windows been cleaned?

2: … or by moving a modal to the front of the clause:

They will come >> Will they come?

He might come >> Might he come?
They will have arrived by now >> Will they have arrived by now?
She would have been listening >> Would she have been listening?
The work will be finished soon >> Will the work be finished soon?
They might have been invited to Might they have been invited to
>>
the party the party?

3: The present simple and the past simple have no auxiliary. We make questions by adding
the auxillary do/does for the present simple or did for the past simple:

They live here >> Do they live here?

John lives here >> Does John live here?
Everybody laughed >> Did everybody laugh?

Exercise 3

Form questions using the following words

- Expecting was she you

- Finished you your meal have
- For waiting someone are you
- He been working has
- Is a having good time everybody
- Do need hand a you
- Spoken to you had him
- You will hold this for me
SIDI MOHAMED BEN ABDELLAH UNIVERSITY
Faculty of Letters Dhar El Mehraz – FES SEMESTER 2- GRAMMAR 2
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH STUDIES

THE SIMPLE PRESENT, PRESENT CONTINUOUS, PRESENT PERFECT & PRESENT PERFECT
CONTINUOUS

A. THE SIMPLE PRESENT

I-Form
We use the present simple for repeated actions that happen regularly (or unceasingly, which is why it’s sometimes
called present indefinite). It is used to describe general actions, events and states when we have no reason to think
of them as being temporary or limited in time.
Depending on the person, the simple present tense is formed by using the root form or by adding -s or -es to the
end.

Affirmative Negative and question TO BE

In the present simple we use the We use the Aux do in negatives and Affirmative : I am sick
verb without an ending. questions with verbs except for the Negative : I am not sick
I get the lunch ready at one o'clock, verb TO BE. We use do and don't Interrogative : Are you sick ?
usually. except in the third person singular,
We always do our shopping at where we use does and doesn't
Greenway.
Most children like ice-cream.
You know the answer.

But in the third person singular

(after he, she, it, your friend, etc),
the verb ends in s or es.
It gets busy at weekends.
My husband thinks so, too.
Sarah catches the early train.
She faxes messages all over the
world.

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 1- Verbs with third person singular subjects

Question Does or Subject Does not Base Base

word doesn’t or form form + s
doesn’t

Affirmative The race/it starts in Paris

Question Why does this make a noise

machine /it
doesn’t

Negative She/he doesn’t get up early

2- Verbs with other subjects

Question Do or subject Do not Base

word don’t or don’t form

Affirmative trees lose their leaves

I want to leave

Question What do you want to eat

don’t you want to eat

Negative They don’t want to eat

S-forms of verbs:
The s-form (calls) is a finite verb in the 3rd person singular present tense: He/ she calls every day.

Pronunciation (1): /iz/= hissing sounds

Pass passes ; buzz buzzes push pushes catch catches

Pronunciation (2): /z/= voiced sounds

Call calls drive drives

Pronunciation (3): /s/= voiceless sounds

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Cut cuts hop hops lock locks

II. Use
1. General facts
The simple present is used with statements which apply to all time. These include scientific, mathematical and
descriptive statements. Examples:
-Ice melts at 0°
-Steel is a strong metal.
-Two and two make four.

2. Habits and routines-Repeated events in the present

The present tense expresses a series of events which cover an unspecified time. Adjuncts of time, frequency, place,
destination, etc often accompany statements in the Present, which express repeated or recurrent events. Examples:
-They drive to the office every day.
- The news usually starts at 6.00 every evening.

- He always has breakfast and drinks a cup of coffee.

- She usually eats lunch at 12:00 in the cafeteria.
- Sarah usually goes to bed at 9 p.m .
- She doesn't come here very often.
- Do you usually have bacon and eggs for breakfast?

3. Things staying the same and true for a long time

My name is Lupita Gonzalez. I work in a large company in Monterrey, Mexico.

My supervisor’s name is Mr. Torres. He is an engineer.

4-Instantaneous events in the present

The present simple tense is used to talk about events which do not have any duration beyond speech time (the
moment of speaking).
-I warn you that this gun is loaded.

-Serena Williams serves to Kim Clijsters and runs to the net. (Commentaries:Sports commentators use the
present simple)
-I place the fruit in the blender, press gently and then pour out the liquid (Demonstrations/instructions)

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5-Verbs which change things
We also use the present simple in making pronouncements which change something. This involves a limited
number of verbs (e.g. arrest, baptise, declare, pronounce) known as performative verbs. Examples:
-I pronounce you man and wife
- I declare the fete open.

6. Reference to past events: Past narrative

The present simple can be used to refer to past events in certain limited ways.

a- In newspaper headlines
Shias reach deal to form Iraqi government

b- In relating incidents
-He was only an average athlete, and then suddenly, he wins two Olympic medals.
-I was just about to go to bed when all of a sudden there’s a knock at the door and Sam rushes in.
The present simple in the sentences above is also called ‘historic present’. They are often preceded by adjuncts
signalling immediacy such as ‘suddenly’, ‘all of a sudden’.
When recounting the plots of books and films, the historic present can also be used:
It’s one of Evelyns Augh’s best, I think, because he’s got this situation where a man is going off to
report on some trouble somewhere in America. I’ve forgotten the details now but he gets on the
wrong train and ends up in the wrong place—and finds that he’s in a place that’s perfectly quiet and
perfectly innocent and there’s no story—and so he just writes one—and within a week he’s
managed to create riots, you know, the whole place is in a furore.

c- In reporting information
The present simple is used with verbs of communication (verbal processes: say tell). Examples:
-The weatherman forecasts heavy showers in the north
-Peter tells me he has changed his job
-I hear you’re moving house very soon.

7. We use the simple present to talk about future facts, usually found in a timetable or a chart.
- Christmas Day falls on a Monday this year.
- The plane leaves at 5.00 tomorrow morning.
- Ramadan starts in a week.
-Does the class begin at 10 or 11 this week?

8. Present tense and states

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The present simple is also used to talk about states (stative verbs). They are not timeless in the sense they have an
end unlike statements related to facts whose time span is endless.

a- Relational verbs:
-This land belongs to the National Trust
-Those exercises look difficult
-She seems happy

b-Cognition verbs:
-He knows Morocco quite well.
-He thinks she doesn’t deserve to win.
Here, we are talking about our thoughts and feelings at the time of speaking. Although these feelings can be short-
term, we use the present simple and not the present continuous.

c-Perception verbs
Verbs of perception are also included with stative verbs. We, however, tend to use ‘can’ and ‘can’t’ with these
perception verbs more often than the present simple:
I can see them coming.

Can you hear them?

B. PRESENT CONTINUOUS
I. Form
The present progressive is used to refer to something short term or temporary which has begun and has not
finished(it is taking place in the moment of speaking); something which is in the process of being completed. The
use of the progressive with acts and events results in stretching out the verbal action.

Present tense of ‘be’ (am, is/‘s or are/’re) + an –ing verb form.

Affirmative Question/ interrogative Negative

I’m/am printing my thesis. Is she following the instructions? They are not driving
He/ she’s/ is singing beautifully.

II. Use
1. Actions taking place at the moment of speaking
It's raining at the moment.
Right now, I'm watching this programme.
Look. That man is taking a photo of you
2. Routine or situation that we see as temporary (for a short period)= actions that are true at the present time

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but we don't think they will be true in the long term.
At the moment they're living in a very small flat.
I usually drive to work, but today I am taking the bus.
For the moment being, I'm looking for a new apartment.
He's thinking about leaving his job.
They're considering making an appeal against the judgment.

3. States and the progressive

Generally, stative verbs do not occur in the progressive:
*I am liking the course
*He was knowing English
There are a few exceptions where stative verbs occur in the progressive. They indicate a type of behaviour with
limited duration:
-He is being silly.
- I am loving the party.
More examples:

STATES (simple) ACTIONS (simple or continuous)

I think you're right. (= believe) I'm thinking about the problem

We have three cars. (= own) We're having lunch. (— eating)
I come from Sweden. (= live in) I'm coming from Sweden. (= travelling)
I see your problem. (= understand) Mark is seeing his boss. {= meeting)
Do you see that house? (= have in sight)
This picture looks nice. I'm looking at this picture.
The bag weighs five kilos. They are weighing my bag.
The coat fits. (= is the right size) I'm fitting a lock to the window.

4-Durative situations and the progressive

The use of the progressive with durative (dynamic) verbs which have an end point (decide, write, sew, rain,
ripen ,ache, etc.) is to stretch out the durative phase of the process before the end-point:
-He is writing out the invitations.
-She is growing up into a beautiful girl.

5-The habitual progressive

The progressive here is used with dynamic verbs to refer to events that repeatedly occur, with the implication that
they take place over a limited period of time

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-She’s always writing some short stories.
-He’s teaching in a comprehensive school

6. The future
We use the présent continuous to express an action that is taking place at a definite point in the future and it has
already been arranged.

- I'm meeting her at 6.30.

- They aren't arriving until Tuesday.
- We are having a special dinner at a top restaurant for all the senior managers.

C. PRESENT PERFECT
I. Form

The present perfect places the event in a period of time, which extends up to and includes speech time,
sometimes called the ‘extended now’.
N.B. PRESENT PERFECT OR SIMPLE PAST?

Compare the sentences below then deduce the difference between the past and the present perfect.

I have lived in Lyon. I lived in Lyon in 1989

They have eaten Thai food. They ate Thai food last night

Have you seen 'Othello'?. Where did you see 'Othello'?

The present perfect is the present tense of have + a past participle.

I/you/we/they have washed OR I/you/we/they've washed

he/she/it has washed OR he/she/it's washed

Affirmative sentence Interrogative Negative sentence

sentence

I/you/we/they have Have I/you/we/they I/you/we/they have

visited Portugal visited…? not visited Portugal
many times

he/she/it has visited Has he/she/it visited he/she/it has not

Portugal many times Portugal many visited Portugal
times ? many times

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Regular forms
Regular past participles end in ed, e.g. washed, landed, finished.
We've washed the dishes. Have you opened your letter?
The aircraft has landed safely. How many points has Matthew scored?

Irregular forms
Some participles are irregular.
I've made a shopping list. We've sold our car. I've thought about it a lot.
Have you written the letter? She hasn't drunk her coffee.

II. Use
1. An action or situation that started in the past and continues in the present
I have lived in Bristol since 1984 (= and I still do.)
They haven't lived here for years.
She has worked in the bank for five years.
We have had the same car for ten years.
Have you played the piano since you were a child?

2. An action performed during a period that has not yet finished

I have worked hard this week.
It has rained a lot this year.
We haven't seen her today.

3. A repeated action in an unspecified period between the past and now

We have visited Portugal several times
They have seen that film six times.

It has happened several times already.

She has visited them frequently.
We have eaten at that restaurant many times.

4. An action that was completed in the very recent past

I have just finished my work.
Have you just finished work?

I have just eaten.

We have just seen her.
Has he just left?

5. An action when the time is not important

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He has read 'War and Peace'. (The result of his reading is important)
Someone has eaten my soup!

Have you seen 'Gone with the Wind'?

She's studied Japanese, Russian and English.

6. After ‘the first/second… time’

We use the present perfect simple after this expression when we refer to an event in the present (or the
future).

-Is this the first time she has flown?

III. Just, already & yet

Examples Meaning and place

I've already drunk three coffees this morning Already means
'sooner than expected'.
Don't write to John, I've already done it
already comes before the past
Have you already written to John? participle
Has she already finished her homework ?
I have already been to Tokyo.

Have you met Judy yet? We use yet when we are expecting
something to happen
I haven't visited the Tate Gallery yet. Yet comes at the end
of a question or a negative sentence.
Has he arrived yet?

They haven't eaten yet

Sarah has just heard about the concert Just means 'a short time ago'
Just comes before the past
participle (heard, sold).

IV. For and Since

Examples Meaning of “for” and “since”

I have worked here for five years We use for to say how long this
period is {for three days).
She has lived here for twenty years.
We have taught at this school for a long time.

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 Alice has been married for three months.
They have been at the hotel for a week

I have worked here since 1990 We use since to say when the
period began (since Friday).
She has lived here since 1980. We have taught at
this school since 1965.

Alice has been married since March 2nd.

They have been at the hotel since last Tuesday

V. Ever and Never

Examples Meaning

Have you ever visited Berlin ? We can use ever and never
with the present perfect.
Have you ever been to England ? We use ever in questions. In
Have you ever visited Berlin ?
Has she ever met the Prime Minister ?
the word ever means 'in your
Nobody has ever said that to me before. whole life up to the present
time'.
Nothing like this has ever happened to us.

It's the first time (that) I've ever eaten snails.

This is the first time I've ever been to England.

I have never visited Berlin Never means 'not ever'.

D. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

The present perfect continuous is used in situations where events/actions/ states are seen as continuing
from some indefinite time in the past up to the present, frequently up to speech time as in:

-I’ve been looking forward to meeting you.

I.Form:

has (‘s) or have (‘ve) + been + -ing verb form.

Affirmative Question Negative

she has been wearing glasses for Have you been driving? I haven’t been learning Italian for
years How long have you been driving? long

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II. Use

We use the present perfect continuous when we measure the duration of a present action or to specify
when it began. We use it in conjunction with an expression beginning with the preposition ‘for’ or ‘since’, or
with the question ‘how long…?’ or when one of these expressions is implied.

-We’ve been driving for hours.

-How long have you been trying to contact me?

States and actions
We cannot normally use the continuous form with a state verb.
I've known the secret for a long time, NOT I've been knowing the secret.
My parents have had this car for about ten years.
We've never been very happy here, I'm afraid.

For, since, how long and recently

We can use the present perfect continuous with for and since.
My sister has been staying with me for three weeks now.
You've been playing on that computer since seven o'clock.

We use how long in questions.

How long have you been waiting?
Note also recently and lately. These both mean 'in the last few days or weeks'.
I haven't been feeling very well recently. What have you been doing lately?

NOTE : THE PASSIVE AND ACTIVE VOICE

Sentences 1 Sentences 2 Form

We bake the bread here The bread is baked here. Verb “be” in the simple present+past
participle
Verb “be” in the present continuous+ past
We are baking the bread. The bread is being baked. participle
We have baked the bread. The bread has been baked. verb “be” in the present perfect+past
participle

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Sidi  Mohamed  Ben  Abdellah  University                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    Pr.Belghiti  
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Department  of  English  
 

PAST SIMPLE

1. FORM

Affirmative Interrogative Negative

He had a small cottage Did he have a He did not have a
in the woods small….? small…
He was afraid… Was he afraid…? He was not afraid of
ghosts

The past simple is the same in all persons except in the past tense of be.
I/he/she/it was I was ill last week,
you/we/they were Those cakes were nice.

Regular verbs
A regular past form ends in ed.
It happened very quickly.
The van crashed into the cat I posted the letter yesterday.
We once owned a caravan

« ed » pronounciation
Pronunciation (1): /id/= verbs ending with the sounds /t/ and /d/
Blend blended
Pronunciation (2): /d/= voiced sounds
Call called
Pronunciation (3): /t/= voiceless sounds
Miss missed

Irregular verbs
The car came out of a side road. Vicky rang earlier.
I won the game. I had breakfast at six. The train left on time. We took some photos.
For a list of irregular verbs, check the attached grammar books.
2. USE

a. Action that ended in the past

I saw a ghost last Friday.

Our cat climbed a tree five minutes ago.
In June 2005 I visited Rome and Florence.
She made a cake an hour ago.
She bought a hat last week.
She washed my clothes yesterday
We decided to go to France last Monday

b. Repeated action in the past

When I was young, I watched lots of television every day after school.*(We could also say, I used
to watch lots of television.)
I always gave my mother flowers on her birthday.
Sidi  Mohamed  Ben  Abdellah  University                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    Pr.Belghiti  
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Department  of  English  
 
c. Stative verbs
He had a small cottage in the woods.
He wasn't afraid of ghosts.
I knew all the other children at my school when I was a child.

PAST CONTINUOUS

1. FORM
Past tense of be + Vb ing-form
I/he/she/it was playing
you/we/they were playing
Affirmative Interrogative Negative
I was living at Urbana Was I living at I was not living at
when it happened Urbana..? Urbana..

2. USE

a. Two actions in the past, one continues for a period, and the other starts and ends
While I was talking on the phone, someone stole my car.
I was making breakfast when the cat knocked over the milk carton, so I burnt the toast.
While the last band was playing, the lights suddenly went out.

b. Two actions in the past, both happening over a period

I was working on my computer and my children were watching television.
As my mother was cooking dinner, my father was fixing the TV
I was staying at my friend's house while my parents were touring

c. A TEMPORARY activity taking place over a limited time

I was living at Urbana when it happened.
USMBA-FLDM-FEZ PR.BELGHITI
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT S2/GRAMMAR 2
The Past Perfect and the Past Perfect Continuous

1. FORM

PAST PERFECT
The past perfect is had + a past participle.

He had enjoyed the party, OR He'd enjoyed the party.

They hadn't gone to bed until late. Where had he put his wallet?

2. PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

The past perfect continuous is had been + an ing-form.

I had been waiting ages, OR I'd been waiting ages.

I had not been paying attention, OR / hadn't been paying attention.
Had it been raining?

AFFIRMATIVE INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE

PAST PERFECT He had enjoyed the Had he enjoyed the He had not enjoyed
party party? the party
PAST PERFECT He had been Had be been He had not been
CONTINUOUS enjoying the party enjoying the party? enjoying the party

2. USE

Read the sentences and deduce the different uses of the Past Perfect/Past Perfect
Continuous

I felt really tired when I took the train to work yesterday because Sarah and 1 had been to a
party the evening before.
I went to the box office at lunch-time, but they had already sold all the tickets.
By 1960 most of Britain's old colonies had become independent.
Rule of use……………………………………………………………………………………

The train had just left when I arrived at the station.

She had just left the room when the police arrived.
I had just put the washing out when it started to rain.
Rule of use……………………………………………………………………………………

Bill was in uniform when I met him. He had been a soldier for ten years/since he was
seventeen, and planned to stay in the army till he was thirty.
Peter, who had waited for an hour/since ten o'clock, was very angry with his sister when
she eventually turned up.
USMBA-FLDM-FEZ PR.BELGHITI
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT S2/GRAMMAR 2
He had served in the army for ten years; then he retired and married. His children were
now at school.
Rule of use……………………………………………………………………………………

Tom was 23 when our story begins. His father had died five years before and since then
Tom had lived alone. His father had advised him not to get married till he was 35, and Tom
intended to follow this advice.
I had just poured myself a glass of beer when the phone rang. When I came back from
answering it the glass was empty. Somebody had drunk the beer or thrown it away.
He met her in Paris in 1977. He had last seen her ten years before. Her hair had been grey
then; now it was white.
Rule of use……………………………………………………………………………………

When he had shut the window we opened the door of the cage. (We waited for the window
to be quite shut before opening the cage.)
When she had sung her song she sat down. ('When she sang her song she sat down" might
give the impression that she sang seated.)
When he had seen all the pictures he said he was ready to leave. (When he had finished
looking at them . . .)
Rule of use……………………………………………………………………………………

He refused to go till he had seen all the pictures.

He did not wait till we had finished our meal.
Before we had finished our meal he ordered us back to work.
Before we had walked ten miles he complained of sore feet.
Rule of use……………………………………………………………………………………

After the will had been read there were angry exclamations.
Rule of use…………………………………………………………………………………
He said, 'I've been in England for ten years' = He said that he had been in England for ten
years. He said, 'When you 've worked for a year you 'II get a rise' = He said that when I'd
worked for a year I'd get a rise.
Rule of
use……………………………………………………………………………………………

It was six o’clock and he was tired because he had been working since dawn.
He had been repairing the engine
Rule of
use……………………………………………………………………………………………
USMBA-FLDM-FEZ PR.BELGHITI
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT S2/GRAMMAR 2

PRACTICE

1. Put the verbs into the correct tenses (past, past continuous, past perfect)

A young man (walk) into a supermarket in Southampton and (put) a few items of food in a
basket. He (choose) a time when not many people (shop) in the store. He (find) a checkout
where no one else (wait) . When the cashier (check) the goods, the man (give) her a £10
note. When she opened the till, the man quickly (snatch) all the money from it and (run)
out of the store before she (realize) what (happen). At the time the security guard (stand)
at the other end of the store. When staff (check) the records in the till, they (find) that the
thief (take) only £4.37. As he (leave) the £10 note behind, the
operation (cost) him £5.63.

2. Daniel is telling the story of how he forgot his passport. Put the verbs into the
correct form.
(Past simple, continuous and perfect )
(►) /(happened (it / happen) last August at the airport. A few weeks before, a group of us
(1)................... ....... (decide) to go to Greece together for a holiday. (2)..................... (we
/ wait) in the queue at passport control when suddenly (3)........................(I / realize) that
(4).................(I / forget) my passport. (5)........................... (it / be) quite a shock.
(6)....................................... (I / hurry) to a phone and (7) ............................. (ring) my
parents. (8).................................... (they / work) in the garden, but luckily my mother
(9)....................................... (hear) the phone. (10) ...................................(they / find) the
passport and immediately (11).................... ................(drive) to the airport with it.
(12)................................... (] / meet) them at the information desk. (13)
........................................ (we / have) no time to talk, but (14).................... ........... (I / say)
goodbye to them earlier that morning. (15)................................. (I / run) all the way to the
plane. I was just in time. When
(16).............................(I / get) there, the passengers (17).....................(sit) in their seats
ready for take-off. When(18) (they/see)me,everyone (19).................................. (start)
clapping.

3.Put in the correct form of the verbs.

► Tom could hear shouts from the flat next door. His neighbors were arguing (argue)
again.
1 Emma went into the sitting-room. It was empty, but the television was still on.
Someone..............................................(watch) it.
2 I ......... .............................. (play) tennis, so I had a shower. I was annoyed because
I.................................... (not win)a single game.
3 The walkers finally arrived at their destination. They ................ (walk) all day, and
they certainly needed a rest. They .............................................. (walk) thirty miles.
4 When I saw Nick last week, he said he .............................................. (stop) smoking.
But when I saw him two days later, he...................................... (smoke) a cigarette. He
looked rather ashamed.
5 I really must go and see the dentist. One of my teeth ....................................... (ache)
for weeks.
USMBA-FLDM-FEZ PR.BELGHITI
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT S2/GRAMMAR 2

4. Put the verbs in the present perfect or past perfect ?

It isn't raining now. It's stopped (stop) at last.
We had no car at that time. We'd sold (sell) our old one.
1 The park looked awful. People .............................................. (leave) litter everywhere.
2 You can have that newspaper. I ............................................(finish) with it.
3 There's no more cheese. We................................................(eat) it all, I'm afraid.
4 There was no sign of a taxi, although I............................................ (order) one half
an hour before.
5 This bill isn't right. They ............................................. (make) a mistake.
6 I spoke to Melanie at lunch-time. Someone ..........................................(tell) her the
news earlier.
7 I was really tired last night. I...............................................(have) a hard day.
8 Don't you want to see this programme? It ...............................................(start).
9 It'll soon get warm in here. I...............................................(turn) the heating on.
10 At last the committee were ready to announce their decision.
They.................. .................. (make) up their minds.
 Talking about the Future

There are several ways to use verbs to talk about the future in English.
Different structures are at the disposal of language users to talk about future events and
states.
We will talk about the differences between the meanings and uses of the different
structures.

Will/shall:

- Present-tense forms:
‘be going to’ (I'm going to leave)
The present progressive (I'm leaving)
Simple present (the train leaves at 10 am)

- Other ways of talking about the future:

The future perfect and future perfect progressive.
The future progressive.
Be about to + infinitive.
Be to + infinitive.

- When we are simply giving information about the future, or talking about possible future
events which are not already decided or obviously on the way, we usually use will (or
sometimes shall) + infinitive.
This is the most common way of talking about the future.

Form:
Will + infinitive (without ‘to’)
E.g. It will be cold tomorrow, Where will you spend the night?

Some British people use ‘I shall’ and ‘we shall’ instead of ‘I/we will’, with no difference of
meaning in most situations.

Negative short forms are:

won't (= will not)
shan't (= shall not)
E.g. I will not be there/l won't be there/shan't be there tomorrow.

Uses:

1- Giving information about the future:

Will + infinitive is used to give (or ask for) information about the future. Examples:
It’ll be summer soon.
Will all the family be at the wedding?
Karen will start work sometime next week.
In another thirteen minutes the alarm will go off. This will close an electrical contact,
causing the explosive to detonate.

2- Predictions:
We often use will in predictions of future events – to talk about what we think,
guess or calculate will happen. Examples:
Tomorrow will be warm, with some cloud in the afternoon.
Who do you think will win on Saturday?
You'll never finish that book.
3- conditional use:
‘Will’ is often used to express conditional ideas, when we say what will happen if something
else happens. Examples:
He’ll have an accident if he goes on driving like that.
If the weather's fine, we'll have the party in the garden.
Lookout - you’ll fall! (If you’re not more careful.)
‘Come out for a drink.’ ‘No, I’ll miss the film on TV if I do.’
Don’t leave me. I’ll cry!

4- In formal style:
We say what will happen for events that have been arranged. Example:
The wedding will take place at St Andrew's on June 27th.

5- We use shall and will to express hopes and expectations.

I hope she'll get the job she's applied for.
A: She'll get a surprise. B: I expect she will.

6- With a verb referring to an action, ‘will you...?’ usually introduces an order or request.
Will you turn off that music! (Order)
Will you do the shopping this afternoon, please? (Request)

7- Making a promise:
I will always take care of you, Mom.

8- Offer to help:
A: This box is heavy. B: I’ll carry it for you.

9- ‘Shall’ to make suggestions:

- The use of ‘shall’ sounds a lot more formal than other ways to make a suggestion.
The structure is: shall + subject + simple verb form
E.g. Shall we go to the cinema?
- ‘Shall’ is only used with the subjects I and we. We would not say: Shall you to offer an idea?*
- ‘Shall’ is more common in British English.
- It is now rare and is almost non-existent in American English.
10- ‘Will’ is not used in subordinate clauses:
In subordinate clauses, we usually use present tenses instead of will.
I'll phone you when I arrive. (not... when I will arrive.)
- When to use the future in subordinate clauses?
A future verb is necessary for future reference in a subordinate clause if the main verb does
not refer to the future (or to the same time in the future). Examples:
I don’t know where she will be tomorrow.
I'm sure I won’t understand a word of the lecture.
I'll hide it somewhere where he’ll never find it. (two different future times)
If she rings, I’ll tell her that I’ll ring back later. (two different future times).
 A present tense:
‘be going to’ (I'm going to leave)
The present progressive (I'm leaving)
Simple present (the train leaves at 10 am)

Be going to:

- This structure is the present progressive of ‘go’.

- We use it to talk about future actions and events that have some present reality.
- If we say that something in the future is going to happen, it is usually already planned or
decided, or it is starting to happen, or we can see it coming now.
- The structure is very common in an informal style, especially in speech.
Uses:
1- Plans:
- We use be going to + Infinitive to talk about plans, especially in an informal style.
- This structure often emphasizes the idea of intention, or a decision that has already been
made.
We're going to get a new car soon.
Jack say she’s going to phone this evening.
When are you going to get your haircut?
I’m going to stop him reading my emails if it’s the last thing I do.
2- To talk about things that are on the way:
- Another use of the ‘going-to structure’ is to predict the future on the basis of present
evidence - to say that a future action or event is on the way, or starting to happen.
Sandra’s going to have another baby in June.
Look at the sky. It's going to rain.
Look out! We’re going to crash!
3- Commands and refusals:
- ‘Going to’... can be used to insist that people do things or do not do things.
You’re going to finish that soup if you sit there all afternoon!
She’s going to take that medicine whether she likes it or not!
You’re not going to play football in my garden.
- It is also used in emphatic refusals.
I’m not going to sit up all night listening to your problems!
4- Gonna:
- In informal speech, going to is often pronounced /ɡənə/.
- This is sometimes shown in writing as gonna, especially in American English.
Nobody's gonna talk to me like that.
The present progressive for future:
1- Present reality:
- We use the present progressive for future actions and events that have some present reality.
- It is most common in discussions of personal arrangements and fixed plans, when the time
and place have been decided.
A: What are you doing this evening? B: I ’m washing my hair.
I'm seeing Larry on Saturday.
Did you know I'm getting a new job?
We’re touring Mexico next summer.
What are we having for dinner?
My car’s going in for repairs next week.
2- Verbs of movement:
- We often use the present progressive with verbs of movement, to talk about actions which
are just starting.
Are you coming to the party?
I'm just going next door. Back in a minute.
Get your coat on! I'm taking you down to the doctor!
3- Commands and refusals:
- The present progressive can be used to insist that people do things or do not do things.
She's taking that medicine whether she likes it or not!
You’re not wearing that skirt to school.
- The present progressive is common in emphatic refusals.
I'm sorry - you’re not taking my car.
I’m not washing your socks – forget it!
The difference between the present progressive and ‘going to’
- In many cases, both structures can be used to express the same idea.
I'm washing/going to wash my hair this evening.
- We prefer ‘going to’ when we are talking intentions and decisions, and not about fixed
arrangements.
- Compare the following:
I'm seeing Jake tonight. (Emphasis on arrangement)
I’m really going to tell him what I think of him. (Emphasis on intention)
Who’s cooking lunch? (Asking what has been arranged)
Who’s going to cook lunch? (Asking for a decision)

The simple present for future:

1- Timetables/regular schedules:
- We can sometimes use the simple present to talk about the future. This is common when
we are talking about events which are part of a timetable, a regular schedule or something
similar.
The summer term starts on April 10th.
What time does the bus arrive?
My plane leaves at three o’clock.
The sun rises at 6.13 tomorrow.
- Will is also usually possible in these cases.
2- Subordinate clauses:
- The simple present is often used with a future meaning in subordinate clauses.
I’ll tell you what I find out. (not...what I'll find out.)
She’ll pay us back when she gets a job. (not...when she’ll get a job.)
Alex will see us tomorrow if he has time. (not...if he will have time.)
3- Instructions:
- Occasionally the simple present is used with a future meaning when asking for and giving
instructions.
Where do I pay?
Well, what do we do now?
So when you get to London you go straight to Victoria Station, you meet up with the others,
Ramona gives you your ticket, and you catch the 17.15 train to Dover. OK?
Future perfect:
Will have + past participle (Simple)
- We can use the future perfect to say that something will be finished or complete by a
certain time in the future.
The builders say they will have finished the roof by Tuesday.
I’ll have spent all my savings by the end of the year.
Future perfect progressive:
A progressive form (will have been + verb in the ‘ing’ form) can be used to talk about a
continuous activity.
I’ll have been teaching for twenty years this summer.
- Just like with the other perfect continuous tenses, we can use the future perfect continuous
to say 'how long' for an action that continues up to another point in the future. The second
point can be a time or another action. Generally, we need 'for + length of time'.
In April, she will have been teaching for twelve years.
By the time you arrive, I'll have been cooking for hours!
- We can use the future perfect continuous, like the other perfect continuous tenses, to talk
about something that finishes just before another time or action (in this case, in the future). It
is often used because there will be a result at the second point in the future.
When I see you, I'll have been studying, so I'll be tired.
- For will have... used to express certainty about the past (e.g. It's no use phoning - he’ll have
left by now)
- The future perfect progressive is used to express the duration of an action up to a certain
time in the future:
On May1st, we will have been living in Rabat for fifteen years.
In another month's time I will have been going to school for twenty years.

Exercise:
Complete the following sentence using ‘will’ or ‘shall’ ‘be going to’. Explaining in each case
why you have chosen one or the other.
1- A: you (help) ……………….. me with this exercise? B: I Certainly ……………….. .
2- We (go out) ……………….. later?
3- He (never, marry) ……………….. my daughter.
4- Tell him that (never speak) ……………….. to him again.
5- He (take) ……………….. the unnecessary risks when he is driving.
6- We (leave) ……………….. London on Friday if all goes well.
7- That is very heavy! I (help) ……………….. you carry it? and perhaps Max (help) ……………….. you
too.
Answers:
1- A: Will you help me with this exercise? B: I certainly will.
I have chosen to use "will" here because it indicates a willingness or intention to help in the
future.
2- We are going to go out later.
I have chosen to use "going to" here because it implies a plan or intention to go out later.
3- He is never going to marry my daughter.
I have chosen to use "going to" here because it indicates a prediction based on present
evidence or a plan.
4- Tell him that he will never speak to him again.
I have chosen to use "will" here because it indicates a command or instruction.
5- He is going to take unnecessary risks when he is driving.
I have chosen to use "going to" here because it implies a plan or intention to take unnecessary
risks while driving.
6- We are going to leave London on Friday if all goes well.
I have chosen to use "going to" here because it implies a plan or intention to leave London on
Friday.
7- That is very heavy! Shall I help you carry it? And perhaps Max will help you too.
I have chosen to use "shall" here because it implies a suggestion or offer of help.

Future progressive:
Form:
shall/will + be + ... ing
Uses:
1- Events in progress in the future:
- We can use the future progressive to say that something will be in progress (happening) at a
particular moment in the future.
This time tomorrow I’ll be lying on the beach.
Good luck with the exam. We’ll be thinking of you.
2- Events that are fixed or expected to happen:
- The future progressive is often used to refer to future events which are fixed or decided, or
which are expected to happen in the normal course of events.
Professor Baxter will be giving another lecture on Roman glass-making at the same time next
week.
I'll be seeing you one of these days, I expect.
- This is useful if we want to show that we are not talking about making decisions, but about
things that will happen ‘anyway’.
A: ‘Shall I pick up the laundry for you?’
B: ‘Oh, no, don’t make a special journey.’
A: ‘It’s OK. I'll be going to the shops anyway.’
- The tense can be used to make polite inquiries about people’s plans.
- By using the future progressive to ask 'What have you already decided?’, the speaker shows
that he/she does not want to influence the listener’s intentions.
- Compare:
Will you be staying in this evening? (very polite enquiry, suggesting ‘I simply want to know
your plans')
Are you going to stay in this evening? (pressing for a decision)

Progressive form with ‘going to’:

- A progressive form of the ‘going to’ structure is also possible.
I’m going to be working all day tomorrow, so I won’t have time to shop.
- ‘will be ...ing’ used to express certainty about the present:
Don’t phone now - they'll be having dinner.
 Be to + infinitive:
Uses:
1- Plans and arrangements:
- We use this structure in a formal style to talk about official and other plans and
arrangements.
The President is to visit Nigeria next month.
We are to get a 10 per cent wage rise in June.
I felt nervous because I was soon to leave home for the first time.
2- Pre-conditions:
- This structure is common in if-clauses, when the main clause expresses a precondition –
something that must happen first if something else is to happen.
If we are to get there by lunch time, we had better hurry.
He knows he will have to work hard if he is to pass his exam.
3- Orders:
- The structure is used to give orders, for example by parents speaking to children.
You are to do your homework before you watch TV.
She can go to the party, but she's not to be back late.
4- Be + passive infinitive: It is not to be removed.
- Sometimes only the passive infinitive is used.
- Be + passive infinitive (am/are/is (not) to be + past participle) is often used in notices and
instructions.
This cover is not to be removed.
To be taken three times a day after meals. (On a medicine bottle)
- Some other common expressions with be + passive infinitive:
There’s nothing to be done. She was nowhere to be found.
I looked out of the window, but there was nothing to be seen.

Exercise:
1- I (see) ……………….. Max on Friday.
2- By Saturday, I (speak) ……………….. to everyone involved.
3- It's five o'clock they (arrive) ……………….. home by now'.
4- On June 15, my cousin and his wife (be married) ……………….. for twenty two years.
5- The taxi (arrive) ……………….. by the time you (finish) ……………….. .

Reference:
Swan, M (2016) Practical English Usage (4th edition). Oxford University Press.
Chapter II: MODALS
Lesson outline:
1. Introduction: what is a modal?
2. Characteristics of modals - Forms of modals
3. List of modals and other similar verbs
4. Meaning and use of modals

1. Introduction
Modals, also referred to as modal verbs, modal auxiliary verbs or modal auxiliaries, are special
types of verbs that are used with lexical/full vebs and which behave irreguarly in English (see
their characteristics below).
Modal auxiliaries are sometimes used to give extra, contextual information about the function of
the verb and the way the verbal action is carried out.
Modals are used with a number of communicative functions, related to speakers’ attitudes, state
of mind, and many other variables, and indicating various modality meanings such as, likelihood,
permission, obligation etc.

2. Characteristics of modals
Modal have some characteristics which make them different from other verbs.

 A modal belongs to the category AUX. It is used as the first element in the VP.
e.g. He must have been sleeping.
 The form of a modal never changes: no inflection (*can/*musts); it doesn’t have non-
finite form (*to can/*to must/*musting)
 The modal is followed by the bare infinitive, to is not allowed (*we must to go)
e.g. we should work hard. In this case, the present or future time is referred to.
 When the modal is followed by the perfect form: have_en, there is a past time indication.
e.g. The plane must have landed.
 Some modals have present and past forms: can/could, may/might… However, past form
doesn’t always mean past time.
e.g. I can swim, present time– I could swim when I was three, past time – He might be at
home, past form but present time.
 Modals allow negation; they don’t need a helping verb (you mustn’t do that, but not *you
don’t must). They have both a full form (must not) and a contracted form (mustn’t)
 They also allow inversion, can I go out? Must you do that?

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  Modals can be used alone to substitute for a whole sentence, as in short answers or tag
structures. e.g. do you think you can do it? Oh, yes I can. You can keep quite, can’t you?
 The affirmative and negative forms of modals sometimes express opposite mennings.
e.g. Tom can swim, Tom can’t swim. However, the negative form does not always
express the contrary, e.g. you mustn’t do that is not the opposite of you must do that.
 There are other verbs which are used to express modality meanings, but do not have the
same characteristics as modal auxiliaries. Verbs like have to, used to, need (in the
negative form) and dare can be considered as semi-modals. For example, have to takes a
helping verb in the negative and interrogative forms, and allows non-finite forms, to have
to, having to.
e.g. Do you have to shout like that? You don’t have to do that.
I hate to have to wake up early on Sundays.

3. List of modals
There are 10 types of modal verbs.
1. can
2. could
3. may
4. might
5. must
6. shall
7. should
8. will
9. would
10. ought to
These ten modal verbs are used in many ways. Here are some of their most common functions.

5. Meaning and use of modals

Speakers use modal verbs in daily conversation for a variety of communicative purposes and
goals. They may, for example, ask for permission to do something (can I go out?), give advice
(you shouldn’t do that), make requests and offers (would you get in, please?), give order or show
obligation (you mustn’t do that) etc.
In addition to these functions, modals can be used to express different degrees of likelihood
(possibility, probability) in various contexts. These degrees may range from almost certain to
very uncertain. e.g. The boss must have left (certain); the boss may have left (uncertain). (see
the scale of certainty below).
In making requests, some modals can also be classified according to different levels of
politeness, depending on various factors.

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We can, therefore, say that modals have two functions: Primary (the usual dictionary meaning),
and secondary (associated with speakers and situations – contextual meaning):

Some primary Functions of modals:

 Can/could – Ability, permission
 Cannot – prohibition
 May/might – permission
 Obligation/duty – must/have to/should

Secondary functions of modals:

In their secondary function, the modal verbs can be used to express the degree of certainty, i.e. the
use of a particular modal in a situation can tell us how likely the

Almost certain
MUST (inevitable)
WILL (certain)
WOULD (probable)
SHOULD (possible)
OUGHT TO (likely)
CAN (unlikely)
COULD (unlikely)
MAY (impossible)
MIGHT (impossible)

Very uncertain

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The modals: Can/could – May/might
The main uses of the four modals can be summarized as follows:
Can/could and may/might are both modal verbs in the English language that express varying
degrees of possibility or ability.
Can/could:
 "Can" is used to express ability, capability, or to ask for permission. For example, "I can
speak French" or "Can I borrow your pen?".
 "Could" is the past tense of "can" and is used to express ability or to make a polite request.
For example, "I could swim when I was younger" or "Could you please pass me the salt?".
May/might:
 "May" is used to express possibility or permission. For example, "It may rain today" or
"May I leave early today?".
 "Might" is used to express a possibility that is less likely than with "may". For example, "I
might go to the party tonight, but I'm not sure yet".
It's important to note that "may" and "might" are often used interchangeably, with "might"
expressing a slightly lower level of probability or certainty than "may".

ability I can climb this mountain.

CAN permission Can I use your pen please?
possibility Smoking can cause serious diseases.
ability in the past When I was younger, I could run fast.
COULD polite permission Excuse me, could I just say something?
possibility It could rain tomorrow!
permission May I use your pen please?
MAY
possibility It may rain tomorrow!
polite permission Might I suggest an idea?
MIGHT
possibility The cat might be hiding in the drawer.

CAN
This modal is used in various forms:
 Can + infinitive/progressive form: present/future time.
 For example, "I can swim" or "She can't come to the party tonight".
 "I can't come to the phone right now because I am driving."
 "She can speak fluent French, but she is still working on her grammar."
 Cannot/can’t + have+ past participle: past time.
  For example:
 I can't have forgotten my keys at home. I remember putting them in my bag this morning.
 She couldn't have finished the project yesterday because she didn't have all the necessary
information until today.

Meaning and uses

To express ability: meaning, ‘be able to’. (something possible to do, in the sense of being within
reach or ability) It can be Physical or mental.
e.g. I can lift up to 50 kilos – I can read Russian
To express or inquire about willingness. Meaning, ‘be willing to’.
e.g. I can find you a place where to sleep – Can you help me move this box?
To ask for or grant permission. Meaning, ‘be allowed to’
e.g. Can I go out? – you can leave now.
To express possibility. Meaning, ‘it is possible (for/that)’
e.g. Even the best of us can make mistakes – driving in foggy weather can be dangerous.

(note that can expresses a more certain degree of possibility than may and might)

CANNOT (contraction can’t)

To express inability (physical or mental). Meaning, ‘be unable to’
e.g. my brother is 20 years old, and he can’t swim – I can’t remember your name.
To refuse permission or express prohibition. Meaning, ‘not allowed to’
e.g. You can’t go out now – You cannot smoke here.
To express negative possibility. Meaning, ‘it is not possible that’ (strong degree of certainty)
e.g. Tom can’t be in his office now; I have just talked to him on his home landline.
N.B. ‘Can’t’ here expresses the opposite of ‘must’ when it refers to strong possibility/probability
(almost certain). e.g. John must be here ≠ John can’t be outside - She is serious; she can’t be
joking.
When we use "must" to express a strong possibility or probability, it means that we are almost
certain that something is true. For example, "John must be here" means that we strongly believe
that John is present.
 On the other hand, "can't" can be used to express the opposite of "must" in this context, indicating
that we strongly believe that something is not true. For example, "John can't be outside" means
that we strongly believe that John is not outside, but rather here.

CAN’T+ have+ past participle is used to speak about a past negative possibility. e.g. You can’t
have met Jude; she is not in town.

COULD past form of can (same forms as can)

Meaning and uses
To express past time ability. Meaning, ‘was able to’
e.g. My son could swim when he was two–we could always find a way out at times of difficulty.
Also, hypothetical ability. e.g. He could do it if he wanted – I could do that if I were in you.
To express past permission. Meaning, ‘was allowed to’
e.g. When he was in jail, he could receive visitors every week.
Used in polite requests
e.g. Could you be quiet? - Could you repeat the last line, please?
Sometimes, the role of the context is important to indicate which communicative purpose is
intended. For example “could you get the tickets?” may be used to ask whether someone was
able to get the tickets, or may be used as a request to get the tickets.
To express a certain degree of certainty in relation to a present time possibility. (see scale of
likelihood)
e.g. This could be the house we ‘re looking for – What you’re saying could be true.
COULD NOT/COULDN”T
To express past inability, ‘was unable to’. e.g. He tried hard, but he couldn’t convince me.

To express negative possibility, in a similar way to can.

e.g. What you told me couldn’t be true.
COULD +have+ past participle
In the same way as can, could with the perfect form can be used to speak about a strong
possibility/probability in the past, or may sometimes have a hypothetical meaning.
e.g. They could have left - they couldn’t have left – You could have told me the truth.

"Can" and "could" are modal verbs that are used to express ability or possibility. "Can" is used to
describe present or future ability, while "could" is used to describe past or conditional ability.
MAY/MAY NOT

"May" and "might" are also modal verbs, but they are used to express possibility
or permission. "May" is more formal and is typically used to ask for permission
or to express a higher level of uncertainty, while "might" is used to express a
lower level of uncertainty.

"Can" is used to ask for permission in a more informal way, and it is often used
to request something that the speaker believes is possible or within their abilities.

"May" is used to ask for permission in a more formal way, and it is often used to
request something that the speaker believes is not necessarily within their abilities
or control.
Various forms of may:
May (not) + infinitive/progressive form: Present/future time reference
May (not) + have+ past participle: Past time reference

For example:

 Present/future: She may not be coming to the party tonight.

 Past: She may not have seen the email you sent her yesterday.

Meaning and uses

A very formal and polite way to ask for permission or make a request.
e.g. May I go out? – May I have your attention, please?
Also to grant permission. May not is used to refuse permission. (formal/polite)
e.g.You may go out if you want. You may not stay here.
To speak about possibility (related to outside circumstances or to the speaker- see scale of
certainty)
e.g. We never know; we may find him in the office now – I may be late tonight – He may not be
telling the truth.
Other uses of may:
To make wishes (blessings.)
e.g. may god bless you – May god help you – May all your evil wishes perish!
In clauses that express intention/purpose.
e.g. Tell them so that they may know – I’ll wake you up if I may leave.
To express concessive meaning.( introducing a phrase or clause denoting a circumstance which
might be expected).
e.g. He may be poor, but he is honest – She may be kind, but she is bad-tempered.
MAY (NOT) + have+past participle
This form is used to express a very low degree of certainty about a possibe course of events or a
situation in the past.
e.g.The guests are late; they may have lost their way – the kids may have left.
He may not have seen you. They may not have arrived yet.
MIGHT/MIGHT NOT
To express present/future possibility. (may and might and their negative forms are
interchangeable).
e.g.The kids might be at home now – Mr. Williams might be your teacher next semester. Let’s
wait; the players might not be ready by now.
Used in formal requests for permission. e.g. Might I leave now?
In indirect requests and suggestions.
e.g. You mgight give us another chance. You might give us a hand if you’re doing nothing.
MIGHT + have+past participle
To speak about a past possibility (the most uncertain degree).
e.g.She didn’t answer the phone. She might have been in the bathroom.
To make an indirect reproach. (less strong than ‘should have’)
e.g. You might have told me: I could have helped you.

In general, "may" expresses a higher degree of possibility or likelihood than "might". However,
the difference between the two is subtle and they are often used interchangeably in everyday
conversation.

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Can, could, may, and might are modal verbs that have different uses in English. Here
are their main uses:
1. Can: "Can" is used to express ability, possibility, and permission.
Example sentences:
 Ability: "I can speak Spanish fluently."
 Possibility: "It can rain later today."
 Permission: "Can I go to the bathroom?"
2. Could: "Could" is the past tense of "can" and is used to talk about past ability or
possibility, as well as making polite requests.
Example sentences:
 Past ability: "When I was younger, I could run a mile in under six minutes."
 Polite request: "Could you please pass me the salt?"
3. May: "May" is used to express possibility, permission, and to make polite
suggestions or requests.
Example sentences:
 Possibility: "It may rain later today."
 Permission: "May I borrow your pen?"
 Polite suggestion/request: "You may want to try the seafood pasta. It's really
good."
4. Might: "Might" is similar to "may" and is used to express possibility, especially
when the possibility is uncertain or hypothetical.
Example sentences:
 Possibility: "I might go to the gym after work."
 Uncertain possibility: "If I study hard, I might pass the exam."
 Hypothetical possibility: "If I were to win the lottery, I might buy a house in the
countryside."

conclusion
In conclusion, "can", "could", "may", and "might" are modal verbs with different uses
in English. "Can" expresses ability, possibility, and permission; "could" expresses past
ability or possibility and is used for polite requests; "may" expresses possibility,
permission, and polite suggestions or requests; and "might" expresses uncertain or
hypothetical possibility. Understanding the appropriate use of these modal verbs can
help improve one's English language skills and communication.

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 Sidi Mohammed Ben Abdellah University S2- Grammar 2
Faculty of letters-Dhar El Mehraz
Department of English

LESSON

MUST/HAVE TO & SHOULD/OUGHT TO

"Must" is a modal verb in English that is commonly used to express obligation or necessity. It indicates
that something is required or essential, and cannot be avoided or ignored.

Here are a few examples of how "must" can be used in sentences:

 You must arrive at the airport at least two hours before your flight.

 I must finish my homework before I can go out with my friends.

 We must take care of our planet if we want future generations to have a livable environment.

In each of these examples, "must" is used to convey a strong sense of obligation or necessity. It's a way
of expressing that something is not just a good idea or a suggestion, but something that absolutely
needs to happen.

what are the uses of " must"

"must" is a modal verb that is commonly used to express obligation or necessity. Here are some of the
main uses of "must":

1. Expressing obligation: "Must" is often used to indicate that something is required or

mandatory. For example: "You must submit your application by the deadline."

2. Expressing strong advice: "Must" can also be used to give strong advice or recommendations.
For example: "You must see a doctor if your symptoms persist."

3. Making deductions: "Must" can be used to make deductions based on the available evidence.
For example: "There must be a mistake in the calculations if the results are this different."

4. Expressing certainty: "Must" can be used to express a high degree of certainty or probability.
For example: "She must be tired after working a 12-hour shift."

5. Giving orders or commands: "Must" can be used to give orders or commands in a more polite
or indirect way. For example: "You must be quiet in the library."

Generally, "must" is a versatile modal verb that can be used in a variety of contexts to express different
shades of meaning.

"must" can also be used in a few other ways:

1. Expressing determination: "Must" can be used to express determination or a strong intention

to do something. For example: "I must pass this exam no matter what."

2. Expressing regret: In the past tense, "must" can be used to express regret or disappointment
about something that did not happen. For example: "I must have forgotten to lock the door
when I left this morning. That’s absolutely how the burglar got in."

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 In this sentence, the speaker is expressing regret or self-blame for not locking the door, which
they now realize could have prevented the burglary. By using "must," the speaker is making an
assumption based on the available evidence (i.e., the unlocked door) and expressing regret
about what they could have done differently.

3. Making suggestions: In a more indirect or polite way, "must" can be used to make suggestions
or give ideas. For example: "You must try the new Italian restaurant in town. The food is
delicious."

4. Expressing assumptions: "Must" can be used to express assumptions or hypotheses about

something. For example: "He must be a good cook, judging by how delicious this meal is."

It's worth noting that the different uses of "must" can overlap and depend on the context of the
sentence. Therefore, it's important to consider the context carefully when using or interpreting this
modal verb.

When to use must:

We use the modal verb must when we want to express personal obligations or express what the
speaker think is necessary.
The modal verb must is related to obligations that are subjective to us.
Examples:
I must stop smoking.
You must visit us soon.
He must work harder.
How to use the modal verb must:
Must is a modal auxiliary verb. It is always followed by the main verb, and this is how it is
structured: Subject + must + main verb.
The main verb here is only the base without “to”.
Examples: Subject Auxiliary must +Main verb+ Rest of the sentence
I Must Go Home.
You Must Visit London.
We Must Stop Now.
As the examples, show the main verb is only the base verb without “to”.
Incorrect: I must to go home.
Correct: I must go home.

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 1. Must

Modals Functions Examples

Must Obligation/ necessity You must finish your homework

before Friday
You must buy your ticket before
starting your journey unless they are
not available.
You must fill in a form. (I'm telling
you.)
You must buy your ticket before
starting your journey (the rule is
made by the Rail company)
Enjoyable necessity We sometimes use must "for things
we think are necessary because they
are so enjoyable.
You really must watch this new
Canadian soap opera. We must have
lunch together.

Must not/ Prohibition (bad idea) You mustn't forget your key, or you
(negative form) won't get in.
Certainty in the present That must be Khalid’s twin brother.
Logic deduction He looks like him.
Certainty in the past My watch says it's only ten past two.
It must have stopped.

For certainty in the past, we use must+have+past participle

Tenses
When we talk about necessity in the present or the near future, we can use must

Must has no past tense, no perfect or continuous form and no infinitive or ing-form. We
use have to instead.

I had to pay £15 for this railcard last week.

We've had to make a few changes.
I'm having to spend a lot of time traveling.
I wasn't expecting to have to look after the children.
It's no fun having to stand the whole journey.
You will have to pay the full standard single fare.

The past tense of "must" is "had to." "Had to" is used to express a past obligation or necessity,

3
or to indicate that something was required or mandatory in the past.
Here are some examples of using "had to" in sentences:
1. "I had to wake up early this morning for a meeting." (The speaker is indicating that
waking up early was necessary or mandatory in the past.)
2. "She had to study hard for her exams last semester." (The speaker is indicating that
studying hard was necessary or required in the past.)
3. "We had to cancel our plans due to bad weather." (The speaker is indicating that
canceling plans was necessary or unavoidable in the past.)

2. Have to

Modal Meaning Examples

Have to Necessity in the present Mark has to get the car repaired.
Negative form: There's something wrong with the
Present: Do brakes.
not/does not have I have to exercise. (The doctor told
to me.).
Past: Did not have
to
Necessity in the past and future That wasn't very good. We'll have to
do better next time
Obligation in the past Emma had to go to the dentist
yesterday, NOT She must go to the
dentist yesterday.

Lack of necessity
We use don't have to/haven't got to say that something is unnecessary.
Ex:
1. You don't have to take me to the station. Alan's
giving me a lift.
2. "I haven't got any money on me right now. Can I borrow some from you?" (The
speaker is indicating that they do not have any money at the moment.)
3. "She hasn't got much experience in this field, but she's a quick learner." (The
speaker is indicating that the person does not have a lot of experience in the field
being discussed.)

The difference between must and have to

When to use “have to”:

We often use have to express impersonal obligations, things that often related to others or on
oneself. Therefore, have to is often objective rather than personal.
Examples:.
In London you have to drive on the left.
Salma has to be at work on time. Children have to go to school.

As we can see from the examples, the obligation is not subjective rather the obligation is
imposed from the outside, objective.

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How to use “have to”:
It is worth clarifying that “have to” is not a modal verb.
in fact, it is not even an auxiliary verb.
It comes to serve as a substitute for “must” because it is enabling people to express the idea of
obligation or duty.
The structure of “have to” is: Subject + have + infinitive (with to).
Examples:

Affirmative: She has to work

Negative: I do not have to see the doctor
Question: Did you have to go to school?

NB. We normally use must when the speaker feels the necessity (obliged) and have to
when the necessity is outside the speaker.

3. We use must when the speaker thinks it is

necessary or important to do action:
You must go. (= It is important that you go.)
We make negatives, questions and short
answers like this:
You mustn’t go.
Must you go? ~ Yes, I must.

4. We use have to talk about an action that is

necessary because of rules or laws, or because
someone obliges us to do it:
Doctors sometimes have to work on Sundays.
(It is in the rules of their work.)
We make negatives, questions and short
answers with a form of do:
Teachers don’t have to work on Sunday.
Do you have to work today? ~ No, I don’t.

5. positive
In positive sentences, we can often use must
and have to with little difference in meaning,
because many things are important both
because we think so and because there are
rules:
You must work hard in order to succeed
5
(or … you have to work … ).

6. negative
Note the difference in meaning between
mustn’t and don’t have to.
In negative sentences we often use mustn’t to
say that something is against the rules, or
against the law:
You mustn’t smoke on buses. (Smoking is
against the rules.)
In football, you mustn’t touch the ball with
your hands. (Touching the ball is against
the rules.)
We use don’t have to say that people are
not obliged to do something:
In Britain, people don’t have to carry a
passport with them. (= People are not
obliged to carry one.)
Nowadays pupils do not have to learn Latin
at school. (= They are not obliged to
learn it.)
7. questions
In questions we usually use do/does … have
to (not must) to ask if something is
obligatory or important:
Does Michael have to get up early tomorrow?
Do we have to wait here?

Have to and have got to

Both have to and have got to express the same meaning: necessity which is outside
thespeaker.
I have to take an exam in June.
I have got to take/I've got to take an exam in June.
Have to is common in both formal and informal English, but have got to is informal.

Tenses
We use have got only in simple tenses, but have to has all the forms of an ordinary verb.
We cannot use got here.
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Ex:
1. "I have got a headache." (Present simple tense) This sentence uses "have got" in the
present simple tense to indicate that the speaker currently has a headache.
2. "I have to take medicine for my headache." (Present simple tense) This sentence uses
"have to" to indicate that taking medicine is necessary or obligatory in the present
moment.
3. "I had to take medicine for my headache yesterday." (Past simple tense) This sentence
uses "had to" to indicate that taking medicine was necessary or obligatory in the past.
Note that we cannot use "had got to" here, as it is not a valid form of the verb.

In the past simple had to is more usual than had got to.
I couldn't go to the dance. I had to finish my project. With have to, we use do in negatives and
questions.
We don't have to pay. Does the winner have to make a speech?

With have got to, we use have as an auxiliary. We haven't got to pay. Has the winner got to
make a speech?

In past simple negatives and questions we almost always use did... have to, not had... got to.
Did you have to wait long?

Ex:
1. "Did you have to study a lot for the exam?" This sentence uses "did...have to" to ask
about the amount of studying required in the past.
2. "I didn't have to work last weekend, so I went to the beach." This sentence uses "didn't
have to" to indicate the absence of an obligation in the past.
3. "Did she have to take a different route to avoid traffic?" This sentence uses "did...have
to" to ask about a specific action taken in the past.
4. "I had to cancel my trip because of a family emergency." This sentence uses "had to" to
express a past obligation or necessity, but note that this sentence is not a negative or a
question, so it does not follow the pattern mentioned in the initial statement.

3. Should, ought to

"Should" and "ought to" are both modal verbs that are used to express advice,
recommendation, or moral obligation. While they have similar meanings, there are some
subtle differences in their usage.

"Should" is used to express a general or personal sense of obligation or recommendation. It

suggests that the action or behavior is desirable or necessary, but it does not necessarily imply
a strong moral obligation or a formal requirement. For example:

You should eat more vegetables if you want to stay healthy. (This is a general
recommendation based on the speaker's belief that eating vegetables is good for one's
health.)
I should call my mom more often. (The speaker feels based on their relationship with their
mother this personal obligation.)

"Ought to" is used to express a stronger sense of moral obligation or duty. It suggests that the
action or behavior is not just desirable or necessary, but also morally right or expected. For
example:

You ought to help your neighbor when they need it. (This implies a moral obligation to help
7
 others when they are in need.)

I ought to apologize for what I said. (This implies a moral duty to take responsibility for
one's actions and make amends.)

In general, "should" is more common and less formal than "ought to."
"Ought to" is often used in more formal or moralistic contexts, such as giving advice on
ethical behavior or discussing social norms and expectations. However, in everyday speech,
the two are often used interchangeably.

Modals Meaning Examples

Should/ ought to Advisability/Recommendation You're not very well. Perhaps you
(for obligation and advice, to say should see a doctor.
Negative form: what is the right thing or the best Your uncle was very kind to me. I
Should not/ ought thing to do) ought to write him a letter of thanks
not to Asking for advice
They should build/ought to build
more hospitals. People shouldn't
leave/oughtn't to leave litter all over
the place.

You should go /I ought to go to York.

It's an interesting place.

I shouldn't leave/oughtn't to leave

things until the last moment.

The perfect tense: Advisability/Recommendation You should have planted these

Should +have (for obligation and advice, to say potatoes last month.
+past participle / that the right thing or the best
Ought to After all the help he has had, he
thing did not happen) ought to have thanked you.
+have+past
participle. The
perfect here The perfect here means that the right
means that the action did not happen.
right action did
not happen. Compare with had to :
I ought to have left a tip. (Leaving a
tip was the right thing to do, but I
didn't leave one.)
I had to leave a tip. (It was necessary
to leave a tip, so I did leave one.)

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 Where should I put this picture, do
you think?
It's a difficult problem. How ought
we to deal with it?
Probability They should have/ought to have our
letter by now.
We should know/ought to know the
result soon.
We use should and ought to to say
that something is probable, either in
the present or the future.
In the negative, the usual form is
shouldn't. We shouldn't have long to
wait.
Should and ought to have the
additional meaning 'if all goes well'.
We cannot use these verbs for things
going wrong.
The train should be on time. but NOT
The train should be late.

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The perfect tense: The perfect tense with "should have" or "ought to have" + past participle
is used to express a past action that did not happen or a missed opportunity. It implies that the
action was necessary or expected, but it was not carried out for some reason.

For example:

1. I should have called my friend last night, but I forgot. (This suggests that the speaker
recognizes that they had an obligation to call their friend but failed to do so.)
2. You ought to have studied more for the exam. (This implies that the speaker believes
that the listener did not study enough and as a result, did not perform well on the
exam.)
In both cases, the perfect tense with "should have" or "ought to have" expresses a sense of
regret or criticism for not having done what was necessary or expected.

Asking for advice: When you want to ask for advice using "should" or "ought to", you are
essentially seeking someone's opinion or recommendation about what action to take. Here
are some examples of how you can ask for advice using these modal verbs:
 What should I do if I'm feeling overwhelmed with work?
 Should I buy a used car or a new car?
 Do you think I ought to apply for this job?
In these examples, the speaker is asking for advice or recommendations from the listener.
The use of "should" or "ought to" suggests that the listener's input is important and can
help the speaker make a decision.
It is also common to use these modal verbs in more specific or personal contexts. For
example, you can ask for advice about a relationship, health issue, or financial decision by
saying:
 Do you think I should talk to my partner about our communication issues?
 What ought I to do to improve my overall health?
 Should I invest in stocks or bonds for my retirement savings?
In general, using "should" or "ought to" to ask for advice shows that you are open to
suggestions and willing to consider different options before making a decision.

In general, the choice between "should" and "ought to" when asking for advice depends on
the context and the relationship between the speaker and the listener. "Should" is more
appropriate in casual or friendly settings, while "ought to" is more suitable for formal or
serious situations that involve moral or ethical considerations.

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 Probability: "should" and "ought to" can be used to indicate probability in certain contexts,
particularly when referring to expectations or assumptions.

For example:

 "They should have received our letter by now." (This implies that it's probable that the
recipients have received the letter, based on the expectation that it would have arrived
by now.)

 "We ought to know the result soon." (This implies that it's probable that the result will
be available soon, based on the assumption that it would have been communicated by
now.)

4. Should/ought to vs must
Should and ought to are not as strong as must. You should tour in a group. (It's a good idea
to.) You must tour in a group. (It's essential.)

For example:
 "You should wear a helmet while riding a bike." (This suggests that wearing a helmet is
a good idea, but not necessarily required.)
 "You must wear a helmet while riding a bike." (This indicates that wearing a helmet is
required for safety.)

But in formal rules should is sometimes a more polite and less emphatic alternative to must.

Passengers should check in at least one hour before departure time.

Tenses
We can use the continuous or perfect after should and ought to.
I should be doing some work really.
You should have planted these potatoes last month (but we did not).
After all the help Guy has had, he ought to have thanked you. (but he did not)

5. Had better to

"Had better" is a modal verb used to give strong advice or a warning about a particular situation.
It suggests that there is a desirable course of action that needs to be taken.
It is more forceful than "should" or "ought to," but not as strong as "must." The negative form
is "had better not," which is used to warn against taking a certain action. When using "had
better," it's more common to use an indirect question rather than a direct question.

We use had better to say what is the best thing to do in a particular situation.
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 Ex: You're ill. You had better see a doctor, NOT You have better see a doctor. (this is not a
standard English expression).

I'd better tidy this room up.

Had better is stronger than should or ought to, although it is not as strong as must.
Ex: I'd better tidy up means that I am going to tidy up, because it is the best thing to
do.

The negative is had better not.

Ex: Come on. We'd better not waste any time.

NOTE With had better we normally use an indirect question rather than a direct one.
Do you think I'd better call a doctor?

It's more common to use an indirect question with "had better" rather than a direct
question. In the example, "Do you think I'd better call a doctor?", it is an indirect question
because it is a polite way of asking for advice or an opinion.

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 Modal verbs
Would, will, shall
A. Will

Affirmative Negative Interrogative

I will be moving to Spain He will not let anybody come Will you finish this job
next week. close to his car. before noon?
They won’t have so far by the Won’t you come and visit us
time you call them. someday?

In future tenses 1. I will turn 40 tomorrow.

For things that are certain, very 2. Will she be singing at the concert as well?
likely, or planned to happen in the 3. It’s hard to believe that by next month we will have been married for
future. 10 years.
Ability and willingness 1. You wash the dishes; I’ll take out the trash
To express or inquire about a person 2. This darn washing machine won’t turn on.
or thing’s ability or (un)willingness 3. Won’t Mary come out of her room?
to do something. It is very similar to
the future tense, but is used for more
immediate actions.
Requests and offers 1. Will you walk the dog, Jim?
In interrogative sentences to make 2. Will you have a cup of tea, Sam?
requests or polite offers. We usually 3. Will your friend join us for some lunch?
use the second person, but the use of 4. Will Jonathan bring his truck around here tomorrow?
other persons is also possible. (Request are done using the interrogative form)
Conditional type 1 1. If I see him, I will tell him the news.
In present-tense conditional sentences 2. I won’t have to say goodbye if I don’t go to the airport.
formed using if, we often use will to
express an expected hypothetical
outcome.
Likelihood and certainty 1. That will be Jane—I’m expecting her call. (in response to the phone
To express the likelihood or certainty ringing)
that something is the case in the 2. Speaker A: “Who is that with Jeff?”
immediate present. • Speaker B: “That’ll be his new husband. They were just married in
May.

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 B. Would

Affirmative Negative Interrogative

I would love to work in She would not/ wouldn’t Would you mind helping me
America. help him with the money he with my luggage please?
I’d like to meet the manager. needed.

Use Examples
Past habits (= used to) 1. When Jane was at university, she would study for 3 hours every
Regular habits in the past evening.
Past refusals (or unwillingness) 1. Jane was angry. She wouldn’t speak to me!
Not wanting/agreeing to do something 2. Sarah: Why are you late?
Mark: My car wouldn’t start.
Future relative to the past Last week, I thought that I would pass the exam.
He was sure that I’d like his house.
Indirect speech (Reported speech). 1. Mark said that he would go to London.
Notice that the reported speech is in 2. Jane said that she would help me.
the past.

Polite offers, invitations and 1. Would you lend me some money please?
requests 2.Would you like a glass of orange juice? (Offer/invitation).
We can use would in the same way as I’d love to.
will to form requests, except that 3. Would you help me carry my bags? (Asking someone to do
would adds a level of politeness to the something/ request)
question 3. “Would John mind helping me clean out the garage?” (Request).
(can and could are more common)
Conditionals Second conditionals: (hypothetical outcome).
Hypothetical outcomes 1. If I had a car, I would drive to Paris.
Third conditionals: Hypothetical situation in the past.
2. If I had known her, I would have introduced you to her.
Hypothetical situations 1. It would be nice to buy a new car, but we can’t afford it.
(Not necessarily in the conditional 2. She would join your study group, but she doesn’t have any free time
form) after school.
We can also use would to discuss 3. I normally wouldn’t mind, except that today is my birthday!”
hypothetical or possible situations that
we can imagine happening, but that
aren’t dependent on a conditional if-
clause.

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Unreal situations in the past (not Jane: Why did you live in Manchester?
necessarily in the conditional) Mark: Well I would have lived in London but it was too expensive.
I would have studied law but I chose medicine instead.
Likelihood and certainty Speaker A: There was a man here just now asking about renting the
We can also use would to express the spare room.
likelihood or certainty that something Speaker B: That would be Kenneth. He just moved here from Iowa.
was the case in the immediate past.
Expressing desire 1. I would like to go to the movies later. (+ infinitive)
We use would with the main verb like 2. Where would you like to go for your birthday?
to express or inquire about a person’s 3. I would not care to live in a hot climate.
desire to do something. (We can also 4. Would you care to have dinner with me later?
use the main verb care for more With a noun:
formal 1. Speaker A : Would you like a cup of tea?
or polite sentences.) Speaker B : I’d like to.
2. He would like the steak, and I will have the lobster.
Preference 1. There are many fancy meals on the menu, but I would rather have a
We use would with the adverbs rather hamburger.
and sooner to express or inquire 2. They would sooner go bankrupt than sell the family home.
about a person’s preference for 3. Would you rather go biking or go for a hike?
something. 4. Wouldn’t you rather get rid of this old can?
Polite opinions 1. I would expect that the board of directors will be pleased with this
We can use would with opinion verbs offer.
(such as think or expect) to dampen 2. One would have thought that the situation would be improved by
the forcefulness of an assertion, now.
making it sound more formal and
polite.
Asking someone’s opinion 1. What would you suggest we do instead?”
We can also ask for someone else’s 2. Where would be a good place to travel this summer?”
opinion with would by pairing it with
a question word in an interrogative
sentence
Asking the reason why 1. Why would my brother lie to me?
When we use the question word why, 2. Why would they expect you to know that?
we often follow it with would to ask
the reason something happened or is
true.
- Rhetorical use with the first person 1. Why would I try to hide anything from you?
to suggest that a question or 2. Why would we give up now, when we’ve come so close to
accusation is groundless or false. succeeding?

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Polite advice 1. I would apologize to the boss if I were you. (adding ‘if I were you’ is
We can use would in the first person common in this case).
to politely offer advice about
something.
- We can also use would in the second 1. I think you would be wise to be more careful with your money.”
and third person to offer advice, 2. Recent graduates would be smart to set up a savings account as early
usually in the construction “you as possible.”
would be wise/smart to do
something.”

C. Shall

Affirmative sentence Negative sentence Interrogative sentence

1. As a man sows, so What shall we do if the The management shall not / shan’t be
he shall reap. baby doesn’t drink the responsible for damage to personal property.
milk? (rarely used).

Uses

Use Example
Future tense 1. I shall call from the airport.” (future simple tense)
We can also use shall to add 2. We shall be staying in private accommodation.
formality or politeness, especially
the future simple tense and the
future continuous tense.
It is also possible, though far less
common, to use shall in the future 1. As of next week, I shall have worked here for 50 years.
perfect and future perfect continuous 2. By the time the opera begins, we shall have been waiting for
tenses as well: over an hour.
Offers, suggestions, advice, 1. Shall we walk along the beach?
instructions. 2. Shall I wash the dishes?
When we create interrogative
sentences using shall and without
question words, it is usually to make
polite offers, invitations, or
suggestions.

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Wh-word + shall 1. What shall I do with this spare part?
Shall is used to politely seek the 2. Where shall we begin?
advice or opinion of the listener 3. Who shall I invite to the meal?
about a future decision
1. Condition 1. If my flight is delayed, I shall not have time to make my
Like will, we can use shall in connection.
conditional sentences using if to 2. I shall contact the post office if my package has not arrived by
express a likely hypothetical tomorrow.
outcome.
Formal commands 1. This establishment shall not be held liable for lost or stolen
While will is often used to form property.
commands, we use shall when 2. Students shall remain silent throughout the exam.”
issuing more formal directives, as 3. The new law dictates that no citizen shall be out on the streets
might be seen in public notices or in after 11 PM.
a formal situation, or to express a 4. You shall cease this foolishness at once!
reprimand in a formal way. When
used in this way, shall no longer has
to be used solely with I or we as the
subject.

Indicating the future – Will /Shall

Will is the default modal. Shall makes the sentence very formal, and it is more commonly
found in British English or in polite invitations.
1. I shall be attending a dinner with the prime minister in April.
2. Shall we dance, my dear?

Making an offer – Can / May /Shall

- The three modal verbs are used to offer to do something for someone.
• Can I get the door for you?
• May I get the door for you?
• Shall I get the door for you?
- May is generally more formal and polite than can, although can is perfectly acceptable.
Both can and may are a little less direct than shall, which is used as more of a polite
suggestion.
Making a request – Will / Can / Could / Would
- All four of these modals can be used to make a request of someone, with differing degrees
of politeness:
• Will you get the door for me, please? (most direct – least polite)
• Can you get the door for me, please? (slightly less direct – slightly more polite)

5
• Could you get the door for me, please?” (less direct – more polite)
• Would you get the door for me, please?” (least direct – most polite)
- Could and would are the most polite modals to use for requests.
- Expression like “please,” “if you don’t mind,” “if you could be so kind,” make a bigger
difference on the politeness of the request, no matter which modal verb is used.
Indicating an obligation – Must /Shall / Should / Will
When expressing an obligation to do something, we often use must, which is particularly
direct and forceful, as in a public notice.
• Employees must wash their hands before returning to work.
• Owners must clean up after their pets.
Must can also be used in direct commands or directives, such as.
• You must finish your homework before you can go outside to play.
• Students must put their names on their assignments, or they won’t be graded.
Shall is used most often in contracts or legal documents; it is also used as a more polite and
formal construction than must.
• The defendant shall pay the plaintiff $5,000 in damages.
• The purchaser agrees that he or she shall forego any right to a refund after 90 days.
In more conversational English, should is less formal than either shall or must. It is also less
forceful than either, and it is used as more of a strong suggestion of what is best or most proper
to do.
• Students should hand in their assignments before Friday.
• She should apologize for her behavior!
• You should always pay your bills on time.
- Technically, will can be used to express obligation , but it is even more forceful than must
and is less commonly used. It is generally reserved for strong commands or directives, as in:
• “You will eat your vegetables or you won’t get any dessert!”
• “They will agree to the terms of the lease or face eviction.”

Adverbs with modal verbs

Adverbs are often used with modals to add to their meaning (degree of certaintly, possibility,
etc.)

Surely you can't have said that to her!

I might just tell you all about it.
I could easily have been hurt.
You really shouldn't have gone to so much trouble.
I will definitely call you tomorrow.
You can't possibly be serious.
She obviously must have forgotten it.
He could probably help us a lot.

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 I can't exactly remember when I first met her.
You should absolutely take up that course.

Exercises
I. Complete the s entences u sing would + one of the followin g verbs (i n the correct form)
be do do enjoy enjoy have pass stop

1. They helped us a lot. I don’t know what we .................. without their help.
2. You should go and see the film You ......................................... it.
3. lt’s a pity you couldn't come to the party last night. You ................................ it.
4. Shall I apply for the job or not? What ........................... you.................. in my position?
5. I was in a hurry when I saw you. Otherwise I ............................. to talk.
6. Why didn’t you do the exam? I‘m sure you..................... it.

II. What would you say in these situations? (more than one modal is possible)
1. Paul has come to see you in your flat. You offer him something to eat.
YOU: ............you like something to eat?
PAUL: No, thank you. I’ve just eaten.
2. You need help to charge the battery in your camera. You ask Kate.
YOU: I don’t know how to charge the battery ..................................................................... ?
KATE: Sure. it’s easy. All you have to do is this.
3. A friend of yours is interested in one of your books. You invite him to borrow it.
FRIEND: This looks very interesting.
YOU: Yes, it’s a good book. .....................................................?

III. Complete the sentences below with shall/ will/ should/ would.
1. To keep fit you .................................................... take regular exercise.
2. Copies of the report ........................................be distributed at the meeting.
3. It's getting cold now. ...................................... I close the window?
4. I ....................................... think the cost of the repairs will be about 200 MAD.
5. If Tom had more free time, he ....................................... join a sports club.
6. According to reports the price of petrol........................................ increase next year.
7. It's a beautiful day today!........................................ we go to the beach?
8. It ....................................... be easier to find our way if we had a map.
9.you need further information, please don't hesitate to contact us.
10. We're all having lunch together tomorrow. ....................................... you be able to join us?

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 IV. Complete the sentences below with Will, would (like), shall, should.
1. Just wait until the football match ends and you ............................ see that I am right.
2. .................... I open the door? I’m afraid it’s too hot and we don’t have an air conditioner.
3. Which pen ........................................ I buy?
4. John will be here soon and he ........................ talk about nothing but movies.
5. She ............................. sit for hours listening to the radio.
6. That............................ be the postman, I think. He always arrives at this time.
7.some tea?
8. ............. you lend me your scooter? I have an urgent errand to do and I can’t find the keys to
my car.
9. During her stay at the mental health institution, she ............. sit for hours talking to herself.
10. You …………always keep promises you make to your friend.

Key
I.
1. They helped us a lot. I don’t know what we would have done without their help.
2. You should go and see the film. You would enjoy it.
3. It’s a pity you couldn't come to the party last night. You would have enjoyed it.
4. Shall I apply for the job or not? What would you do in my position?
5. I was in a hurry when I saw you. Otherwise, I would have stopped to talk.
6. Why didn’t you do the exam? I'm sure you would have passed it.
II.

1. YOU: Would you like something to eat? PAUL: No, thank you. I've just eaten.
2. YOU: I don't know how to charge the battery. Could you help me? KATE: Sure, it's easy. All you have to do is this.
3. FRIEND: This looks very interesting. YOU: Yes, it's a good book. Would you like to borrow it?
III.
1. To keep fit you should take regular exercise.
2. Copies of the report will be distributed at the meeting.
3. It's getting cold now. Should I close the window?
4. I would think the cost of the repairs will be about 200 MAD.
5. If Tom had more free time, he would join a sports club.
6. According to reports, the price of petrol will increase next year.
7. It's a beautiful day today! Shall we go to the beach?
8. It would be easier to find our way if we had a map.
9. If you need further information, please don't hesitate to contact us.
10. We're all having lunch together tomorrow. Will you be able to join us?
IV.
1. Just wait until the football match ends and you will see that I am right.
2. Shall I open the door? I'm afraid it's too hot and we don't have an air conditioner.
3. Which pen should I buy?
4. John will be here soon and he would talk about nothing but movies.

8
5. She would sit for hours listening to the radio.
6. That must be the postman, I think. He always arrives at this time.
7. Would you like some tea?
8. Should you lend me your scooter? I have an urgent errand to do, and I can't find the keys to my car.
9. During her stay at the mental health institution, she would sit for hours talking to herself.
10. You should always keep promises you make to your friend.

9
 Grammar Semster 2
Profs. Fassi Fihri, El Harraki, Bouhout

Semi-Modal Verbs
Semi-modal auxiliary verbs, often simply called semi-modal verbs, are verbs that sometimes
behave like modal auxiliary verbs and sometimes like main verbs.
Dare, Need, and Used to
Dare and need are considered semi-modal because they can also function as main verbs, able
to take nouns and infinitives as objects and to conjugate for person, tense, and number. Used
to, while unable to be main verbs, is considered semi-modal because it is always followed by
infinitives unlike true modals, which can never be followed by infinitives.
A. Dare
1. Dare: to be brave, reckless, or rude enough to do or try something.
Affirmative Main
He dares (to) swim in this cold water
I can’t believe he dared (to) stand up to the boss.
Modal If he dare cross me again, I’ll make sure he pays dearly for it.
Negative Main He doesn’t dare (to) argue with the principal.
I didn’t dare (to) talk to him.
Modal They dare not move
Rare: I daren’t press the issue further.
Interrogative Main Does he dare (to) criticize my arrangements?
Did they dare (to) go through with it?”
Modal Dare we interrupt?
How dare she talk to me like that?

Important: with the exception of the now idiomatic phrase “How dare (someone),” the use
of dare as a modal verb has become rare in modern English.
2. Dare: to challenge someone to (do) something that require courage, boldness, or
recklessness.
Dare must take a noun, pronoun, or infinitive as a direct object. It cannot be used modally
with this meaning. It is followed by object + to infinitive:
I dare you to ask Suzy on a date. I’ve never been dared to race someone before.
3. Daresay: Dare is not much used in the affirmative except in the expression I daresay with
2 idiomatic meanings.
Suppose I accept what you say (but it doesn’t
make any difference)’:
I daresay there’ll be a restaurant car on the TOURIST: But I drive on the left in
train. England!

1
 POLICEMAN: I daresay you do, but we
drive on the right here.
TRAVELLER: But the watch was given to
me; I didn’t buy it.
CUSTOMS OFFICER: I daresay you
didn’t, but you’ll have to pay duty on it all
the same.

daresay is used in this way with the first person singular only.

B. Need
Need as a semi-modal verb is almost always used in negative sentences to express a lack of
obligation or necessity, either taking the adverb not (usually contracted as needn’t) or paired
with a negative word or phrase, such as never, no one, nothing, etc.
Affirmative Main He needs that report by tomorrow.
He needed a place to stay, so I offered him one.
Modal
Negative Main You have plenty of time, so you don’t need to rush.
Modal He needn’t have called; I told him I would be late.
No one need know about this.
You needn’t worry about my grades.
Nothing need change simply because my father is no longer here.
Interrogative Main Does she need to know where the house is?
Did you need that job?
Modal Need we be concerned?
Need I go to the market later?

C. Used to
1. Modal: Express a discontinued habit or a past situation which contrasts with the
present.
Affirmative Used to has not present tense
She used to live in Ireland.
I used to get up early when I lived in New York.
Negative I didn’t use to like coffee.
She didn’t use to go to the gym every day.
Interrogative Did you use to live in Manchester?

2. Main verb: ‘used to’ is used in other expressions as a main verb.

Be used to: be accustomed to something Affirmative:
I am used to getting up at 7 AM every
morning.

2
 She was used to the stress by that point.
Negative:
I am not used to living in the city.
He wasn’t used to so much work.
Interrogative:
Are you used to living with roommates?
Get used to Affirmative:
Formal: become used to I am getting used to living in the city. (= I
Often used in the present continuous tense. am becoming accustomed to
living in the city.)
Negative:
She never got used to the silence of the
countryside.
Interrogative:
Did he get used to working under pressure.
With modal verbs could, will, and can’t I can’t get used to working so many hours.
= I am unable to become accustomed to this.
I could get used to doing nothing all day. =
This is something that I could find easy to
do.
I will never get used to these cramped
conditions. = At no point in the future will I
become accustomed to this.

3
 ACTIVE TENSES www.learnenglishteam.com
Simple Tenses
Simple tenses are used whenever we are talking about a point in time.

Past Simple Present Simple Future Simple

I ate breakfast this morning. I eat breakfast every day. I will eat breakfast later.

Continuous Tenses
Continuous tenses are used whenever we are talking about a length of time.

Past Continuous Present Continuous Future Continuous

I was eating breakfast when my Right now, I will be eating breakfast from 9:00 to
brother arrived. I am eating breakfast. 9:30.

Perfect Tenses
Perfect tenses are used whenever we are talking about a point in time before another point in time.

Past Perfect Present Perfect Future Perfect

I had already eaten breakfast I have already eaten breakfast. I will have already eaten breakfast
when my brother arrived. by the time my brothers arrives.

Perfect Continuous Tenses

Perfect continuous tenses are used whenever we are talking about a length of time up to a point in time.

Past Perfect Continuous Present Perfect Continuous Future Perfect Continuous

I had been eating breakfast for I have been eating my I will have been eating my
30 minutes when my brother breakfast for 30 minutes. breakfast for 30 minutes by the time
arrived. you arrive.