SJO571 Environmental impact from shipping

Marine ecosystems and ballast water

2023-09-01

Ida-Maja Hassellöv
ida-maja@chalmers.se

(Lecture 1 of 4 on the marine environment)

D2. Invasive species X X X X
D5. Nutrients, N, P X X X X X X X
D8. Org. subst. HC, PAH X X X X X
D8. Metals, e.g. Cu, Zn X X X X X
Acid. subst. SOX, NOX, CO2 X X
D10. Litter, PM X X X
D.11 Energy/noise X

Shipping regulations MARPOL MARPOL MARPOL MARPOL MARPOL MARPOL MARPOL MARPOL
AFS BWMC
Annex IV Annex IV Annex I Annex VI Annex I Annex I Annex VI Annex V
Reading instructions to this part of the course

Chapter 2: 2.1
2.3 – 2.6
2.7.2
2.7.3
2.7.5
Chapter 4: Entire chapter
Chapter 6: Entire chapter
Chapter 7: Entire chapter
Chapter 11: 11.1 – 11.5
11.14 – 11.15

+ Slides from the lectures

 Outline of today’s lecture, Part 1

• Chemical and physical properties of seawater

• Nutrients and biogeochemical cycles, primary production
and degradation
• Marine sediments
• Case study Baltic Sea:
Oceanography and environmental problems
 Outline, Part 2
• Marine biology
– Challenges and adaptations in marine environments
– Different forms of life and life cycles
– Food webs och feed-back systems

• Ballast water and environmental impacts of ballast water

• Cascade effects and synergetic effects
• Ecosystemservices and the ecosystem based approach
• Marine spatial planning
 Learning outcomes, Part 1
After the lecture, the student is supposed to be able to…

• roughly describe the function of coastal marine ecosystems

• explain primary production and which nutrients that may limit biological production
• give examples of biogeochemical cycles
• discuss the conditions for different forms of life depending on oxygen availability
• describe eutrophication, causes and consequences, as well as how particularly
sensitive areas are regulated
• to put the knowledge above in relation to shipping specific activities
 The water molecule – H20
-
Dipole: the molecule δ-
O

Dipole moment
is assymetrical and
the electric charge is
unevenly distributed
δ+ H 104.5° H δ+
+
-
• “Like dissolves like”: Ions are charged, e.g. Na+ and Cl-
easily dissolved in water

• When salt crystals are dissolved in water, charged ions are

formed, e.g. Na+, Cl-, Mg2+, SO42-
 Seawater – a saline solution

Ocean salinity ca 35g/kg

 1 kg seawater contains
35 g salt

• Highest concentration of Na+ and Cl-, but also many other

ionic species, e.g. Mg2+, SO42-, K+, CO32-

• Salinity is the total ion concentration in the water

 Physical properties of seawater
• Oceanic seawater (35g/kg) at standard sea-level pressure
(one standard atmosphere) freezes at -1.9˚C

• Seawater density increases with decreasing temperature,

until freezing

• Seawater density increases with increasing salinity

• The salt is lowering the freezing point

• Great ocean conveyor belt

 Dissolved species in seawater
•Nutrients
• e.g. nitrogen and phosphorus
• often limit primary production
•Trace elements
• e.g. metals
• can be essential
(i.e. organisms need them)
• often toxic in higher concentration
•Dissolved gases
• Carbon dioxide
• Oxygen
 Primary production
Photosynthesis is the reaction driving primary production
Photosynthesis transform solar energy to chemically
bound energy in the form of biomass
Solar energy

CO2 + H2O + nutrients → biomass + O2

Organisms utilising solar energy are called phototrophs, e.g. plants and algae

Phytoplankton are in the size range 0.2 – 200 µm Source: SMHI

 Nutrients

The most important nutrients are:

• nitrogen Sunlight
• phosphorus

They limit primary production.

Darkness

Under certain conditions can silica

also be a limiting nutrient for
diatoms, which are important
primary producers.
 Degradation and remineralisation
Respiration is the chemical reaction driving remineralisation.
During respiration the chemically bound energy in
the organisms is utilised and biomass is degraded.
Energy

biomass + O2 → CO2 + H2O + nutrients

In principle reversed photosyntesis

Organisms utilising chemically bound energy are called chemoautotrophs.
In marine environments these are primarily bacteria and fungi.

Some bacteria can use other chemical species than oxygen for
their respiration. They ”breath” e.g. nitrate, iron or sulphate.
Depth profile of O2

• Photosynthesis => surface maximum

• Respiration consumes O2

• Cold deepwater dissolves more O2

• Gases’ solubility in water:
- Increases with increased pressure
- Increases with decreased temperature
- Decreases with increased salinity
 Photosynthesis and respiration – the carbon cycle
Carbon is transformed in different phases

Gas
Photosyntesis
Solar energy

Dissolved in water
Nutrients Biomass
Chemically bound in organisms

Respiration Chemically bound in minerals

Chemical energy
Source: Wikimedia Commons
 Some definitions
Organic – molecules containing carbon and hydrogen,
originating from living materia
Inorganic – molecules not containing carbon and hydrogen,
originating from geological or chemical processes

Pelagic – in the
water column

Benthic – at the Oxic – oxygen

seafloor or in sediments presence
Anoxic – oxygen
absence
The carbon cycle
Atmospheric
Carbon dioxide (CO2) (in the air)

Inorganic carbon (CO32-) and CO2

Industrialisation

Dissolved org. carbon Pelagic

Organic carbon (in the
(Algae) water)

Organic carbon
(Animals)
Mineral
Bentic
Fossil, (in the sediment)
oil
atmosphere

riverine
input The nitrogen cycle
N2

macro fauna zooplankton phytoplankton fixation •Dissolved NH4+ and nitrate (NO3- )
in the water are utilized by primary

photic zone
N2-fixating
microorganisms
excrement
uptake and
NH4+
producers, may enter further in the
nutritional chain and will eventually
incorporation
water column

NO3-

PON
settle as particulate organic nitrogen,
PON.

•Nitrogen fixation of atmospheric

nitrogen (N2) by microorganisms give
Nitrification ammonium (NH4+)
oxic zone
PON A DON B NH4+ C NO3-
H I
sediment

N2
anoxic zone

D
E
PON A DON B NH4+ F NO3-
Denitrification
H I
atmosphere

riverine
input The nitrogen cycle
N2

macro fauna zooplankton phytoplankton fixation

photic zone
N2-fixating
microorganisms
excrement
uptake and
NH4+
incorporation
water column

NO3-
• PON is degraded by animals in
PON the sediment to DON (= Dissolved
Organic Nitrogen) and by micro-
organisms remineralised to NH4+
(ammonium)
Nitrification
oxic zone
PON A DON B NH4+ C NO3- • NH4+ is transformed to NO3-
Decomposition H Remineralisation
I
(nitrate) through nitrification (by
sediment

N2 other microorganisms). This

anoxic zone

D
PON A DON B NH4+ F NO3-
E
process requires oxic conditions
H I
Denitrification
atmosphere

riverine
input The nitrogen cycle
N2

macro fauna zooplankton phytoplankton fixation

photic zone
N2-fixating
microorganisms
excrement
uptake and
NH4+
incorporation
water column

NO3-

PON
• PON, DON, and NH4+ can be
buried in anoxic sediments

• Under anoxic conditions can

Nitrification denitrification take place;
oxic zone
NH4+ NO3-
NO3- is transformed to
PON A DON B C
H I
sediment

N2
gaseous N2 that dissolve in
water and return to the
anoxic zone

D
E
PON A DON B NH4+ F NO3-

H I
Denitrification
atmosphere
Marine sediments
A.
G.

B.
Oxic – oxygen present
C.
F.
Anoxic – oxygen absent

D.

Remeber!
Specialized microorganisms
Mn+

Mn+ Mn+

E. can ”breathe” other chemical

species than oxygen
 Redoxzones in marine sediments

Animals burrows (bioturbation) in the sediment increases the oxic

sediment surface area and is therefor essential for the nutrient turnover.
 Case Study Baltic Sea
To illustrate oceanography and environmental problems
Nodularia spumigena

smhi.se smhi.se

BalticSea2020.org
Euthrophication

• Excessive nutrient input causes accelerated algal growth

=> massive blooms

• Dead algal blooms are settling to the seafloor

=> increased oxygen demand during degradation processes

• Spreading of hypoxic zones (low oxygen zones)

Stratification

•Termocline: border between two

water masses of different
temperature
•Halocline: border between two
water masses of different salinity
Stratification

• Termocline: border between two

water masses of different
temperature
• Halocline: border between two
water masses of different salinity
https://www.slideshare.net/GulfofFinlandYear2014/the-baltic-sea-environment-and-ecology
Stratification

Source: Bernes, C. Changes beneath the surface.

Naturvårdsverket 2005.
 Nitrogen input
Shipping contribution of nitrogen input to the Baltic
fromSea
shipping to
the Baltic Sea

Source: HELCOM 2017

https://helcom.fi/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/Summary-of-the-HELCOM-seventh-pollution-load-compilation-PLC-7.pdf
https://helcom.fi/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/Summary-of-the-HELCOM-seventh-pollution-load-compilation-PLC-7.pdf
 Learning outcomes, part 2
After the lecture, the student is supposed to be able to…

•give examples of adaptation of different marine forms of life to variable

environmental conditions, such as salinity, temperature and pressure
•give examples of organisms’ development through planktonic larval stages
•describe marine food chains and food webs
•explain the term resilience and the interlinkage to biodiversity
•describe the problems associated with ballast water transfer and what effects
ballast water discharge can have in the marine environment
•explain the term synergetic effects in marine environment
•explain the concept of ecosystem services assessment
•discuss the need for marine spatial planning with an ecosystem-based
approach
•to put the knowledge above in relation to shipping activities
 Marine biology
• Marine organisms need to be adapted to:
– Salinity – need to handle osmosis
– Temperature
– Pressure

• In general much higher functional variation between

microorganisms compared to the functional variation
among animals, algae and plants.
 Osmosis – to handle salinity
Osmotic pressure strives to level out differences in salinity
 Osmosis – to handle salinity
Differences between:

Fresh water species? Marine species?

Guiding question – which of these fish drinks water?

 Osmosis – to handle salinity
Differences between:

Fresh water species? Marine species?

Correct answer: Marine fish drink water as the osmotic pressure will
force water out through their bodies and it needs to be refilled. The
salt they consume is excreted through specialised glands.
 Osmosis – to handle salinity

Species that migrates between marine and fresh water

(e.g. Eel), need to be able to adjust their capability to
handle different osmotic conditions.
The number of species
decrease with
decreasing salinity
Both marine and freshwater
species are living in the
brackish water of the Baltic
Sea, but none of them are
optimally adapted to this ”in
between”-saline conditions.
 Temperature adaptation

• Fish in the polar regions have anti

freezing proteins in their blood.

• Marine mammals have thick fatty

(blubber) layers as efficient
thermal insulation
 Pressure adaptation
High pressure will squeeze e.g. swim bladders, but will
also destroy membranes and proteins.
• Deep sea species have no swim bladder and other
organs are adapted to high pressures e.g. tiny skeleton
and gelatinous body.

• Marine organisms have organic molecules that prevent

high pressure to destroy membranes and proteins.

E.g. trimetylaminoxide which is the specific molecule

contributing to the “fish smell”. This substance is present
in low concentrations in fish in shallow areas, but
increases in deep sea fish. Therefor, deep sea fish are
actually smelling more fish compared to their shallower
relatives. Trimetylamineoxid
How is it possible for an organism that doesn’t move
neither fast nor long distances can be spread over
large areas of the sea?

Crown-of-thorns starfish
Acanthaster planci
 Development through
planktonic larval stages
enable long distance
spreading.
Drift by currents

Crown-of-thorns starfish
Acanthaster planci
Food chain

This is a very much

simplified sketch of
reality.
Food web
A food web has higher
stability and increased
resilience (capability of
recovering) the larger the
biodiversity is. Then there
are more couplings
between different species
within the food web.

Cascade effects:
perturbation of one level
causes great effect also at
other levels
”A simplified food web for the
Northwest Atlantic”

A food web has higher

stability and increased
resilience (capability of
recovering) the larger the
biodiversity is. Then there
are more couplings
between different species
within the food web.
Unicellular animals, bacteria and viruses in seawater

5-10 times more biomass then higher organisms in marine

ecosystems
1 liter of seawater contains:
Ca 1 billion bacteria ... ...and ca 10 billions viruses
Ballast water
Ballast water
 What is ballast water?

• Water including accompanying sediment and organisms

• Brought into the ballast tanks of the ship to improve:
- stability
- draught
- manouevering capability

• Constitutes approx. 25 % of the total tank volume in a tanker

• Have been used since the late 19th century (1800-talet)
 What’s the problem....?
Mini exercise:
1. In groups of four
2. Discuss potential problems from ballast water
exchange
3. List these environmental problems
 What’s the problem....?
• Non-indigenous invasive species have been transported
by humans passing boundaries for natural species
distributions
• No natural enemies in the new environment
• May eat or outcompete indigenous populations
• May pose a threat to biodiversity, fisheries, aquaculture,
water quality, water sources (drinkning water) and
human health
 What’s the problem....?

(US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)

 What’s the problem....?
• Estimated that ~7000 species (primarily microorg.) are transported
• Anually ca. 10 000 million tonne ballast water discharged globally
• In Swedish coastal water ca. 46 million tonne ballast water anually
• Identified as one out of four biggest threats to the marine environment (the
other are pollution, over-expoitation of marine resources and destruction of
habitats)
• In China the cost for ballast water related damage is estimated to be 14 500
million USD annually. In the USA 6 000 million dollar.
• Globally the damage cannot be estimated.
Dramatic increase every year.
Invasive species is a global problem!
 Invasive species are also an
Invasiva
increasing
arter är problem!
också ett
ökande
problem!

Fig. 3: Alien species in European marine/estuarine waters

(October 2008).

(European Environment Agency, SEBI 010)

 One example of a species spread by
ballast water, the American comb jelly

Wiped out fisheries in

the Black Sea, Sea of
Azov and Caspian Sea.

Since 2008 both on the

Swedish Westcoast and
the Baltic Sea.

American comb jelly

(Mnemiopsis gardeni)
 Another example of a species spread by ballast
water causing problems…
The Cholera outbreak in South America

• 1991, the seventh most extensive outbreak of cholera during the 20th century in
Peru. More than 1.000.000 humans were infected in Southamerica and 10.000 died!

• The causal factor was discharge of ballast water containing cholera bacteria, from a
ship arriving from South East Asia.

• The infection spread through fish and seafood that were handled and cooked
without proper hygienic requirement.
The International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships'
Ballast Water and Sediments (Ballast Water Management Convention)

• Adopted February 13th 2004

• Entered into force Sept 8th 2017

 Techniques to reduce introduction of invasive species in
accordance with the Ballast Water Management Convention

• Physical treatments, e.g. Filtration, UV-radiation, ultrasonic, heating, electrolysis

• Chemical treatments e.g. ozone, hydrogen peroxide, hypochlorite, or biocides to kill

off the organisms.

• Even if eletrolysis, ozone, hydrogen peroxide and hypochlorite aren’t persistent

biocides, they may give rise to formation of other toxic byproducts in the water.
 Ballast Water Management Convention

• Regulation D-3 BWMC: Guidelines for approval of ballast water management

systems (G8).
• If use of Active Substances (biocides) D-3 also requires Procedure for approval
of ballast water management systems that make use of Active Substances (G9).
• GESAMP Ballast Water Working Group, type approval of BWM systems

(GESAMP = The Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection)
 Synergetic effects
= many factors acting together results in a larger total
effect compared to the sum of the individual effects

Ex. Eutrophication, pollution and

parasites together give a much more High conc. of
intense change oil and organic
•Low oxygen concentration destroys pollutants
Low oxygen
the natural habitat of the cod. in deepwater
•Pollution poison the fish and reduce
their immune defence
•Parasites from ballast water affect
the cod’s health status and
reproduction
Parasite from
ballast water 1+1=3
What happens if the systems are
perturbed?
• Eutrophication
• Anoxic areas
• Massive algal blooms
• Higher conc of pollutants
• Over-fishing
• Invasive species
• ……
 Can balance be restored...?
• Human impact – much faster than natural processes
• Critical levels for populations’ survival
• Tipping points; an ecosystem can tip and enter a ”new
state”:
• Deforestation cause erosion and desert
• Eutrophication cause anoxic bottom water masses,
sediment dwelling organisms disappear, exacerbated
anoxia without bioturbation, increased eutrophication
when more phosphorus leak from anoxic
sediments…

• What is Good Environmental Status....?

Good environmental status

EU Marine Strategy Framework

Directive
 Ecosystem services – Economic assessment of the ecosystems
services to humanity

Four classes:
• Supporting
Supports other ecosystem services
in their function, e.g.
biogeochemical cycles
• Regulating
More specific processes, e.g.
regulation of environmental toxins,
biologic regulation, pollination
• Cultural
E.g. Aesthetic and recreational
values
• Producing
E.g. food, material
 Marine spatial planning

• Shipping
• Offshore wind energy
• Power cables
• Oil- and gas pipes
• Marinas, ports
•…
 Marine spatial planning
Ecosystem-based management
...”is an integrated management approach that recognizes
the full array of interactions within an ecosystem, including
humans, rather than considering single issues, species, or
ecosystem services in isolation.” (NOAA)

...aims at sustainable use of natural resources and

protection of biodiversity through consideration of ecologic,
social and economic aspects, based on scientific results and
the precautionary principle.
Plans overlap

EU WFD

PBL
EU MSFD
 Summary
•The marine ecosystem is complex!
•Processes such as photosyntesis, respiration and nitrification are important for the
biogeochemical cycling of nutrients and determine e.g. oxygen concentration in water
and sediment.

•The Baltic Sea is a sensitive ecosystem

•Changes in salinity affect organisms and biodiversity.

•Food webs, bidiversity – stability and resilience are interlinked

•Organisms from ballast water can perturb food webs and outcompete other species

•Synergetic effects are common in ecosystems, but difficult to predict

•Ecosystem services – difficult (but essential?) to value the services of ecosystems.

•Marine spatial planning – important due to increased pressure of use of the sea