NEC License Examination Prepared By

PANA Academy Mahesh Bhatta

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Principles of Surveying

Cardinal or basic principles:

1. Working from whole to part

• Firstly, major control points are established in

whole area with very high precision.

• Then minor details are located by less precise

methods.

• To prevent accumulation of error.

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2. Location of a point by measurement from two points of reference

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Classification of surveying
1. Primary classification
2. Secondary classification

Primary classification:
Plane surveying Geodetic survey

Earth is considered as a plane. Considers curvature of earth.

Plane surveying is done for area less than Area > 250/260 km2.
250/260 km2.

Conducted by private agencies. Used for national level survey.

Conducted by survey department of Nepal.

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 Great circle/Riemannian circle
• 12 km long arc on earth surface is only 1cm longer than the subtended chord.
• Total sum of angles in spherical triangles – that of plane triangles=1 second for
195 Km2 of area.

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 Linear distance measurement methods:
• Direct measurement method: Chaining, taping, pacing.
• Optical measurement methods: Theodolite/Tacheometer.
• Electro-magnetic distance measurement (EDM) methods: Total station.
So, Linear Measurements can be done by:
• Pacing
• Passometer
• Pedometer
• Odometer
• Tape/chain
• Tacheometry
• EDM
• GPS
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Tacheometer
• A tacheometer is a theodolite fitted with stadia hairs in addition to the central
cross-hair.
Methods of Tachometric Survey:

Note: Out of the two methods mentioned above of tacheometric surveying, the
“fixed hair method “is more used.
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 Tangential Method of Tacheometry:
• This method is used when the telescope is not fitted with a stadia hairs.

• Vertical angles at targets on the staff at a known distance (S). apart are taken.

• This method is quite similar to trigonometrical levelling.

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Subtense bar method:
MCQ:

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Distance by tacheometer::
• D=KS+C
• K is multiplying constant. K=100 for anallactic lens (convex lens)
• C is additive constant. C=0
• It makes distance measured directly proportional to staff intercept.
• Anallactic lens is used in external focusing type telescope only.
K= f/i
C= f + d
Where, d= distance between optical centre and vertical axis of tacheometer.

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 Principle of tacheometric surveying
Principle of tacheometric surveying is based on the property of an isosceles
triangle i.e the ratio of the distance of the base from the apex and the length of the
base is constant.

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 Types of chain
Depending upon the length of the chain, these are divided into following
types,

• Metric chains 5/10/20/30 m: made of galvanized mild steel

• Steel band or Band chain: 20/30 m: stainless steel

• Gunter's chain or surveyor’s chain: Land survey

• Engineer’s chain: Construction

• Revenue chain: cadastral survey. 12

Summary

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Types of tape.
• Cloth/Linen Tape
• Woven Metallic Tape
• Steel Tape
• Synthetic Tape
• Invar Tape (36% Nickel+64%steel)

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MCQ:

1. The accuracy of chain surveying depends more upon

A. Leader
B. Follower
C. Both of the above
D. None of the above

3. Handles are connected to link by

A. Flexible joint
B. Swivel joint
C. Rigid joint
D. All the above
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Ranging rods
• 2m and 3m length.
• 2 m length is very common.
• Band length: 20 cm.

Ranging poles
• 4-6 m length.
• Used in very long line.

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Tape corrections
1. Tape Correction for Standardization :
• Correction per tape length (C) = l’ – l
Here,

l’ = actual length of tape.

l = nominal length of tape.

• The correction is positive when the actual length is greater than the
nominal length and vice versa.

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Q. Numerical
The length of a line measured with a 20 m chain was found to be 250
m. Calculate the true length of the line if the chain was 10 cm longer.
a) 251.25 m
b) 252.25 m
c) 225.25 m
d) 221.25 m

True length= measured length* (corrected tape length/designated tape length)

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2. Correction for Temperature:
• Ct = 𝛼(tm-to)L
where,
α = coefficient of linear expansion
tm= Mean temperature of the tape
to = Standard temperature
3. Correction for Sag
𝑊2𝐿3
• Cs=
24𝑃2

Where,

W = Weight of tape per unit length.

P = applied pull.
L = length of the tape suspended between the supports. 19
4. Correction of Pull
𝑃−Po
Cp= 𝐿
𝐴𝐸

Where,
P = pull applied during measurement.
Po = Standard pull
L = Measured length
A = Cross- sectional area of the tape
E = Young’s modulus of material of tape

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What is Normal tension?
• Pull required to neutralize the sag correction.
Sag correction = Pull correction
Solve to get,
𝑊√𝐴𝐸
Pn=
√24(𝑃−Po)

5. Correction for slope

Distance measured is > horizontal distance, so error + and correction for
slope is always negative.
Cs= h2/2L 21
6. Correction for msl.

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Ranging
1. Direct Ranging
• End points are inter-visible.
• Minimum no. of ranging rods= 3

2. Indirect Ranging
• End points are not inter-visible due to hill, pond etc.
• Minimum no. of ranging rods= 4

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 Taping on sloping ground: Methods
1. Direct/ stepping method
• When ground is very steep.

2. Indirect method.
• Vertical angle is measured.
• Suitable for long and gentle slope
as stepping method is not suitable.
• Abney level is used.

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Too short and too long condition in tape/chain
Error= measured value- true value

❖Too short condition:

Measured distance is more than true, so error is positive and
correction negative.

❖Too long condition:

Measured distance less than true, so error negative, correction. +.

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Scales:
1. Numerical Scale
I. Engineer’s scale: eg. 1 cm=5m
II. Fraction scale: eg. 1:500

Representative fraction
• The ratio of distance on the map to distance on the ground .

Q. Find representative fraction(R.F) of given scale: 1 cm= 5 m

1cm=5*100 cm =500cm
So,
RF= 1/500.
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MCQ.
1. Discrepancy means difference between
A. True value and error
B. Measured value and actual value
C. Two measured value of same physical quantity
D. Any of the above

2. If the smallest division of the vernier is shorter than smallest division of main
scale, then the vernier is known as
A. Direct vernier
B. Simple vernier
C. Double vernier
D. Retrograde vernier
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 Types of Errors in Surveying
Mistakes:
• Due to inexperience, carelessness and poor judgment or confusion in the observer's
mind.
• Also known as gross errors/blunders, and they cannot be measured.
• Example: reading a 6 as 9 in staff.

Systematic or Cumulative Errors:

• Due to surveying equipment, observation methods, and certain environmental factors.
• A systematic error always follows some definite mathematical or physical law, and
correction can be applied.
Examples:
• Using an imperfectly adjusted instrument.
• if a tape is P cm short and is stretched N times, the total error in the length
measurement will be P*N cm. 28
Compensating Errors:
This type of surveying error tends to occur in both directions, i.e., the errors may
sometimes be positive and sometimes negative, thereby compensating each other.
Example:
• Too much Sag at one time is compensated by too much pull at second time.

• A person observes a reading one time higher and other time lower than what it
is.
Accidental/random Errors:
• due to unavoidable circumstances like variations in atmospheric conditions.

• due to imperfection in measuring instruments and even imperfection of eyesight

fall in this category.

• They are random and thus cannot be accounted for. 29

MCQ.
1. Which of the following error relies on Theory of probability?
A. Cumulative error
B. Curvature error
C. Compensating error
D. Accidental error

2. A surveyor made an error which is despite his skill and vigilance. Which type
of error this surveyor has committed?
A. Mistake
B. Random error
C. Systematic error
D. None.
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Chain surveying
• Principle: Triangulation

Possible Network of triangles:

• Well conditioned
• Ill conditioned
• ideal

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Offsets
Short offsets: < 15 m Long offsets: >15 m length.

Methods of taking offsets:

1. Perpendicular: When there is no obstruction,
2. Oblique offsets : used for long distant objects.

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Lines in chain survey

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MCQ:
In chain surveying tie lines are primarily provided
a) to check the accuracy of the survey
b) to take offsets for detail survey
c) to avoid long offsets from chain lines
d) to increase the number of chain lines

Q. Every 20 m chain should be accurate to within

a)± 8 mm
b)± 2 mm
c)± 5 mm
d)None of these
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 Field book of Chain survey

For detailed works For ordinary works

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Accessories in Chain surveying

Cross staff

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French cross staff
• The French Cross Staff has Eight
Faces on it.

• Each Face is connected to the other

with a 45 Degree Angle.

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 Optical square and prism square
• To set out right angle to a chain line.

Optical Square:

• It is more accurate than cross-staff for setting out

right angles.

• Consists of two mirrors making a 45° with each

other.

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Optical square ctd…
MCQ. The construction of optical
square is based on the principle
of

A. Refraction
B. Reflection
C. Double refraction
D. Double reflection

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It is an optical instrument used for locating a. point on a line and hence useful for
ranging. It consists. of two isosceles prisms placed one over the other and. fixed in an
instrument with handle

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 Obstacles in chain survey
• Obstacle to ranging
Correct/limiting length of offset
• Hill/raised ground.
L=0.025n cosecα°…… in m.
• These obstacles can be overcome by reciprocal ranging.
Where,
• Obstacle to chaining Scale of plan 1cm=n metre
• Ponds, lakes.

• Obstacle to both chaining and ranging

Building.
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 Compass surveying
• Principle: Traversing

Type of meridians
1. True Meridians(Astronomical)

2. Magnetic meridian
• Shown by a freely suspended magnet.

3. Grid Meridian

4. Arbitrary meridian
• Randomly Assumed
• Eg. Chimney top.
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• Bearing: Horizontal Angle of a line with standard reference line or meridian.
• Fore bearing and back bearing
FB =BB ± 180°

By formula,
°
Included angle=FB of new line- FB of previous line ± 180
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 Designations of bearings
1.Whole circle bearing system/Azimuthal system

• The value of the bearing varies from 0 to 360 degrees.

• Bearing of a line is measured from magnetic north in a clockwise direction.

• Prismatic compass is graduated in this system.

2. Quadrantal/Reduced bearing system

• The value of the bearing thus varies from 0 to 90 degrees.

• Bearing of a line is measured from north or south, whichever is near.

• Direction can be either clockwise of anticlockwise.

• Surveyor compass. 44
Whole circle bearing(WCB) and quadrant or reduced bearing(QB) systems.
Q. Write 240° in Reduced bearing system.

0° 0°

270° 90° 90° 90°

180° 0°
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When a line exactly lies along the directions.:
In case of quadrantal bearing system, The numerical value of
WCB RB FB & BB is equal but the quadrants are just opposite.

Eg. FB is N300E then its BB is S300W

0° N or N 0°

90° E90°

180° S or S 0°

270° W 90°

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Adjusting the traverse
1. Bowditch's rule/compass rule:
• When linear and angular measurements are of equal precision.
2. Transit rule:
When angular measurements are more precise than linear one.

Dip and declination

• Dip :-
❖ Inclination of needle with horizontal in the vertical plane.
❖ 0 degree at equator and 90 degree at poles.
• Declination: -
❖ Horizontal angle between magnetic and true north in the horizontal plane.
❖ True bearing = magnetic bearing ± declination angle 48
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1.The operation of making the algebraic sum of latitudes and departures of a closed
traverse, each equal to zero, is known
A. balancing the sights
B. balancing the departures
C. balancing the latitudes
D. balancing the traverse.

2. In a closed traverse, sum of south latitudes exceeds the sum of north latitudes and the
sum of east departures exceeds the sum of west departures, then, the closing line will lie in
A. north-west quadrant
B. north east quadrant
C. south-east quadrant
D. south-west quadrant.

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Levelling

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 Curvature and refraction correction
• The effect of refraction is therefore 1/7th of the of that of the
curvature, but is of opposite nature.

• Curvature makes object to appear lower than they really are thereby
increasing the reading, so error + and correction-.

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MCQ:
1. Permanent adjustment of level is done by:
a. Centering
b. Leveling
c. Two peg test
d. All of the above

MCQ:
2. Reciprocal leveling can not eliminate completely:
a. Collimation
b. Curvature
c. Refraction
d. Any of the above

Permissible error in leveling

e=25√K; (mm)
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Contouring

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• U-shaped contour with concavity towards higher ground: ridge

• V-shaped contour with concavity toward lower ground :valley

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Numerical on C.I

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Index contour
NEC Model Question ;
If a topomap is prepared with 5m C.I the index contour is generally
shown at
a. Every 5th contour
b. Every 3rd contour
c. Every 10th contour
d. Every 7th contour

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NEC Past MCQ:
In a simple circular curve, which has higher
chainage; Intersection point or mid point of
curve?
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The principle and application of GPS
Principle of GPS:
GPS is a satellite-based navigation system that uses signals from satellites to determine
the position, velocity, and time of a receiver on the earth's surface.

The system is based on the trilateration principle.

Applications of GPS: Surveying and mapping, navigation, agriculture, and transportation.

Principle of GIS: GIS is a computer-based system for capturing, storing, analyzing, and
visualizing data related to the earth's surface.

Applications of GIS: Urban planning, natural resource management, environmental

management, Watershed analysis. In urban planning, GIS is used to manage land use
and development, to analyze demographic data, and to plan transportation systems. In
natural resource management, GIS is used to monitor land use patterns, to track the
movement of wildlife, and to manage forests and rangelands.
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MCQ.
Minimum number of satellites needed for a GPS to
determine the position accurately is
a. 2
b. 3
c. 4
d. 24

It takes 4 GPS satellites to calculate a precise location on the Earth

using GPS: 3 to determine the position on Earth, and one to adjust for
the errors.

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Sites to be referred
1. Indiabix
2. Testbook
3. Examveda
4. Sanfoundry, etc.

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