Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University

College of Engineering, Electrical

Engineering Department

Labwork Manual

EE 2010 Electrical Circuit Laboratory

(‫ معمل الدوائر الكهربائية‬2010 ‫)كهر‬

Student Name : ……………………………………

Student ID : ……………………………………
Academic Year : …………………………………

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Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University ‫جامعة األمير سطام بن عبدالعزيز‬
College of Engineering ‫كلية الهندسة‬
Electrical Engineering Department ‫قسم الهندسة الكهربائية‬

Cover Page of each Report

EE205: Electrical circuits Laboratory. Section Number:

Experiment Experiment #
Number

Experiment Title

Date of Experiment

Date of final report

Student’s Name

ID Number

Instructor’s Name

Grade

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Table of Contents

Content Page
Cover Page……………………………………………………………………………… 1
Safety Precautions and Guidelines for Electrical Engineering Labs…………................. 3
Laboratory Rules and Procedures…………………………………………….................. 5
Laboratory Reports Rules…………………………………………………….................. 6
Grading…………………………………………………………………………………... 7
Exp1: Simulation ON Current and Voltage measurements, Ohm's Law, Kirchhoff’s
Current and Voltage Laws………………………………………………………………. 8
Exp2: Hardware Experiment ON Resistors, Current and Voltage measurements,
Ohm's Law, Kirchhoff’s Current and Voltage Laws……………………………………. 18
Exp3: Simulation ON Current divider-Voltage divider and Δ-Y
Transformations…………………………………………………………………………. 27
Exp4: Hardware Experiment ON Current divider-Voltage divider and Δ-Y
Transformations…………………………………………………………………………. 31
Exp5: Simulation ON Nodal and Mesh Analysis………………………………………. 42
Exp6: Hardware Experiment ON Nodal and Mesh Analysis…………………………… 46
Exp7: Simulation ON Thevenin’s, Maximum Power Transfer, and Superposition
Theorems in DC Circuits………………………………………………………………... 52
Ex8: Experimental Hardware ON Thevenin’s, Maximum Power Transfer, and 57
Superposition Theorems in DC Circuits…………………………………………………
Exp9: Hardware Experiment ON DC and AC Measurements with Oscilloscope………. 68
Exp10: Power Factor Improvement……………………………………………………. 75

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Safety Precautions and Guidelines for Electrical Engineering Labs.
The following general rules and precautions are to be observed at all times in the laboratory.
These rules are for the benefit of the experimenter as well as those around him. Additional
rules and precautions may apply to a particular laboratory.
 There MUST be at least two people in the laboratory while working on live circuits
or chemical processing.
 Shoes MUST be worn at all times.
 All loose conductive jewelry and trinkets, including rings MUST be removed,
which may come in contact with exposed circuits. (Do not wear long loose ties,
scarves, or other loose clothing around machines.)
 Voltages above 50 V rms AC and 120 V DC are always dangerous. Extra
precautions should be considered as voltage levels are increased.
 Before equipment is energized ensure:
1) Circuit connections and layout have been checked by a Teaching Assistant
(TA) and/or technician.
2) All colleagues in your group give their assent.
 Know the correct handling, storage and disposal procedures for batteries, cells,
capacitors, inductors and other high energy-storage devices.
 Consider all circuits to be "hot" unless proven otherwise.
 When making measurements, form the habit of using only one hand at a time. No
part of a live circuit should be touched by the bare hand.
 Keep the body, or any part of it, away from the circuit. Where interconnecting wires
and cables are involved, they should be arranged so people will not trip over them.
 Be as neat a possible. Keep the work area and workbench clear of items not used in
the experiment.
 Always check to see that the power switch is OFF before plugging into the outlet.
Also, turn instrument or equipment OFF before unplugging from the outlet.
 When unplugging a power cord, pull on the plug, not on the cable.
 When disassembling a circuit, first remove the source of power.

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  "Cheater" cords and 3-to-2 prong adapters are prohibited unless an adequate
separate ground lead is provided, the equipment or device is double insulated, or
the laboratory ground return is known to be floating.
 No ungrounded electrical or electronic apparatus is to be used in the laboratory
unless it is double insulated or battery operated.
 Keep fluids, chemicals, and beat away from instruments and circuits.
 Report any damages to equipment, hazards, and potential hazards to the laboratory
instructor.
 If in doubt about electrical safety, see the laboratory instructor. Regarding specific
equipment, consult the instruction manual provided by the manufacturer of the
equipment. Information regarding safe use and possible-hazards should be studied
carefully.
 Food, beverages, substances and related utensils shall not be brought into, stored or
consumed in any laboratory.
 Smoking is prohibited in all laboratories at all times.
 Learn and know what to do in an emergency or Electrical Fire.

N.B. Your TA must inspect your workstation prior to your leaving lab.
DO NOT LEAVE UNTIL THE TA HAS INSPECTED YOUR WORKSTATION AND
APPROVED ITS CONDITION.

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Laboratory Rules and Procedures
 Students have to attend all the scheduled experiments. If anybody misses an
experiment, he/she will make it up during the last week of the semester. Students
who miss more than two experiments shall have to repeat the course; i.e., they will
have an “F” grade automatically.
 Experiments are done by groups of students (a maximum of three).
 Experiments start at the scheduled time of the laboratory session when all the
members of the group are ready. Anyone who fails to join the group in 15 minutes
will be assumed absent.
 “Experiment sheets” is given to the students at least one week prior to the
experiments. Students are supposed to study the experiment sheets, read the
necessary references, do the preliminary calculations –if necessary-, and collect
enough knowledge about the experiment before coming to the laboratory. This will
be checked by the instructor and will affect the student’s grade.
 Two copies of the, blank “Experiment Data Sheet” should be prepared before the
experiment. “Experiment Data Sheet” is found at the end of each experiment
section.
 All the experimental data (and graphics if necessary) must be written on these
sheets.
 The laboratory instructor must sign the sheets. One copy of this sheet will be handed
to the instructor after the experiment. The other will be kept by the students to be
used in prepare the report.
 Students must take all precautions for their own and instruments safety. They will
be liable to replace the instruments or the components, which are damaged due to
misuse.
 Students should obey all the “Laboratory Safety Rules” in the lab.
 Students should leave the bench clean and tidy after the experiment. Cleanliness
and orderliness of the laboratory should always be maintained. All instruments
should be switched off before leaving the lab.
 Students repeating a course should attend laboratories fully including submitting
the report. (They will not be exempted from the laboratories).

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Laboratory Reports Rules
 Each student of each group should submit a report of the experimental work with
“Experiment Data Sheet” in one week after the experiment completion date. Grades
will be reduced by 5 points-per-each delayed day. The reports will not be accepted
after two weeks of delay. The first report will be given in a wired file for archiving
whereas the rest will be given in the transparent file.
 The laboratory reports should include the following items:
1. Report cover page: Blank cover page of the experiment can be found at the
appendix. Students should complete this page and make it the first page of
the report.
2. Preliminary work: Should contain the short theory and method of the
experiment. It must not be a repetition of the “background section of the
experiment”, given in the “Experiment sheets”. Below items must be
written in your own words:
a) The technical objective of the experiment,
b) Calculations and questions’ answers found in the “Experiment sheets”.
3. Experimental setup: This section should include following:
c) Neat drawing of the experimental setup (indicating all the measuring
instruments, with types and brand names),
d) Equipment list: the list should include the names, manufacturer’s brand
names and model numbers of the instrument,
e) List of the electronic components and other related tools, instruments
used in the experiment.
4. Experimental results: This section should contain following:
f) Calculated data in the preliminary work section in tabular form,
g) All measured values in tabular form,
h) All curves with suitable titles, units and scales on both coordinate axes,
on each graph.
5. Conclusion: It includes:
a) All discussion of the experimental results,
b) Comments on differences between the experimental and theoretical
results,
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 c) Probable sources of errors and the ways of reducing these errors,
d) Personal opinions about the experiments.
 Even though lab reports might be handwritten in pen or in ink, clarity and neatness
are required. Marks can be lost for reports that are not presented in a convenient
way.
 Marks are not given for the quantity of material written but for its quality.
Comments, which show that you understand or have thought about what is going
on, are valuable.
 Clarity of ideas, thoughts and understanding are essential for increasing your mark.
 Lack of these will reduce your mark. Your report should be legible but does not
have to be a work of art. It is your ideas and experimental ability you will be graded
on.

Grading
The Lab weights 25% of the whole course grade, the following grading scheme will be used:

Technical Reports and Discussions 7%

Prelab 3%
Team Work and Attendance 5%
Test on the Concept of the Experiments 5%
Connection Test 5%

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 Experiment # 1

Simulation ON
Current and Voltage measurements, Ohm's Law,
Kirchhoff’s Current and Voltage Laws

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 1. Objectives:
The objectives of this experiment are:
1. Familiarization with the simulation tool.
2. Verification of Ohm’s law
3. Verification of Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
3. Verification of Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

2. Pre-Lab:
Write two papers on the background of the following.

1. MATLAB software.
2. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law.
3. Kirchhoff’s current Law.

3. Introduction to SIMUNINK:
MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates
computation, visualization, and programming environment. Furthermore, MATLAB is a
modern programming language environment: it has sophisticated data structures, contains
built-in editing and debugging tools, and supports object-oriented programming. These
factors make MATLAB an excellent tool for teaching and research. MATLAB has many
advantages compared to conventional computer languages (e.g., C, FORTRAN) for
solving technical problems.
MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does not
require dimensioning. The software package has been commercially available since 1984
and is now considered as a standard tool at most universities and industries worldwide. The
default layout of MATLAB version used in this laboratory is seen below

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 Fig. 1.1: MATLAB layout.

3.1 Using MATLAB as a calculator:

As an example of a simple interactive calculation, just type the expression you want to
evaluate. Let’s start at the very beginning. For example, let’s suppose you want to calculate
the expression, 1 + 2 × 3. You type it at the prompt command (>>) as follows,
>> 1+2*3
ans = 7
You will have noticed that if you do not specify an output variable, MATLAB uses a
default variable ans, short for answer, to store the results of the current calculation. Note
that the variable ans is created (or overwritten, if it is already existed). To avoid this, you
may assign a value to a variable or output argument name.
For example,
>> x = 1+2*3
x = 7 will result in x being given the value 1 + 2 × 3 = 7. This variable name can always
be used to refer to the results of the previous computations. Therefore, computing 4x will
result in
>> 4*x

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ans = 28.0000
Table 1.1 shows the basic arithmetic operators while Table 1.2 shows some elementary
functions
Table 1.1 : Basic arithmetic operators.
Symbol Operation Example
+ Addition 3+5
- Subtraction 3-5
* Multiplication 3*5
/ Division 3/5

Table 1.2: Some Elementary functions

Cos (x) Cosine abs (x) Absolute value
Sin (x) Sine sing (x) Signum function
tan (x) Tangent max (x) Maximum value
acos (x) Arc cosine min (x) Minimum value
asin (x) Arc sine ceil (x) Round toward +∞
atan (x) Arc tangent floor (x) Round toward −∞
exp (x) Exponential round (x) Round to nearest integer
sqrt (x) Square root angle (x) Phase angle

3.2 Simulink:
Simulink® is a block diagram environment for multidomain simulation and Model-Based
Design. It supports system-level design, simulation, automatic code generation, and
continuous test and verification of embedded systems.
You can use Simulink® to model a system and simulate its behavior. The basic techniques
you use to create a simple model.
1. From the main window of MATLAB, open Simulink as seen in the below figure

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 Fig. 1.2: Open Simulink environment from MATLAB layout.

2. If you click on the Simulink icon, the following window will appear

Fig. 1.3: Simulink start page.

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3. Click on the Blank Model to open a blank window in which you will build your
circuit, as can be seen in the below figure

Fig. 1.4: Blank model

4. If you click on the Library Browser, you will be directed to the available Toolboxes,
as can be seen below

Fig. 1.5: Toolboxes in the library browser.

5. Open Simscape Toolbox Electrical Specialized Power

Systems as seen in the following figure

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 Fig. 1.6: Specialized power system Toolbox.

6. From specialized power system, you can drag the required circuit component and
drop it to the blank model. For example, the resistor can be found in Passive. Drag
the resistor from Passives and drop it to the blank window as seen in the following
figure.

Fig. 1.7: Drag and drop the required components to the blank model
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 4. Simulation Procedures:
Procedure 1: Verification of Ohm's law
Follow the instruction listed in the previous section and build the following circuit in
Simulink environment.

Fig. 1.8: Current and voltage measurement for one resistor

1. Start with VS = 0 volts.
2. Increase the input voltage to VS = 10 V by steps of 1 volt.
3. Measure the current I and the voltage U at each step.
4. Record the results in Table 3.
5. Repeat the procedure for R=1 kΩ.
6. Record your measurements in Table 3.
Table 1.3: Measurement of current and voltage for R=100 Ω and R=1k Ω
VS (V) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
I (mA)
R=100 Ω
U (V)
I (mA)
R=1 kΩ
U (V)

7. Plot the measured currents versus voltages in Fig.1.9: U (V) versus I (mA)

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 Fig. 1.9: Current-Voltage characteristics (Ohm’s law) for R= 100 Ω and R=1kΩ

8. Write your comments

Procedure 2: Kirchhoff’s Voltage law (KVL)

Build the circuit as shown in Fig. 1.10.

Fig. 1.10: Verification of KVL

1. Set the source voltage 𝑉𝑠 = 15 𝑉.

2. Measure the source current I and voltages 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 , and 𝑉3 .
3. Rerecord your results in table 1.4.

Table 1.4: Measured voltages.

Measured voltage (V)
R1= 100 V1 =
R2= 220  V2 =
R3= 1 k V3 =
Sum of voltages
V=V1+V2+V3. V = V1 + V2 + V3 = ……….
Voltage Source
Vs

4. Write your comments

5. At which resistor the voltage drop is the greatest? At which resistor is it the least?
What rule can be deduced from this?

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Procedure 4: Kirchhoff’s Current law (KCL)
1. Build the circuit as shown in Fig. 1.11.

2. Set the voltage source Vs to 30 V and measure total current I.

I = …………. (mA)

3. Measure the currents I1 and I2 flowing through resistors R1 and R2, respectively ,
and record them in Table 1.5
Table 1.5: Measured currents
Measured current (mA)
I1 (in R1= 1.5 k) I1 = …….mA
I2 (in R2= 1 k I2 = …… mA
Sum of currents I1+I2 I1 + I2 = ………mA
Current I delivered by the source I = ……. mA

4. Write your comments

5. At which resistor the current is the greatest? At which resistor the current is the
least? What rule can be deduced from this?

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 Experiment # 2

Hardware Experiment ON
Resistors, Current and Voltage measurements, Ohm's
Law, Kirchhoff’s Current and Voltage Laws

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 1. Objectives:
The objectives of this experiment are:
1. Familiarization with the lab policy, electric circuit components, safety rules, and
main equipment (multi-meters, power supplies, decade resistance box).
2. Verification of Ohm’s law
3. Verification of Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
4. Verification of Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

2. Equipment:

• DC power supply.

• Five color code resistors, Three decades’ resistance box,

• Digital multi-meters

•100 Ω , 220 Ω, 470Ω, 1.0 kΩ, and 1.5 kΩ Resistors.

3. Background:
Resistors
1. There are many different types of Resistors available and they can be used in
both electrical and electronic circuits.
2. Resistor needs to have some form of "resistive" or "Resistance" value, and
resistors are available in a range of different resistance values from fractions
of an Ohm (Ω) to millions of Ohms.
3. Resistors are manufactured in preferred values with their "Resistance" rating
printed onto their body in colored ink as shown in Fig. 2.1.

Fig. 2.1: Resistors with color codes

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  The resistance value, tolerance, and watt rating of the resistor are generally
printed onto the body of the resistor as numbers or letters when the resistor
is big enough to read the print.
 Small resistors use colored painted bands to indicate both their resistive value
and their tolerance with the physical size of the resistor indicating its wattage
rating.

Fig. 2.2: Values of resistors using color codes

4. Pre-Lab:
4.1 Resistor Values Using Color Codes
For each of the following resistors, determine the value and the percentage tolerance using
Color Codes.

R1: Yellow, violet, black = ……… Ω ± ……% → …........ ≤ R1 ≤ ….......

R2: Orange, red, brown, green = ……… Ω ± ……% → …....... ≤ R2 ≤ ….......

R3: Green, blue, red, gold = ………… Ω ± ………% → …....... ≤ R3 ≤ ….......

R4: Red, yellow, orange, gold = ……… Ω ± ……% → ……... ≤ R4 ≤ .…......

R5: Blue, gray, yellow, silver = ……… Ω ± ….…% → …....... ≤ R5 ≤ …......

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 4.2 Ohm's law
Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 2. 3

Fig. 2.3: Voltage and current in resistor element using passive sign convention

- Find the unknown quantity in each case shown in the Table 2.1:
Table 2.1: Calculation of unknown quantity based on Ohm's Law according to passive sign convention
…………………………….......
v = 10 V , …………………………………
i = 2 A, …………………………………
R=? …………………………………
…………………………….......
v =?, …………………………………
i = 40 mA, …………………………………
R = 4 k …………………………………
…………………………….......
v = 16 V , …………………………………
i = ?, …………………………………
R = 64  …………………………………

4.3 Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)

Consider the circuit of Fig. 2.4

Fig. 2.4: KCL in Electric Circuit

a- Apply KCL at node A and express the current I in terms of I1 and I2.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

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b- Using Ohm's law, calculate the current I1 and the current I2.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………….………….
c- Calculate the current I using the expression of KCL found in question (a) and the
values of I1 and I2 calculated in question (b).
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………….………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………….………….
4.4 Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)
Consider the circuit of Fig. 2.5

Fig. 2.5: KVL in Electric Circuit

a- Apply KVL at node A and express the Voltage Vs in terms of V1, V2, and V3.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………….………….
b- Calculate the voltage V1, the voltage V2, the voltage V3, and the voltage Vs using the
expression found in question (a).
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………….………….

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 5. Experimental Procedures
Procedure 1: Resistance measurement
Given three color coded resistors found on your experiment bench, determine the value of
each, first by calculation using the color code system, and second by measurement with
an ohmmeter. Record your readings in Table 2.2 below.

Table 2.2
Resistor Colors Value by Value by % Error
color code Ohmmeter
system
R1
R2
R3

Comment on the two different ways of measurements, which is accurate?

………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………… ……………………………………………………………………………
………………………………… …………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………… ……………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

Procedure 2: Verification of Ohm's law

Assemble the circuit shown in Fig. 2.6 using a resistor R 100. Make sure that the
polarity of the voltage source and the multi-meters are correct, and that the correct
measurement range has been selected.

Fig. 2.6: Current and voltage measurement for one resistor

Beginning with VS = 0 volts, increase the input voltage to VS = 10 V by steps of 1 volt.
Measure the current I and the voltage U at each step. Do not change the measurement range
setting of the multi-meter. Record the results in Table 3. Repeat the procedure for R=1 kΩ.
Record your measurements in Table 2.3.

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 Table 2.3: Measurement of current and voltage for R=100 Ω and R=1k Ω
VS (V) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
I (mA)
R=100 Ω
U (V)
I (mA)
R=1 kΩ
U (V)

Plot the measured currents versus voltages in Fig. 2.7: U (V) versus I (mA)

Fig. 2.7: Current-Voltage characteristics (Ohm’s law) for R= 100 Ω and R=1kΩ

What relationship can be seen between current and voltage at different resistances?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………

Procedure 3: Kirchhoff’s Voltage law (KVL)

Assemble the circuit as shown in Fig. 2.8. Make sure that the polarities of the voltage
source and the measuring instruments are correct, and that the correct measurement
range has been selected.

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 Fig. 2.8: Measuring voltage drop across resistors connected in series

1. Adjust the input voltage Vs of power supply to obtain a current I = 10 mA

2. Measure the voltages V1, V2, and V3 across resistors R1 , R2 and R3 respectively and
record them in Table 4

Table4: Measured and Calculated voltages

Measured voltage Calculated voltage % Error
(V) (V).
.
R1= 100 V1-meas = V1-cal =
R2= 220  V2-meas = V2-cal =
R3= 1 k V3-meas = V3-cal =
Sum of voltages Vmeas = V1-meas + Vcal = V1-cal + V2-cal +
V=V1+V2+V3. V2-meas + V3-meas V3-cal = ……….
= ……….
Voltage Source
Vs

3. Compare the measured voltages to the calculated voltages and comment.

………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………..……………………………….
4. Compare the total voltage Vmeas to the voltage source Vs and comment.
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
5. At which resistor the voltage drop is the greatest? At which resistor is it the least?
What rule can be deduced from this?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………

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 ………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
Procedure 4: Kirchhoff’s Current law (KCL)
Assemble the circuit as shown in Fig. 9. Make sure that the polarity of the voltage
source and the multi-meters are correct, and that the correct measurement range has
been selected.

Figure1: The total current with two resistors connected in parallel

1. Set the voltage source Vs to 30 V, then measure and record the total current I.
I = …………. (mA)

2. Measure the currents I1 and I2 through resistors R1 and R2 respectively and record them
in Table 5
Table5: Measured and Calculated currents
Measured current Calculated current % Error
(mA) (mA).

I1 (in R1= 1.5 k) I1-meas = ……. mA I1-calc = ……. mA

I2 (in R2= 1 k I2-meas = …… mA I2-calc = ……. mA
Sum of currents I1+I2 I1-meas + I2-meas I1-calc + I2-calc
= ….mA = …… mA
Current I delivered by Imeas = …… mA Icalc = …… mA
the source
Compare the total current Imeas with the sum of currents I1-meas + I2-meas and comment.
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………

3. At which resistor the current is the greatest? At which resistor the current is the least?
What rule can be deduced from this?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………… ……………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
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 Experiment#3

Simulation ON
Current divider-Voltage divider and Δ-Y
Transformations

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 1. Objectives:
1. Simulation a circuit to verify the voltage divider
2. Simulation a circuit to verify the current divider
3. Simulation a circuit to verify the Δ-Y Transformation concept.

2. Pre-Lab
Write two papers on the background of the following.

1. Voltage divider rule

2. Current divider rule
3. Δ-Y Transformations

3. Simulations Procedures:
Procedure 1: Simulation the voltage divider Rule

1. Build the following circuit in the Simulink environment. Consider R1= 470 Ω,
R2= 1.0 kΩ, R3= 2.2 kΩ, R4= 3.3 kΩ, and Vs=15 V.

Fig. 3.1: Voltage divider at no-load

2. Set the voltage source Vs to 10 V, then measure the output voltage Vo.
Vo = …………. V
3. Connect the load RL=470 across the resistor R2, as shown in Fig. 3.2.

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 Fig. 3.2: Voltage divider with load.

4. Record results of voltage divider obtained in (a) and (b) in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Measured Output voltage

At no-load At load
RL disconnected RL=470 RL=220
Output voltage Measured: Measured: Measured:
Vo (V) …………………… …………………… ……………………

5. Give your comments

Procedure 2: Simulation the current divider Rule

1. For the same circuit above (Fig. 3.1), measure the source current
I=………………… mA
2. For the circuit of Fig. 3.2, measure the source current and the current flowing
through the resistance R2 and the load
IR2=………………………..
ILoad=…………………..
Is=………………………..
3. Give your comments
Procedure 3: Simulation the Δ- Y transformation concept.
1. Simulate the circuit shown in Fig. 3.3 and measure the current I.

29 | P a g e
 Fig. 3.3: Circuit with Delta () connection

I = …………. mA
2. Measure the voltage across the resistor between points b and d.

Vbd = …………. V

3. Apply the Δ- Y transformation concept by converting the resistors connected

in Δ (a, b, c) into their equivalent Y.

Ra=…………………
Rb=…………………
Rc=…………………

4. Simulate the resulting circuit and measure the source current

I = …………. mA
5. Measure the voltage across the resistor between points b and d.

Vbd = …………. V
6. Give your comments

30 | P a g e
 Experiment # 4

Hardware Experiment ON
Current divider-Voltage divider and Δ-Y
Transformations

31 | P a g e
 1. Objectives:
The main objectives of this laboratory are:
1. Verification of voltage divider
2. Verification of current divider
3. Verification the Δ-Y Transformations.
In addition, the student will be more familiar with the lab policy, electric circuit
components, safety rules, and main equipment (multi-meters, power supplies,
decade resistance box).

2. Equipment:
• DC power supply.

• Five color code resistors, Three decades’ resistance box,

• Digital multi-meters

•100 Ω , 220 Ω, 470Ω, 1.0 kΩ, and 1.5 kΩ Resistors.

3. Pre-Lab
3.1 Voltage Divider

Consider the circuit of Fig. 4.1

Fig. 4.1 Voltage divider

a- Express the output Voltage Vo in terms of R1, R2, and Vs.

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

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………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
At no-load, take Vs = 10 V, R1=100, R2=220  and calculate the output voltage Vo
using the expression found in question (a).

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

b- Now, consider a resistive load RL connected as shown in Fig. 4.2.

Fig. 4.2: Voltage divider with resistive load RL

- Express the output Voltage Vo in terms of R1, R2, RL and Vs.

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

- For Vs = 10 V, R1=100, R2=220 , RL =470  calculate the output voltage Vo.

………………………………………………………………………………

c- Compare the values of the output voltage at load (in b) and at no-load (in c) and
provide an interpretation.

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
….………….………………………………………………………………….………….

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 3.2 Current Divider

Consider the circuit of Fig. 4.3

Fig. 4.3: Current divider

a- Express the current I1 in terms of R1, R2, and I.

………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………….………….

b- Express the current I2 in terms of R1, R2, and I.

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
….………….

c- Take I = 145.45 mA, R1=100, R2=220  and calculate the currents I1 and I2
using the expressions found in question (a) and question (b) respectively.

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

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 3.3 Δ-Y Transformation

There are certain circuit configurations in which the resistors do not appear to be in series
or in parallel. Under these conditions, it is necessary to convert the circuit under
investigation from one form to another. Delta (Δ) and Wye (Y) Connections are the most
common connections that exist in electric circuits as shown in Fig. 4.4.

Fig. 4.4: Circuit with Delta connections

- Calculate the resistors Ra, Rb, and Rc of the equivalent Wye (Y) for the actual Delta
(Δ) abc shown in Fig. 4.5

Fig. 4.5: Circuit with Delta connections

Ra = ……………………………………………..
Ra = …………………………………..…………
Rc = ……………………………………………..
- Complete the equivalent circuit of Fig. 4.6.

Fig. 4.6: Circuit with Delta connections

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- Calculate the equivalent resistance and find the current I delivered by the voltage
source Vs.

……………… ……………………………………………………………………………
……………… ……………………………………………………………………………
……………… ……………………………………………………………………………
……………… ……………………………………………………………………………
……………… ……………………………………………………………………………
………………………………… …………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………
……………… ……………………………………………………………………………
……………… ……………………………………………………………………………

36 | P a g e
 4. Experimental Procedures
Procedure 1: Verification of Voltage divider Rule
Assemble the circuit as shown in Fig. 4.7. Make sure that the polarity of the voltage
source and the multi-meters are correct, and that the correct measurement range has
been selected.

Fig. 4.7: Voltage divider at no-load

1. Set the voltage source Vs to 10 V, then measure the output voltage Vo.
Vo = …………. V
2. Connect the load RL=470, as shown in Fig. 4.8.

Fig. 4.8: Voltage divider with load

3. Set the voltage source Vs to 10 V, then measure the output voltage Vo.
Vo = …………. V

4. Record results of voltage divider obtained in (a) and (b) in Table 4.1 and.

37 | P a g e
 Table 4.1: Measured and Calculated output voltage for voltage divider

At no-load At load
RL disconnected RL=470 RL=220
Output voltage Measured: …………. Measured: ………. Measured: …………
Vo (V) Calculated: ………… Calculated: ……… Calculated: …………
% Error

5. Interpret the results (Analyze the effect of RL on the output voltage Vo).

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………….……… ……………………………………………………………
……………………….……… ……………………………………………………………
Procedure 2: Current divider
Assemble the circuit as shown in Fig. 4.9. Make sure that the polarity of the voltage source
and the multi-meters are correct, and that the correct measurement range has been selected.

Fig. 4.9: Current divider

1. Set the voltage source Vs to 10 V

2. Measure the currents I, I1 and I2 and record results in Table 4.2.

Table 4.2: Measured and Calculated currents for current divider

Measured Calculated current (mA). % Error
current (mA)
I (delivered by the
I =……. mA I = ……. mA
source)

38 | P a g e
 I1-calc =
I1 (in R1= 100 I1-meas = …….
Ix[(R2/(R1+R2)]= ……. mA
) mA

I2-calc =
I2 (in R2= 220 I2-meas = ……
Ix[(R1/(R1+R2)]= ……. mA
 mA

Analyze the obtained results.

………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………

39 | P a g e
Procedure 3: Δ- Y transformation

Assemble the circuit shown in Fig. 4.10

Fig. 4.10: Circuit with Delta () connection

1. Measure the current I.

I = ……. mA
2. Compare the measured current I with the calculated Ical in Pre-Lab paragraph 3.3,
and give your comment.
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
3. Draw the experimental circuit of -Y transformation corresponding to the circuit of Fig.
4.6 (Pre-Lab 3.3) in the space below.
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………

40 | P a g e
 4. Assemble the experimental circuit, measure the current I, compare it to the current
measured in (a), and provide your comment.
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………

41 | P a g e
Experiment # 5

Simulation on
Nodal and Mesh Analysis

42 | P a g e
 1. Objectives
1. Verify the nodal analysis to find the voltages at different nodes.
2. Verify the mesh analysis to find the current flowing through different paths.

2. Pre-Lab
1. Draw a circuit with three nodes (without numbers) and apply the nodal
analysis to find the voltages at the three nodes.
2. Draw a circuit with three mesh (without numbers) and apply the mesh
analysis to find the mesh currents.

3. Simulations Procedures:
Procedure 1: Simulation the Nodal analysis
1. Simulate the following circuit
𝑉𝑠 = 30 𝑉, 𝑅1 = 1 𝐾Ω, 𝑅2 = 2.2 𝐾Ω, 𝑅3 = 470 Ω,
𝑅4 = 1.5 𝐾Ω, 𝑅5 = 100 Ω, 𝑅6 = 220 Ω,
𝑅7 = 3.3 𝐾Ω.

R7

R1 R3 b R5
a c

Vs R2 R4 R6

Fig. 5: Circuit for Mesh and Nodal analysis.

43 | P a g e
2. Measure the voltages across every resistor and at nodes a, b, and c. Then fill table
5.1.
Table 5.1: Node voltages
Measured voltage [V]
𝑉𝑅1
𝑉𝑅2
𝑉𝑅3
𝑉𝑅4
𝑉𝑅5
𝑉𝑅6
𝑉𝑅7
𝑉𝑎
𝑉𝑏
𝑉𝑐

3. Calculate the voltage across the resistors R3 and R7 from the known node
voltages ( 𝑉𝑎 , 𝑉𝑏 , 𝑉𝑐 ).

𝑉𝑅3 = ⋯ … … … … … … … ….
𝑉𝑅7 = ⋯ … … … … … … … ….

Compare these two values with the measured values.

44 | P a g e
Procedure 2: Simulation the Mesh analysis
1. Simulate the circuit shown in Fig. 5
2. Measure the currents flowing through all resistors, and fill Table 5.2.
3. Table 5.1: Node voltages
Measured voltage [V]

𝐼𝑠
𝐼𝑅1
𝐼𝑅2
𝐼𝑅3
𝐼𝑅4
𝐼𝑅5
𝐼𝑅6
𝐼𝑅7

45 | P a g e
Experiment # 6

Hardware Experiment ON
Nodal and Mesh Analysis

46 | P a g e
1. Objectives
1. Verify the nodal analysis to find the voltages at different nodes.
2. Verify the mesh analysis to find the current flowing through different paths.

2. Pre-Lab
2.1 Nodal Analysis
1. Write nodal equations for the following circuit

R7

R1 R3 b R5
a c

Vs R2 R4 R6

Fig. 6.1: Circuit for Nodal analysis.

2. Substitute the following values in the equations of point 1

𝑉𝑠 = 30 𝑉, 𝑅1 = 1 𝐾Ω, 𝑅2 = 2.2 𝐾Ω, 𝑅3 = 470 Ω,
𝑅4 = 1.5 𝐾Ω, 𝑅5 = 100 Ω, 𝑅6 = 220 Ω,
𝑅7 = 3.3 𝐾Ω.
.
3. Calculate the voltage across the following resistors:
𝑉𝑅1 = ⋯ … … … … … … … ….
𝑉𝑅3 = ⋯ … … … … … … … ….
𝑉𝑅3 = ⋯ … … … … … … … ….
𝑉𝑅5 = ⋯ … … … … … … … ….
47 | P a g e
𝑉𝑅7 = ⋯ … … … … … … … ….

2.2 Mesh Analysis

1. For the circuit shown in Fig. 6.1, write the mesh equations

R7

I4
R1 R3 R5

Vs R2 I2 R4 I3 R6
I1

Fig. 6.2: Circuit for Mesh analysis.

2. Substitute the following values in the equations of point 1

𝑉𝑠 = 30 𝑉, 𝑅1 = 1 𝐾Ω, 𝑅2 = 2.2 𝐾Ω, 𝑅3 = 470 Ω,
𝑅4 = 1.5 𝐾Ω, 𝑅5 = 100 Ω, 𝑅6 = 220 Ω,
𝑅7 = 3.3 𝐾Ω.

48 | P a g e
 4. Experimental Procedures:

Procedure 1: Nodal analysis

1. Assemble the following circuit

𝑉𝑠 = 30 𝑉, 𝑅1 = 1 𝐾Ω, 𝑅2 = 2.2 𝐾Ω, 𝑅3 = 470 Ω, 𝑅4 = 1.5 𝐾Ω,

𝑅5 = 100 Ω, 𝑅6 = 220 Ω, 𝑅7 = 3.3 𝐾Ω.

VR7
V
R7

R1 R3 b R5
a c

Vs V R2 V R4 V R6
VR1 VR2 VR6

Fig. 6.3: Circuit for Nodal analysis.

2. Measure the voltages at nodes a, b, and c. Then fill table 6.1.

Table 6.1: Node voltages
Measured voltage [V]

𝑉𝑎
𝑉𝑏
𝑉𝑐

49 | P a g e
 3. Measure the voltage across the resistor R7.
𝑉𝑅7−𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢 = ⋯ … … … … … … … … … …
4. Calculate the voltage across the resistors R7 from the measured node voltages
( 𝑉𝑎 , 𝑉𝑐 ).
𝑉𝑅7−𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢 = ⋯ … … … … … … … ….
5. Compare measured voltage and the calculated voltage.
6. Fill table 5.2:
Table 6.2: Comparison of node voltages.
Measurements Calculation % Error
(from Pre-lab)
𝑉𝑎
𝑉𝑏
𝑉𝑐
𝑉𝑅7

Procedure 2: Mesh analysis

1. Assemble the circuit shown in Fig. 6.4
𝑉𝑠 = 30 𝑉, 𝑅1 = 1 𝐾Ω, 𝑅2 = 2.2 𝐾Ω, 𝑅3 = 470 Ω,
𝑅4 = 1.5 𝐾Ω, 𝑅5 = 100 Ω, 𝑅6 = 220 Ω,
𝑅7 = 3.3 𝐾Ω.

I7
A

I1 R1 I3 R3 I5 R5
A A A
I2 A I4 A I6 A

R2 R4 R6

Fig. 6.4: Circuit for Mesh analysis.

50 | P a g e
 2. Measure the currents flowing through all resistors, and fill Table 6.3.
Table 6.3: Currents in all circuit’s branches.
Measured Current [A] Currents by Simulation % Error
[A] (Exp. 5)
𝐼𝑠
𝐼𝑅1
𝐼𝑅2
𝐼𝑅3
𝐼𝑅4
𝐼𝑅5
𝐼𝑅6
𝐼𝑅7

3. Give your comments

4. Plot the circuit of Fig. 6.4 and indicate the magnitude and directions of the
currents flowing in all branches.

51 | P a g e
 Experiment # 7

Simulation ON
Thevenin’s, Maximum Power Transfer, and
Superposition Theorems in DC Circuits

52 | P a g e
 1. Objectives:

The objective of this experiment is to verify experimentally Thevenin’s, Maximum

Power Transfer, and Superposition Theorems in DC circuits.

2. Pre-Lab

Write two papers on the background of the following.

1. Thevenin’s Theorem.
2. Maximum Power Transfer Theorem.
3. Superposition Theorems.

3. Simulations Procedures:

Procedure 1: Simulation on Thevenin’s Theorem

1. Simulate the circuit shown in Fig. 7.1.
Consider: 𝑉𝑠 = 15 𝑉, 𝑅1 = 470 Ω, 𝑅2 = 1 𝐾Ω, 𝑅3 = 2.2 𝐾Ω, 𝑅4 = 3.3 𝐾Ω

Fig. 7.1: Circuit to construct the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

2. Measure the current through the resistor R4

I4 = ……………. A.
3. Isolate R4 from the circuit and meaure the open circuit voltage (𝑉𝑎𝑏 ). This voltage
is named 𝑉𝑇ℎ (Thevenin’s voltage).
𝑉𝑇ℎ = …………….. V.

53 | P a g e
 4. Short circuit the source voltage and calculate the Thevenin’s resistance 𝑅𝑇ℎ
between terminals a and b.
𝑅𝑇ℎ = …………….. Ω.
5. Construct Thevenin’s equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 7.2.

Fig. 7.2: Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

6. Measure the current through the resistor R4
I4 = ……………. A.
7. Compare the two values obtained in points 2 and 6.

Procedure 2: Simulation on Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

1. Simulate the circuit as shown in Fig. 7.3.

Consider:

Consider: 𝑉𝑠 = 15 𝑉, 𝑅1 = 470 Ω, 𝑅2 = 1 𝐾Ω, 𝑅3 = 2.2 𝐾Ω

Fig. 7.3: Circuit to verify Maximum power transfer.

54 | P a g e
 2. Fill the Table 7.1
Table 7.1
Resistance R4 () I4 (mA) V4 (V) Power absorbed by R4
P4 (mW)
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200
2400
2500
2600
2700
2800
2900
3000
3200
3400
3600
3800

3. Plot the values of the resistance R4 versus the power absorbed, and locate the
maximum power.
4. Give your comments
Procedure 3: Superposition Theorem
1. Simulate the circuit shown in Fig. 7.4
Consider: 𝑉𝑠1 = 15 𝑉, 𝑉𝑠2 = 10 𝑉, 𝑅1 = 470 Ω, 𝑅2 = 220 Ω, 𝑅3 = 100 Ω

Fig. 7.4: Circuit to verify Superposition Theorem

55 | P a g e
2. Consider the source voltage Vs1 only and isolate the second voltage source from
the circuit. Measure the current I3
𝐼31 =……………………..A
3. Consider the voltage source Vs2 only and isolate the voltage source Vs1 from the
circuit. Measure the current I3
𝐼32 =……………………..A
4. Calculate the total current I3 from the two measurements mentioned above.
𝐼3 = 𝐼31 + 𝐼32 =…………………………….. A

5. Give your comments

56 | P a g e
 Experiment # 8

Experimental Hardware ON
Thevenin’s, Maximum Power Transfer, and
Superposition Theorems in DC Circuits

57 | P a g e
 1. Objectives:
The objective of this laboratory is to verify experimentally Thevenin, Maximum
Power Transfer in DC circuits.

2. Equipment:
• DC power supply.

• Digital multi-meters

•Resistors: 100 Ω , 220 Ω, 470Ω, 1.0 kΩ, and 1.5 kΩ.

•Variable resistors: Decades’ resistance box.

3. Pre-Lab
3.1 Thevenin’s Theorem
For the circuit shown in Fig. 8.1

Consider: 𝑉𝑠 = 15 𝑉, 𝑅1 = 470 Ω, 𝑅2 = 1 𝐾Ω, 𝑅3 = 2.2 𝐾Ω, 𝑅4 = 3.3 𝐾Ω

Fig. 8.1: Circuit used in verification of Thevenin theorem

The resistor R4 connected between terminals a and b is considered as a Load
a- Calculate the Thevenin voltage VTh.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

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………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
b- Calculate the Thevenin resistance RTh.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
c- Redraw the circuit of Fig. 8.1 using the Thevenin equivalent circuit.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
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………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
- Calculate the current I4.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

59 | P a g e
 3.2 Maximum power transfer theorem.
For the circuit shown in Fig. 8.2,
Consider: 𝑉𝑠 = 15 𝑉, 𝑅1 = 470 Ω, 𝑅2 = 1 𝐾Ω, 𝑅3 = 2.2 𝐾Ω

Fig. 8.2: Circuit for maximum power calculation

- Calculate the maximum power Pmax transferred to the load R4.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

60 | P a g e
 3.3 Superposition Theorem.
Consider the circuit of Fig. 8.3.
𝑉𝑠1 = 15 𝑉, 𝑉𝑠2 = 10 𝑉, 𝑅1 = 470 Ω, 𝑅2 = 220 Ω, 𝑅3 = 100 Ω
Use superposition theorem to calculate V3 and I3.

Fig. 8.1: Circuit to verify superposition theorem.

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

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 4. Experimental Procedures
Procedure 1: Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit
1. Assemble the circuit as shown in Fig. 8.3. Make sure that the polarity of the
voltage source and the multi-meters are correct, and that the correct
measurement range has been selected.

Consider: 𝑉𝑠 = 15 𝑉, 𝑅1 = 470 Ω, 𝑅2 = 1 𝐾Ω, 𝑅3 = 2.2 𝐾Ω, 𝑅4 = 3.3 𝐾Ω

Fig. 8.3: Circuit to construct for Thevenin’s Equivalent circuit

2. Measure the current through the resistor R4, I4 = ………… A.
3. Remove R4, connect a voltmeter, and measure the open circuit voltage Voc = VTh
(between terminals a and b) as shown in Fig. 8.4

Fig. 8.4: Measurement of Thevenin voltage VTh

𝑽𝑻𝒉 = 𝑽𝑶𝑪 = …………V

62 | P a g e
4. Replace R4 with a wire (short circuit) and measure the short circuit current I sc as
shown in Fig. 8.5.

Fig. 8.5: Measurement of short circuit current

𝑰𝒔𝒄 = ………. A
5. Calculate Rth:
𝑽𝑻𝒉
𝑹𝑻𝒉 = = ⋯…………………Ω
𝑰𝒔𝒄
6. Construct Thevenin equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 8.6.

Fig. 8.6: Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit

7. Measure the current through R4 resistor.

I4 = ………… A.
8. Record results in Table 8.1.

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 Table 8.1
Calculated Measured % Error
VTh
RTh
Load
current I4
Interpret and analyze results:
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………… ……………………………………………………………………………
………………………………… …………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………… ………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………… ……………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

Procedure 2: Maximum Power Transfer

1. Assemble the circuit as shown in Fig. 8.7.

Consider: 𝑉𝑠 = 15 𝑉, 𝑅1 = 470 Ω, 𝑅2 = 1 𝐾Ω, 𝑅3 = 2.2 𝐾Ω, R4 = Variable resistor

Fig. 8.7: Circuit to construct for Maximum power measurement

2. Adjust the value of the resistance R4 as given in Table 2. At each value of R4,
measure the voltage V4 (across the resistor R4), the current I4, and write it down in
Table 8.2.

Table 8.2
Resistance R4 (K) I4 (mA) V4 (V) Power of R4: P4 (mW)
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4

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 1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
3. Plot the relationship between the load power P (on Y-axis) versus the resistance R4
(on X-axis) on Fig. 8.8.
4. From the power curve, locate the maximum power point dissipated by the load
R4. At which value of R4 the power transferred is maximum?

Fig. 8.8: Power P4 (mW) versus Resistance R4

5. What can you conclude about the maximum power transfer?

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Procedure 3: Superposition Theorem
Connect the circuit of Fig. 8.9, 𝑉𝑠1 = 15 𝑉, 𝑉𝑠2 = 10 𝑉, 𝑅1 = 470 Ω, 𝑅2 = 220 Ω,
𝑅3 = 100 Ω

I1 R1
A
I3 A
R2
Vs1
Vs2 R3 V VR3

Fig. 9.2: Circuit to construct for Superposition Theorem

1. Measure the voltage V3 and the current I3.

V3 = …….. V I3 = ……… A
2. Set the voltage source VS2 to zero as shown in Fig. 9.3.

I1 R1
A
I31 A
R2
Vs1
R3 V V31
Vs2

Fig. 9.3: Set the voltage source VS2 to zero

3. Measure the voltage V31 across R3 and the current I31 drawn by R3.

V31 = …….. V I31 = ……… A

4. Set the voltage source VS1 to zero, return the voltage source VS2 to its position, as
seen in Fig. 9.4,
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 I1 R1
A
I32 A
R2
Vs1
Vs2 R3 V V32

Fig. 9.4: Set the voltage source VS1 to zero

5. Measure the voltage V32 across R3 and the current I32 drawn by R3.

V32 = …….. V I32 = ……… A

6. Record the obtained results in Table 9.1.
Table 9.
Voltage Measured values Calculated values
Source Voltages Currents Voltages Currents
V31 V32 I31 I32 I31 I32 I32 I32
VS1 ON
and …... ….. …... …..
VS2 OFF
VS1 OFF
and …… ….. …… …..
VS2 ON
Voltage
V3 =V31+ V32 I3 = I31+ I32 V3 = V31+ V32 I3 = I31+ I32
and current
V3=…….. I3=…… V3=…….. I3=……..
of R3

7. Verify the superposition theorem by analyzing practical data and support them by
comparing the results with the theoretical values (calculated).
8. Comment on the results.

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 Experiment # 9

Hardware Experiment ON
DC and AC Measurements with Oscilloscope

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 1. Objectives:
At the end of this experiment, the student will be familiar with the different
Oscilloscope's functions and the use of Oscilloscope in measuring the DC

2. Equipment:
• DC power supply.
• Function Generator.
• Oscilloscope.
•Digital multi-meters
•Inductors: 17.5 mH with 1000 turns air core
•Resistors: 100 Ω, 470 Ω and decade box Variable resistors: Decades’ resistance box.

3. Pre-Lab
1. Write two papers on the Oscilloscope and its importance in measuring
different electrical parameters.
2. For the circuit shown in Fig. 9.1, consider R1= 100 Ω and R2= 470 Ω.

R1

Vs L
𝑣𝑠 (𝑡) = 7 sin(2𝜋 × 1000 𝑡) 𝑉

Fig. 9.1: AC Circuit

a- Determine the voltage v2.

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
a- Determine the amplitude, the frequency, the period, the angular frequency, the peak
to peak, and the rms of the voltages vs and v2 and complete Table 9.1.

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 Table 9.1
AC voltage source vs Voltage v2
Amplitude (V) Vs,m = ……. V2,m = …….
Frequency (Hz) f = …….. f = ……..
T (s) T = …….. T = ……..
 (rad/s)  = …….  = …….
Peak to Peak (V) Vs, p-p = ……. V2, p-p = …….
Rms (V) Vs,rms = ……. V2,rms = …….

b- Use suitable scale and sketch the waveforms of the voltages vS(t)and v2(t) on Fig.5.

Fig. 9.2: Voltage waveforms, (a) vS(t) and (b) v2(t)

c- Use suitable scale and sketch the waveform of the current i2(t)on Fig. 9.3.

Fig. 9.3: Current waveform (i2(t))

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 4. Experimental Procedures
Procedure 1: Familiarization with the oscilloscope
1. Turn on the oscilloscope and observe the function of the following control
switches.
a) Focus b) Intensity c) Horizontal position, and vertical position
2. Check the availability of different channels, how they can be used separately
and the ground of each channel can be set.

Procedure 2: Use of oscilloscope for DC signal measurement

1- Turn ON the oscilloscope.

2- Select channel#1 and set it at DC mode and locate its zero line in the middle of the
scope screen.
3- Setup the oscilloscope with variable DC supply as shown in Fig. 9.4 (connect the
output of the power supply to the input terminals of channel#1).

Fig. 9.4: Use of Oscilloscope for DC voltage Measurements.

4- Turn ON the DC power supply.

5- Using variable DC supply, vary the supply voltage to obtain the values recorded in
Table 9.2, and fill the table.
Table 9.2
Supply Vertical scope vertical sensitivity Measured voltage
voltage deflection =Divisions (V/div)=Scale Vmeas = Divisions x Scale
VDC
1
2
5
8
10
- For VDC = 10 volt, give a screen shot for what you observe on the Oscilloscope screen
(Fig. 9.5).
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 Fig. 9.5: Oscilloscope for measurement of DC voltage.

6- Turn off the DC power supply

7- Connect the circuit as seen in Fig. 9.6
8- Select channels 1 and 2 and set them at DC mode and locate their zero lines in the
middle of the scope screen.
9- Turn the dc voltage supply off and keep your circuit connected.
10- Switch the display mode switch to channel #2 and wire the circuit shown in Fig.
2. Use the function generator as an AC supply. Set Vpeak-peak=10 V, f= 1 KHz.
11- The channel#2 input switch should be set on ac mode. Display a sinusoidal signal on
the CRO and calculate its frequency and magnitude as shown in table 9.3.

Fig. 9.6: Oscilloscope for measurement of AC voltage.

Table 9.3
Ac signal Peak voltage (V) = vertical Period (ms) = F=
scope Deflection (divs.) x Horizontal Scope 1/period
vertical Sensitivity (V/div) deflection (divs) x
Vm Horizontal
sensitivit
Sinusoidal y (ms/div) T
Waveform

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 12. Calculate the frequency of the displayed signal f = 1/T, and the Vrms
13. Use the multimeter (ac voltage mode) to measure the Vrms of the signal.
How does this value compare to the calculated value in (12)?
14. Return the dc supply ON for the circuit of Fig. 9.4. Press MEASURE icon and
select add function to add the two signals (AC and the DC). P lo t t he r e s u lt i n g
s ig n a l. How does the displayed signal compare to the total (addition) of signal
of 10 V dc and the signal of the frequency and magnitude described in part
(5)? What would be the Vrms for the new signal?

Procedure 3: Series RL circuit

Construct the circuit shown in Fig. 9.7.

𝑣𝑠 (𝑡) = 5 sin(2𝜋 × 1000 𝑡) 𝑉

Fig. 9.7: Series RL Circuit

1- Measure the values of vs, VL, VR and I using a DMM

vs = ……… V, VL = ……… V, VR = ……… V, I = ………… A

2- Display both VR and vs on the oscilloscope. Plot the waveform on the following axes
shown in Fig. 9.8.
3- Measure the phase angle , and indicate the leading waveform. Explain why?
 = ………… rad = ………… degree, PF = ………...
4- Remove the CRO connection and measure the current I flowing in the circuit.
I=…………..
𝑉
5- Determine ZT using the relation: 𝑍𝑇 = 𝐼𝑠 , and draw the impedance diagram.

6- Using phasor analysis prove that 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐿 .

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7- Calculate the average power delivered and the power factor for the circuit of Fig. 9.7.

Fig. 9.8: Waveforms of VR and vs in series RL Circuit

Lissajours pattern on the oscilloscope can be used to measure the phase angle between
two equal amplitude deflection signals defined as: Note: You would display the
above pattern by using X-Y
 = sin-1 (L1/L2) ; where L1 = ……………, L2 = ……………….. mode of the oscilloscope.

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 Experiment # 10

Power Factor Improvement

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 1. Objectives:
To introduce the concept of power factor and method of power factor improvement for a
single phase inductive loads.

2. Equipment:
1. One Fluorescent lamp. (220 V, 20 W)
2. Two multi-meters.
3. One Wattmeter.
4. One decade capacitor box.

3. Pre-Lab
Write two papers on the power factor improvements and its application in the industry

4. Background
1. Power in resistive and reactive AC circuits
Consider a circuit for a single-phase AC system shown in Fig. 10.1, where a 120 volt, 60
Hz AC voltage source is delivering power to a resistive load with R= 60Ω.

120V R
60 Hz

Fig. 10.1: AC source drives a purely resistive load.

𝑍𝑅 = 60 + 𝑗0 Ω 𝑜𝑟 60Ω∠0
𝐼 =𝐸/𝑍 = 120/60 = 2 𝐴
In this example, the RMS current to the load would be 2 A. Therefore power dissipated at
the load (active power) would be (2)2×60 = 240 W. Because this load is purely resistive,
the current is in phase with the voltage. Fig. 10.2, shows the voltage, current and power
waveforms.

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\

Fig. 10.2: Current is in phase with voltage in a resistive circuit

Note that the power waveform is always positive, this means that power is always being
dissipated by the resistive load, and never returned to the source.

For comparison, let’s consider a simple AC circuit with a purely reactive load with
L=160mH, as shown in Fig. 10.3.

120V
60 Hz L

Fig. 10.3: AC circuit with a purely reactive (inductive) load

𝑋𝐿 = 60.319 Ω
𝑍𝐿 = 0 + 𝐽 60.319 Ω 𝑜𝑟 60.319Ω∠90
𝐼 = 𝐸/𝑍 = 120/60.319 = 1.989 𝐴

Fig. 10.3: Current lags voltage with 90º in a pure inductive circuit
As seen from Fig. 10.3, power (P) alternates equally between cycles of positive and
negative. This means that power is being alternately absorbed from and returned to the
source.
Now, let’s consider an AC circuit with a load consisting of both inductance and resistance
with R= 60Ω and L=160 mH as shown in Fig. 10.4.

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 R
120V
60 Hz
L

Fig. 10.4: AC circuit with both reactance and resistance

𝑍𝑇 = 60 + 𝑗60.319 Ω
𝐸 120
And the RMS current is: 𝐼 = 𝑍 = 85.075∠+45.15 = 1.413∠ − 45.15 𝐴

Fig. 10.5: Current, voltage and power waveforms

As with any reactive circuit, the power alternates instantaneously between positive and
negative values over time. In a purely reactive circuit, alternation between positive and
negative power is equally divided, resulting in a net power dissipation of zero. However,
in circuits with mixed resistance and reactance like this one, the power waveform will still
alternate between positive and negative, but the amount of positive power will exceed the
amount of negative power. In other words, the combined inductive/resistive load will
consume more power than it returns back to the source.

2. Active, Reactive, and Apparent power

We know that reactive loads such as inductors and capacitors dissipate zero power, yet the
fact that they drop voltage and draw current gives the deceptive impression that they
actually do dissipate power. This “ghost power” is called reactive power, and it is measured
in a unit called Volt-Amps-Reactive (VAR), rather than watts. The mathematical symbol
for reactive power is the capital letter Q. The actual amount of power being used, or
dissipated, in a circuit is called active (true) power, and it is measured in watts (symbolized
by the capital letter P). The combination of reactive power and true power is called
apparent power, and it is the product of a circuit’s voltage and current, without reference

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to phase angle. Apparent power is measured in the unit of Volt-Amps (VA) and is
symbolized by the capital letter S. There are several power equations relating the three
types of power to resistance, reactance, and impedance:
The three types of power can be represented by a triangle shown in Fig. 10.6.
.

𝑄 = 𝑉𝐼𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃)

Fig. 10.6: Power triangle relating apparent power to true power and reactive
power

From Fig. 10.6, the angle of this “power triangle” graphically indicates the ratio between
the amount of dissipated (or consumed) power and the amount of absorbed/returned power.
It also happens to be the same angle as that of the circuit’s impedance in polar form. When
expressed as a fraction, this ratio between true power and apparent power is called the
power factor for this circuit.
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = Active 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟(𝑃)/𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟(𝑆)
It should be noted that power factor, like all ratio measurements, is a unitless quantity.
For the purely resistive circuit, the power factor is unity (perfect), because the reactive
power equals zero. Here, the power triangle would look like a horizontal line, because the
opposite (reactive power) side would have zero length. For the purely inductive circuit, the
power factor is zero, because true power equals zero. Here, the power triangle would look
like a vertical line, because the adjacent (true power) side would have zero length.
3. Improving the System Power Factor
Thus the average value of power delivered to load, Pav, is expressed as:
𝑃 = 𝑉. 𝐼. 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃𝐿 ) = 𝑉. 𝐼. 𝑃𝐹
The term 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃𝐿 ) in the above equation is called power factor (PF) of the load. If the load
PF is less than unity it may be either capacitive (i.e. leading) PF or inductive (i.e. lagging)
PF. However, in practice almost all the loads are inductive with lagging PF. When the PF
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of a load is less than unity, it takes more current for the same power from the supply. This
large current requirement will cause more I 2R losses and IR drop in the supply line.
Moreover, large current will demand greater current capacity for the generator and
associated systems. Therefore, it is desired to correct the PF to unity. Lagging PF can be
improved by connecting capacitors across the inductive load as shown in Fig. 10.7. The
shunt capacitor will not absorb real power but instead it will take leading current from the
line to neutralize the lagging current component of the load, thereby making the net supply
current less and hence improving the system PF.

Fig. 10.7: Inductive load with compensating capacitor.

For the circuit of Fig. 10.7, if the switch S is off, load current IL is given as
𝑉 𝑅𝑉 𝑗𝑋𝐿 𝑉
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑆 = = 2−
𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 𝑍𝐿 𝑍𝐿 2
Where 𝑍𝐿 2 = 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿 2
The first component of the current 𝐼𝐿 given above is called active component while the
second component is called reactive component of current. This reactive component which
is lagging the supply voltage by 90° can be neutralized if a capacitor is connected across
the load, in case of the switch S is turned on, which draws a reactive current of similar
𝑗𝑋𝐿 𝑉
magnitude but leading the supply voltage by 90° (i.e. 𝐼𝐶 = ).
𝑍𝐿 2

Thus, with the capacitor connected parallel to the load, the supply current 𝐼𝑆 is given as
𝑅𝑉 𝑗𝑋𝐿 𝑉 𝑗𝑋𝐿 𝑉 𝑅𝑉
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝐶 = − + = 2
𝑍𝐿 2 𝑍𝐿 2 𝑍𝐿 2 𝑍𝐿
Since
𝑗𝑉
𝐼𝐶 = = 𝑗𝑉 (2𝜋𝑓𝐶)
𝑋𝐶
Thus, to get a PF of unity, we must put C such that:

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 𝑋𝐿 𝑉
𝑉 (2𝜋𝑓𝐶) =
𝑍𝐿 2
Or
𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝐿
𝐶= 2 =
2𝜋𝑓𝑍𝐿 𝜔𝑍𝐿 2

If 𝐶 is less or more than that given by the above equation, the resulting power factor will
be less than unity and will be lagging or leading respectively.
Figure. 9 (a) depicts the phasor diagram of voltage and current whereas Fig.9 (b) shows
the power diagram. Both of these diagrams show how the leading current or leading VA
of the capacitor neutralizes the lagging reactive current or lagging reactive volt ampere of
the load, thereby, improving the PF.

Fig. 10.8: Phasor diagram (a) Voltage, current, phasor diagram, (b) Power diagram

In both of these diagrams we see that initial or load phase angle, 𝜃𝐿 (before compensation)
is more than the final or supply phase angle, 𝜃𝑆 (after compensation), i.e.
𝜃𝑆 < 𝜃𝐿 , cos(𝜃𝑆 ) > cos(𝜃𝐿 )

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5. Experimental Procedures
Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.10.

Fig. 10.9: Experimental setup

1. Record the reading of voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter before connecting the
capacitor.
2. Connect the capacitor to the line with a capacitance value of 1 μF, and record the
reading of voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter again.
3. Increase the value of the capacitor in steps and record the readings until you get a
point where the current is minimum. Fill Table 10.1.
4. for the fluorescent lamp, without capacitor, estimate the load resistance R,
inductive reactance XL, impedance ZL, phase angle θL and PF. Calculate the value
of C required to make PF = 1.
C = ……………… (μF)
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5. Calculate PF for each value of C and complete Table 1. Find the value of C which
give the highest PF. Compare these value with that calculated in step 4.
6. Plot the relationship between the load power factor PF and the capacitor value. From
this curve, find the value of C at which the PF is maximum.
Table 10.1 Reading of voltmeter, ammeter, and wattmeter at different values of C.

Capacitor (𝜇𝐹) Voltage (V) Current (A) Power (W) Power Factor

Not Connected

1.0

2.0

3.0

3.2

3.4

3.6

3.8

4.2

4.4

4.6

4.8

5.0

5.2

5.4

5.6

5.8

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