Life Science Summary Grade 9 2019

2019
Eric Mabuku
Eric M
[LIFE SCIENCE SUMMARY

GRADE 9]
This summary was compiled by Eric mabuku, they may be many errors and you can rectify them.
Theme: scientific processes
Topic: processes skills
❖ Life science: is a body of knowledge about the natural world.

➢ This knowledge about life and nature is obtained through scientific processes.
➢ Scientific processes involve the use of process skills.
Processes Skills
- Are techniques and ability to our senses and acquired scientific knowledge to gain
and understanding about a scientific investigation!
-
Discuss the basic process skills

1. Estimation
2. Measuring
3. Observing
4. Prediction
5. Classification
6. Inference
7. Communication
1. Estimation: involves making an educated guess. e.g. Estimate the height of your table.
2. Measuring: means using instruments such as thermometers, meter rule, scale to find out
how big, small, tall, thin something i.e. Measure the temperature of water.
Measurement SI Units Other Units instrument

length Meter(m) Cm, mm, km Ruler, measuring
tape
Mass Kilogram(kg) Mg, g Bathroom scale,
triple beam balance
time Second(s) Ms, min, hour Clock, stop watch,
watch
Temperature Degrees Celsius(°c) Kelvin (k) Thermometer
Volume Cubic meters (𝑚3 ) 𝑐𝑚3 (ml) litres Measuring cylinder
3. Observing: involves using your senses of sight, touch to find out information on
something.
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Organ Sense Stimuli
Eye Sight Light (dark, bright)
Skin Touch Soft, coarse, smooth, rough, hot,
cold
Nose Smell Irritant, sweet(flower)
Ear Hear Sound (loud, soft,
Tongue taste Sweet, sour, bitter,
4. Prediction (): to guess something in advance.

5. hypothesis : is a way by which we formulate statement about an idea when carrying out
a science investigation
5.Classification / organising: to put things or group them in order according to their similar
characteristics e.g body structure, behaviour, habitat
6.Inference: a process of drawing conclusions from the data collected
7. Communication: to present the findings of your investigation to others.
e.g . writing notes, making drawings, publishing observation or giving
presentation at scientific meeting or conference.
8. Drawing: to make a picture using a pencil
# sketch a labelled diagram of a given object.
Biological drawings are used to communicate findings. For effective scientific

communication, biological drawings need to be:
• Simple
• Accurate
• Proportional
Hints for making effective biological drawings:

• Use a sharp pencil(HB or H) and a clean soft rubber.
• Start by indicating the general outline of the entire object.
• Make the diagram so large to fill almost half the page.
• The diagram must proportional.
• Concentrate on useful biological features and sub-units.
• Make accurate numbers of sub-units
• Draw in details of sub-units
• Do not shade or colour the diagram
• Give a title to the diagram.
• Show magnification formula and calculations.
• Label lines
– may not cross other labelling
– May end on or in the part indicated
• Label
- In ink
- Underneath each other
- Horizontal
The Microscope
In biology we often need to look at small things, we normally use hand lens but if the object
is very small we need to use a microscope.

- The microscope is a scientific instrument that is used to see tiny object that we are
unable to see with our naked eyes.
Parts and functions of the microscope

• Eye piece – where you look through to see the image of specimen.
• Body tube – hold the eye piece and connect itto objective lens
• The arm – support the body tube and connect it to the base
Use to carry the microscope.
• Nose piece – hold objective lenses
- rotate to change the power of magnification.
• Coarse adjustment knob – used to find the object under the microscope.
• Fine focus adjustment knob – used to bring the object into focus
• Stage – its where the slide is placed
• Stage clips: to hold the slide in place.
• Base – support the microscope
• Diaphragm – to control the amount of light that goes into the spacemen.
• Mirror – source of light make the specimen easier to see.
MAGNIFICATION
Magnification: is a way of making an object large than the actual size.

How to calculate magnification
- Measure the actual size of the given objective
- Enlarge the drawing than the actual size
- Measure the enlarge drawing object
- Calculate magnification
Formula for calculating magnification
𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔
Magnification = 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛
15𝑚𝑚
=
5𝑚𝑚
= x3
NB: The ratio of magnification is always expressed with an X in front of the figure where the
X represents the number of times the original size of the object has been multiplied
(increases) or reduced. If the diagram of an object is marked x40, it means that the original
size has been enlarged 40 times.
Calculating the actual size of the object
The original size of the object drawn can also be calculated from the given magnification and
the length of the drawing. If the length of the drawing is 200mm and the magnification is x40.
Therefore the actual length of the original object is found by applying the formula as follows:
𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔
Actual length or size = 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
200 𝑚𝑚
= 40
= X 5 mm or 0.5 cm
Outline the principles of magnification:
# The stronger the magnification of the lens, the smaller the diameter (width) of the lens.
# The stronger the magnification of the lens, the smaller the area viewed and the closer the
lens must be to the object.
# The stronger the magnification of the lens, the smaller the amount of light transmitted.
# The closer your eyes is to the lens, the wider the field of view.

Topic: 4 Cell theories
4.1 Types of cells
Describe cell theory

✓ All living organisms are made of one or more cells acting as building blocks.
✓ Cells are smallest units of life where all basic life processes take place.
✓ Cell contains hereditary and genetic information which controls the growth and
development of the whole living organisms.
✓ Cells come from other living cells through cell division.
Compare eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells (plants, animals and bacteria)
Prokaryotic cells e.g. Bacteria Eukaryotic cells e.g. plant, animals and fungi
Extremely small about 5 – 10um in Extremely large about 10 – 100 um in diameter

diameter
DNA float in the cytoplasm DNA is in the nucleus contain in a membrane
DNA is in a loop DAN is in pair of chromosome
Small Ribosome Large Ribosome
Few organelles present Many organelles present
Some have simple flagella Some have complex flagella and cilia
Sexual system include transfer of genetic Sexual system involved fusion of nucleus between
material from one cell to another gametes equal contribution from both parent
List various structures of a eukaryotic cell and describe their functions
Cell wall: supports the cell

: gives the cell its shape
: protects the cell from injury
Cell membrane: controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell, by acting as a
barrier to some substance but allow other to pass through
Mitochondrion: is where respiration storage and transfer of energy take place.
: break down food molecules, mainly glucose, to release energy during
respiration
Nucleus: it controls all activities of the cell

Vacuoles: it regulate the water content of the cell
: It store sugar/salt/pigment/waste
: In plants cell they provide turgol pressure.
Chloroplasts: it contains the green pigment (chlorophyll) which absorbs and traps sunlight
energy photosynthesis to take place.
Cytoplasm: is where chemical reaction called metabolic reaction takes place
Differences between plant and animal cell
A plant cell An animal cell

Cell wall present No cell wall present.
Have chloroplasts/chlorophyll. No chloroplasts/chlorophyll
Has large cell vacuole containing cell sap Has very small cell vacuoles and
sometimes may not exist.
Nucleus not centred Nucleus usually centred
Has a regular definite shape Has an irregular shape.
Has starch granules No starch granules
Similarities between plant cell and animal cell

✓ both have cell membrane
✓ both has nucleus
✓ both has cytoplasm

✓ both have mitochondria
Differentiate between unicellular and multicellular organisms
Unicellular organism Multi cellular organisms

- Living things are simple celled made - Living things are complex made up
up of one cell e.g. bacteria. of many cell e.g. plant and animals.
- They carry out life process through - Cell are organised into groups of
the use of specialize organelle. specialised cell that form tissue,
organs and organ system
- They multiply or produced by binary - They multiply or produce asexually
fusion which involve each miniature or sexually.
or protozen to splitting and form two
daughter cell
Distinguish between a permeable and a selectively permeable membrane

1. permeable membrane: a membrane that allow all material to cross it e.g. alcohol,
oxygen, carbon dioxide
2. Selectively permeable membrane: membranes that allow certain substance to
pass through it. Substance passes through it by mean of diffusion.
Describe the structure of a plasma membrane and relate the structure to its various functions
Structure of the plasma membrane is made up of two components

1. Lipid
2. Protein
Lipid membrane
Most plasma membrane lipids are phospholipids which arrange themselves into bilayer. The
bilayer consist of non – polar hydrophobic tail (which hate water) and polar hydrophilic head
(which likes water)
Non – polar molecules do interact with polar molecules this can be seen when oil mixed with
water. Polar molecules interact with polar molecules and ion.

Protein membrane
1. Channel protein
Allow particular molecules to cross freely
2. Carrier protein
Interact selectively with specific molecules so it can cross the plasma
3. Receptor protein
Are shaped in such away to allow specific molecules to bind to it
Describe the structural and functional relationship among cells, tissues, organs and systems
(plants and animals)
1. cell: are the smallest unit that make – up living organisms having the same
function in plant and animal
2. tissue: a group of similar cell working together to carry out a particular
function
Examples of animal tissue
1. epithelium tissue: lines and protects surface

2. nerve tissue: conducts impulse through the body
3. muscle tissue :contract to move the body
Tissue in plant
1. palisade tissue: are specialized to make food by photosynthesis

2. epidermis : line and protects the leaf surface and reduce water loss
3. spongy tissue: with air spaces between them for free movement and circulation of
photosynthesis
4. phloem tissue: for transportation of manufactured food from leaves to the rest of the
plant
5. xylem tissue: for transportation of water and ion
Organ: is a group of tissues working together to perform a particular function in the body.
Examples:
✓ A leaf – plant organ for photosynthesis.
✓ A flower – a plant reproductive organ
✓ The heart – a blood pumping organ in animals.
✓ The lung – an organ for breathing and gases exchange in animals
Organ system: is a group of interrelated organs working together for a common function.
Organ system Associated organs and tissues

The plant root system Root cap, root hair, lateral roots, tap root
The plant transport system Xylem, phloem
The human digestive system Mouth, gullet, stomach, pancreas, liver ,
intestines
Breathing system Lungs, ribcage, trachea, diaphragm
The blood circulatory system Blood, heart, blood vessels
The nervous system Nerves, brain, spinal cord
The urinary system Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder , urethra.
Discuss the significance of cell processes for an organism

- The two processes responsible for the movement of substances in and out of the cell
are diffusion and osmosis.
Osmosis: is a net movement of water molecules from the region of their concentration to the
region of their lower concentration across a semi – permeable membrane.
The Significance (importance) of osmosis to living organisms
1. Plants
✓ Uptake of water by plant roots hairs from soil.
✓ Upward movement of water in plants from roots through stems to leaves in xylem
vessels.
2. In animals
✓ Absorption of water from the large intestines (colon) into the blood stream.
✓ Re-absorption of water from collecting ducts of the kidneys into the blood stream.
DIFFUSION
Diffusion: is the movement of particles (or molecules) of a substance from an area of their
high concentration to an area of their lower concentration down the diffusion gradient.
Significance (importance) of diffusion for organisms
1. In plant
✓ Absorption of carbon dioxide from air by plant leaves during photosynthesis.
✓ Release of oxygen by plant leaves into the air during photosynthesis
2. In animals
✓ Entering of oxygen into the blood from alveoli (air sacs) in lungs
✓ Absorption of digested food by blood from small intestines.
Active Transport
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Active transport is the movement of molecules across a membrane from a region of their
lower concentration to a region of their higher concentration—in the direction against the
concentration gradient .
Discuss the significant of active transport to living organisms

- Is important for the body to conserve useful substances such as glucose and
vitamins that are absorbed in the kidneys to prevent them being lost in urine
SELECTIVE PERMEABILITY
With reference to the above – mentioned process, explain why the water move into root hair
cell.
✓ There is a high water potential outside the root than inside due to osmosis which causes
water to move from high water potential (soil) to lower water potential (root).
Osmosis and Animal cells
Animal cells burst if placed in pure water due to osmosis which cause water to move from
pure water with high water potential into the cell with lower water potential as more and
water enter the cell by osmosis it swells and stretch the cell membrane.
Animal cell in salt solution
✓ Animal cells shrink if placed in concentrated solution

✓ Due to osmosis
✓ Which cause water to move from cell with high water potential into the concentrated
solution with lower water potential
Osmosis and plant cells
- Plant cells do not burst in pure water due to cell wall

- Plant cell in pure water will take in water by osmosis through a partially permeable
membrane of the cell as the water enters. The vacuole swells and pushes the
cytoplasm and cell membrane against the cell wall. The cell is described as turgid
Plant cell in a solution
Cells in this state are said to be flaccid. The whole plant will become limp and the plant will
eventually die. The same thing happen when a plant is short of water cell membrane is
pulled away from the cell wall.
Significance (importance) of selective permeability for an organism
✓ It helps cells to get useful substances into the cell

✓ It helps cells to get rid of toxic , waste and excess
4.2 CELL SPECIALISATION

Relate the structure of the following cells to their function:
Ciliated cell: traps and remove dirt, dust and other particles preventing them from entering the
lungs.
Red blood cell: to transport oxygen
Root hair cell: they have extensions that penetrate the soil to increase the surface area for the
absorption of water from the soil.
Xylem cell: to transport water
Topic 3 Classification of living organisms
Classification - is a process of grouping organisms according to their common

characteristics.
1.1 Taxonomy and major levels of classification
Define taxonomy:
• Is the branch of biology that deals with the identification, naming and
grouping of organisms according to their characteristic.
Taxo - (plural – taxa) mean group
List the major levels of classification
1. Kingdom
2. Phylum
3. Class
4. Order
5. Family
6. Genus
7. Species
Discuss the importance of classifying organisms

• Enable us to group organism into their groups
• To identify organisms
• Enable us to give organisms their name
• To know their relationship (make predictions about their relationship)
• to study about evolution of species
• for study purpose
• to communicate globally
Outline and identify the principles used to classify organisms
• Similarity of form e.g. same body shape and form

• Similarity of structure e.g. similar characteristics of body structure
• Habitat e.g. where organism lives
• Behaviour e.g. the things that a plant/animal does to help it stay alive in a
particular environment.
Classification: is the process of grouping organisms according to common shared

characteristic such as body structure, appearance behaviours and habitats.
1.2 The binomial system of nomenclature
Define the binomial system
Is a system using a two word Latin name (genus and species) to identify a specific type
of organism.
NB:The genus name is capitalised and species name is never capitalised.
1. In a typed script the two words are written in italics

2. The two words must be underlined when hand written.
Common name Latin name (scientific name)

Lion Panthera leo
House fly Musca domestica
Shovel-snouted lizard (Ekoko) Merples anchietae
Halfmens (A half-human tree) Pachypodium namaquanum
The horrid nara Acanthosicyos horridus
3. Zea mays is a scientific name for maize.
Which of the two words represent:
a. Species
b. Genus
Outline the process of evolution
Evolution: is a slow and gradual change in characteristics of species over

millions of years.
Discuss the relationship between classification and evolution
✓ Living things have evolved from common ancestors

✓ The concept is based on common structural feature that are found to be similar
among different kingdom and group of living things.
✓ The differences occurred due to adaptation, mutation, or speciation.
✓ The common future in the cellular structure where nearly all living things are made of
cell except fungi.
✓ The variation of cell into prokaryotes and Eukaryotes is result of process of evolution
through adaptation.
✓ The present multicellular Eukaryotes have risen from single celled Eukaryotes the
ptotoctista (protista)
✓ The common structural feature between the present day prostista e.g. protozoa,
fungi, plant, animal is true nucleus.
✓ The need for specialization in functional activities resulted in gradual change
(evolution) of some Eukaryotes becoming multicellular with different specialized
tissue and organs
✓ Plant and animal kingdom have evolved from single celled eukaryotes into
multicellular living thing.
Dichotomous key
A written set of choice that lead at the name of organisms

❖ Branching in two
❖ External characteristics
❖ Description instruction are given in pair
Suggest how to use a dichotomous key
❖ Choose the organisms you want to identify.

❖ Look at the first part of the description
❖ Choose the one which is best fit that organisms
Topic 5
Diversity of organisms
Refer to variety of living organisms classification into kingdom based on body structure,
appearance, nutritional requirement and type of production.
5.1 Five kingdom
Outline the differences among the five kingdoms (Animalia, prokaryotes,

Protoctista, Fungi and Plantae)
1. feature of mineral Prokaryotic(Eubacteria and Archaebacteria)

✓ unicellular
✓ heterotrophic or autotrophic
✓ asexual reproduction
2. features of Protista (algae)
✓ unicellular and multicellular
✓ absorb, ingest and photosynthesis
✓ asexual and sexual reproduction
✓ cell wall present
3. feature of fungi (yeast, mushroom , mold)
✓ have cell wall made of chitin
✓ multicellular lack of flagella
✓ saptrotrophic by absorb nutrient from decay
✓ asexual reproduction
4. feature of plantea
✓ multicellular
✓ autotrophic/photosynthesis
✓ sexual and asexual reproduction
5. feature of Animalia
✓ multicellular
✓ heterotrophic
✓ no cell wall
✓ sexual reproduction
Why fungi not placed in plant kingdom?
✓ No chlorophyll/ they cannot photosynthesis
✓ Cell walls are made up of chitin/ not cellulose
✓ Made up of hyphae/mycelium/ has no roots, stems, leaves
Describe the diagnostic features of a monocotyledon and a dicotyledon as found in their
local environment
DICOTYLEDON MONOCOTYLEDON
1. Two cotyledon (two seed leaves) 1. One cotyledon (one seed leave)
2. Network of vein or have broad 2 parallel vein, have long, narrow
leaves with branches leaves
3. Tap root system 3 adventitious, fibrous root system
4. Flower in multiple of four or five 4 flower in a multiple of three
5. Stem vascular bundle are in ring 5 stem vascular bundle are
scattered
6. Secondary growth present 6 secondary growth absent
7. Form wood 7 do not form wood
Identify the five major class of the phylum Chordata(vertebrate):

✓ Mammal (mammalian)
✓ Reptile (reptilian)
✓ Birds (aves
✓ Fish (pisces)
✓ Amphibian
Describe the features of the five major classes of the Chordata (vertebrates)
1. mammal (mammalian)
✓ body covered with fur
✓ have mammary glands
✓ have external ear lobes/ flaps (pinna)
2. reptile (reptilian)
✓ dry scaly skin
✓ tough skin
✓ hibernate in cold winter season
3. birds (aves)
✓ body covered with feathers
✓ have a beak
4. fish (pisces)
✓ streamline
✓ operculum
✓ body covered with scale
5. amphibian
✓ moist skin/naked skin
✓ webbed feet
✓ double life (live both on land and in water)
Tilapia fish
Describe the external diagnostic features of fish (tilapia or trout)

✓ stream line
✓ operculum
✓ body covered with scale
✓ fins are enable it swim
Investigate the adaptation of tilapia/trout to the Namibian environment

✓ high salinity in water
✓ high water temperature
✓ low dissolve oxygen in water
✓ high ammonia concentration in water
✓ disease resistant
Discuss the economic importance of tilapia or trout for Namibia

✓ investment opportunities
✓ possibility of job creation
✓ turnover of tilapia is high
Suggest the importance of eating fish to enhance healthy living

✓ contain omega three
✓ importance source of protein
✓ lean meat
✓ low calorine meat
Topic: 6
Nutrition
Nutrition is a process by which all living organisms take in food nutrients.
List the main characteristics and categories of nutrients
CATEGORY OF CHARACTERISTICS
NUTRIENT
Carbohydrates • Organic compounds that contain carbon, micro hydrogen
and oxygen
• Energy - contain molecules
• Basic building form of monosaccharide (two monosaccharide)
form disaccharide
Proteins • Organic compounds
• Contain carbon, micro hydrogen, oxygen and sometimes
sulphur, calcium, phosphorus and nitrogen
• Contain amino acid
Fat/Lipids • Organic compounds
• Contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
Vitamins • Organic compounds
• Micro nutrient
• No energy value
Minerals • Inorganic nutrient
• Micro nutrient
Water • Inorganic nutrient
• No energy value
• Micro nutrients
Outline the difference between organic and inorganic nutrients

Organic nutrients Inorganic nutrients
Complex compounds Simple elements or compounds
Contain hydrocarbon molecules Do not have hydrocarbon molecules
Primarily made by plants through Not made by plants but occur naturally in
photosynthesis the environment
Source of energy for life Do not have energy value
Example include carbohydrate, fat, oil and Examples are water, mineral salts and
vitamins carbon dioxide
Describe and explain the main function of different nutrients (carbohydrates, proteins,
vitamins and mineral salts, as well as water and fibres)
Carbohydrates
Are sugars containing foods which are the main source of energy for the body. Examples of
carbohydrates include starch, glucose, sucrose, lactose and maltose.
Function
✓ Provision of energy to carry out all body functions
✓ Energy storage
Source: cereal foods (Mahangu and Maize meal porridge, bread and rice) potatoes,
cassava, sweet potatoes and some fruits like bananas.
figure 5.2 foods which are rich in carbohydrates....

Proteins
Proteins are body building food made up of small molecules of amino acids. They contain
elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sometimes calcium, sulphur or
phosphorus depending with source.
Function
✓ Growth: making new cells for growth
✓ Repair: of damaged tissue cells
✓ Replacement: of worn out cell e.g. skin and blood cells
✓ Protein synthesis: making blood proteins, hormones and enzymes
Source: meat, dairy products (milk, cheese and yoghurt), eggs and some vegetables
(beans).
Fats
They are made up of molecules of fatty acids and glycerol. Fats are from animals and are
usually solid at room temperature.
Function
✓ For making cell membranes
✓ For energy storage
✓ Body insulation
✓ Organ protection
✓ For body structure
Source: dairy products (butter, cheese and milk), meat products.

...figure 5.3 foods which are rich in fats
Vitamins
Vitamins are complex micro nutrients with no energy value and needed in very small
quantities in the body.
Vitamin Sources Function in the body

A ✓ Dairy products ✓ Protects the surface
✓ Eggs of our eyes
✓ Maize ✓ Helps us to see
✓ Green leafy better in darkness
vegetables ✓ Helps to keep our
✓ Carrots skin healthy
B ✓ Fish ✓ Helps to keep our

✓ Peas muscles strong
✓ Beans ✓ Helps with the
✓ Grain production of red
✓ Eggs blood cells
✓ Milk ✓ Helps to keep our
nervous system
healthy
C ✓ Tomatoes ✓ Helps to heal

✓ Citrus wounds
✓ Green leafy ✓ Help to keep our skin
vegetables and gums healthy
✓ Potatoes
✓ Parsley
D ✓ Egg yolk ✓ Helps to build up
✓ Oil fish strong bones and
✓ Dairy products teeth
Figure 5.4 some sources and functions of vitamins
Vitamins
A = maintain skin, bone and needed for night vision
B1 = help to release energy from food
B2 = maintain nervous system
C = maintain of membrane of healing wound
D = for calcium and phosphorus absorb
Mineral salts
Mineral salts are mineral elements needed by the body as micro nutrients.
Functions
✓ They help in a variety of chemical activities of the body
✓ For building up certain tissues
Mineral Sources Function in the body

Calcium (Ca) ✓ Fish Helps bones to harden and
Phosphorus (P) ✓ Breast milk teeth to strengthen
✓ Dairy production
✓ Eggs
Sodium chloride (NaCl) Table salt Helps maintain the salt

balance in our blood
Iron (Fe) ✓ Spinach Necessary for the formation
✓ Liver of haemoglobin in the blood.
✓ Kidney
Haemoglobin is the red
pigment which gives the
blood its colour and which
also carries oxygen around
the body.
Iodine (I) Table salt Supports the production of a
hormone produced in the
thyroid gland. This hormone
speeds up chemical
processes in the body and
keep the person active.
Figure 5.5 some sources and function of minerals.

Water
Water is an inorganic nutrient which has no energy value but needed in large quantities in
the body.
Function
✓ Keeping the cells and tissues moist
✓ Helping chemical reactions in tissues since chemical reaction takes place in solution
✓ Making blood and transport of substances in solution in blood
✓ Making body fluids such as tears, mucus, saliva etc.
✓ Helping to cool down the body temperature in hot weather when it evaporates as
sweat from the skin
✓ Helping excretion of waste substance like urea as urine in solution
Sources:
✓ Moist food contain a high percentage of water e.g. porridge
✓ Drinking such as water, tea, coffee, oshikundu, soft drinks and milk
Fibres
Fibres consist of food material rich in cellulose mainly plant fibres, seed coats and plant cell
walls which cannot be digested by our enzymes.
Function
✓ It stimulated peristalsis
✓ Prevent constipation
Sources:
A green vegetable, fruits like applies and whole grain unprocessed cereal food such as
wheat, bran, unpolished rice, unrefined mealie-meal and whole wheat brown bread.
Distinguish between Macro and Micro Nutrients

Macro nutrients: are the essential nutrients that the body need in large quantities.
Micro nutrients: are the essential nutrients that are need in small quantities by the body.
Identify and give examples of foods which are the main sources of micro and macro
nutrients
Diet: refers to the types of food taken by an individual on a daily basis.
Macro nutrients
➢ Carbohydrates
✓ Bread
✓ Potatoes
✓ Cassava
✓ Bananas
✓ All cereal products
➢ Protein
✓ Fish
✓ Chicken
✓ Eggs
➢ Fat
✓ Butter
✓ Cooking oil
✓ Margarine
✓ Ground nuts
➢ Roughage
✓ Wheat
✓ Apples
✓ Green vegetables
Micro nutrients
➢ Mineral salts
✓ Iodized table salt
✓ Sea food
✓ Liver (to provide iron)
✓ Cheese
Suggest a diet required by people of different age and sex performing the same or different
activities
a) Children who are growing need more of
✓ Protein for growth
✓ Calcium, phosphorus and vitamin D for strengthening of bones
✓ Energy giving food (carbohydrates) because they are more active and
energetic.
b) Pregnant women need more of
✓ Iron mineral salt for the formation of more blood cells for increased oxygen
demand
✓ Protein for foetal growth and red blood cell formation
✓ Carbohydrates for extra energy to carry the body
c) Occupation
✓ A person who chops wood all day long uses more energy than a person who
does office work all day long.
d) Health status
✓ Healthy life style including a good diet and sufficient vitamins can lengthen
the life of a HIV infected person.
e) Age
✓ Young children (5-13 years) are bigger and more active, they need more
carbohydrates for more energy
✓ They need more protein for growth
✓ Young children (0-4) are smaller and less active, they need less
carbohydrates since their bodies do not require more energy
✓ They need more protein for growth
✓ They need more calcium for bone formation
f) Sex
✓ Male have broader muscles than female of the same age, males need more
carbohydrates because broader muscles consume more energy
✓ Females need less carbohydrate than males of the same age because
females have light fat proportion than muscles in their bodies.
Identify and describe the symptoms and diseases caused by lack of a particular nutrient in a
diet
Disease Symptoms Food substances
lacking in the diet
Kwashiorkor Growth failure, wasting Protein
muscles, swelling of
tissues
Rickets Bones do not harden Calcium, vitamin
(they remain soft) D and
phosphorous
Goitre The thyroid gland Iodine

grows
Scurvy Bleeding from the gums Vitamin C

and mouth
Anaemia Tiredness Iron and vitamin
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Marasmus ✓ Body wasting Carbohydrates
✓ General
weakness of the
body
✓ Dehydration
Malnutrition
Occurs when the body does not get correct amount of nutrients in the food
Malnutrition leads to
✓ Loss of weight
✓ Loss of energy
✓ Lack of immunity
✓ Obesity
✓ Deficient diseases
Topic: 8ECOLOGY
8.1 Global warming

Distinguish between the greenhouse effect and global warming
➢ Greenhouse effect: is the process whereby heat from the sun is trapped
within the earth’s atmosphere, unable to escape back into space.
Global warming: is the increase in temperature of the earth atmosphere above
normal due to the presence of green house gases.
Identify gases that cause global warming
The main greenhouse gases are:

➢ carbon dioxide
➢ methane
➢ CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbon)
➢ Nitrous oxide
➢ Ozone
➢ Water vapour
List and describe the activities that release carbon dioxide, methane, CFCs and nitrous
oxide into the atmosphere
a. carbon dioxide
• Deforestation: cutting down trees increase amount of carbon dioxide (𝐶𝑂2 ) in
the atmosphere because trees suppose to use up carbon dioxide during
photosynthesis.
• Burning of fossil fuel: leads to a huge amount of carbon dioxide being
released into the atmosphere.
• Decomposition: every time decomposition takes place carbon dioxide is
released.
b. Methane
• Decomposition: when dead plants decompose methane is released.
• Rice production: rice production and other agricultural schemes also
contribute to methane production
• Animals during fermentation: some animals produce methane during
fermentation of food in their stomachs.
c. Nitrous Oxide
• Micro organism: nitrous oxide is natural produced by living organisms that
live in soil.
• Artificial nitrogen fertiliser: some of the nitrogen in the fertilisers is broken
down into nitrous oxide which escapes into the atmosphere.
• Burning of fossil fuel: burning of fossil fuel releases a huge amount of
nitrous oxide in the air.
d. CFCs
• Spray can and aerosol cans: CFCs are used in production of spray cans
and aerosol cans as coolants.
• Production of plastic: CFCs are used in production of plastic.
• Refrigerators and freezers: some refrigerators and freezer contain CFCs.
• Polystyrene productions and foam products: contain CFCs e.g. eggs
containers, fast food containers.
• Air conditioners / air cons: old air cons contain CFCs
Suggest and discuss ways of how to reduce the release of gases causing global warming
- Stop deforestation and reduce the decay of plants
- Develop alternative source of energy. E.g solar , wind
- Forbid the deliberate burning of forest and grass land.
- Reduce the emission of CFCs by using CFCs free ozone friendly
- Cut down the emission of greenhouse gases by reducing the burning of fossil fuel
- Reduce formation of methane by reducing the volume of rubbish thrown away.
Describe local ecological effects of global warming

- The sea level will began to rise
- Drought and flooding
- Loss of biodiversity
- There will be less grazing for animals
- Low rainfall and long hot period
Describe global ecological effects of global warming

- change in world weather patterns
- increase in world temperature
- drought and flooding will occur this will affect plants and animal life
- heat waves
- polar ice – caps will melt
- climate changes
- change in sea temperature
- agricultural patterns will change
- increase amount of hurricanes, cyclones and tornadoes
Predict and discuss how life in Namibia might be changed by global warming
- flooding of low lying land

- loss of biodiversity
- increase in storm lighting
- drought and flooding
- changing in crop pattern/ decrease in crop production
- copping with heat because of high temperature
State ways in which Namibia can prepare them to face changes that might be brought about
global warming
- learn to manage water supply carefully

- practice family planning
- building houses that can withstand flood
- conserve water
- people in low lying area should move to higher ground
8.2 Ozone layer
DEPLETION OF OZONE LAYER

Describe the ozone layer
➢ Is a layer of ozone gas ( 𝑂3 ) made up of 3 atoms of oxygen.
➢ Ozone layer is 5km thick
➢ It surrounds the earth 25 – 30 km above sea level.
➢ It is found in the part of the atmosphere called the STRATOSPHERE.
➢ It forms a thin layer surrounding the earth.
Explain the importance of the ozone layer in protecting the living organisms
✓ Protects living organisms from harmful effects of ultraviolet rays (uv-rays)
✓ It absorbs/filters out ultraviolet (UV) – rays
✓ Reduce UV – rays from reaching the earth.
Depletion of Ozone layer
List the most important human activities that release Chloro Fluoro Carbons( CFCs)
✓ Use of aerosol cans and spray cans
✓ Use of refrigerators and freezers
✓ Use of air conditioners and air cons
✓ Use of polystyrene products and foam products
Describe how CFCs deplete the ozone layer

✓ Chlorine (from CFCs) react/combined with ozone gas (𝑂3 ) to form ordinary oxygen
which does not absorb UV-rays.
What effect does a thinned/destruction ozone layer have on living organism?

✓ More ultraviolet rays will reach the earth
✓ Skin damage in humans/result in skin cancer
✓ Eye cataracts
✓ Damage to plant tissue/algae
Suggest methods which can reduce the release of CFCs
✓ Reduce manufacture of CFCs

✓ Make laws limiting the uses of CFCs
✓ Develop safer alternative chemicals to replace CFCs
✓ Avoid using refrigerators and air conditioners that contains CFCs.
✓ Use spray cans with ozone friendly CFCs free label
Topic 7Human Body
7.1 Respiratory system
List the features of the gaseous exchange surfaces in animals

✓ millions of alveoli
✓ layer of moisture
✓ good blood supply
✓ extremely thin wall and permeable
Discuss the significance of these features for maintenance of life

✓ millions of alveoli = increase the surface area
✓ layer of moisture = gases to dissolve before diffusion occur
✓ network of (blood) capillaries = supply enough blood for gases exchange
✓ extremely thin wall and permeable = for easy /rapid diffusion
Why there is a film of liquid in pleural cavity
✓ act like lubricating oil prevent friction between the lung and chest wall
Discuss gaseous exchange at the alveoli
List the effects of air pollution and smoking on the respiratory system
✓ lung cancer
✓ bronchitis
✓ emphysema
✓ lung disease
Discuss how air pollution and smoking impair the function of the respiratory system
✓ Hot smoke destroys the tiny hairs that keep air passage clean.
✓ Smoke makes air passage sore and easily attacked by infection
✓ Tar collects in the lungs reduces its capacity
✓ Chemicals in tobacco destroy alveoli making breathing difficult
✓ Carbon monoxide prevents the blood from carrying oxygen
7.2 Blood circulation
✓ identify and name the structures of the circulatory system

NB: the circulatory system consists of the heart, arteries, veins, capillaries and blood
components.
✓ outline the functions of the

a. HEART,
: It pumps blood around the body.
Structure of the heart

✓ The atria have thin walls. They just squeeze the blood into the ventricles.
✓ The left ventricle has thicker walls. It has to pump blood around the whole
body.
✓ The right ventricle has thinner walls than the left. It pumps blood to the lungs
which are near the heart.
✓ The cuspid valves prevent blood from returning to the atria from the
ventricles.
✓ The semi-lunar valves prevent the back-flow of the blood from the arteries to
the ventricles.
Explain why left ventricle has thicker wall than right ventricles?
✓ Because left ventricle has to pump blood with high pressure to reach all parties of
the body except lungs, while right ventricle has to pump blood which a near to the
heart.
Outline the function of the
a. VEINS,:
Carry blood towards the heart flowing smoothly with low pressure and with no pulse
b. ARTERIES
Carry blood away from the heart under high pressure and with a pulse
c. Capillaries
Are very thin thread-like vessels which connect or join arteries with veins in tissues.
✓ they are a network of tiny blood vessels in every tissues

✓ their walls are one cell thick
✓ connect arteries to veins
✓ capillaries allow blood to pass close to every body cell
✓ (NB: nutrients and oxygen diffuse through the walls of the capillary and into
the cells. At the same time carbon dioxide and other wastes diffuses from the
cell into the capillaries)
b. components of blood: (plasma, Red blood cells , white blood cells, platelets)
Plasma
Structure of plasma
✓ Its 92% water

✓ 8% consists of dissolved materials such as:
• Ions of minerals e.g. calcium, sodium, chloride
• Nutrients e.g. glucose, amino acid, vitamins
• Waste e.g. carbon dioxide, urea
• Bloods proteins e.g. fibrinogen, antibodies (protein which protect a person
from disease)
• Hormones e.g. insulin , adrenaline
Function of plasma
✓ Transport all the blood cells
✓ Transport nutrients to cells that need them
✓ Transport dissolved waste to the kidneys and lungs
✓ Dissolves mineral ions to control blood pH
✓ Helps in clotting when fibrinogen changes to fibrin
✓ Disperses heat around the body from the liver
✓ Deliver hormones from where they are produced to where they
become active.
Red blood cells
What is the function of red blood cells?

- Red blood cells transport oxygen around the body and to a lesser extent, carbon
dioxide.
Structure of red blood cells
✓ Very small biconcave discs

✓ They have no nuclear
✓ They contain haemoglobin (protein that contains iron). They iron gives the red colour to
the blood.
White blood cells
Structure of white blood cells

✓ White blood cells are larger than red blood cells
✓ They have nuclear
✓ They do not have haemoglobin
Functions of white blood cells
Lymphocytes
✓ Produce antibodies which destroy germs and toxin produced by bacteria
Phagocytes
Engulf and digest bacteria. NB: they are able to squeeze out of the capillaries to follow
bacteria between the body cells.
Platelets
Platelets structures
✓ Platelets are tiny cell fragments
Functions of platelets
✓ Blood platelets help to heal wounds by forming a blood clot.
✓ The platelets convert the soluble protein fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin, this makes a
network of fibrin across the wound, forming a clot which stop bleeding
Discuss how pulse rate is related to different levels of an activity
Note: pulse rate is the number of times the heart beat per minutes.
✓ When a person is at rest, the pulse rate is slow
✓ When a person is doing exercises the pulse rate is faster or increases
✓ The pulse rate increases when one is doing exercise because of the faster
concentration of the left ventricle, and this ensure that faster supply of
oxygenated blood and glucose to all body cells.
Suggest how the build up of cholesterol in the circulatory system can lead to
functional disorders
1. when there is too much cholesterol ( a form of fat) in the blood , it build up in the
wall of the arteries causing a condition called atherosclerosis
Atherosclerosis causes the following:
▪ The artery becomes narrow
▪ The flow o blood in the artery is reduced
▪ The muscles of the heart will not receive enough oxygen.
▪ The muscles of the heart will suffocate
▪ The results into a heart attack
2. Cholesterol in the blood can influence the clumping of the platelets in artery
causing blood clot. This condition is called thrombosis.
▪ Thrombosis reduces the flow of blood in arteries.
3. Both thrombosis and atherosclerosis may lead to high blood pressure which put
strain to the heart.
4. If thrombosis or atherosclerosis occurs in the coronary artery, the muscles of the
heart will not get enough nutrients and oxygen for respiration. The condition leads
to coronary failure, the heart stop pumping blood.
5. Sometimes a small piece of fat breaks off the wall of the artery and is curried to
other parts of the body, it can
Suggest how the need for healthy lifestyle and living conditions contributes to the
maintenance of an effective circulatory system
❖ A balance diet: diet rich in iron, protein, and vitamins help in formation of red
blood cell.
: Less fat help to reduce the chance for heart failure and heart attack
❖ regular exercise: burn extra fat in the body and maintain healthy muscles
tune of heart
❖ drug free life style: avoid heart attack
❖ Stable mental state: avoid high blood pressure.
❖ Personal hygiene: reduce contracting infectious diseases
❖ Good living conditions: avoid social diseases
7.3 Excretion and water balance
Define excretion.
✓ Is the process of removing the waste products of cellular respiration from thebody
Identify the structures of the excretory system
Discuss the functions of the lungs, skin and renal system in excretion
1. Lungs: excrete carbon dioxide and excess moisture. (exhaled air)
2. skin: excrete excess salt, lactic acid and uric acids(sweat)
3. renal system
a. kidney –produces urine (urine = ureat excess water + salt)
b. bladder or urinary bladder – store urine
c. ureter – carry urine from kidney to the bladder
d. urethra – let urine out of the body
e. renal artery – carry blood with waste products to the kidney
f. Renal vein – carry clean but poor oxygen blood away from the kidney back to
vena cava.
Identify the waste products expelled from the organs involved in excretion
Organ Waste product expelled

Lungs Carbon dioxide, excess moisture of water
The skin Excess salt, lactic acid uric acid, water
Kidneys Urea, excess water and excess water
Discuss the importance of maintaining a balance between intake and loss of water
✓ Water balance help to maintain a constant concentration of blood and tissue fluid
that surround the tissue cells. If water balance is not maintained the body cells
can be plasmolysed due to loss of water by osmosis or bursting due to too much
water gained by osmosis.
7.3 Nervous system and hormonal control
NB: the nervous system is the main co-ordinating system of the body.
identify the components of the nervous system and outline their function
nervous system consists of two components
1. central nervous system(CNS)
2. peripheral nervous system
1. central nervous system (CNS) consist of brain and spinal cord
Thebrain
Sense organ sensory neurone sensory area association area

motor area motor neurone effector muscles
Important parts of the brain and their function
c
1. cerebrum: consists of
a. sensory area: to receive information from sense organs
b. motor(movement) area: controls movement
c. association area: for thinking and memory
2. Cerebellum: it controls the muscles needed for walking, cycling running and
generally maintaining balance.
3. Medulla oblongata: it controls the automatic activities of the internal organs
e.g. heart beat and digestion.
4.
The spinal cord
NB: the spinal cord continuous with brain
Function of the spinal cord
❖ Relay impulses entering and leaving the central nerves system

❖ Send impulses to and from brain
❖ Co-ordinate reflex action
2. Peripheral nervous system
It consists of millions of neurones.
✓ Sensory organ neurones:

▪ Receive stimuli from sensory neurones
▪ Pass the nerve impulse to central nerves system
✓ Motor neurones
▪ Receive signals from central nerves system
▪ Transfer the impulses to the muscles or grand which will respond to the stimulus.
✓ Connector or Relay neurones: connect sensory neurones with motor neurone.

✓ Synapse: it is a small gap between neurons where impulses pass across from one
neurone to another neurone.
✓ Effectors: the structure that carry out an action response (glands and muscles)
Example of effectors:
- The salivary glands = which produce saliva

- The biceps = which flexes arm
-
A stimulus: is a change in an organism external and internal environment that produces
a response.
Discuss the functions of the central nervous system
✓ Is the centre of co – ordination where nerves impulse interpreted and co-
ordinated.
✓ Central nervous system (CNS) consists of:
i. Brain
ii. Spinal cord
Reflex action
- Is an automatic response to stimulus
Example of reflex action

- Coughing to clear the windpipe
- Shivering keep you warm
- Pupil get small in bright light and large in dull light to help you see
- Blinking, sneezing, heart beat.
Describe the effects of alcohol and drug abuse on the nervous system
✓ drug: slow down the transmission of nerves impulse
✓ Alcohol: slow down the transmission of nerves impulse, causing the person to take
long to respond to stimuli.
How might the response to hot object be affected if the person had taken drugs or
alcohol?
- The response will be slower.
State long term effect that alcohol abuse have on the nervous system
- Damage brain
- Slow response and kill brain cell
Discuss the influence of drug abuse on families and the community

- confuse and disorientation
- promiscuity due to impair judgments which in turn may lead to condition of HIV/ AIDs
- financial loss as family money used on drugs
- Accidents on road and home due to poor judgments and poor co-ordination.
- Abuse of family members (spouse, sibling)
- Loss of self-respect and crime – stealing to finance their hobbies
- Transmission of HIV by sharing needles
identify the location of major glands in the body and describe the functions of the
hormones they produce
• glands and hormone
1. thyroid gland = thyroxin
2. pancreas = insulin
3. ovaries = progesterone and oestrogen
4. testes = testosterone
5. adrenal gland = adrenaline
6. pituitary gland = antidiurestic hormone and growth hormone
Describe the function of the hormone they produce
1. pituitary gland
A. growth hormone = control the growth rate of the body
B. antidiuretic hormone = control water balance(osmo –regulation)
2. adrenal grand
A. adrenaline: prepare for action/ emergency increase heartbeat, breathing rate
and respiration
3. Pancreas:
a) insulin = control the level of glucose in blood
4. Ovaries
a. oestrogen = thickened the internal lining of the uterus during
menstrual cycle
= influence the development of secondary characteristics e.g. deeper
voice, chest broaden
5. Testes
a. testosterone – influence the secondary characteristics’ e.g. deeper voice, chest
broaden
6. Thyroxin = control wide range of chemical reaction in the body
= promote growth and
Explain the effects of growth hormone, thyroxin, insulin and adrenaline on the body
i. thyroxin : lack of iodine cause go
ii. insulin : deficiency cause sugar diabetes
iii. Adrenaline lack of it no prepares the body for action/ emergency.
Slow down heartbeat, breathing rate blood pressure
State the five sense organs and the stimuli they respond to
7.5 Topic: Skeleton and Muscles (7.5)
❖ List different types of muscles found in the body+--+

• Skeleton muscles / striated muscles
• Cardiac muscles
• Smooth muscles
❖ Describe different types of muscles and determine where each is found in the
body
Types of muscles Description of muscles Where muscles
are found in
the body
1. skeleton / striated • Has striated cells with Skeleton
muscles multiple nucleus muscles are all
• They are cylindrical the muscles
• Is voluntary attached to the
• Function in the voluntary bones
movement of the body
2. cardiac muscles • Has branching striated Occurs in the

cells, each with a single wall of the
nucleus heart
• Is involuntary
• Functions in the pumping
of blood
• Contains more
mitochondria (for
releasing energy)
• Nucleus in the centre of
each cell
3. smooth muscles • Has spindle – shaped Found in the
cells, each with a single lumens of the
nuclei body e.g.
• Cells have no striations vessels,
• Functions in movement of intestines
substances in lumens of
the body
• Is involuntary
❖ Discuss how the skeleton and muscles are organised to support, protect and
move the body
1. Support:
• Most of the soft organs and tissues of the body are attached to the skeleton
• This supports them, preventing them from falling down and becoming
entangles on each other
2. Protection:
• The skull protects the brain, the inner ear and eyes
• The vertebral column protects the heart and lungs
• The pelvis girdle protects the organs of the lower abdomen
3. Movement:
• The bones and joints act as levers
• Muscles attached to the bones contract causing the bones to move about the
joints, this allows movements of the body parts or the whole body
Bone joints
A bone joint is a place or point where two bones meet.
The parts of the joint (synovial joint)
Muscles and movements
A skeletal muscle tissue contains of long striped muscles fibres attached to bones. The
fibres are able to contract quickly and powerfully causing the bones to move.
Tendons are strips of fibres which connects muscles to bones.
Antagonistic muscles
These are pairs of muscles which work against each other at a joint.
• The muscles which bends the joints is called the flexor muscle
• The muscles which straitens the joints is called the extensor muscles
When the flexor muscle contracts, the extensor muscle relaxes and the arm
bends.
7.6. Reproduction
❖ Describe the structure of the female reproductive system.....
Function of the female reproductive system
Parts Function
Ovaries To release a matured egg usually one
per month
Fallopian tube • Tube through which the egg
passes.
• Fertilisation occurs high up the
tube.
Uterus • The place where the embryo

develops into a baby.
• The muscular walls contract

during birth.
Cervix • The muscular opening into the

uterus which allows sperms to
pass through.
• During birth it stretches to allow

the baby to pass through.
Vagina • The place where the sperms are

deposited during intercourse.
• The baby emerges through the

vagina.
• The birth canal
Ovaries • Produce female sex cell egg

cell(ova)
• To produce female hormone

(oestrogen and progesterone)
❖ Describe the structures of male reproductive system........
Functions of the male reproduction system:
Parts Function
Scrotum Contains testis, keeping them at a temperature just
below body temperature.
Testis - Produces male (sex cell) sperms
- Produces male sex hormone testosterone
Epididymis Stores sperms.

Sperm duct Passage through which sperms travel from the
testes to penis.
Prostrate gland - to protect and feed sperm and enable them
to swim.
Seminal vesicle - Produce fluid which mix with sperm to form

semen
Urethra Passage through which semen is ejaculated. Urine

also passes through the urethra.
Penis The organ which becomes erect when stimulated
enabling it to deposit semen into the vagina during
intercourse.
Semen Is a mixture of sperm and fluid
What are the difference between sperm cell and semen?

• Sperm: are male sex cells.
• Semen: is a mixture of sperm and fluid.
Functions of the female reproduction system
Parts function
Ovaries Produces eggs, usually one per months
Fallopian tube • Tube through which the egg passes.
• Fertilisation occurs high up in the tube.
Uterus • The place where the embryo develops into a baby.

The muscular walls contract during birth.
Cervix • It allows sperms to swim from vagina to the

uterus.
• During birth it widens to allow passage of the

baby.
Vagina • The place where the sperms are deposited during
intercourse.
• The baby emerges through the vagina
• The birth canal
Outline the function of each system (male and female)

Male reproductive system
• Produces and releases the sperm cells.
Female reproduction system

• Produces, releases the egg cells and feed the embryo
PUBERT OR ADOLESCENCE
• Puberty or adolescence is the period of development of sex organs of boys and girls
to become mature adults capable of reproducing. The period start earlier in girls at
the age of 10-11 years and later for boys at the age of about 13 years.
Discuss the effects of testosterone in development Secondary sexual characteristics in boys

at puberty
- Muscles and chest become broad
- Voices breaks and deepens
- Chest broaden / wider shoulders
- Hairs grows on face (chin), armpits and pubic areas
- Genital grow large
- Testes start to produce sperm
- Interest in the girls start to develop
- Wet dream start.
State changes that occurs to boys other than changes to the reproduction system
- voice deepen
- hair grow on face/armpit / chest
- Chest broadens.
Discuss the effects of oestrogen and progesterone in development of secondary

sexual characteristics in girls at puberty
- Hips broaden
- Breasts grow large
- Hair grows on armpits and pubic area
- Genital enlarge and mature
- Production of sex cells (ovulation) and menstrual cycles start.
- Shyness develop and voice becomes feminine (soft)
- Interest in boys starts to develop.
State changes that occurs to girls other than changes to the reproduction system
- Breast grow large
- Hair grow under the armpit
- Hip broaden
- A layer of fat develop under the skin
Definitions of terminology
1. Ovulation : the release of an ovum from ovary
2. Fertilization: the fusion of male sex cell with female sex cell
3. Implantation: the sinking of embryo into the lining of the uterus
4. Gametes: the biological name for sex cell
5. Ovum : female sex cell
6. Sperm cell: male sex cell
MENSTRUAL CYCLE
Describe the menstrual cycle.
- Are a 28 days/4 weeks / one month’s cycle period in female 15 to 45.
- It is characterized by changes that occur in ovary and uterus for preparation for
fertilization of egg conception and pregnancy.
• Menstruation to another menstruation take 28 days
Menstruation (14 days) ovulation (is when the egg is released from ovary
14 days menstruation.
The main changes are:
1. MENSURATION: the shedding / break down of the old lining of the uterus from
day 1 -5 of the cycle. When fertilization did not take place during previously cycle.
2. GROWTH A FOLLICLE in ovary that developing maturing egg.
3. THICKENING OF AND DEVELOPMENT OF TISSUE: on the internal lining of the

uterus
4. Ovulation : the release of egg from the ovary into the oviduct on the 14 days of
the cycles
5. If fertilization does not occur on the date ovulation the level of progesterone
hormone fall on the day 26 or 27 day of the cycle.
6. This cause the thickened lining of the uterus to disintegrate and menstruation
start on the day of the cycle.
The role of oestrogen and progesterone in the menstruation cycle
Hormone function or role

Oestrogen • Initiate thickening of the internal wall of uterus
• Promote ovulation of a mature egg on day 14 of the

menstruation cycle.
progesterone • Further thicken the internal wall of the uterus
• Cause blood vessel to grow into lining
• Maintains the thickened wall of the uterus during

pregnancy
• A fall in progesterone causes the lining to breakdown

and lead to menstruation or period
• Prevents contraction of the uterus during pregnancy
Which event occur by a drop/ decrease in the level of hormone progesterone?
- Menstruation/ breakdown of the uterus lining
What effect do the build up / increase of oestrogen have from day 9 to 14

- Repairs/ increase growth of uterus lining
- Thickening uterus lining
- Causes cells of the uterus lining to divide
Why the egg could not be fertilized from day 1 – 6 during the cycle?
- It’s a repair phase
- Ovulation did not take place
CONCEPTION, PREGNANCY AND BIRTH

Describe conception /fertilization
- Occur when sperm fuse with an ovum to form a zygote.
- Fertilization typically occurs in the fallopian tubes of a woman shortly after ovulation if
the sperm has deposited into the reproduction track. The fertilised egg then move
down the tube.
- Only one sperm head enter the cytoplasm of ovum.
- A skin is formed around the ovum to keep out other sperm away
- When the egg has been successfully fertilised and the zygote has been successfully
implanted, the woman is said to have conceived.
- If fertilization does not occur the egg and the lining are passed through the vagina as
means of blood.
Describethe development of a foetus throughout the pregnancy.

- When conception has taken place, then the fertilised egg is called a zygote. (This is
the starting of new life).
- At first the zygote consists of only one cell but the starts dividing into many cells and
from an embryo. (This happens while the zygote is still in the oviduct).
- The embryo moves toward the uterus. (it take about 4 days)
- Implantation occurs when the embryo fixes itself onto the thick mucus lining of the
uterus. (Once this is done the woman is said to be pregnant).
- The embryo grow inside a sac called amnion sac
- The fluid is called amniotic fluid, amniotic fluid act as a shock absorber protecting the
embryo against bump as the mother moves about.
- After about 3 – 4 months, the main organ like head, limps and abdomen will be fully
developed.
- When all organs are fully developed it is now called a foetus.
- After 4 – 5 months of foetus development, muscles of the limbs (arms and legs) will
fully be developed and the mother can feel the kicking inside the womb.
- During pregnancy, the uterus stretches and grows to accommodate the maturing
foetus. The thick muscular layer of the uterus is responsible for pushing the baby out
during child birth
- Foetus will be fully developed, ready for birth after about 40 weeks (9 months).
Discuss the function of the placenta, amniotic fluid and the uterus in the development of a
foetus.
a) Placenta
- Allows exchange/diffusion/ passage of substances between mother and foetus

(blood) e.g. amino acids, glucose , water, vitamins , minerals, antibodies, oxygen
and carbon dioxide ( nutrients / food substances)
- Secrete/produce hormones (oestrogen) and progesterone – which promote

development of the foetus and prevents contraction of the during pregnancy (act as
an endocrine gland)
- Reduces risk of pathogens entering foetus.
Explain what substance is exchanged between mother and foetus
- From mother to foetus: oxygen, water, vitamins, minerals salt, antibodies, glucose
and amino acid.
Name substance which normally passes from the blood of the mother to that of the
foetus
- Oxygen
- Glucose
- Amino acid
- Antibodies
- Mineral salt, vitamin, water.
Name substance which normally passes from the blood of the foetus to that of the
mother
- Carbon dioxide
- Urea
Finger like extension (villi) of the placenta extend in into the tissue of the mother.
What is the advantage of these villi in the process of diffusion?
- Increase surface area for faster diffusion rate of substance between the maternal
blood and foetus blood.
The placenta is often described as the lungs and kidney of the foetus. Explain why
this is a good description?
- The lungs: gases exchange take place in the placenta
- Kidney: urea diffuses from the foetus blood to maternal through the placenta.
If the ovaries are removed during the first 12 weeks (3 months of pregnancy
the then miscarriage may not occur. Suggest why the foetus continue to
develop normally if the ovaries are removed later in the pregnancy.
- Placenta is fully developed which produce the hormone progesterone.
- Progesterone maintain the lining (pregnancy) and prevents breaking of the lining.
b) Amniotic fluids
- It protect (cushion) the foetus against mechanical injury
- Acts as a shock absorb
- Keep the temperature constant
c) Uterus / womb
- Hold the developing foetus during pregnancy
- Feed the foetus
- Protect the foetus
d) Umbilical cord: is a life line of foetus because it contain the umbilical artery and
vein
Umbilical vein: transport oxygenated blood and dissolved nutrient, antibodies
Umbilical artery: transport deoxygenated blood and other waste produces from the
foetus to the maternal blood.
Why the blood of the mother and foetus never mix even though they are close
contact in the placenta?
- The mother blood flow at a higher pressure and would damage the blood vessel of
the foetus.
- The mother may even have a different blood type than of the foetus
e) Amnion sac
- Contain amniotic fluid.
Suggest how the development and health of a foetus are affected by the life style of
the expectant mother.
1. Alcohol:
- It damages the brain cell of the foetus.

- Reduce growth of the foetus
- Heart defect
- Premature birth
2. Drug/Smoking:
- A pregnant woman should also not smoke; a baby will be born underweight.
- Prenatal death
- Inadequate oxygen to foetus
3. Balanced diet: A pregnant woman should eat a balanced diet. She must take in
- Food rich in iron: needed for formation for red blood cell in both the mother and
foetus.
- Food rich in protein: needed for tissue growth (foetus)
- Food rich in calcium and phosphorus: needed for the formation and strengthening
of foetal bone
- Vitamin D: needed for bone formation
- Food rich in carbohydrate: needed for extra provision of energy during movement
of the mother
4. Antenatal care: a pregnant woman should go for antenatal care so that the
doctor can monitor the health and development of the foetus.
Name the two common habits that a pregnant woman is recommended to

give up a minimum whilst pregnant. Give reasons for each answer.
- Avoid smoking: smoking damage brain cells, contribute to low baby birth weight.
- Avoid alcohol: damages the brain cell of the foetus.
Describe the process of birth
- Muscle of the uterus wall contract then the contractions gets faster and stronger.
- The baby’s head passes against the cervix
- The cervix open wider
- The baby breaks the amniotic sac – amniotic fluid flow out.
- The baby is pushed out through the cervix into the vagina and out of the mother’s
body
- The umbilical cord is cut and tied
- The uterus muscle contract again to push and force the placenta and umbilical cord
out this called afterbirth.
The diagram below shows foetus before birth.
List ways in which the diagram shows that the foetus is ready for birth.
- Foetus is laying head downwards/head pressing down on cevix
- Opening for cervix has widened
- Mucus plug is removed
- foetus fully developed / takes up most of the space in the uterus
Topic 2: The body’s immune system
2.1 HIV transmission and the immune system
Describe how human immunodeficiency virus HIV is transmitted

- Semen and vaginal fluids: HIV is passes on during sexual intercourse or sexual
contact.
- An infected pregnant woman can transfer HIV to her baby during childbirth
- Blood: HIV is transferred when infected blood from one person comes into contact
with the open cut or wound of another person. Drug-user often get infected, because
they share syringes and needles.
- Breast milk: when an infected woman breastfeeds a baby.
Name the body fluids that can be infected with (HIV)
- Semen and vaginal fluids:
- Blood
- Breast milk
Discuss the difference in attitudes towards an HIV positive person and an acquired
immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) patient
-
List the components of an immune system and outline the basic functions of each
component
Components of the immune system Function of the component
Skin Prevents bacteria from getting into the body
Nose , mouth and eyes Mucous membranes , saliva and tears acts
as barrier, they trap many bacteria and
viruses
Tonsils and thymus These organ trigger the production of
Tonsil are found at the back of the throat in antibodies
the neck and thymus is found beneath the
breastbone.
Lymph nodes and lymph vessels Lymph nodes produce and store cells that
Lymph nodes are small bean shaped fight infection and disease. They filter
structure found in the neck, under the arms lymph fluid as it flows trapping bacteria,
and in the groin. They are joined by vessels viruses and other foreign substances.
similar to veins and arteries. When the body
is infected these structures can become
larger and feel sore
Spleen Spleen filters blood and removes old or
Found on the left side of the body, under the damaged blood cells from the body. It
ribs above the stomach destroys bacteria, viruses and other foreign
substances.
Bone marrow Produce white blood cells
This is soft tissue found inside long bones of
the arms and legs. It is also found in
vertebrae and pelvic bones
White blood cells White blood cells attack and destroy
White blood cells are made in the bone bacteria, viruses and foreign substances.
marrow.
Describe how HIV destroys the immune system of the body
- The immune system protects us against microorganisms. HIV attacks the immune system.
- The virus destroys the white blood cells that help fight off any infections.
- Once HIV is in the body, it copies itself over and over again until the infected cells
outnumber the healthy cells.
Outline how HIV is diagnosed (the blood tests used to diagnose the presence of human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV): enzyme-linked immune sorbent assay (ELISA), immune
blotting technique, Deoxyribonucleic acid-polymerase chain reaction (DNA-PCR)
Test available for HIV what the test tells us and when it is used
ELISA (Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay) If the test is negative you are not infected with
This is an antibody test. HIV.
Blood from a finger prick or a syringe is tested. If the test is positive you may be HIV positive
Finger prick blood test results are available in A small number of people who are not infeted
10-30 minutes. with HIV can test positive for HIV.
Blood from a syringe is sent to a laboratory and This test is widely used.
it can take a few hours before the results are
available.
This test can be applied 6 weeks after exposure.
Western Blot It is 100% accurate at identifying positive
This is a more accurate antibody test than results.
ELISA. This test is used when the person tests positive
Blood is drawn and sent to a laboratory for on the ELISA test.
testing.
It takes about a week before the results are
available. This test can be applied 6 weeks after
exposure.
DNA PRC(Polymerase Chain Reaction) It records a positive result if HIV is present in
This is aviral load test. It tests the number of the blood stream.
HIV particles in a millilitre of blood. It is usually
Blood drawn and sent to a laboratory for testing.
This test can be applied 1- 4 weeks after
exposure.
This test is not generally used as it is very
expensive.
List the examples of Antiretroviral drug (ARV) drugs common to Namibia,

- NRTIs/NtRTIs (nucleoside and nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors)
- NNRTIs (non-nucleoside reverse inhibitors)
- PIs (protease inhibitors)
- Integrase inhibitors.
Explain importance of ARV in prolonging life,
- Reduces the rate of multiplication of virus thereby minimizing the damage to the
immune system .
Discuss their possible side effects
- Diarrhoea
- Nausea and Vomiting
- A rash
- Weight loss due to loss of body fat.

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2019

[LIFE SCIENCE SUMMARY

❖ Life science: is a body of knowledge about the natural world.

Discuss the basic process skills

Measurement SI Units Other Units instrument

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4. Prediction (): to guess something in advance.

# sketch a labelled diagram of a given object.

Biological drawings are used to communicate findings. For effective scientific

Hints for making effective biological drawings:

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Parts and functions of the microscope

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Calculating the actual size of the object

Outline the principles of magnification:

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4.1 Types of cells

Describe cell theory

Compare eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells (plants, animals and bacteria)

Extremely small about 5 – 10um in Extremely large about 10 – 100 um in diameter

List various structures of a eukaryotic cell and describe their functions

Cell wall: supports the cell

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Nucleus: it controls all activities of the cell

Differences between plant and animal cell

A plant cell An animal cell

Similarities between plant cell and animal cell

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Differentiate between unicellular and multicellular organisms

Unicellular organism Multi cellular organisms

Distinguish between a permeable and a selectively permeable membrane

Structure of the plasma membrane is made up of two components

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Examples of animal tissue

1. epithelium tissue: lines and protects surface

1. palisade tissue: are specialized to make food by photosynthesis

Organ system Associated organs and tissues

Discuss the significance of cell processes for an organism

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The Significance (importance) of osmosis to living organisms

Significance (importance) of diffusion for organisms

Discuss the significant of active transport to living organisms

Osmosis and Animal cells

Animal cell in salt solution

✓ Animal cells shrink if placed in concentrated solution

Osmosis and plant cells

- Plant cells do not burst in pure water due to cell wall

Significance (importance) of selective permeability for an organism

✓ It helps cells to get useful substances into the cell

4.2 CELL SPECIALISATION

Classification - is a process of grouping organisms according to their common

Taxo - (plural – taxa) mean group

List the major levels of classification

Discuss the importance of classifying organisms

Outline and identify the principles used to classify organisms

• Similarity of form e.g. same body shape and form

Classification: is the process of grouping organisms according to common shared

Define the binomial system

1. In a typed script the two words are written in italics