Chapter 3

Chapter 3
Technology of Baked Goods
Maria Ambrogina Pagani, Gabriella Bottega, and Manuela Mariotti
3.1 Introduction
Baked goods are a heterogeneous market category of products. The high

diversification that distinguishes these products makes it difficult to find one single,
general and satisfactory definition. It is, however, possible to identify baked goods
based on the common commodities matrix since they are all foods derived from
cereal flour [1]. Other similarities within this group are the basic ingredients used,
mainly wheat flour or, less commonly, rye flour, water and leavening agents.
Although the technological processes may differ, each one comprises mixing, leavening
and baking. These successive stages allow the transformation of flour, or a mixture
of different types of flour, into an appetizing and digestible food, which, at the
macroscopic level, has a complex structure differentiated by a friable crust and an
internal alveolar structure.
The classification of baked goods may be based on different criteria [2]. One
criterion, which is widely used in the baking trade but is not governed by legislation,
is the presence of sugar in the formula which can be perceived by taste and corre-
sponds to at least 10% of the weight of the flour. Baked products with more simple
formulas, therefore, constitute the various types of bread. Despite its importance,
not only sensorial but also nutritional and textural, the amount of sugar in the dough
is not sufficient for classifying this complex category in a satisfactory way. As pro-
posed by Cauvain and Young [1], the distinction of the basic products comprising
the formula may be made by considering the fat:flour ratio.
M.A. Pagani (*) • G. Bottega • M. Mariotti (*)

Department of Food, Environmental and Nutritional Sciences (DeFENS),
University of Milan, via Celoria 2, 20133 MILANO, Italy
e-mail: ambrogina.pagani@unimi.it; gabriella.bottega@unimi.it;
manuela.mariotti@unimi.it
M. Gobbetti and M. Gänzle (eds.), Handbook on Sourdough Biotechnology, 47

DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-5425-0_3, © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013
48 M.A. Pagani et al.
A further criterion for differentiating baked goods is the evaluation of their lightness
and softness, and so of the specific volume (correlated with lightness) and humidity
(which determines the softness). These two structural characteristics are the result
of complex phenomena that occur during each stage of the technological process.
Indeed, the final characteristics of the product not only depend on leavening but also
on mixing and baking (see Sect. 3.4). A light and soft baked good usually has a
specific volume higher than 2.5–3.0 mL/g and humidity higher than 15–18%. A dry
and friable baked good has a specific volume between 1.3 and 2.5 mL/g and humid-
ity values lower than 5–10% [2]. On the basis of these two criteria, four categories
of baked products can be identified. Moreover, each category can be further subdi-
vided according to the leavening method used (see Sect. 3.3.3).
3.2 Wheat, a Preferred Raw Material for Bread

and Baked Goods
The choice of ingredients is of fundamental importance for the production of leavened

baked goods that satisfy consumer tastes. Although barley and rye flours provide a
workable dough, bakers realized a long time ago that the best results in terms of vol-
ume development were always obtained with wheat flour. The superior quality of this
cereal, especially its most evolved species Triticum durum and T. aestivum, is of a
purely technological nature. Only wheat flour provides a cohesive and homogenous
dough, where the single and original particles of flour are no longer recognizable.
The property that makes wheat dough unique is its viscoelasticity. This rheologi-
cal property enables the mass to be stretched and deformed without rupturing. At
the same time, the dough is elastic and tenacious, capable of maintaining its shape
even when subjected to physical stress. After baking, gluten proteins denature and
loose viscoelasticity, ensuring the maintenance of the final shape of baked goods.
The reason for this versatile behaviour does not depend on differences in the quan-
tity of components. Indeed, the protein content of the numerous varieties of wheat
extends over quite a wide interval, from 9 to 16% of the weight of the grain [3]. This
variability coincides with that of other cereals. The technological superiority of
wheat is related to complex qualitative differences at the level of protein fractions.
Wheat storage proteins are generally classified based on molecular weight (MW),
solubility and conformation. Storage proteins, gliadins and glutenins, account for
ca. 80% of the entire protein fraction and have a particular amino acid composition.
Gluten proteins have a high percentage of glutamine, about one third of all amino
acids, and proline, and low levels of lysine (Chap. 2, [4]). This composition is
responsible for the low nutritional value of wheat protein. However, it also accounts
for the protein–protein interactions that lead to the formation of gluten, the three-
dimensional network which is continuous and homogenous throughout the mass.
Both non-covalent bonds, such as hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonds
(guaranteed by the large amounts of glutamine), and covalent bonds are involved,
the most significant of which are the disulfide bonds between cysteine residues.
3 Technology of Baked Goods 49
Gliadins and glutenins have different roles for the viscoelastic characteristics of
gluten [5–7]. Gliadins can be easily deformed and stretched, thanks to their viscous
properties that are typical of fluids, because of their globular shape and interconnec-
tions via disulfide bonds. In contrast, glutenins form long chains by means of inter-
protein disulfide bonds, which resist deformation and form an elastic and tenacious
mass. Although durum wheat semolina is used for bread making, especially in the
Mediterranean regions, the common wheat (T. aestivum) flour may be the optimal
raw material because it gives the best leavening results [8]. Soluble proteins in
wheat flour are mostly proteins with enzymatic activity. Most of these enzymes are
hydrolases (amylases, proteases, lipases), which specifically act on the reserve mac-
romolecules. Also oxidative enzymes (lipoxygenases, peroxidases) are present. For
many wheat processes, the enzymatic activities have a central and strategic role
which has to be carefully monitored (see also Chap. 2).
3.2.1 The Milling Process
About 70% of the worldwide wheat production is used for food [9], mainly by bakery
industries. The essential preliminary step is the milling process. The objective of
milling is twice. On the one hand, it separates the starchy endosperm, the area con-
taining gluten proteins, from germ, pericarp and seed coats, that form bran and other
by-products. On the other hand, it reduces the particle size of the endosperm to
values lower than 150–200 mm for common wheat flour and 500 mm for durum
wheat semolina. The fine granulometry of the flour gives an optimal workability to
the resulting dough and contributes to its processing into a palatable and appetizing
food. The removal of bran improves both the hygienic properties of the flour, since
the peripheral parts of the grain are often contaminated by chemical residues and
biotic pollutants, and the technological characteristics of the flour. In fact, non-
starch polysaccharides and enzymes, which are abundant in the bran, worsen the
rheology properties of the dough [10]. The separation of the oil-rich germ prevents
rancidity, which compromises the storage of flour [11]. However, the elimination of
these two parts, which are rich in several functional components, decreases the
nutritional value of the flour.
Overall, milling is much more complex than mere grinding. Because of the par-
ticular morphological structure of wheat grain, which is characterized by the crease
or ventral furrow, an introflexion along the length of the kernel, which hides a dou-
ble layer of teguments, the milling has to promote the extraction of the flour from
grains. Therefore, the first step consists of opening the grain. Then, proceeding from
the inside towards the outside, the endosperm is recovered via repeated sequences
of size reduction and separation stages, excluding the more external areas (bran,
aleurone layer, etc.), which are known as tailing products. This procedure fully
justifies the definition of “flour extraction yield”, defined as the quantity of flour
produced from 100 parts of cleaned and conditioned wheat grains [12]. This is the
only solution for preventing the passage of the bran layers from the furrow, in which
Table 3.1 Chemical composition of wheat regions (Adapted from [15]) (data expressed as
g/100 g dm)
Kernel Starch and soluble Proteins Lipids NSPa (cellulose,
Region (%) sugars (%) (%) (%) etc) (%) Ash (%)
Fruit coat 5 14 ÷ 16 10 ÷ 14 1÷3 60 ÷ 74 3÷5
(pericarp)
Seed coat 2 9 ÷ 11 13 ÷ 19 3÷5 53 ÷ 63 9 ÷ 15
Aleurone 8 10 ÷ 14 29 ÷ 35 7÷9 35 ÷ 41 5 ÷ 15
Endosperm 82 80 ÷ 85 8 ÷ 14 2÷3 1÷3 0.5 ÷ 1.5
Germ 3 19 ÷ 21 36 ÷ 40 13 ÷ 17 20 ÷ 24 4÷6
a
Non-starch polysaccharides
25–30% of total bran is hidden, into the flour of the bran layers [13]. Milling is
generally simpler for those cereals without furrow.
The physical separation of the various parts of the wheat grain is made possible
by the different composition of the three morphological areas of the kernel, that
determine different behaviour during processing (Table 3.1). The separation of the
endosperm from the bran is not quantitative, since parts of the endosperm are lost
into the milling by-products and small percentages of bran fragments are inevita-
bly present in the flour. Therefore, the milling process has to reach a compromise
between “extraction yield” and “grade of refinement” (accuracy of elimination of
bran) of the flour. The main criterion for flour classification is based on the accu-
racy of teguments separation. The approach, used by legislation in many countries,
is based on the threshold value of a number of parameters, especially ash and
proteins.
The current technology for milling considers the following four stages: (1)
receiving, pre-cleaning and storage of the incoming wheat; (2) cleaning and condi-
tioning; (3) milling; (4) storage of the flours. Wheat coming to the mill is usually
transported in bulk in trucks, trains or ships and it is unloaded into large hoppers
with a grilled opening to facilitate the elimination of large foreign matter. This oper-
ation is preceded by rapid analytical inspections of samples representative of the
entire batch, to assess quality parameters. Preliminary cleaning operations made
before loading the wheat into the silos are intended to remove mainly coarse foreign
materials, in order to provide for better storage. The cleaning of the wheat is carried
out immediately before the milling process. This involves a sequence of operations,
each performed by a special machine, with the aim of removing impurities, foreign
matters and powders. Differences in size, shape and density compared to the whole
and sound wheat grains are used to achieve this aim [14]. The conditioning or tem-
pering of kernels is decisive to achieve an optimal milling. This operation includes
grain humidification and the successive resting time, to increase the water content
of 2–4%. The conditioning step toughens the bran, favouring its break off in form of
large particles, and mellows the endosperm, thereby facilitating the separation
between these two parts. The conditioning time (from 6 to 24–36 h), the quantity of
water used, and the ways to add water (one or two tempering steps) depend on
the initial humidity and on the hardness and vitreousness of the wheat kernels.
Fig. 3.1 Simplified schema of wheat milling operations (Adapted from [15])
After this stage, caryopses have 15.5–17% humidity and are in the best state for
milling [14]. The milling process is complex in terms of both the type and number
of operations involved and the methods used (Fig. 3.1). The process is classified into
different systems: (a) break system, which separates the endosperm from bran and
germ; (b) sizing or purification system, which separates particles according to the
presence of bran pieces; and (c) reduction system, where the large particles of
endosperm are reduced to flour [15]. First, the kernel is subjected to breaking by
means of roller mills that are made up of pairs of cast iron cylinders, each at a set
distance from each other, with corrugated surfaces and turning at differential speeds.
The breaking system has the function to open, cut and flake the grains: it separates
the endosperm from teguments and leaves bran in the form of large and flat flakes to
facilitate their removal. Grains have to be ground gradually (four to five subsequent
breaking steps), thus limiting the formation of flour and the disintegration of bran
[12]. Each breaking step is followed by sieving, carried out by plansichters or sift-
ers. They are large machines, within which numerous sieves are stacked with a
mesh granulometry suitable for the material to be sifted (Fig. 3.2). The coarse par-
ticles of endosperm are called “semolina”. Some of them, referred to as middlings,
have various degrees of attached bran layers, whereas others are clean middlings,
composed of pure endosperm. These two fractions are separated according to their
specific gravity and size. The sizing rolls, formed by smooth or slightly corrugated
rolls, detach the bran pieces attached to the middlings. These operations are imme-
diately followed by classification through plansichters. The clean middlings are sent
Fig. 3.2 Sieving or grading section: plansichters (above) and middling fractions separated by
sieving action (below) (Courtesy of Bühler AG, Switzerland)
to the reduction system, the final stage of the milling process, with the objective to
reduce the size of clean middlings to flour. It consists of a sequence of several
smooth roll mills (up to eight to ten, according to the size and the expected starch
damage) and sifters. The milling diagram comprises a number of the above steps, to
ensure that the majority of the endosperm is converted into flour and that most of the
teguments are removed as by-products.
The flour extraction yield varies between 74 and 76%. Since the bran and the
germ together represent around 20% of the weight of the wheat grain, the flour
extraction yield is lower than the theoretical value. More refined flours have lower
extraction rates, since most of the external layers of the endosperm are eliminated
with teguments. Milling of durum wheat requires different diagrams, which are
characterized by a higher number of purifiers to improve the separation of bran
particles. Nevertheless, the yield is lower (68–72%), since semolina is mostly
formed by particles larger than 250–300 mm and contains only a minimum amount
of fine particles (lower than 200 mm).
The separation of the more external layers and germ of the caryopsis inevitably
causes a marked change of the chemical composition and, consequently, of the
nutritional value of the flour. It has a lower concentration of ash, proteins, vitamins
and soluble sugars than the caryopsis and a higher starch content. This difference
depends on the efficiency of the separation of the more external layers of the cary-
opsis from the endosperm. Consequently, refined flours, corresponding to an extrac-
tion yield of approximately 75%, contain only 5% of fibre, 45% of fats, 30% of
Fig. 3.3 Composition of flour according to the extraction rate: comparison with whole kernel
(dotted line refers to wheat kernel) (Adapted from [15])
minerals and between 15 and 40% of different vitamins in comparison to the native
caryopsis (Fig. 3.3).
3.2.1.1 Milling Optimization and Innovation
During the last decade, new food safety-related regulations, for example HACCP,
ISO Standards 9001; 22000 and 22005, traceability, labelling health claim and use
of GMO, (FAO/WHO, 1997) have supported the improvement of the process con-
trol in milling and bakery industries [16, 17]. In particular, technological solutions
that not only consider the production and economic aspects, but also the hygiene
and nutritional characteristics of flour were proposed.
Cleaning
The most recent innovation proposed for this stage is the use of an optical sorter
(www.buhlergroup.com), a device that efficiently removes all types of contaminants
and foreign materials in one step. The product stream is fed inside the sorting
machine and different high-resolution cameras detect and recognize defects based
on colour, shape and other optical properties. Specific sensors and high-speed ejectors
carry out a precise ejection, enabling the accurate separation of contaminants in a

very short time.
Debranning and Pearling
Debranning technology, also referred to as pre-processing or pearling, is currently

used in rice milling and barley processing for removing hulls that have no techno-
logical and nutritional value. Although this practice is necessary in the case of cov-
ered cereals, the sequential removal of the outer bran layers prior to milling is quite
uncommon in naked grain processing.
The original debranning systems for wheat are the Tkac process and the PeriTec
process marketed by Satake Corporation. In both processes, two distinct machines
assure the bran removal by friction (kernel to kernel) and abrasion (kernel to stone)
actions [18, 19]. New debranning equipments for wheat were developed to carry out
abrasion and friction on the same machine. The Vertical Debranner VCW (Satake
Corporation; www.satake-group.com) includes two separate working chambers in
the same equipment: the upper one has an abrasive zone where rotating abrasive
rings work the grain against a peripheral slotted screen to eliminate the outer bran
layers; partially debranned grains then enter the lower chamber, where friction com-
pletes the debranning process. Applying the Tkac system to several durum wheat
varieties, Dexter et al. [20] found an increase in semolina yield and a higher semo-
lina refinement. Consequently, the colour of pasta was improved. Other interesting
results were also found at laboratory and industrial scales [21]. Because of the posi-
tive results obtained with durum wheat, attention was shifted to common wheat.
Except for the decrease of the microbial contaminations [22] and bunt infections
[23], the results are still contradictory. Currently, the pre-milling treatment of com-
mon wheat consists of a peeling process carried out with a machine (DC-Peeler
Bühler AG – www.buhlergroup.com or the DHA Vertical Debranner from Ocrim
S.p.A.—www.ocrim.it) which promotes a mild removal of the outermost layer of
the kernel (maximum 1.5–2% of the grain weight) and, at the same time, enables
one to reduce contaminations (bacteria, mycotoxins and heavy metals) by 50%.
3.2.2 Improvement of Flour Performance
The natural aptitude of wheat to be processed into varieties of baked goods is further
improved by selective breeding research. These studies mainly concern changes of
the quality/quantity of seed storage proteins. Nonetheless, the performance of wheat
during processing is sometimes different from expectations due to characteristics
that are markedly influenced by environmental and agronomic parameters [24]. The
practice of improving the technological functionality of the flours by the addition of
improvers is, therefore, significantly widespread. Among the most commonly used
improvers there are enzymes (e.g. amylase, hemicellulase, lipase and protease) and
emulsifiers (e.g. mono- and di-glycerides), which increase the volume of the dough
and the gas retention and crumb softness of baked goods. It is interesting to note that
many of these improvers are naturally present in the wheat grain but they are removed
with the by-products (bran and germ) during milling.
3.3 Other Raw Materials
3.3.1 Water
Water plays a key role both during processing and for the shelf-life and sensory
properties of baked goods. On the basis of the definition used for studying poly-
mers, the adjective “plasticizing” is often used for water. This identifies a material
incorporated into a polymer to increase workability, flexibility and extensibility [25].
The water is subjected to significant changes during processing, both in terms of
absolute quantity (total humidity) and availability (relative humidity).
The amount of water added to convert flour to dough has to ensure the hydration
of all hydrophilic components, especially proteins. The addition of this solvent
determines the radical change of the three-dimensional conformation of proteins. In
1973, following their observations with an optic microscope, Bernardin and Kasarda
described an “explosion” of flour particles when in contact with excess water, and
the rapid formation of protein strings [26]. This spontaneous rearrangement is
caused by the immediate exposure to water of the hydrophilic areas of proteins
which are rich in polar amino acids, while the more hydrophobic areas are hidden
inside. The interaction among different protein chains is ensured through the forma-
tion of disulfide bonds and through stabilization via hydrogen bonds and hydropho-
bic interactions. Gluten proteins undergo a kind of glass transition when they absorb
water, passing from the hard and glassy state to the soft and rubbery state [27]. Cuq
et al. [28] described the changes that occur during the bread making using state
diagrams and phase changes. The glass transition is the period of marked increase
in molecular mobility that involves amorphous polymers (e.g. proteins) or the amor-
phous areas of semi-crystalline polymers (e.g. starch). Amorphous polymers are in
the glass state at low temperatures and/or with low water content. An increase of
temperature or of the water content induces amorphous polymers to become soft
and viscoelastic. When the water content is higher than 15–20%, the glass transition
of proteins occurs below environmental temperature [28]. During mechanical mix-
ing, the relative mobility of the protein molecules and their high reactivity cause the
formation of intermolecular covalent links that are responsible for the formation of
the continuous and homogenous gluten network.
The level of water needed to obtain an optimal consistency of the dough is not
always easy to quantify. Overall, hydration less than 35% does not give an optimal
and homogenous hydration of gluten [29]. The absorption of water varies according to
the degree of refinement, granulometry, level of damaged starch, quantity and quality
of proteins and humidity of the flour. The hydration capacity of the flour is usually
calculated based on the farinographic absorption index (see Sect. 3.5.1.1). Although it
is very practical for routine applications, this approach does not describe the distribution
of water within the components and the competition among the hydrophilic com-
pounds. The dough is a highly complex system where numerous aqueous stages coexist
and each one is variously rich in chemical components [30]. The dough is a sophisti-
cated metastable dispersed system, where water moves from one phase to another and
where thermodynamic incompatibility among different polymers occurs [31]. The
time needed to obtain homogeneous and uniform hydration of the flour particles is
strictly related to the dimension of the particles, their hardness and vitreosity, the pres-
ence of non-starch polysaccharides and intensity of mixing.
Water is not only necessary for the formation of gluten, but it also performs a
solvent action for the other ingredients present in the formula (e.g. salt and sugars)
and it allows the enzymatic activities to take place. Another function played indi-
rectly by water is the control of the dough temperature. After mixing, ca. 45% of the
total water in dough is associated with starch, 30% with proteins and 25% with non
starch polysaccharides (pentosans) [32]. Water allows the swelling of the starch
granules during baking and their gelatinization, a key phenomenon for the physical
and nutritional properties of baked goods [33].
3.3.2 Other Ingredients: Salt, Sugar and Fats
Flour, water and leavening agents are the indispensable ingredients for making baked
goods. Often the formula requires the addition of salt, which influences the sensory
and rheological properties of the dough, and additives or improvers. The use of salt
in leavened baked products generally refers to sodium chloride. Salt is an ingredient
that is almost always present in the formulation of bread and other bakery products.
The role of salt is related to its ability to enhance the aroma of the product and to
mask off-flavours such as a bitter and metallic taste, but salt addition also strengthens
the structure of the dough. This effect on dough structure is caused by the positive
effects on both hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions between protein mac-
romolecules. Salt optimizes the mixing time and the kneading, and controls the speed
of yeast fermentation [34]. In dough without salt, the high speed of CO2 production
may be responsible for the deterioration in the product structure. On the contrary,
NaCl allows the leavening step to be controlled and optimized by slowing the rate of
gas production [35]. However, this positive effect is strongly influenced by the
amount of salt added [36]. In particular, a great increase in volume was observed in
bread prepared by adding 1.5–2% of NaCl, while quantities exceeding this threshold
were associated with a strong decrease in the volume of the product.
Other ingredients such as sugar or fats are optional. The addition of sugar or fat
over a certain value markedly changes the rheological properties of the dough. The
presence of sugars influences each stage of processing: it gives more consistency to
the dough, in some cases promotes the fermentation, facilitates the browning of the
crust during baking and ensures a soft crumb during storage. Fats such as olive oil,
lard or butter are also used. If the concentration of fat is lower than 5%, the main
technological role is as a lubricant: the gluten increases the extensibility before
rupture, favouring a higher dough volume [37]. If the formulation is very rich in fat,
the dough becomes short and loses its extensibility. This effect justifies the definition
of shortening for these components. Polar lipids such as mono- and di-glycerides
stabilize the air bubbles formed during mixing and provide a crumb with a finer and
more regular alveolar structure [38]. During storage, lipids prevent the interaction
among starch macromolecules, slowing down their reorganization into ordered and
crystalline structures (retrogradation), as well as the migration of water between
starch and proteins, slowing down the phenomena of staling and aging [39].
3.3.3 Leavening Agents
Essentially three types of leavening agents are used for making baked goods: bak-
er’s yeast, chemical agents and sourdough. Since sourdough will be covered in
detail in all the other chapters, this paragraph only aims at shortly describing the
main features of the other leavening agents.
3.3.3.1 Baker’s Yeast
Baker’s yeast refers to Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains. After a brief initial respi-
ratory activity due to the oxygen dispersed in the dough, baker’s yeast ferments
glucose, fructose, maltose and sucrose from the flour to CO2 and ethanol. Nowadays,
the types of baker’s yeast available on the market have different shelf life (yeast
cream, compressed yeast, dried yeast), osmotolerance features (suitable for baked
goods with elevated levels of sugars) and activity at low temperatures (frozen dough)
(see Chap. 6). The use of baker’s yeast as a leavening agent is very often an alterna-
tive to the use of sourdough, especially for industrial bakeries. During processing,
baker’s yeast mainly determines the leavening of the dough due to the production of
CO2; it also synthesizes some volatile compounds that positively affect the flavour
and taste of baked goods.
3.3.3.2 Chemical Agents
The production of CO2 within the dough can also be obtained by a reaction between
sodium bicarbonate and an acid (e.g. tartaric acid). Chemical agents are not used for
bread making but for sweet baked goods, both dry and light (such as biscuits, sponge-
cakes, etc.). The use of chemical agents for leavening is recommended when CO2 has
to be produced rapidly in doughs rich in sugars and fats, ingredients that slow down
and/or inhibit the metabolism of the biological agents. Sodium bicarbonate lacks
toxicity, is cheap and easy to use, and it has a high solubility at room temperature.
On the basis of the rapidity of the reaction, the chemical agents are classified as: fast
or immediate, slow or delayed, and double acting powders. The former develop gas
as soon as they are introduced into the dough. The delayed acting powders determine
the formation of negligible quantities of gas during mixing, which only develops at
high temperatures during baking in the oven. The double effect powders react in part
at room temperature and in part during baking, and in this case two acids are involved,
one soluble and one insoluble. The reactivity of a chemical agent is expressed as the
“neutralization value” (g of NaOH that are neutralized by 100 g of acid salt).
3.4 Baked Goods Making Process
A very large number of baked goods are manufactured worldwide. Breads are the
most diverse and several differences are found, for instance, between those manu-
factured in the Mediterranean areas and those from the Anglo-Saxon market [40].
Overall, in the Mediterranean areas no significant quantities of sugar or other high
hydrophilic substances are added and pans are generally not used in the leavening
and baking stages.
Apart from the large variety of baked goods, the technological process may be
summarized in a sequence of operations that require long periods of time and which
have the primary objective of aerating the dough and making it porous (Table 3.2).
3.4.1 Discontinuous Processes (Straight-Dough and Sponge-

and-Dough)
Bread making, both at artisan and industrial levels, is traditionally a discontinuous

process since the various stages of mixing, leavening and baking are carried out on
limited quantities of materials and in separated facilities. Discontinuous bread-making
processes are performed using the straight-dough or the sponge-and-dough meth-
ods. Bread making with sourdough could be considered as a particular sponge-and-
dough method. Bread characteristics are influenced not only by processing but also
by flour and formula. In the straight-dough method, the fastest and easiest to man-
age, all the ingredients are mixed together simultaneously to form a dough which is
then left to rise (Table 3.3). Fermentation has to be carried out at least in two stages.
The first leavening is generally made with large quantities of dough, and for variable
times (from 30 min to 3 h), depending on the process. The primary objective of this
operation is not to get a volume increase, but to induce changes in the rheological
properties of the dough [41]. The first leavening provides a greater workability to
the dough, which achieves the capacity to maintain shape during the second leavening
(or proofing). In this stage, individual pieces of dough, corresponding to the final size,
Table 3.2 Bread-making process: aim and modifications associated with the main operations
Step/phase/operation Aim Modifications
Mixing Homogeneous distribution of Hydration and solubilization of
ingredients (including minor the water compounds
components)
Formation of uniform and Formation of soluble gluten
“coherent” structure
Inclusion of air bubbles Inclusion of air microbubbles
Leavening/proofing Increase in volume of dough Formation of gas (CO2)
Development of typical flavour Production of fermentation
metabolites important for
developing flavour and able to
change the macromolecules
solubility
Shaping Giving shape to dough Subdivision of gas bubbles and
Division of dough into final pieces inclusion of new air
Cooking Giving the product its typical aspect Increase in volume due to
evaporation of gases:
20–30% of the volume is
obtained during baking
(oven-spring)
Formation of crust and crumb
Decrease of water content Protein denaturation
Stabilization of leavened and shaped Starch gelatinization
dough
Making product appetizing and Development of flavour
digestible
Completing leavening of the dough Evaporation of water and ethanol
Cooling Product packaging Change of solubility of sugars
Hardening of fats
Table 3.3 Characteristics of bread obtained according to the nature of the flour (straight-dough
process using 100 g flour)
Bread
Specific volume
Cereal flour bread Volume (mL) Height (mm) Weight (g) (mL/g)
100% wheat flour 900 121 140 6,4
100% einkorn flour 440 74 142 3,0
70% wheat flour + 30% 485 85 148 3,3
rye flour
70% wheat flour + 30% 440 75 146 3,0
maize flour
are maintained at controlled temperature and humidity conditions for approxi-

mately 1 h until the maximum volume is reached.
With the sponge-and-dough method, the ingredients are added at different times,
during the refreshments of the dough. Using baker’s yeast, the sponge starts by mix-
ing compressed yeast with part of the flour and water (from 50 to 70% of the total
dough) required for the formula. After a leavening phase (from 3 to 4 h up to 10 h
or more), the remaining parts of flour and water are added, together with any other
ingredient required. During the maturing stage, the yeast adapts to the environment
and reaches the optimal fermentative capacities when all the ingredients are added.
The final dough is cut into pieces, shaped and left to rise again for about 1–2 h,
before being baked. The long leavening time required to get the sponge ensures an
alveolar structure with a large number of bubbles in the product, some of them of
considerable size [42]. This structure guarantees extreme lightness, as indicated by
the high specific volume and porosity of the crumb (Table 3.4).
According to the consistency of the sponge, different definitions of the process
are given. Polish, Poolish or Viennese methods use highly fluid dough. This process
was initially introduced in Poland and subsequently widespread in Vienna at the
beginning of the last century [41]. The Poolish premix is generally prepared using
50–75% of the water required by the recipe, to which an equivalent amount of flour
is added. This ratio gives a mass of low consistency that is left to ferment from 3 to
8 h, according to the quantity of baker’s yeast added. This method gives sensory
advantages and allows the formation of a delicate aroma.
Leavening with sourdough requires the use of a starter, represented by a piece of
dough from a previous batch which is fermented and stored under controlled condi-
tions of temperature and humidity. Sourdough is generally used at 5–20% of the
formula. Refreshing is of fundamental importance for dough development and
maintains the microbial species typical of the sourdough [43, 44]. The intense
acidification markedly influences the sensory and shelf-life features of the baked
goods [43]. In particular, making bread with sponge and dough methods, and espe-
cially using sour dough, ensures a higher initial lightness compared to the straight
dough method (Table 3.4). The bread is characterized by a more highly developed
and irregular alveolar structure, since the longer fermentation times determine a
slow and progressive production of CO2, accompanied by coalescence phenomena.
The bread also has a characteristic taste and smell, caused by the formation of volatile
compounds that are mainly formed during baking, following the Maillard reaction
between glucose and free amino acids, which are released during fermentation.
In Anglo-Saxon countries, and in particular in Great Britain, the most wide-
spread bread-making process is the straight dough method known as the Chorleywood
Bread Process (CBP). It was developed in the 1960s by the Flour Milling and
Baking Research Association at Chorleywood in England [38, 45]. The leavening
period is substantially reduced thanks to the high-speed mixers used for mixing the
dough (see Sect. 3.4.3.1). CBP uses an intense mechanical mixing of the dough that
lasts just a few minutes and ensures the incorporation of large quantities of air
inside the mass. The decrease of time limits the cost of the process but the special
conditions used during mixing require enriched flours and formulas with elevated
concentration of baker’s yeast (higher than 2.5–3.0%). Emulsifiers and fats with a
high fusion point are also indispensable for the oxidizing properties and to stabilize
the numerous tiny alveoli that develop from the microscopic air bubbles included
during the mixing stage. Another characteristic of this process is the reduction of the
pressure during mixing to adjust the size of the alveoli.
3.4.2 Continuous Processes
These processes were introduced in the USA during 1950. The two best-known
types are the Do-Maker process, developed in 1954, and the Amflow process, devel-
oped in 1960 by AMF Incorporated [46]. These technologies took hold in the 1970s,
and were widespread especially in the United States and Great Britain.
Contrarily to the discontinuous process working in batches, the continuous pro-
cess is characterized by a substantial reduction of time, more compact machinery
and better durability of the characteristics of the baked goods [47]. These processes
are based on the possibility of eliminating the long leavening times by using yeast
cultures or pre-ferments propagated separately without or with small quantities of
flour. The subsequent high-speed mixing, with the simultaneous addition of all the
ingredients, favours volume development even without long leavening times. As for
the Chorleywood process, the intense mechanical stress during the high-speed mix-
ing can be “supported” by the dough only if strong oxidizing improvers are added;
emulsifying lipids are also indispensable.
3.4.3 The Main Stages of the Process
3.4.3.1 Mixing
As shown in Table 3.2, during mixing ingredients are distributed and blended within
the mass, and gluten is formed. These phenomena are described as dough develop-
ment. Many variables are involved. One of these is the quantity of water added to
the flour, which may be indicated as the “level of absorption” or “hydration”. In
some processes the level of absorption does not correspond to the optimal quantity
as determined by the farinograph but it is mainly related to the handling character-
istics of the dough. Stiff dough with hydration levels between 40 and 45% (dough
humidity: 38–41%) has reduced extensibility; consequently, the baked goods have a
limited porosity with a very fine alveolar structure. Soft or slack doughs have hydra-
tion levels higher than 60% (dough humidity: about 50%). They are difficult to
handle due to their low consistency, which is responsible for the long and irregular
shape such as the Italian Ciabatta [2]; the crumb presents large alveoli, often long in
shape, which result from the coalescence of smaller bubbles.
Table 3.4 Physical characteristics of flour, dough and bread according to the bread-making
process
Specific
volume Porosity
(mLg−1) (%)
Flour 1.5 –
Dough 0.85 –
Proofed dough 0.9–1.0 –
Wheat bread
– Straight 2.5 ÷ 3.0 20 ÷ 25
and dough
– Sponge 3.0 ÷ 10.0a 25 ÷ 75a

and dough
– Sourdough 3.2 ÷ 3.7 35 ÷ 40
a
According to the parameters of the technological process
Mixing during traditional processes is carried out at least in two different times
with different speeds. In the first stage (the French frasage), the low speed lasts
about 5 min. Water is distributed among ingredients to allow the hydration of the
protein macromolecules and the development of gluten. Air bubbles are entrapped
into the mass and their sizes vary between 30 and 100 mm [48]. This phenomenon
is completed during the high-speed stage (the French malaxage and soufflage). At
the microscopic level, the sequence of events is associated with significant rheologi-
cal changes and the mass is rather wet and sticky until hydration is completed dur-
ing the cleanup stage (Fig. 3.4). Development of the dough is completed when the
mass clears away from the walls and blades of the mixer bowl and starts to crackle
in the bowl. Furthermore, stretching deforms the dough without breaking until it
becomes a semi-transparent film [47], thanks to the viscoelastic properties of the gluten.
Fig. 3.4 Raw materials and “evolution” of dough aspect during dough-making
The air included at the end of the mixing stage represents ca. 8–10% of the volume
of the dough [48]. From this point onwards, any further mixing causes irreversible
changes of the rheological properties. The over-mixed dough becomes sticky and
loses elasticity.
The Mixers
The mixers are usually classified into two categories: vertical and horizontal mixers.
The former consist of machines with rotating bowls of various capacities ranging
from 100 to 3,000 kg and more. The first machines, known as Artofex, have two
reciprocating arms whose movement, both circular and vertical rotation at moderate
speed, simulates the movement of the baker’s arms. The action performed by the
dual-arms is very delicate. Consequently, the time necessary to completely develop
the dough is long and the productivity of the machine is low. Currently, they are
almost completely substituted by spiral mixers. The mechanical action against the
dough is usually completed by a rotating central post, a device whose function is to
hold and expose the dough to the action of the spiral tool, decreasing cutting effects
with a smoothly mixing action. The different types of mixer vary depending on the
capacity and rotation speed of the bowl, the arrangement and rotation speed of the
mixing tools, the possibility of cooling down the mass via insufflation of CO2 and
the possibility of extracting the bowl to guarantee the easy movement within the
working premises.
As mentioned previously, high-speed mixers, capable of completing the process
in a few minutes and ensure the retention of large volumes of air, were developed to
increase the productivity of the bread-making process. The horizontal bowl, nor-
mally made of stainless steel, presents a single mixing shaft with several transversal
bars, whose profile varies in function of the process involved. Auxiliary equipment
includes the microprocessor controls for monitoring all mixer functions. These
devices ensure constant and uniform characteristics in all dough batches. In the
Chorleywood method, the Tweedy mixers are preferred (www.bakerperkinsgroup.
com). These high-intensity mixers have an impact mixer plate at the bottom of the
bowl. Some baffles are present at the sidewalls of the bowl to direct the dough
towards the mixer plate. The rotation speed of the mixing device may exceed
300 rpm, while the bowl remains fixed. These conditions are suitable to fully develop
dough in only 4–5 min.
Fig. 3.5 Planetary mixer and examples of mixing tools (Courtesy of Sancassiano S.p.A., Italy)
The quantity of air retained in the dough varies based on the mixer characteristics,
flour strength and the addition of specific ingredients. To obtain batters (highly aer-
ated dough for sugar- and fat-based cakes), the planetary mixers are used. Their
mixing tool is similar to a whisk (Fig. 3.5) and performs a whipping action on the
mass. The presence of emulsifiers is indispensable to stabilize this very low density
foamy mass and to produce an extremely fine grain and uniform texture.
According to the mixing tool shape and the speed applied, the time needed to
obtain a well-developed dough or a light batter varies from 30 to just a few minutes.
Consequently, the temperature of the mass remains the same or just a little higher
Fig. 3.6 Carousel system (Courtesy of Sancassiano S.p.A., Italy)
than that of the ingredients (mixers with dual arms or spirals, 20–60 rpm) or may
increase even by 10–12°C in the case of ultra-high-speed mixers, working at
500–1,000 rpm.
The mixers previously described work discontinuously. The developed dough
must be removed and the bowl emptied ready for the next batch. This system has a
limited effect on the organization of the work at artisanal level but at industrial plants
it creates serious problems. One proposed solution consisted of the carousel, a modu-
lar system which, although it did not shorten the mixing times, guaranteed the avail-
ability of a well-developed dough at set times, with standardization and an almost
continuous feeding of the machines. As shown in Fig. 3.6, the carousel (www.
sancassiano.com) is formed by a number of stations that move automatically (con-
trolled by a Programmable Logic Control, PLC), rotating and occupying different
positions at set times. It passes from the first position (raw materials are dosed into
the first bowl) to intermediate mixing and kneading positions up to the last position
where the dough is discharged and poured out into the feeding hopper of the next
machine. The time between the first and the last position corresponds to that neces-
sary to develop a mass with the desired rheology and texture characteristics.
In recent years, the companies working in this sector have put forward solutions
for further improvement of the automation and versatility of this stage of the indus-
trial process. The different stages of dough development and leavening are con-
trolled by PLC in robotized plants. A variable number of bowls are handled and
moved by a robot shuttle which takes each bowl from a parking area and subjects it
to the various work stations, on the basis of the sequence of the production cycle.
The advantages of this plant are many, including high flexibility, capacity to satisfy
all types of technological cycles (direct, indirect, etc.), possibility of feeding several
lines in parallel (even with different types of dough) and high levels of hygiene and
cleaning.
3.4.3.2 Leavening
The production of any leavened baked goods concerns the transformation of the
semi-solid mass of the dough, a kind of emulsion with a continuous phase repre-
sented by hydrated gluten that surrounds the starch granules, and a dispersed phase,
consisting of microbubbles of air, into a foam, where the continuous phase retains
considerable volumes of gas (Table 3.2).
Leavening is the stage associated with the significant expansion of the original
volume of the mass. This is possible thanks to the viscoelastic properties of the
dough, and in some cases also to the presence of emulsifiers. The number of alveoli
retained in the mass upon completion of the mixing is estimated to be between 102
and 104 per mm3 [50]. Volume expansion can be obtained using biological and
chemical leavening agents and also through the physical approach. In this latter
case, the inclusion of air follows intense mechanical actions during mixing. Mixed
leavening is also considered. Microalveoli incorporated during mixing (physical
leavening) are further expanded following the chemical leavening in the oven.
Danish pastry, used for making particular sweet products, is obtained from mixed
leavening: the dough is first biologically leavened, then formed with a lamination
process to distribute the fat in thin and alternate layers within the dough. Although
CO2 is considered the major gas responsible for the development of dough volume,
other gases and low-boiling substances may interfere with the overall volume of the
dough. For instance, ethanol is solubilized in the aqueous stage of the mixture and
forms an azeotrope with a boiling point of 78°C and water vapour.
The most obvious phenomenon associated with leavening is the volume expan-
sion. The CO2 produced is solubilized firstly in the aqueous stage of the dough.
Once saturation is reached, the gas settles in the bubbles entrapped in the dough
gradually dilating and expanding them, without any breakages. The pressure inside
the alveoli increases but the dough reacts by stretching thanks to gluten viscoelastic-
ity. The high diameter of the bubble makes it possible to balance the overpressure
that is created. The film (ca. 1 mm) created by surfactants, soluble proteins, polar
lipids, or pentosans, on the surface of the alveolus plays the principal role in this
phenomenon [45, 50, 51]. The leavened dough is therefore a foam consisting of a
semi-solid aqueous phase where gas bubbles are distributed. The coalescence of
these gas bubbles is delayed as long as the lipoprotein film is able to expand, reduc-
ing its thickness. Its breakage is associated with the merger with adjacent bubbles.
Acidification during sourdough fermentation also influences the rheological
properties of the dough. As shown by extensographic analyses, the acidification
determines the full maturation of the dough. The extensibility of the dough is
modified so that it can better support the dividing and final moulding stages. A fully
maturated dough will break clean and sharp with minimum resistance to pull [47].
The reasons for this behaviour are numerous, complex, and only partly understood.
They are variously attributed to the continuous and progressive hydration of the
proteins, to the presence of metabolites (CO2, organic acids) that determine a new
organization of gluten, and to changes of the aqueous phases where polymers are
immersed. In some cases, the rheological changes are hidden by amylase and pro-
tease activities that occur simultaneously during leavening but with opposite
effects.
Fermentation and Proofing Rooms
At the artisanal level, fermentation is carried out in chambers or cabinets (for limited
daily production) where the temperature and humidity are kept constant. The rec-
ommended temperature ranges between 27°C and 37°C and the environmental
humidity has to be above 75–80% [47]. Lower relative humidity causes the forma-
tion of a surface skin that impedes dough development during baking. Optimal tem-
perature and humidity conditions are maintained thanks to air conditioning systems.
The baked goods are usually arranged on trays located on mobile trolleys that facilitate
movement. Long fermentation times, especially in the sponge-and-dough methods,
require one to work overnight. Today, equipment called the “retarder” or “sponge
conditioner” allows the optimization of the operations by controlling the kinetic of
fermentation at low temperatures [41]. These machines are thermostatic chambers
that allow one to control and monitor the temperature (from −10°C to +35°C),
through the presence of refrigerator groups and resistors, and the relative humidity.
After mixing, the dough is placed inside the chamber where the temperature is lowered
and then slowly raised to achieve the fermentation. This optimization of the process
reduces or eliminates the night shifts, and distributes the work during the day, guar-
antying fresh baked goods also in the evening.
At the industrial level, the proofing chambers usually consist of a tunnel with
dynamic transport and automated controls of the environmental variables. The
dough is placed on trays or belts and proceeds towards the exit, thanks to catenaries.
The tunnels are sized so that the leavening time coincides with the time needed for
the dough to travel inside.
3.4.3.3 Dough Makeup Operations
As briefly described before, the two leavening stages are alternated by dividing, and
rounding and moulding operations which were previously carried out manually.
Currently, these operations are performed by automated machines with different
working capacities.
Generally, dividing is carried out within the shortest possible time on a volumet-
ric basis. The fermented dough is inserted into a chamber with a piston whose course
is directly proportional to the volume to be divided. The individual piece of dough
is cut off by a knife, then ejected from the chamber and shaped. This operation is
usually alternated with a period of rest necessary to allow the dough to recover from
physical stresses associated with compression, followed by cutting and shearing.

The working of the divider is completed by rounding and moulding the individual
pieces with different machines. Generally, three steps are carried out: the sheeting
of dough pieces into a uniform layer, the rolling into a cylinder by means of a round-
ing or curling machine, and compression to obtain the desired shape.
3.4.3.4 Baking
Baking is considered the most important stage of the entire cycle. During baking,
the dough heats up and loses humidity. Heating occurs from the outside towards the
inside, water loss occurs in the opposite direction. These two phenomena cause
multiple changes, differing in their physical, chemical and biochemical nature and
intensity, according to the temperature and the area of the dough. The change from
the foam state to the sponge state [52], and the diversification between crust and
crumb are observed.
The sequence of changes (Table 3.5) is different according to bread area. The
temperature inside the dough is always below 100°C, while on the surface it reaches
180–200°C. As soon as the leavened dough is inserted into the oven, the fermentative
activity increases [38] until microbial death occurs at temperatures higher than
50°C. Heating causes a further significant volume expansion (oven spring) of about
40% of the volume compared to the leavened dough, corresponding to an increase
of the surface area of 10% [49]. The volume occupied by gases, CO2, ethanol
vapours, water vapour, increases as the temperature increases. Starting from 70°C,
the chemical and biochemical transformations of the macromolecules stabilize the
complex. A porous network of interconnected alveoli separated from each other by
a solid matrix with very fine walls is formed [52]. During this passage, proteins and
starch achieve new properties. The gluten is denatured, completely loses its extensi-
bility and achieves elasticity. The starch swells up and gelatinizes. The intensity of
these two phenomena depends on the distance from the geometric centre of the
dough. Baking is completed when, even in the most internal part of the dough, the
temperature has reached values that promoted the structural consolidation. The tem-
perature at the centre point has to be in the range of 90–95°C to prevent collapse due
to a non-rigid structure [52].
Because of the temperature gradient that is created in the dough during baking, the
surface, which is exposed to the oven temperature from the beginning, reaches the
sponge state much more quickly than the internal part. The surface areas, therefore,
become more and more dehydrated and permeable, facilitating evaporation and the
release of the water vapour that is generated and accumulated within. Once baking is
completed, the crust has a humidity of less than 5% [2]. This value ensures friability
and crispiness. The internal crumb retains higher humidity and remains soft and light.
The complex chemical reactions that occur during baking are of marked impor-
tance for the aroma and taste of baked goods. The starch in the crust is degraded into
dextrins between 110 and 140°C. Caramelization starts at 140–150°C and contin-
ues, producing pyrodextrins, at higher temperatures. Proteins irreversibly react with
Table 3.5 Changes during baking and storage of breada
During baking During storage
Macroscopic level Molecular level Macroscopic level Molecular level
3 Technology of Baked Goods
Crust Evaporation of gases Protein/sugar interaction Loss of crispness for increase Water migration from crumb to
Progressive drying Dextrinization/caramelization in crust moisture crust macromolecules
Non enzymatic browning Maillard reaction
Crumb Water migration towards Protein coagulation Increase in hardness Starch retrogradation
crust
Structure strengthening Starch gelatinization Crumbling tendency Water migration exchange at
inter and intra macromo-
lecular degree
Water retention by non-starch Loss of typical flavour Interaction among aromatic
polysaccharides compounds/macromolecules
Change of fat structure Appearance of “stale bread” Oxidative phenomena
flavour
a
According to bread size
69
sugars in the Maillard reaction, forming a number of compounds responsible for the
colour and typical aroma of the crust [53]. If the intensity of the Maillard reaction
does not exceed certain limits, these effects contribute to the sensory properties. On
the contrary, the protein–sugar interactions lead to unavailable lysine and, in
advanced stages, cause the synthesis of toxic compounds. The International Maillard
Reaction Society site (http://imars.case.edu) provides more information on the
nutritional and sensory properties of baked goods.
The intensity of the colour of the crust is strictly related to baking temperature,
while the thickness of the crust is influenced by baking time. Baked goods undergo
a loss of weight during baking, a key step of the process. Usually, bakers aim to
obtain the highest yield according to the values of humidity which are allowed by
national regulations. In that sense, the practice of including vapour in the oven dur-
ing the initial baking is justified. The vapour condenses on the surface of the dough,
accelerates heat transfer to the dough, slows down evaporation, and decreases
weight loss [45]. As a further positive effect, the viscoelastic properties are retained
for a longer time on the surface of the dough, allowing a higher development of the
baked goods.
In the oven, the heat transfer towards the dough occurs by radiation from the
walls and by air convection. Inside the dough, the transfer occurs by conduction.
Because the temperature is usually between 200 and 230°C, the kinetic of baking is
quite slow and provides the consolidation of the internal structure without unaccept-
able scorching of the crust.
Ovens
Regardless of the characteristics of the oven, the baking floor is called the sole or
deck and the upper part of the chamber the crown.
Ancient ovens, often made of stone or bricks, had a single chamber where com-
bustion and baking occurred. This type of baking is referred to as a “direct firing
system” because the combustion gases are in contact with the dough. The initial
temperature reaches 350–400°C and decreases during baking to 160–170°C. These
ovens, today used only for special traditional or typical breads (e.g. Italian Altamura
bread or Arabic bread), were replaced by ovens with an “indirect firing system”,
where the combustion area is separated from the baking chamber and the combus-
tion gases do not come in contact with the dough but circulate in tubes above and
below the baking surface [47]. This configuration provides a higher uniformity of
heating and guarantees hygiene. The heat transfer may be improved using forced air
systems inside the chamber (ventilated ovens) or forcing the circulation of the com-
bustion fumes into tubes via a ventilator (Cyclotherm ovens). This method also
improves the heat exchange thanks to the repeated passage of the combustion fumes
within the tubes positioned above and below the conveyor. Heat is transferred to the
Fig. 3.7 Modern rack oven (Courtesy of Rational AG, Germany)
dough mainly by radiation. Several oven doors are installed, which change the flow
of the fumes towards the upper or bottom area of the chamber to optimize baking
based on the dough characteristics. Systems that provide a better heat yield, with an
energy saving that may reach 30% compared to those from the conventional thermal
cycle ovens, are also available.
In artisanal bakeries, the most common ovens have fixed decks with separate
chambers which are arranged vertically or consist of a cabinet equipped with a
rotating rack carrying trays or frames (Fig. 3.7). In the former ovens, baked goods
have to be loaded and unloaded by hand using long peels or special loading devices
(Fig. 3.8). This operation requires time and skill. More recent solutions make it pos-
sible to vary baking conditions for each chamber. In the rack ovens, baked goods are
placed on the pans or trays located on the rack (often during the leavening stage)
that is inserted into the oven and is rotated to give a better uniformity during
baking.
In industrial bakeries, baking is a continuous operation performed in a long hori-
zontal tunnel with different sections or zones, each one having its own burner and
where the temperature is variable. Shutters control the evacuation of the water
vapour which accumulates in the chamber towards extraction flues. Baking time is
determined by the speed of the belt that transports baked goods and by the length of
the oven. According to the heating system, ovens are heated by gas, fuel oil or elec-
tricity. Microwave ovens combined with traditional ovens are also proposed, but
their application is suitable only for specific industrial purposes.
Fig. 3.8 Artisanal bakery (Courtesy of Wizard Bakery Company, Germany)
3.4.4 The Production Units
3.4.4.1 Artisanal Production
The equipment of a modern artisanal baking laboratory is shown in Fig. 3.8.

Although it covers a limited surface area, the solution is highly rational as it com-
bines machineries based on the different stages of the technology process. The mix-
ing areas (Fig. 3.8a) are adjacent to the shaping areas (Fig. 3.8b), while the leavening
section (Fig. 3.8c, d) is next to the oven area (Fig. 3.8e, f) to facilitate the movement
of the dough and its introduction into the oven.
3.4.4.2 Industrial Production
At the industrial level, processing is carried out continuously. All the different stages,
which are identical to those of the artisanal process, are connected via conveyor
belts that carry the semi-finished product to the next stage of the cycle. Rational solu-
tions (see www.wpib.de/; www.itecaspa.com/; www.esmach.it/) provide long horizon-
tal systems with linear transportation to avoid bends or turns. Modern plants consist
of completely automated systems of mixing area, controlled by a robotized centre that
exclude manual work for dosage of the ingredients, mixing and movement of the
bowls to the successive stages. After cutting and shaping, the dough comes to the
continuous proofing chamber, whose horizontal or vertical development is propor-
tional to the time needed to complete this stage. Baking under a continuous belt oven
is followed by a long cooling stage, which is controlled by circular net transporters.
3.5 Quality Assessment of Dough Baking Properties
Apart from information on the composition of the raw material, a complete knowl-
edge of the changes that occur during the whole technological process is necessary
to assess the quality of baked goods. Many instruments and techniques have been
developed for this purpose.
3.5.1 Rheology and Descriptive Empirical Measurements
Rheology is the study of the flow and deformation of materials in response to the appli-
cation of mechanical force. The force is usually defined in terms of stress, the amount
of force applied per unit area, with strain being the resulting deformation. The rheo-
logical features of the dough are important throughout the bread-making process and
determine the quality of baked goods [54]. Rheological measurements are carried out
to obtain a quantitative description of the mechanical properties of the materials as well
as information related to their molecular structure and composition [54]. Usually, rheo-
logical techniques are classified based on the type of strain imposed (e.g. compression,
extension, shear, torsion) and on the relative magnitude of the imposed deformation
(e.g. small or large deformation). The main techniques used for measuring the proper-
ties of cereals are descriptive empirical techniques and fundamental measurements.
3.5.1.1 Quality Assessment of Flour and Descriptive Rheology of Dough
After mixing, subjective manual assessments of the dough were used for a long time
to indicate whether it was suitable for processing and baking. Over time, a significant
use of descriptive empirical measurements of rheological properties was observed.

Devices such as the Penetrometer, Texturometer, Consistometer, Amylograph,
Farinograph, Mixograph, Extensigraph, Alveograph and Rheofermentometer were
developed [55] (Fig. 3.9). Different users may have different requirements. For
instance, plant breeders require rapid and automated tests which use small amounts
of sample, while millers and bakers require rapid and reliable tests to assay the bak-
ing quality [56]. All the tests mimic the complex responses (deformations) in the
dough when subjected to various stresses (mixing, overpressure during leavening
and baking, etc.). Nevertheless, the behaviour of the dough matrix is non-linear
since the deformation is not proportional to the strength that determines it. For
instance, the dough appears harder and stiffer when deformed slowly [57]. Therefore,
the results from these tests provide useful information only if the nature and intensity
of the deformations are similar to those that occur during in situ processing.
According to these considerations, the definition is of imitative or empirical or
descriptive rheology [45].
Empirical rheology is divided into two main classes [57]. The first class includes
instruments that measure the viscosity variation of the dough during mixing/torsion
at room temperature (e.g. Brabender Farinograph, Micro-DoughLAB, Mixograph)
or according to a gradient of temperature (e.g. Mixolab). The Farinograph (www.
brabender.com) measures the water absorption, dough development time, stability
and softness. The Mixograph (www.national-mfg.com) determines the mixing time,
maximum resistance and tolerance [57]. However, to determine the mixing properties
of the dough, mechanical parameters such as mixer speed, mixing bowl capacity,
and mixer geometry have to be precisely controlled. The Mixolab (www.chopin.fr)
is a relatively new instrument which resembles the Farinograph and Viscoamylograph
in terms of performance. It determines in real time the torque (Nm) produced by the
dough between the two blades and, once the dough is formed, the device measures
its behaviour as a function of time, mixing development and temperature. The second
class includes equipment with devices that record and quantify the elastic character-
istics of the dough, which are correlated to the resistance that the dough opposes to
stretching that is protracted until rupture occurs. The most used are the Alveograph
(www.chopin.fr) and the Extensograph (www.brabender.com). The Extensograph
performs an extensional test where a cylindrical dough sample is clamped horizon-
tally in a cradle and stretched by a hook which is placed in the middle of the sample
and moves downwards until the rupture occurs. The Alveograph uses air pressure to
inflate a thin sheet of dough and measures the resistance to expansion and the
extensibility of the dough by providing the measurement for maximum over pressure,
average abscissa at rupture, index of swelling and deformation energy of dough.
Another interesting instrument is the Rheofermentometer (www.chopin.fr). It
enables the measurement of gas production and retention, dough permeability, and
volume and tolerance during leavening. It is used to determine the quality of the
flour, the fermentative activity, the quality of the protein network, and the activities
of additives to be selected. Through height and pressure sensors, it measures the
fermentation and development of the dough under a weight imposed on it. During
recent years, the Texture Analyzer (www.stablemicrosystems.com) has found
Fig. 3.9 Representation of

the main tests used for the
quality assessment of dough
baking properties
increasing application. The instrument provides information about a long list of

textural properties: hardness, brittleness, elasticity, cohesiveness, stickiness, gum-
miness, springiness, consistency and fracturability. Kieffer et al. [59, 60] developed
a micro-method for extension tests. The Kieffer Extensibility Rig is a type of min-
iature of the Brabender Extensograph and is used in combination with various
mechanical testing machines. The cylindrically shaped dough is clamped at both
ends and is extended uniaxially by a hook that moves upwards. The Dough Inflation
System was introduced in the early 1990s and it was developed based on the con-
cept of the Alveograph. It measures the stress and strain relationships based on the
inflation of a sheet of dough through a biaxial extension test and operates at strain
rates lower than the Alveograph. The deformations involved in biaxial extension
tests are preferred as they are more relevant to the type of deformation of the dough
around an expanding gas bubble during proofing and baking.
All the above instruments provide a great deal of information on the quality
and performance of baked goods. Nevertheless, they are purely descriptive, fre-
quently disruptive, and they depend on the type of instrument used, the size and
geometry of the test sample and the specific conditions under which the test is
carried out [45, 61].
3.5.1.2 Fundamental Measurements
The study of the effective mechanical properties of dough concerns fundamental

rheology. It requires sophisticated equipment and considerable experience. It mea-
sures absolute and not relative parameters, providing results that are independent
from the particular instrument used. A material is considered solid when it does not
change shape continuously when subjected to stress. A material is considered liquid
when it changes shape continuously when subjected even to the slightest stress.
Dough cannot be classified univocally since it behaves as solid or liquid according
to the experimental conditions, and because it shows both solid and liquid features
simultaneously. These materials are defined as viscoelastic. The majority of foods
show a linear behaviour below a certain deformation value and a non-linear behav-
iour above. When this limit is exceeded the results depend on the experimental
conditions and do not describe the fundamental characteristics of the material [62].
Therefore, the measurements should be carried out during the linear viscoelastic
interval of the material. Nevertheless, studies on doughs have also recently focused
on non-linear and time-dependent behaviour [63].
Usually, the properties of viscoelastic materials are measured by creep and
recovery, stress relaxation or dynamic oscillatory tests. These measurements are
usually made on samples placed between two plates of a rheometer. In the creep
and recovery test, an instantaneous stress is applied to the sample at rest and the
change in strain (creep) is observed over time. When the stress is released, some
recovery may be observed as the material attempts to return to its original shape. In
the stress-relaxation test, the sample is subjected to an instantaneous strain and the
stress required to maintain the deformation is observed as a function of time [62].
In the oscillatory tests, samples are subjected to deformation or stress which varies
harmonically with time. Sinuosoidal and simple shear is typical [62]. This testing
procedure is the most common dynamic method for studying the viscoelastic
behaviour of food. Results are very sensitive to the chemical composition and phys-
ical structure [62]. Using a sinusoidally oscillating deformation of known magni-
tude and frequency, the phase lag angle between stress and strain is measured and
used to calculate the elastic (storage modulus or G¢) and viscous (loss modulus or
G″) components of a complex viscosity h*.
The rheological behaviour of the dough is determined by protein–protein inter-
actions at large deformations, while starch–starch interactions dominate at small
deformations. Therefore, empirical tests correlate well with the results of the baking
test [64], as the deformation that occurs is reasonably large compared with the
deformation applied during the creep and dynamic rheological tests. In contrast,
fundamental tests provide well-defined basic rheological information (viscosity and
elasticity) and provide better defined experimental conditions of stress and strain,
which allow results to be interpreted in fundamental units. Although various types
of tests and instruments have been developed to describe dough performance during
processing, it is fair to say that no single technique could completely describe its
rheological behaviour.
3.5.2 Innovative Approaches
3.5.2.1 Image Analysis
Recently, image analysis has been introduced to evaluate the quality of foods,
including baked goods. This technique uses protocols based on image digitalization
at the macro- and micro-structural level through different systems (e.g. scanners,
video cameras and microscopes). Image analysis provides a rapid and objective
definition of the morphological and densitometrical characteristics of single objects
or complex structures (Fig. 3.10). It makes it possible to study and model the phe-
nomena that occur during processing continuously or even on-line [65, 66].
The analysis of an image requires a number of passages: (1) image acquisition in
a digital format (a pixel image); (2) image pre-processing, to improve the image
while maintaining its original dimensions; (3) image segmentation, to divide the digi-
tal image into separate, non-overlapping areas (e.g. to better distinguish the objects
from the rest of the image, such as the alveoli in a slice of bread); (4) measurement of
objects, to determine their different characteristics (size, shape, colour, texture); and
(5) classification, to identify the objects by classifying them into different classes [67].
When used for baked good processing, image analysis allows the determination of
several parameters such as the increase of volume, changes of shape, time needed to
complete the dough development, extent and distribution of the alveolar structure
during leavening, initial increase and successive contraction of volume, and gelatini-
zation of the starch and surface browning during baking [68].
Fig. 3.10 The use of the image analysis approach in the evaluation of the leavening phase of
dough
3.5.2.2 Microscopy
The macroscopic behaviour of the dough depends on its microstructure. The latter
is affected by composition, spatial arrangements of the components and types of
bond existing [69].
Microscopy is often used to determine the optimal mixing time of the dough, the
extent of the development of the gluten and the nature of the gluten matrix [70–72].
Many details are explored via electronic microscopy, both by transmission (TEM,
transmission electron microscopy) and scanning (SEM, scanning electron micros-
copy). To minimize the influence of sample preparation, atomic force microscopy
(AFM) may be used. This technique provides high-resolution images of the surface
of the starch granules [73]. Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) has
recently found application in the analysis of foods. It offers the possibility of opti-
cally dissecting the material and reconstructing the 3D image [74], and to observe
dynamic processes such as the formation and growth of air bubbles in the dough
during leavening and baking [75]. The different components of the dough may also
be simultaneously identified and located, using specific fluorescent markers.
Electronic microscopy was also used to study the rupture of the gluten network fol-
lowing freezing and thawing [76]. A very useful instrument for the observation of
frozen matrices is the cryo-SEM. This instrument shows the ultrastructure of the
starch–protein associations and the state of the gluten fibrils forming the protein
network [77].
3.5.2.3 Spectroscopy
The request for quick, reliable and easy to use methods that provide automation or
on-line applications is increasingly frequent. Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIR)
satisfies these requirements. This technique is based on the acquisition of informa-
tion from a sample via the interactions that occur between its molecules and the
electromagnetic waves in the near infrared. NIR offers the possibility of analyzing
the matrix in a non-destructive way, does not require the use of reagents, and is
highly informative. NIR spectra allow the simultaneous quantification of the various
components or information regarding the mutual relations between them [78].
Recently, the NIR technique was used as a potential on-line sensor to monitor
processing [79, 80]. To completely exploit the potential of NIR, advanced chemomet-
ric techniques are needed for the interpretation of spectral data which are arranged
in wide bands with overlapping peaks that originate from the different components
present in the matrix [78]. NIR spectroscopy is largely used to quickly determine
the chemical composition of caryopses and flours. Other studies reported its appli-
cation to determine the technological quality of the flours [81–84], to evaluate the
molecular interactions between the dough components (water-protein-starch) [85,
86], and to monitor mixing [87], leavening, and staling [78].
Recent developments concerned the acquisition of information on dough via
interactions that occur between the molecules and the electromagnetic waves in the
infrared medium (MIR, mid-infrared spectroscopy). Nuclear magnetic resonance
(NMR) was also used for baked good processing. It was applied to monitor the dis-
tribution and mobility of the water, to investigate the structure of the product and
track the staling phenomenon [88–90].
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Chapter 3

Technology of Baked Goods

Maria Ambrogina Pagani, Gabriella Bottega, and Manuela Mariotti

Baked goods are a heterogeneous market category of products. The high

M.A. Pagani (*) • G. Bottega • M. Mariotti (*)

M. Gobbetti and M. Gänzle (eds.), Handbook on Sourdough Biotechnology, 47

3.2 Wheat, a Preferred Raw Material for Bread

The choice of ingredients is of fundamental importance for the production of leavened

3.2.1 The Milling Process

3.2.1.1 Milling Optimization and Innovation

carry out a precise ejection, enabling the accurate separation of contaminants in a

Debranning and Pearling

Debranning technology, also referred to as pre-processing or pearling, is currently

3.2.2 Improvement of Flour Performance

3.3 Other Raw Materials

3.3.2 Other Ingredients: Salt, Sugar and Fats

3.3.3 Leavening Agents

3.3.3.1 Baker’s Yeast

3.3.3.2 Chemical Agents

3.4 Baked Goods Making Process

3.4.1 Discontinuous Processes (Straight-Dough and Sponge-

Bread making, both at artisan and industrial levels, is traditionally a discontinuous

are maintained at controlled temperature and humidity conditions for approxi-

3.4.2 Continuous Processes

3.4.3 The Main Stages of the Process

– Sponge 3.0 ÷ 10.0a 25 ÷ 75a

– Sourdough 3.2 ÷ 3.7 35 ÷ 40

Fig. 3.6 Carousel system (Courtesy of Sancassiano S.p.A., Italy)

Fermentation and Prooﬁng Rooms

3.4.3.3 Dough Makeup Operations

physical stresses associated with compression, followed by cutting and shearing.

Fig. 3.7 Modern rack oven (Courtesy of Rational AG, Germany)

Fig. 3.8 Artisanal bakery (Courtesy of Wizard Bakery Company, Germany)

3.4.4 The Production Units

3.4.4.1 Artisanal Production

The equipment of a modern artisanal baking laboratory is shown in Fig. 3.8.

3.4.4.2 Industrial Production

3.5 Quality Assessment of Dough Baking Properties

3.5.1 Rheology and Descriptive Empirical Measurements

3.5.1.1 Quality Assessment of Flour and Descriptive Rheology of Dough

use of descriptive empirical measurements of rheological properties was observed.

Fig. 3.9 Representation of

increasing application. The instrument provides information about a long list of

3.5.1.2 Fundamental Measurements

The study of the effective mechanical properties of dough concerns fundamental

3.5.2 Innovative Approaches

3.5.2.1 Image Analysis

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M.A. Pagani () • G. Bottega • M. Mariotti ()