Unit –II

Historical experience of the site development.

• Historical earthquakes is a list of significant earthquakes known to have occurred prior

to the beginning of the 20th century. As the events listed here occurred before
routine instrumental recordings, they rely mainly on the analysis of written sources.

• An earthquake is just the shaking of the ground. It happens naturally. It happens as a

result of energy being released, which makes waves move in all directions.

• When an earthquake occurs, the Earth vibrates, producing seismic waves that are
detected by seismographs.

• Every day, moderate-sized earthquakes take place. On the other hand, powerful
tremors that inflict extensive destruction are less frequent. Around plate boundaries,
particularly along convergent boundaries, earthquakes are more frequent. More
earthquakes occur in the area of India where the Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate
clash. Consider the Himalayan region, for instance.

List of earthquake listed in the world .

• 1. Valdivia, Chile 22 May 1960 (magnitude 9.5)

• 2. Prince William Sound, Alaska 28 March 1964 (magnitude 9.2)

• 3. Sumatra, Indonesia 26 December 2004 (magnitude 9.1)

• 4. Sendai, Japan 11 March 2011 (magnitude 9.0

• 5. Kamchatka, Russia 4 November 1952 (magnitude 9.0)

• 6. Bio-Bio, Chile 27 February 2010 (magnitude 8.8)

• 7. Off the coast of Ecuador 31 January 1906 (magnitude 8.8)

• 8. Rat Islands, Alaska 2 April 1965 (magnitude 8.7)

• 9. Sumatra, Indonesia 28 March 2005 (magnitude 8.6)

 • 10. Assam - Tibet 15 August 1950 (magnitude 8.6)

List of earthquake in India .

• Cutch Earthquake (1819) which was 8.3 magnitude

• Assam Earthquake (1897)

• Bihar-Nepal Earthquake (1934) of 8.4 magnitude

• Koyna Earthquake (1967) of 6.5 magnitude

• Uttarkashi (1991) of 6.6 magnitude

• Killari (1993) of 6.4 magnitude

• Bhuj (2001) of 7.7 magnitude

• Jammu Kashmir (2005)

Site selection and Site development.

Site selection is the process of examining multiple options and assessing their relative
advantages and disadvantages. Site selection comes after the needs assessment is completed.
Selecting a site before the needs assessment, you may compromise on key design aspects due
to site limitations that too in seismic areas design consideration is more . The site selection
process involves the following interrelated tasks

• In designing a earthquake prone area we need to consider proper planning and

settlement

• First hazard research to be done before choosing a site.

• Ground motion checking whether the earthquakes can occur in future time.

• Assessment record of earth should be taken (overall assessment of site

• Choice of materials used for site also taken consideration.

Macro level: by knowing the position of the site tectonic plate

• Identifying the seismic

• Hilly rocks are to be identified in the earthquake area

Micro level:
 • Trees are not close to the plantation

• Mild slope.

• Far from river bank

• No danger of landslides.

Potential Hazard Sites.

Steep and Unstable slopes.

 Buildings should not be constructed near steep and unstable slopes. cliffs made of soft
or crumbly, clay loam, deposit materials should be avoided

River banks

 Buildings should be far from the enough from the river to avoid flash flood and
earthquake damage .

Geological sites .

Geological fault and ruptured areas are usually permanent, deep, active should be avoided
from the construction .
The site or building should be Constructed above 250 m .

Site planning and development .

The main considerations should be taken while designing the sites :

 The steep slopes .

 Filled soil .
 Raft pile foundations .

The buildings should be sufficiently away from the steep slopes . the sites located on or very
close to steep slopes.

Even if the building is good earth construction, they are prone to landslides, especially in the
earthquake prone regions.

Generally, Himalayas regions to particularly prone to landslides. such landslides often prove to
be more disastrous then earthquake event. so, choosing near to the site development should
be taken consideration.

Earthquake effects on ground

The Earthquake effects are basically classified

as

• Soil Liquefaction

• Landslides

• Surface Rupture

Surface rupture.

• An earthquake can push and pull the ground, tearing the surface and pushing the
ground apart and upward.
• These are known as “surface ruptures.” A surface rupture may occur suddenly during
an earthquake, or it can happen more slowly—in either case, surface ruptures often
happen along preexisting faults.

• When the focus of the earthquake is shallow, a fault rupture may break through to the
Earth's surface, deforming the ground and producing deep ruts, steep banks and
lateral displacements. These ground deformations can cause severe damage to
structures, roads, railways and buried infrastructure, such as pipelines.

Liquefaction.

• Liquefaction takes place when loosely packed, water-logged sediments at or near the
ground surface lose their strength in response to strong ground shaking. Liquefaction
occurring beneath buildings and other structures can cause major damage during
earthquakes.

• During an earthquake, the shaking ground may become much less solid as soil and
groundwater combine to form a material that acts like a liquid. This process is called
liquefaction.

• Soil liquefaction has been

known to cause damage to
buildings, bridges, dams,
highways, pipelines, and
other critical elements of
infrastructure. Most
liquefaction damage is
associated with ground
failure, i.e., permanent
lateral and vertical
deformations

Landslide.

Landslides can be initiated in slopes already on the verge of movement by rainfall,

snowmelt, changes in water level, stream erosion, changes in ground water, earthquakes,
volcanic activity, disturbance by human activities, or any combination of these factors.

 Landslides, also known as landslips are several forms of mass wasting that may
include a wide range of ground movements, such as rockfalls, deep-seated slope
failures, mudflows, and debris flows Landslides occur in a variety of environments,
 characteriz
ed by either steep or gentle slope gradients, from mountain ranges to coastal cliffs
or even underwater, in which case they are called submarine landslides.
 Gravity is the primary driving force for a landslide to occur, but there are other
factors affecting slope stability that produce specific conditions that make a slope
prone to failure.
 In many cases, the landslide is triggered by a specific event (such as a heavy rainfall,
an earthquake, a slope cut to build a road, and many others)
 Landslides are classified by their type of movement. The four main types of
movement are:
 falls
 topples
 slides (rotational and translational)
 flows
 Landslides can be classified as just one of these movements or, more commonly, can
be a mixture of several. Geologists also refer to the type of material involved in the
movement, e.g. rock, debris, earth.

Behavior of different types of building structures, equipment’s, lifelines, collapse patterns.

The mass of the building being designed controls seismic design in addition to the building
stiffness, because earthquake induces inertia forces that are proportional to the building mass.

Designing buildings to behave elastically during earthquakes without damage may render the
project.
Geometrical behavior of earthquake in the buildings

• Deficient in column expected to be brittle damage in earthquake .

• Short columns are one of the main reasons of damages of building in earthquake .

Behavior of earth quake in masonry Structures.

• Masonry structures are most vulnerable during earthquake. Performance and behavior
of masonry structures during earthquakes is discussed in this article.

• Many human fatalities have depended on masonry constructions from the past. The
condition is same at the present.

• As the main problem concerned is earthquakes, it is important to improve the seismic

behavior of masonry buildings.

• The most common materials used for the construction of masonry buildings are brick
and hollow concrete block.

• The behavior of masonry structures during earthquake depend on the properties of its
materials like mortar and masonry units.

• The properties of these materials vary due to variation in raw materials and
construction methods, which in turn depends on the source of the resources.

• Burnt clay bricks are most commonly used for construction of masonry building. These
are naturally porous and they absorb water. Excessive porosity is harmful to good
masonry behavior because bricks absorb water from the adjoining mortar.
 • This results in a poor bonding between brick and mortar causing difficulty in positioning
masonry units.

• To avoid this problem, bricks with low porosity are to be used, and they must be soaked
in water before

• . This would minimize the amount of water drawn away from the mortar.
Various mortars are used in building construction, e.g., mud, cement-sand, or cement-
sand-lime.

Behavior pattern of walls.

• The ground motion or ground vibrations due to earthquakes results in higher amount of
inertia forces at the floor or at the location of the mass of the whole building.

• A building will remain safe, if the forces emerged finds a path to transfer into the
ground, without any obstruction which in turn minimizes the damage or collapse.

• Among the elements that involve in transferring these forces i.e. roof, wall and
foundation, it is seen that walls are the one found most vulnerable to the damage (by
the horizontal forces emerged due to the earthquake forces.

• The ground can shake simultaneously in horizontal as well as vertical directions.

• Hence both the possibilities have a chance to occur. Horizontal inertia forces evolved
because of ground motion are the most damaging response of normal masonry
buildings.
 • The transfer of the forces can take place from the roofs then to the walls. This transfer
of horizontal forces can take place either in weak or stronger direction

Remedies for prevent damage.

• When a measure to tie up the walls together like a box is not undertaken, there arise
chances of the toppling of walls that are loaded in the weaker direction.

• So, the remedy for this problem is

to join the walls together which
will ensure good seismic
performance.

• This procedure would help the

walls loaded in a weaker direction
to seek the lateral resistance that
is offered by the walls that are
loaded in the stronger direction.

Behavior of non-structural elements like services, fixtures in earthquake-prone zones

In earthquake time not only the building experiences the Damage in structural and masonry
wise .

 Also the services interconnected with the building cause serious damages and leads to
other serious damage to the occupants.
 A building is considered to be safe, only when both of the following can resist
earthquake ground motions occurring at its base without any loss, namely
 People in the building,
 (b) Contents of buildings and services & utilities in the building.
  In the construction of a building, first the reinforced concrete or structural steel
members are made, and then the building is finished with contents of buildings,
appendages to buildings and services & utilities

With
Structures
services

Between structural and non-structural .

When the ground shakes, inertia forces are induced in a building at all locations where mass is
present.

These inertia forces flow through the building from various mass points through horizontally
and vertically oriented structural members to the foundations, and eventually to the
soil/ground underneath.

Chains of structural members form passages within a building, through which these inertia
forces flow from their origin to the soil underneath ; these chains are called Load Paths.

Characteristics of NSE .

Accelerations imposed on NSEs are higher than those on buildings, primarily due to the
amplification of the ground motion along the height of the building;

(2) NSEs do not possess much ductility to dissipate the energy received during strong shaking.
Ductility of NSEs depends largely on their internal design and on design of their connections
with SEs;
(3) Damping associated with NSEs is low;

(4) NSEs can undergo resonance, when their natural frequencies are close to the fundamental
and other dominant frequencies of the building;

(5) Generally, NSEs are connected at multiple points to the SEs; and (6) Responses of NSEs
under earthquake shaking are different from those of SEs.

Rooftop Water Tanks

 Two types of small capacity water tanks are normally fixed on top of RC buildings,
namely high density plastic (HDP) tanks rested directly on roof slab and RC tanks rested
on plain concrete pedestals or masonry piers.
 Tanks may be of small capacity, but their connections with the roof slab system should
be formally conceived, designed and constructed. Also, such tanks experience far more
damage as these behave as cantilevers and cannot mobilize large energy absorption.

Services damage
The services damage like utilities , serves room , hvac equipment , and machineries in
the building .
False Ceiling , sprinklers and pipelines are other non structural elemets in the building
which can cause huge damage of the occupants in the earthquake time .

Primary Hazard, when the NSE can get damaged, can impair its own function and. For
instance, a window glass in the upper elevation of a multi-storey building can break, if it
is subjected to large in-plane deformation, fall down to the ground from that elevation,
and injure/kill persons walking on the sides of the building.
In another instance, toppling of unreinforced masonry parapet wall or chimney of a
house can harm life of persons below

(b) Secondary Hazard, when the NSE can cause such actions that lead to yet another
disaster involving safety of people’s lives, building and its contents. For instance,
toppling of chemical bottles can lead to spill of chemicals in a laboratory, which, in turn,
can cause fires .