History and Philosophy Module 2

MUFULIRA PROFESSIONAL COLLEGE
HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION MODULE 2
MUFULIRA PROFESSIONAL COLLEGE
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
Copyright
©2015 MUFULIRA PROFESSIONAL COLLEGE
Acknowledgements
Table of Contents
About this Module 1
How this Module is structured....................................................................................................1
Course overview 5
Welcome to the Origins and developmentof Western education……………………………….5

Course Overview:…………………………….............................................................................5
Introduction to Western Education.......................................................................................….5
Is History and Philosophy Of Education: Introduction to History of Education the course for
you?..............................................................................................................................................5
Learning Objectives: ..................................................................................................................6
Timeframe: 6 Hours....................................................................................................................6
Study skills: ……………………………………………………………………………………7

1. Group discussion
2. Tutorials
3. Assignments
4. Presentations
5. Research/Web search
6. Consultancy
Need help? Yes.................................................................................................................8
Assignments: Two(2)..................................................................................................................9
Assessments: Two(2) Tests & Promotional Exam.....................................................................9
Getting around this Module 10

Table of Contents
Unit 1 11
Origins and development of Western Education......................................................................11

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………...11
Early Greek and Roman education..........................................................................................12
Classical Education Theories....................................................................................................18
Unit summary…………………………………………………………………………………22
Assessment……………………………………………………………………………………………23
Unit 2 26
Western/Missionary education in Northen Rhodesia................................................................26

Introduction...............................................................................................................................26
Missionaries and Education......................................................................................................27
The British South African Company (BSA Co) Policy on education in Northern
Rhodesia....................................................................................................................................30
Unit summary............................................................................................................................37
Assessment................................................................................................................................37
Unit 3 38
Education in Zambia After Independence.................................................................................38

Introduction...............................................................................................................................38
Major Education Policies in Zambia After Independence........................................................43
Education Reforms…………..……………………………………………………………………….. 50
Unit summary…………………………………………………………………………………………55
Assessment……………………………………………………………………………………………56
Unit 4 57
Introduction to Philosophy........................................................................................................57
Introduction...............................................................................................................................57
Meaning of philosophy.............................................................................................................58
Branches of philosophy.............................................................................................................58
Unit summary............................................................................................................................64
Assessment................................................................................................................................65
References……………………………………………………………………………………………..67
About this Module
This module has been produced by Mufulira Professional College. All Modules produced by
Mufulira Professional College are structured in the same way, as outlined below.
How this Module is structured
The course overview
The course overview gives you a general introduction to the course.

Information contained in the course overview will help you
determine:
 If the course is suitable for you.
 What you will already need to know.
 What you can expect from the course.
 How much time you will need to invest to complete the course.
The overview also provides guidance on:
 Study skills.
 Where to get help.
 Course and assessments.
 Activity icons.
 Units.
We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully

before starting your study.
The module content
The module is broken down into units. Each unit comprises:
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EDUCATION
 An introduction to the unit content.
 Unit outcomes.
 New terminology.
 Core content of the unit with a variety of learning activities.
 A unit summary.
 Assessments.
Resources:
Your comments
After completing this module, we would appreciate it if you would

take a few moments to give us your feedback on any aspect of this
module. Your feedback might include comments on:
 module content and structure.
 module reading materials and resources.
 Course assignments.
 Course assessments.
 Course duration.
 Course support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.)
Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance

this course.
2
Course overview
Welcome to
This course is intended for secondary school Teachers. The duration of this programmeis three
years.
The course covers a wide rande of topics. The topics hinges on the education as well as
philosophy.As a student, you will be expected to know the background of education in general,
the link btween education and philosophy and the various theories of philosophies. These will
enable you to understnd and enhance your pedagical abilities. You can have all the knowledge
about your core subjects but the actual delivery of these will largely depend on the knowledge
that you will have obtained in this subject area, offcourse in combination with other education
areas like Sociology and psychology.You can only understand something better if you know its
History. Similarly , you will become a more effective and better teacher if you get to know
about the classical philosophers on education, the influence of the pure philosophies on
education and so on.
Is the course for you?
This course is intended for people who have five O’ Levels including a merit in the teaching
Subjects. It is open to all who wish to take up teaching as their carrier.
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EDUCATION
Course Learning Objectives:
Upon completion of this course, a SSBAT :
 Demostrate understanding of History and Philosophy of Education
 Explain the meaning of formal, informal, non-formal education
Objectives  Discribe the aims of education, structure and organization of traditional

African/Zambian Education
 Explain the appropriateness of philosophy of education in Teacher

education
 Discuss critically the aims, structure, and organisation of Missionary and

Colonial Education in Zambia
 Explain the History of education in post Independence Zambia in terms of

polies, reforms, successes, and failures.
Timeframe
Expected duration of this course is 3 Years
You require 48 hours contact hours with your lecturers
How long?
Study skills
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As an adult learner your approach to learning will be different to that
from your school days: you will choose what you want to study, you will
have professional and/or personal motivation for doing so and you will
most likely be fitting your study activities around other professional or
domestic responsibilities.
Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a

consequence, you will need to consider performance issues related to
time management, goal setting, stress management, etc. Perhaps you will
also need to reacquaint yourself in areas such as essay planning, coping
with exams and using the web as a learning resource.
Your most significant considerations will be time and space i.e. the time
you dedicate to your learning and the environment in which you engage
in that learning.
We recommend that you take time now—before starting your self-study

—to familiarize yourself with these issues. There are a number of
excellent resources on the web. A few suggested links are:
 http://www.how-to-study.com/
The “How to study” web site is dedicated to study skills resources.

You will find links to study preparation (a list of nine essentials for a
good study place), taking notes, strategies for reading text books,
using reference sources, test anxiety.
 http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html
This is the web site of the Virginia Tech, Division of Student Affairs.
You will find links to time scheduling (including a “where does time
go?” link), a study skill checklist, basic concentration techniques,
control of the study environment, note taking, how to read essays for
analysis, memory skills (“remembering”).
 http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php
Another “How to study” web site with useful links to time

management, efficient reading, questioning/listening/observing skills,
getting the most out of doing (“hands-on” learning), memory building,
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EDUCATION
tips for staying motivated, developing a learning plan.
The above links are our suggestions to start you on your way. At the time
of writing these web links were active. If you want to look for more go to
www.google.com and type “self-study basics”, “self-study tips”, “self-
study skills” or similar.
Need help?
A course website will be availed to you in due course

The following is the ODL contact numbers. +260 969 852235
Please be advised that you will only be attended to during normal
Help working hours (08.00hours to 17.00hours) Monday to Friday
The resource centre is located at the campus hostels in town. The
resource centre manager and contact details will be availed to you
in due course
For technical issues during residential school (computer problems,
website access etc) contact the ICT Specialist on the ODL contact
number.
Mufulira Professional College
P.o Box 40297
Mufulira.
professionalcollege@hotmail.co.uk
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Assignments
There will be two assignments of equal weight for this module

All assignments will be submitted on arrival during the residential
school
The assignments should be submitted to the ODL office
Assignments
There is no order of submission as all assignments will be
submitted during residential school
Assessments
You will be required to write to 2 Assignments, 2 Tests and 1 Promotion

Exam in this course
Assessments There will be both self-assessment and teacher marked assessments

throughout the modules.
Assessments will take place at the end of each Module and Assignments
will be given to students when they come to collect Modules.
Students will submit assignments at the beginning of residential school.
All assignments will be mark by the lecturer before the residential school
and marked assignments will be given to you on arrival and marks given
the HOD.
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EDUCATION
Getting around this MODULE 2
Margin icons
While working through this MODULE 2 you will notice the frequent use
of margin icons. These icons serve to “signpost” a particular piece of text,
a new task or change in activity; they have been included to help you to
find your way around this MODULE 2.
A complete icon set is shown below. We suggest that you familiarize

yourself with the icons and their meaning before starting your study.
Activity Assessment Assignment Case study
Discussion Group activity Help Note it!
Outcomes Reading Reflection Study skills
Summary Terminology Time Tip
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Unit 1: EARLY GREEK AND ROMAN EDUCATION
Introduction
In this Unit, we will look at the History of education in Greece and Rome. We will
study how education in these countries developed, the type of education that went on,
and the similarities and differences of these two types of education.
Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:
 Trace the origin of Western education.
 Describe the Spartan and Athenian education and the
Objectives influence of this education on these societies.
 Identify the early philosophers and their contribution to

education.
classical: Original or traditional standard for

something
Terminology remarkable: Outstanding
sparta: A city-state in ancient Greece
patriotic: loyal
franchise: The right to vote
puritanical:
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10 Upon completion of this unit you will be able to: Weste
Education in Northern Rhodesia
hindrance: Impediment or obstacle to something.
allegiance: loyalty
rigorous: intensive
HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN GREECE
The concept of education had its origins in the classical traditions of Greece and
Roman societies. Even though both of these traditions were different to some
extent they made a a remarkable contribution to Westrn civilisation in terms of
education and culture of the two socities. However, this impact later spread to the
rest of the world and affected other cultures as well far beyond Greece and Rome.
To date the Greek and Roman education ideas are being practiced the world over!
Ancient Greece, contributed more in education especially the following

disciplines:
a) Art and Literature
b) Philosophy and Science and
c) Politics
The Romans on the other hand, contributed more in the following areas:
a) Traditions of Lwa and Engineering
b) Politics type of education
The Greeks and their new concept of life and Man.
The Greeks believed in the following concepts and ideas:
a) For the Greeks, study and education became a means of achieving

progress, change and development. The Greeks were the first creative
thinkers because the introduced for the first time ideas of scientific spirit
such as the spirit of independent inquiry.
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b) The Greeks also originated the concept of democratic principles and ideas;
establishing formal education as being an essential part of the sophisticated
and civilized existence.
c) The Greeks were the first people to see education as the basic
institutionalized means of dealing with life, not only in the practical and
physical sense but as well as in the spiritual and philosophical aspect of a
human being.
The composition of the Greek Nation
The Greek Nation was made up of a mixture of different racial groups

commonly known as Aryan tribes. These later became known as the ‘Hellens.’
These people formed their own City-States and lived in separate and
independent political units. These Ciy-States were later combined to form two
City-States called Sparta on one hand and Athens on the other hand. The two
main City-States were regarded as examples of two different philosophies of
Hellenic culture and education.
The Spartan System of Education.
The Spartans were the branch of the Hellenic race. The aim of the Spartan
education was to ensure that each citizen was molded for the service to the
nation or state. Some features of the Sparta education were:
 The Spartan boy received his education at home where it was closely
controlled
 Strictly speaking, Spartan education was controlled by the demands of

the State itself.
 The child was subjected to extremes of hardships and fasting. He

received very food and was exposed to harsh weather with very scanty
clothing. All this was to mean to overcome all sorts of hardship and
remove fear. These elements were meant to cultivate the habits of
obedience, silence and respect through the demands of strict discipline
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 The Spartan boy was enrolled in a public school where he learned under
the strict supervision of older boys and state or government officials.
This went on until he reached the age of eighteen. Under public
education institutions, conditions were made very severe and as a result
Sparta developed into a military state.
The boys were trained in physical exercises, drills and games. Reading
and writing were taught but only to a limited extent. Other subjects
included stories, music and songs which were designed to encourage
bravery, patriotism and devotion to duty.
 From the age between eighteen and twenty, the Spartan man took an oath
of allegiance to military duties or became engaged in warfare as a
warrior.
Girls had their own education which took place at home. The girls were
organized into ‘packs.’ Their education was directed mainly to become wives,
bear and raise and patriotic sons for the Spartan military state. In order to
produce strong children, the girls were made to go through rigorous and
strenuous physical training like gymnastics. In addition they taught the
importance of group spirit.
The sole criterion of the puritanical and single minded education of the Spartan
education was to serve the interests of the State. Vices such as lying, deception,
cheating was considered as virtues if they were directed towards enemies of the
State.
This made Sparta to remain for many years as the most powerful city of the
whole Greek world.
The Athenian system of education
The Athenian education put emphasis on the following things:
a) Individual excellence and love for the knowledge for the sake of Athens.
b) It aimed at a balanced harmonious interaction of the mind and body.
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c) Education was therefore designed to produce a sophisticated and well
cultured person rather than the one who was interested in matters of
earning a living.
d) The subjects taught included music, art, literature, astronomy,

philosophy and pure Mathematics.
e) Athenian education was designed to suit the life style of the privileged
class which could afford the luxuries of leisure, sport and art as well as
the development of the mind.
f) Children entered school at the age seven years and unlike in the Spartan
education, the decision was left to the parents to do so.
Other features of Athenian education.
The Athenian children’s’ early education consisted of gymnastics, the skills of

reading, writing and numeracy. Loyalty and honesty were valued more than
mere intellectual ability. The Athenians strongly believed that the pre-requisite
for good citizenship was broadly based on education tailored for individual
development. Further, they believed in power of wisdom and a good person.
This meant a balanced personality with emphasis on morals and goodness. The
democratic nature of Athens was unique in that it offered its enemy citizens the
right to vote and to be voted for.
The Athenian education was not state sponsored and that everyone was free to
set up a school. There were no state regulations or control over what happened
in the schools. Of course the education offered was aimed at serving the state
and developing the intellect of the learner. It was book learning and first started
in the home.
Athenian was indeed a democratic State in which the citizens enjoyed their
franchise, including the enemy citizens.
EDUCATION IN ANCIENT ROME
The development of education in Ancient Rome can be classified can be divided

into three segments according to the three political systems that Rome went
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through. These were the Monarchy, the Republic and the Empire. The first phase
was the traditional education era, followed by the Greek culture and thirdly
assimilation and transformation of the imported system. Basically, the Roman
education system was aimed at learning simple practical skills aimed at gaining
knowledge, farming skills, and offering military and public service to the state.
It was not compulsory to educate children but it was done for them to gain
knowledge for them to live in happiness and prosperity in their future lives.
Girls education included skills like weaving, spinning, cooking and baby-sitting.
Very few girls had any chance to learn basic skills like reading and writing.
Higher education was not allowed for girls. For instance, the girls were not
expected to learn subjects like Mathematics and rhetoric as these were the
preserves for boys.
Boys were meant to learn reading, writing, law, morality and physical
education. Corporal punishment was allowed to curb misbehavior and poor
performance.
The second part of Roman education (Akinpelu, 1981) was the introduction of
the Greek culture. This was after Roman conquered Greece in 3BC. Roman
conquerors brought with them books on Greek civilization and culture.
Quitilian
Roman education was pioneered by two great Roman Philosophers; Quintilian

and Cicero. He was born between 35 and 40AD in the town of Calagurris (now
callahora) in Spain. Quintilian was a lawyer, teacher and orator of rhetoric. He
died in Rome in 90AD. He wrote a book called Institution Oratoria (The Orators
Education). Quintilian believed in eloquent speaking and perfect character. On
education, Quintilian recommended the following:
 At the age of seven or earlier, the child had to attend pre-school (Ludus)
and emphasis was on play. This was equivalent to today’s primary
school.
 From Ludus, the child proceeded to Grammaticus to language. This was

equivalent to post-primary school.
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 At the age of twelve to fourteen, the child was sent to secondary school
where he learnt logic and Mathematics, and then training from about
sixteen to seventeen years was focused on rhetoric.
 He emphasized on rewarding of learners for their effort.
 The role of a teacher was to possess parental attitude so as to foster

good and honorable behavior in a child.
 He was a great believer in the freedom of the child in learning and was
against corporal punishment.
Cicero
Cicero was born in 106 BC and died in 43BC in Italy. He is believed to have
been a great Roman Orator and statesman. He had studied Rhetoric, Greek and
Latin literature in Rome and Athens. In his life he spent a good time writing
philosophy. The most important philosophical idea he came up with was the
work in his book, ‘Latin officia,’ (translated as Our obligation to those we have
personal relationships with), this according to Hooker, 1996. His main works in
education were; ‘Brutus,’ and ‘De oratore.’In teaching, Cicero is the one who
came up the concept of introduction, main body and conclusion. He encouraged
discovery learning and memorization.
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CLASSICAL EDUCATIONAL THEORIES
SOCRATES (469-399BC)
Socrates is regarded to be the greatest Sophist of the 5th Century. He was one
teacher that did not impart ant message to hid learners. All he did was sit by the
market place or in the gymnasia of Athens arguing and asking people questions
on various issues. He asked his pupils to think out their own views and answers.
His popular analogy regarding education was that of a midwife. He likened a
teacher to a mid-wife who is old and sterile and that her only function is to assist
a pregnant mother to bring out her child into the world. By this he meant that the
good teacher is one that refuses to indoctrinate the pupil but instead he should
solicit the students own conceptions.
In as far as Socrates was concerned; the greatest obstacle facing the teacher is the
pupils’ intellectual pride. He asserts that the pupils’ mind is confused while he
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thinks it is clear; he knows nothing but he believes he knows everything. The first
thing to do according to Socrates to remove this impediment in learning is to
overcome ones’ pride. Socrates, by use of a delicate irony showed his pupils in a
conclusive way how confused they were. Once he achieved this feat, the pupils
would become humble and were willing to learn. He wrote nothing and
established to learning institution. The whole purpose of his method was to lead
the learner to a better understanding of things. Hence he is known as the father of
the Enquiry method which is also popularly known as the Socratic Method.
PLATO (436-388BC)
Socrates was an Idealist and was born in 428 BC of Athenian parents whose
names were Ariston and Perictione. Plato was a pupil to Socrates. Plato’s theories
on education belonged to the classical era. He wrote two classic books,
Platogutus and The Republic and the Laws. He founded a school called ‘the
Academy which offered a 10-15 years high education programme. Plato’s aim of
education was to lead person form ignorance. The subjects that were taught in
this school included Mathematical reasoning, Geography, Astronomy, Music,
Science and Athletics for character building.
Through this educational programme, Plato hoped that the good of form would
ultimately be achieved; He and his followers strongly believed that the form of
good to be the single universal principle from which all truth is derived.
His focus was on intellectual learning. Therefore students in a platonic school

were carefully selected. Learners with high intellectual capability towards
abstract thought were chosen for studies that would enable them develop their
reasoning power. Those less capable of philosophical inquiry were offered
vocational training. Plato’s educational methodology was ,’It is not putting
knowledge in a person’s soul as one puts water into an empty pot, but rather
aiding the individual to discover knowledge through his own reasoning.
PLATO’S IDEAL STATE
Plato’s education theory resulted into what he termed ideal state. The meaning of
this is that his educational system that he proposed must lead to this ideal state.
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He therefore divided that State into three classes. These were, The Appetite,’
were dominated by desire, pleasure. They included businessmen, laborers and
farmers. The Spirited were also called the auxiliaries referred to the military
class.as those full of energy and possessed courage. The Rational were those
ruling class also referred to as Philosopher-ruler.
Plato designed the educational process into stages. Each stage corresponded with
the level of education that each class was expected to attain. The following were
the specific stages of education.
a) From birth to the age of six years, the child was to be under the care of
the mother in the home. The state equally provided state nurseries for
children.
b) Between the age of six and ten, children were expected to go through
music schools and Gymnastics was provided to harden them. In today’s
education system this was equivalent to universal primary education.
c) From the age of ten to eighteen, the warriors and philosopher rulers
received military training. This would correspond to modern grammar
school today.
After this, the two upper classes would then go for national service.
d) The governing class (philosopher-ruler) continued its formal education

from the age of twenty and above.
All these classes were to serve the interest of the state at various levels and roles.
Plato advocated that the state was responsible for the education of its citizens.
ARISTOTLE.
Aristotle was yet another great Greek Philosopher who lived around the same
time as Plato and Socrates. Aristotle like Plato wrote a lot and taught in a school.
He founded the Lyceum institution, regarded as one of the oldest universities in
the western world. Aristotle formulated five main aims of education and these
were as follows:
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1. According to him the first aim of education is to help the child to realize
the ideal pattern or the best of its kind which that of a full grown happy
adult person. By happiness, Aristotle did mean mere happiness like the
satisfaction of needs such as the necessities of life but he referred
‘happiness,’ to being a state of achieving the ultimate end or purpose of
human existence and human actions.
2. Aristotle believed that education should develop the child so that he/she
may become the best of his/her type.
3. Another aim of education is to develop the ability of a person to reason,

since that is the best and highest element in human kind.
4. Aristotle also stated that education should inculcate in all people the
wisdom required for political life.
5. The fifth aim is to foster moral conduct and concern for the social
welfare of fellow citizens in individuals who are capable of it.
From the above stated aims, Aristotle came up with an education programme for
pupils of all ages. These pupils of Aristotle were called ‘educates.’ The stages of
education according to Aristotle were as follows.
a) From the age of seven right up to puberty, the curriculum included

fundamentals of gymnastics, music, reading, writing and basic
Mathematics.
b) From puberty to the age of seventeen, education should be concerned

with exact knowledge, carrying on with Music exploring grammar,
literature and Geography.
c) In young manhood, higher education is to be attained. The student had

to develop encyclopedic and intellectual interest in biological and
physical sciences, ethics, rhetoric and philosophy.
Other education beliefs and Ideas
Aristotle believed in a liberal as opposed to a vocational or utilitarian education.

He also invented the idea of separate Sciences, each having distinct principles
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and dealings with different subject matter. He equally believed in freedom of

education; everyone has to be given an opportunity to develop his talents to the
fullest without any hindrance. Lastly, he was a strong opponent that the State
should be in full control of education.
ISOCRATES
Isocrates was a student of both Socrates and Plato. He believed in an education

programme of study that included not only gymnastics and music but also
literature. According to him, education programs should also include Homeric
classics, study of rhetoric consisting of five or six years of theory. The student
was to be exposed to an analysis of the great classics, imitation the classics and
practical exercises.
Unit summary
In this unit you learned about the origins and development of

western education .We looked at the early Greek and Roman
educational systems, and the classical theories as propounded
Summary
by the great Greek and Roman Philosophers. These laid the
foundation of morden education. Most of the education
practices that prevail today in our education are derived from
these early pioneers on education.
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Assessment
Assessment
Activity:
Having gone through this unit you can now attempt to answer the
following questions:
1.Compare the Spartan and Athenian education, citing the major

differences and similarities.
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2. Explain Plato’s ideal state and how he aligned this idea to

Education theory.
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3. Outline Cicero’s ideas of Roman education.

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This unit should take six hours to study including
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READINGS:
1.Msango & others, 2000: Philosophy and Education, Vol.1
Unit 2
Western/Missionary Education in Northern Rhodesia
Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:
1. Explain the reasons behind its introduction in Northern

Rhodesia.
2. Describe the role of the British South African Company in

Objectives
education.
3. Demonstrate the role played by the Phelps-Stoke Commission.
4. Identify the missionary settlements and the mission societies

who established them.
indigenous: Native/local
intense: Strong.
Terminology
evangelization: To spread the word of God
Royal charter: a special document issued by the British

government to allow the BSA Company to rule
southern African territories.
alien: Something new
doctrine: Belief concerning religion

pioneer:
Pace setter for something,
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In this unit we are going to look at advent of western or missionary education in

Northern Rhodesia. We will also study the development of education under the
missionaries and how this education fared under the BSA Company and the British
colonial government
Missionaries and Education
We should understand that western education was initially introduced in Northern

Rhodesia by Christian Missionaries from Europe. The missionaries were bent on
spreading Christianity to the indigenous people .MJ Kelly (2010) states, ’the
missionaries were motivated to give formal education (literacy, numeracy) so that
people could read the Bible (evangelization) and spread the gospel to others…’’ The
missionaries as we saw in module one looked down on Africans as uncivilized simply
because they didn’t know how to read and write. They did not appreciate the African
way of living and did not approve the traditions and customs which they deemed
barbaric. With this attitude, the missionaries did not find it easy to covert as many
people as they wanted. Rather it was a slow and at times daunting task for them to do
so as the crash between African tradition and western education became obvious.
Early Missionary Settlements
There were many missionary societies that were involved in setting mission stations in
Rhodesia. The early missionary settlements were started by Frederick Arnot of the
Brethren Missionary. Arnot established a school at Lealui in 1882, but this mission
station was never successful due to poor enrolment. Later Francis Coillard, under the
Paris Evangelical Society set up two mission stations at Sesheke in 1885 and Sefula in
1886. Sefula was meant to provide education only for the Lozi loyal family members.
Between 1882 and 1905, there were numerous missionary activities which led to the
established of several stations throughout Northern Rhodesia. In1887, the London
Mission society (LMS) set up a mission at Fwambo in Mbala but this was later
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abandoned. In 1890, the LMS opened another station Kawimbe and then others at
Kambole, Mporokoso and Mbereshi were opened by 1900.
The Catholics under the White Fathers established Mambwe mission in 1891 and
Chilubula in 1899. Others were Chilubi in 1903 and Kabwiri in Luangwa valley in
1904.
The society of Jesuits too established Chikuni mission in Southern province in 1904.
In the same year the Free Church of Scotland established Lubwa mission under
Reverend Davis Kaunda in Northen province. In 1887, the first mission station by the
Christian Missions in many lands (CMML) was opened at Johnson Falls on the
Luapula River. In 1909, a Methodist station was opened at Kasanga and another at
Kafue in 1916. In 1911, the University mission opened stations at Msoro in Eastern
province and Mapanza in Southern region.
As can be seen, there was an intense missionary activity and many other missionary
societies later came in and settled in the same areas.
Types of education offered by the missionaries
Primary education
This was the starting point. As you may have noticed the first primary school in
Northern Rhodesia was set up at Lealui in Western province and among the Lozi.
However it was not successful as we have already seen above. It was Francois Coillard
who set up more successful schools at Sesheke and Sefula. In these schools religious
education was paramount. Each church taught the Bible according to its doctrine. The
centre of learning was the three Rs; that is reading writing and Arithmetic. English and
some practical subjects like farming and carpentry were also taught.
Secondary education
The first secondary school was established in 1938 by Maxwell Robertson. This was in
form of a hut at Lubwa mission. Later other secondary schools were opened at Kafue,
St. canious and Chipembi and Munali.
Teacher Training
25
Initially, these were non-existent and therefore teaching was poorly done because of
lack of well qualified teachers. Missionaries had to open training centres to improve
the standard of teaching in schools. In 1926, the Primitive Methodists Mission opened
up the Kafue training institute. The Paris missionary Society also opened a teacher
training centre at Sefula. By 1930, eight training colleges were set up. These only
catered for male teacher. However, the London Missionary Society opened one
training college for female teachers at Mbereshi mission station in Luapula province.
Vocational and industrial training
Missionaries went further to set up what we may term advanced vocational and
industrial training centers. These centres offered skills in agriculture, carpentry, brick
laying and other practical skills. Some of these training centres were Madzimoyo in
Eastern province run by the Dutch Reformed church Chikuni Mission in Southern
province run by the Jesuits Fathers and Kafue training center, under the Primitive
Methodists.
Missionary education was funded by the missionaries’ own limited resources as the
British South African Company refused to fund African education. Despite the huge
amount in taxes that it collected from the local.
Resistance to formal education
Missionary education was met with some résistance by African mainly because it alien
to them. The Africans didn’t see any value in reading and writing. They did not want to
align themselves to a new system that discouraged and at the same time despise its
customs like dances, ancestral worship and polygamous marriages. Girls needed to do
house chores and prepare for marriage. Africans were used to their traditional life and
saw no need to send girls to these new schools. To them, it was a sheer waste of time.
Boys too needed carry out tasks that had an immediate benefit to the well-being of the
family like looking after cattle, helping in the fields, fishing and so forth.
Other difficulties that faced missionary pioneers in their effort to spread education
among the Africans were as follows:
 In the early stages, disease hampered the establishment of mission stations

and a good number of them were abandoned.
26
 There were no well qualified teachers because opportunities for obtaining
satisfactory academic qualification. This included the catechists and
evangelists themselves.
 Teachers’ pay was poor and conditions of service were unsatisfactory.
 School infrastructure and equipment like desks, books, etc., were inadequate.
 There was no financial support coming from the BSA administration which
openly refused to fund African education despite the huge amounts of tax
they were collecting from the local people.
 Absenteeism was the order of the day in village schools as parents were not
committed to this new phenomenon. They saw no value in it.
 Language barrier-missionaries had first to learn the local language before

they could start teaching.
 There was lack of cooperation among missionaries themselves as the

emphasis on education was different from one to another.
The British South African company policy on education
The British South Company (BSA) was owned by John Cecil Rhodes, who wanted to
spread British influence in the whole of Central and southern Africa. He formed the
British South African Company in 1889. To achieve his dreams of control, he acquired
a royal charter which allowed his company to rule both Southern Rhodesia and then
North Western Rhodesia. By 1911 North Western and North Eastern Rhodesia were
amalgamated to become Northern Rhodesia. The British South African Company
continued to rule Northern Rhodesia on behalf of the British government.
The BSA Company though being the administrator of Northern Rhodesia did not
support the missionaries in running and funding education. In fact, its attitude towards
education for Africans was full of hostility and apathy. The company had signed the
Lewanika concession in 1900 which granted it mineral rights and land in Barotseland
proper. In return, the company had agreed to give aid and assist in the education and
civilization of the Barotse people.
27
The only school built and funded by the company was the Barotse National School.
Despite the huge sums of money collected from the Africans in form taxation, the BSA
Company did not pay any attention to fund African education in Northern Rhodesia.
J.M Mwanakatwe(2013) says the British South African Company did not provide
direct financial assistance to the Barotse National School, yet it made provision for the
education of European children both in Northern and Southern Rhodesia. The
company insisted that the missionaries had enough resources from their donors to run
education in the country.
Although the company was unwilling to finance education, they wanted total control
over it. To this effect, the B.S.A Company attempted to take control of education
through the1918 Native Schools Proclamation. As expected, there was strong
missionary resistance to this move. By1923, the colonial office took an interest in this
matter. Fortunately, Northern Rhodesia became a British crown in 1924 and assumed
full control of the education system in the territory.
The General Missionary Conference of 1914
This was first conference on education. It was largely organized by the Primitive
Methodists. The aim of the conference was to provide a common curriculum among
the missionaries. At this conference a committee was set up to look into a common
curriculum and uniform salary scale for teachers.
Native Schools proclamation, 1918
This conference defined the terms Teacher and School in the deepest and wider sense.
It made two main recommendations and these were;
a) No school would be opened without the consent of the Administrator
b) Existing schools were to be officially registered within three months of the
proclamation
c) The Administrator would close any school if it did not adhere to the stated
regulations
d) Teachers were to be well qualified and any improper conduct would be
punishable.
28
e) The proclamation empowered Magistrates and Native Commissioners to
inspect schools.
f) The Administrator was given powers to make regulations regarding
teachers qualifications, conduct
Through the 1918 Proclamation, the government was given
sweeping powers to control schools and this did not please the missions.
The General Missionary Conference of 1919
This conference was a reaction by missionaries to the 1918 proclamation in which the
government was to control schools in a large measure and the marriage restrictions for
African teachers. The conference amended this by stating that unmarried or married
teachers unaccompanied by their wives would not be allowed to teach in village
schools where no European was a resident for more than unless with permission form a
magistrate.
The other main resolutions that were at this conference were as follows:
a) The Government would provide grant-in aid to the education work by
missionaries
b) A school code was drawn and it was agreed that missionaries would the
next conference.
The Phelps-Stokes Commission.(1924)

The Chairman of this commission was Dr. Thomas Jesse Jones. The commission was
mandated to carry out three major task according to P. Snelson (2012) and these were
to find out the education needs of the native people, how much these needs were being
met and finally to come up with plans on how to tackle the educational needs of these
native people. The recommendations made by the Phelps –Stoke Commission were as
follows:
a) To appoint a Director of Native education whose role was to coordinate and

unify the educational activities of the missionary societies.
b) To appoint an Advisory Committee on education with representatives from

the Government, missionaries and settlers.
29
c) That the Government should subsidize the education work of the

missionaries and begins to financially support missionary education through
grants in aid. This aid was to be regarded as an investment in colonial
development that would eventually lead to better health and increased and
better welfare for the African people. The aid would also go towards the
maintenance of missionaries in order for them to easily carry out their
education tasks. Priority was to be given to training institutions for teachers
because these were an essential element for society’s survival. It
recommended an education programme that was more suitable and adaptive
to the needs of the local people-an education with emphasis on agriculture.
The General Missionary Conference -1924
In 1924, Northern Rhodesia had become directly under the British government. The
BSA Company reign had finally come to end. According to Snelson the company had
handed over its responsibilities to British government and none regretted its passing.
This is because it had very little in terms of developing education for the indigenous
people. Now that the territory had come directly under the British rule there were high
expectations regarding the educational development of the territory.
The basic principles were to be taken into consideration were as follows:
a) Both primary and secondary education in mission schools was to be run

using State aid.
b) Higher education was to be carried out in Government schools with the aid
of Missionaries. Other considerations were’
 The appointment of a Director of Native Education.
 Appointment of an Advisory Board where missionaries would be

presented.
 Giving of financial aid to central mission schools.
 Financial grants to primary schools.
 Establishing of government high schools.
30
Colonial Education
Under the British colonial government, there was a shift in an attempt to provide
education to Africans. Perhaps the first positive step taken by the colonial government
was the establishment of the Department of Native Education in 1925. The First
Director of the department was G. Latham, while JB Clark was appointed Inspector of
schools for European education. In 1930, the sub department of Native Education was
separated from the Native Affairs Department and its headquarters was moved from
Livingstone to Mazabuka. Latham continued to direct the education affairs of this
department and took drastic measures to improve its operations. Latham used the
meager amount of funds located to African education to try and improve education for
African children. Among other things, he strove to improve training of teachers as
most of the teachers were either uncertified catechists or evangelists without any
training background.
It is imperative to look at colonial education development through the various levels of

the education system at the time.
Primary Education
By 1930, the colonial government had taken full control of three schools in the
country. These were the Barotse National School, and the Jeans and Agriculture
School in in Mazabuka.
Secondary Education
The first government school in Northern Rhodesia was set up at Munali, in Lusaka in
September, 1939. There were only eleven pupils at the time of opening. The
curriculum that was offered was made of academic as well as practical subjects such as
carpentry, building and gardening.
Vocational and Industrial training
The government offered African vocational and industrial training at Barotse National
School. Vocational and Agriculture training was offered at Jeanne’s and Agricultural
schools. In 1934, the government opened the Central Trade School in Lusaka. Later in
1957, the name was changed to Hodgson Technical College. The college prepared
31
students to sit for examinations of the city and guilds of London. Subjects offered
included motor mechanics, carpentry and brick laying.
Teacher Training
The first teacher training started at Jeanes School in Mazabuka in the year 1930. Nine
years later, in 1939, the training was moved to Chalimbana.
University Education. There was no university in Northern Rhodesia. However, the

federal government opened up a multi-racial University College in Salisbury in
Southern Rhodesia. This was intended to cater for the three territories namely Southern
and Northern Rhodesia and Malawi.
African and non-African education
It is important to understand that there were two types of education under colonial
government. One was for Africans and the other for Non-Africans. Education for non-
Africans was sufficiently organized and well financed while education for Africans
was not. Schools for Europeans were superior in terms of infrastructure, staffing and
staff qualifications, equipment and facilities for sport and welfare of pupils. African schools
had little or none of these.
Education at the advent of Independence
At the time of independence, despite the efforts made by the colonial government, not
much had been achieved for African education. This ugly picture was accentuated by
the deep rooted racial segregation between schools for Africans and those for none
Africans. African had no access to the superior education that was being offered to
non-Africans like the whites and Indians. One factor was that these schools were
extremely expensive and African parents could hardly afford the high fees that were
pegged far beyond their incomes.
The state of education for Zambians at independence
Primary education
In 1964, there were 2 000 lower primary schools dotted around the country. Most of
these especially in the rural areas were in a deplorable condition. Apart from this the
schools were located far and apart hence making it extremely difficult for children to
32
attend. Lower primary schools provided only four years of education! In 1964, only
70% of children of the school going age were enrolled.
Secondary education
There were very few Zambians who had received secondary education at the time of
independence. By 1965, there were an estimated number of 1,500 Zambians with grade
twelve certificates(then Form Five Cambridge School certificate) and another
estimated 6000 were in possession of grade 9 certificate(form 11).
Teacher Education
By 1966, there were thirteen (13) primary Teacher training Colleges in the country,
producing 1 500 graduates annually. In1962, there were 6 027 trained teachers at
primary level with only 174 being untrained teachers. The training of secondary
teachers was done at Chalimbana in conjunction with the University College in
Salisbury.
Technical training
At the start of 1964, there were a good number of Trades training schools in the
country. However these were poorly equipped and lacked adequate trained instructors.
The Hodgson technical college which has already been mentioned continued to the
leading technical institution in the country and offered advanced training in building
and engineering skills.
University Education
There no university in the country at the time of independence. Those managed to

obtain a university education did so by going to universities outside the country. It is
on record that Zambia had only an estimated number of only 100 university graduates
at the time of independence!
33
Unit summary
In this unit, you have we have learnt that western education was
introduced by the missionary societies and the problems that they
Summary faced. We have looked at the BSA company failure to finance

African education. We have also looked at the various conferences,
including the Phelps-Stoke Commission that were meant to address
various education issues concerning African education The Phelps-
stokes commission made credible recommendations to improve
education. Under the colonial government, there was marked
improvement in education but this was still not enough.. Finally,
we have seen how education developed under colonial government
right up to the advent of Zambia’s independence.
Assessment
Self-test.
1 .Name the first successful missionary school in Northern

Assessment Rhodesia.
2. What is the name of the missionary that set up this mission

station missionary?
3. What was the main reason behind the introduction of western
education in Northern Rhodesia?
4. Outline the problems that were encountered by the missionaries

in the bid to spread education.
34
Unit 3
EDUCATION IN ZAMBIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE
Upon completion of this unit, you will be able to:
1.Explain the changes in education after independence
2. Give reasons for educations reforms.
3. Interpret explicitly the contents of the 1966/1977 education reforms

Objectives
5. Describe the goals of ‘Focus on Learning,’ and ‘Educating our future.’
eradicate: Obtaining of abolish

something
Terminology rampant: To do with mental Existing in uncontrollable

process way
subsequently: An idea as a result of
implement: Electronic- learning Put into action

through internet
humanism: hidden inside a philosophical ideology that

believes in the equality of
man
drastically: In line with something
Greatly
Rehabilitate: In-born(abilities or
To make improvements to
traits a child is born
something
with)
Involuntary action
35
Introduction
we have seen in the last unit how inadequate education was at the time independence.
It is generally agreed that the colonial government made frantic efforts to try and
improve education in the county but this did not meet the expectetions of Africans.
While education for non-Africans drastically improved, it was not so for Africans.
When the new Zambian government took over the reigns of power , among other
things education took a prominent role. The new government was in a hurry to usher
in an education system that would benefit the majority of Zambians. In order to
achieve its objectives, the government needed to work through a policy relating to
education
EDUCATION IN ZAMBIA (1964-1976)
INTRODUCTION
With the attainment of independence in Zambia in 1964, there was change of

governance and this meant change of policies including the education policy. Change
of government and policies did not just come up smoothly, it came with challenges to
the new government which needed to respond to them and find solutions.
PRE-INDEPENDENCE SITUATION IN EDUCATION

During the period before Independence in Northern Rhodesia, there was a Dual System
of education, that of Africans and non-African Europeans. The Black African education
was inferior with no proper educational facilities and no proper care by White rulers.
The European education was lavishly equipped and well-staffed. There was compulsory
education for European children and facilities were available up to Form IV. There were
3,500 Europeans (out of a population of 60,000) in secondary schools. There was poor
Girls enrolment (42% of Primary enrolments, 20% of secondary, 19% of teachers).
Large areas of Zambia had no schools, particularly, rural areas.
Provision of education was a responsibility of Northern Rhodesian government for

Blacks and the Federal government for Whites. The Missionaries were also involved in
36
the provision of education. During this period under review, there were attempts to do
the following:
 Opening of more secondary schools

 Development of Trades Schools (low level training)
 Provision of Technical education at Hodgson Institute (David Kaunda) in
Lusaka
 Some moves towards the establishment of a University in Lusaka, between

1952 and 1953
 Development and opening of a University college of Rhodesia and Nyasaland
 Opening of small scattered Missionary –run teacher training institutions

and consolidating such colleges into three larger colleges
 Development of Unified African Teaching Service to improve terms of

service and status of Primary school teachers.
During the same period there was a development of some nationalist movements such
as the National Teachers Union.
Misgivings about Education by Society in the colonial Era

Under colonial rule, people had no trust in education system due to the following
reasons:
 The education system was highly selective and encouraged individualism
 There were bar examinations at several points. This created a pyramidal
system
 The education system created elitism and meritocracy (elites- the most
gifted, the highest in society; meritocracy- picking on the elites leaving the
dull). In Plato’s ideas, the elite should make use of the poor. The poor to eat
on left over.
 The community was not fully involved
 Education was accused of promoting inequalities and undermining self-

reliance
37
 Education was directed at acquisition of credentials or certificates at the

expense of knowledge and skills which are necessary for survival.
 In the 1960s people thought that more education would bring about
development and so there was massive expansion in education, leading to
High Capital expenditure, but this later proved to an illusion or wrong.
 The many social problems that society was facing led to loss of confidence
in education. There was high unemployment and poverty among people.
EDUCATION AFTER INDEPENDENCE

The education system at this time faced a lot of challenges, some of which are outlined
below:
 The racially run education system- Blacks and whites schools, and the
imbalance in the distribution of education resources and staff, as well as the
unequal distribution of schools between urban and rural areas.
 Limited number of education facilities, which included Teachers house and

school buildings, which de-motivated both the learner and the teacher
 Shortage of both skilled and educated manpower. Out of Four Million

population people at independence, only 110,000 had gone up to the 6 th year
in primary school, and out of this number only 58% had completed the full 8
years of primary education and only 100 had gone up to university level.
 There was prejudges against technical education. Many Africans did not
want to enter technical colleges to learn skills such as carpentry, bricklaying,
welding and plumbing, instead, they preferred white collar jobs such as
clerical work
 Poor girl enrolment into schools- Only 42% were enrolled in primary, 20%
in secondary and 19% were teachers
 High dependence on expatriate teachers

 Rapid general population growth
 Increasing unemployment in newly independent Zambia.
The Need for Educational Change
38
Because of such challenges the new government under United National Independence
Party (UNIP), had to come up with strategies and policies to champion the education
direction of the country. The government had three main principles that motivated it to
make educational changes and they included the following:
 Bringing about equal educational opportunities to all, regardless of race,

tribe or religious inclination,
 To foster a sense of nation hood and promote national unity without

necessarily incurring educational uniformity
 To sub serve the needs of national development without , in the process,

frustrate the full development of individual abilities and satisfactions
Other than these the Zambian government at this time had a task of meeting the
aspirations of the Zambian people whose past regime had frustrated them with its racial
segregation, therefore,
 Government wanted to create as a system of education which should meet

the aspirations of Zambians and one which functions as a powerful
instrument towards national development;
 Government wanted to provide quality education opportunities and

equality in education in line with the principles of Humanism.
 To provide education which would bring production among the people. The
structure and organisation of education was to enable individuals and
society realise the value of humanity and liberation of people.
 In view of the above, government had to come up with education policies

and reforms to shape the direction of education.
MAJOR EDUCATION POLICIES IN ZAMBIA AFTER INDEPENDECE

Policies are formulated by the National Assembly which comes up with an Act or Law
to regulate the education system. In Zambia since 1966 when the first education policy
was formulated, there have been a number of such policies up to now.
EDUCATION ACT OF 1966 (Cap. 234 of the Laws of Zambia)
39
The Bill for this Act was passed in April, 1966. It was enacted to become law on 3 rd
September, 1966. The Act replaced the 1956 African Education Ordinance, under which
the Federal education system ran.
This Act gave government the powers to wholly run the education system in the
country. It laid the framework for government to establish other wings of the education
sector. Because of that, government established the Unified Teaching Service
Commission, a central controlled Curriculum, the National Examinations Council and
the Zambia Educational Publishing House (ZEPH). It also provides detailed regulations
on matters of discipline and day to day operations of the education sector. Under this
Act, government also took about sixty-three per cent control of primary schools which
most of them, were in the hands of Missionaries. However, the Catholic Church
continued to partner with government in the running of some schools.
At the time of Zambia obtaining independence, the Federal government was using the
1961- 65 Development Plan to run the affairs of the nation as well as the education
system. For the new government to continue from where the Federal government had
ended, they came up with a tentative plan called the Emergency Development Plan of
January, 1964, to supplement the previous plan. This plan enabled the government to
increase school places for Primary Schools on the Copper belt and Central Provinces as
well as rural areas. Self-help schools emerged where communities were mobilised to
help in the construction of schools, teachers’ houses and buying school furniture. The
Emergence Development Plan was later changed and called the Transitional
Development Plan (TDP), which was to run from January 1964 to June 1965, and
possibly to 1970.
The projections of the TDP were as follows:

 To reduce the 8-year Primary Course to one of 7 years in the non-fee
paying schools beginning January 1966
 To improve the quality of education given at the time
 Doubling of the Secondary school intake at the time there is a double

output from Primary schools
40
 Segmenting of the new Primary Course into two sections, Lower Primary
(4years) and Upper Primary (3 years).
 Abolishing of Grade IV examinations (the Bar System), hence automatic

promotion up to Grade 7.
 Build teachers houses both in urban and rural areas
To these plans the rural communities responded overwhelmingly. By the end of 1966,
the building teams and co-operatives had built 1,555 primary teachers houses and
several hundred classrooms.
The TPL was followed by the First National Development Plan which was to run from
July 1966 to June 1970. This plan was very ambitious and was intended to produce the
following:
 Increase the per capita output in monetary terms from about K120 in 1964
to approximately K200 in 1970
 Increase the opportunities for employment during the plan from 300,000
jobs to400,000 in 1970
 Diversify the economy of Zambia by increasing production in non-

industrial sectors, especially in agriculture
 Increase the opportunities for learning and training at various levels so as

to minimise the nation’s dependence on foreign countries for skilled
manpower
Primary Education
In Primary education, the FDP intended to increase facilities so that,
(i) All seven-year-old children can enter grade 1in 1970
(ii) In urban areas, all children in school at the time and those entering school
in 1966 and subsequent years , can complete a full primary course
(iii) In rural areas, about 75% of Grade VII primary pupils can proceed
to Grade V (Research has shown that unless a child remain in school for 6
years, they forget what they have learnt), and
41
(iv)About one-third of all Grade VII primary school leavers can enter Form 1.
To achieve these, some emergent measures were put in place and they included:
 Building Community Schools
 Constructing teachers houses
 Introducing Double Class sessions
 A Crash-Course program (1966) in teachers colleges was introduced to

increase the number of teachers (a one year course).
Results of the Measures

Such measures resulted in the expansion of child enrolment from 285,000 in 1966 to
483,000 in 1970 and the transmission from Grade 4 to Grade 5 increased by 85%.
This plan (the FNDP), was followed by several other development plans which led to
Zambia running the best primary education world over.
Challenges in Implementing Primary Education Policies

In trying to implement and achieves its intended goal in this area of education,
government faced a number of problems which include the following:
 Government found it difficult to convince parents that primary education

was terminal and that people should get employment after Grade 7. This
concept was rejected by everybody,
 Promoting English as a medium of instruction to teachers who were

poorly acquainted with the English language,
 To make Primary education more relevant to society and the nation
 What to do with the high number of drop-outs
 Poor buildings in schools, e.g. grass- thatched buildings
 Critical shortage of teachers as well as accommodation, which led to

demoralisation of teachers. This led to strikes in 1963, 1968 and 1970,
 There were conflicts between the newly trained teachers and the old,
where the later felt more educated,
42
 Over enrolments, leading to large classes, doubles and triple sessions in
some cases. This led to the concept of repeating of grades and high rate of
drop-outs.
Secondary Education
Due to the expanding Primary education and the increase in drop-outs at Grade 7 due to
limited number of secondary schools and places, there was need to expand the
secondary education sector. There was also need to provide educated persons in the
needy areas of economic development of the nation.
The government targeted 1/3 of primary pupils to enter Junior secondary school and 2/3
to enter Senior level.
Strategies to achieve the above aims
In order to achieve the planned aims for expanding the secondary education the
following measures were taken:
 Expanding the existing secondary and some primary schools

 Building of new secondary schools
 Building of one(1) secondary school in each district in the country
 Establishing large dual secondary schools and co-education schools
 Improving facilities such as toilets in the existing schools
 Increasing the supply of teachers in secondary schools by improving
enrolment in colleges and universities
Although the aims were so well outlined, achieving them was not realised. There was an
increase in enrolment but, the quality of secondary schools output began to decline, all
achievements were blocked by shortage of teachers, all the targets were not achieved and
completion of constructions fail behind time.
Such short comings were due to the following reasons:

 Small building industry
 Poor road infrastructure and transport
 Structures were very expensive to build
 The costs of construction rose up rapidly
43
 Too much bureaucracy in the awarding of contracts delayed completion
 United Declaration for Independence(UDI) in Zimbabwe, delayed the

transportation of equipment and materials
 Very few qualified teachers to into secondary schools
 Heavy reliance on expatriates – most of the young, with poor English and
serving on contract. To try and attend to this, the University of Zambia
introduced PCE program to improve the number of teachers with degree
with education
Challenges
There were problems in the following areas:
 To find the kind of curriculum which should include practical subjects.
 How much emphasis should be put on practical subjects.

 How to improve teacher outputs in Maths and Science.
 What to do with poor performance by girls in secondary schools.
 How to develop people who can develop the nation.
University Education
Background to Development of University Education
In 1952 under the Federal Government, the Sanders Commission was appointed to look at
the possibility of establishing of a university college in Northern Rhodesia. The idea was
later abandoned; instead, a University college was established in Southern Rhodesia in
Salisbury. In 1962 the Tananarival Conference on Higher education led to the development
of establishment of a university in Zambia. In 1963, the Northern Rhodesia government
made a conclusion that a university should be established in Zambia. In April 1963, Sir
John Lockwood who was the Principal of Bankbank College in England was mandated to
visit Zambia to at the possibilities. In September the same year he wrote a report
recommending the setting up of a university. The report was accepted by David Kaunda in
1964.
The Philosophy behind the Establishment of a University
44
The needs for establishment of such an institution were forwarded as such:
 That the university built in Zambia must be responsible for the real
development of human resource needs.
 It must be an institution that must command respect throughout the all-

academic world.
Because of this philosophy, the Lockwood Commission recommended

that.
 The country needed graduates immediately.

 The students should enter the university with 5 O’ Levels. It was first time
in the whole world of the English speaking countries. Because of this all
other Universities copied the idea.
 It recommended that the University built should be independent of other

universities. Not to be a college of the London Universities. Others, such
as Nairobi, Southern Rhodesia, Ghana, Nigeria and Khartoum, were not.
 It should produce Science and Education as the main subjects.
 It must show excellence and performance of students should show that.
Immediate and Subsequent Developments
In January 1964, the Government adopted and accepted the report. Mid 1964, it
established a council and by November, 1965, they instituted a University Act and it was
enacted. March, 1966, teaching started at Ridgeway campus and March, 1978 at the Great
East Road Campus. In 1987/88 Copper belt University was built and opened.
Enrolments
The enrolment figure at University levels were as follows:
1966 – 310 students
1970 – 1,253
1980 – 3,813
1989 – 4,800
45
2000 – Approximately 6,000
The first Graduation Ceremony was in 1969, and by 2007, about 25,000 had graduated
from the institution.
PROBLEMS
 When the university came into operational, there was too much dependence on
expatriates although UNZA tried to train its own manpower. However the
situation has now changed because the majority is now Zambians.
 Insufficient qualified output in sciences and Mathematics.
 Mass failing by students due the carryover of secondary school poor reading
culture.
 Education and Agriculture Science courses were not popular.
 Poor funding as years went by.
 Resources could not keep pace with the demands of the school.
 Heavy loading loads resulting in lack of time for research work.
 Student demonstrations and regular closures of campuses leading to loss of

interaction time.
EDUCATION REFORMS
Education Reforms are changes that took places in the education system of Zambia after
Independence. The changes involved the formulation of new Policies and Development
Plans. The policies are usually drawn in line with the national guiding principle, that is, the
constitution and the plans are in line with development plans.
EDUCATION REFORMS (1974-1977)
These education reforms came about as a result of the dissatisfaction expressed by a large
number of people over the education system which was already in place. It was strongly
felt that the education system did not meet the aspirations of both the individuals as well as
the country as a whole. One of the problems cited was that four out of five children of
primary school going age were actually enrolled in grades 1-7.Children in urban schools
had the opportunity of competing for places at grade four levels while others dropped out.
Children who dropped out at grade four and grade seven levels went out without any skills
46
which they could use to earn a living. Another problem which was identified was that the
training and recruitment of teachers fell far short of demand.
In order to find a solution to these problems, the Ministry Of Education came up with a
draft proposal on education reforms. This was done in accordance with the philosophy of
Humanism as enshrined in the party policies of the ruling party-UNIP. These proposals
and recommendations were made in October, 1977 and took into consideration the general
objectives and principles defining the new methods of implementation. They took the
following form:
a) The Reforms put emphasis on education as an instrument for personal and

national development.
b) The Reforms were geared towards achieving reforms through the ideology of
humanism.
c) The Reforms stressed the need to change the curriculum so as to enable learners
to link theories with practical work. It also emphasizes the need to combine
school with work.
d) They aimed at providing a nine- year basic education program.
e) The Reforms gave only a limited opportunity to private involvement in the

provision of education.
f) The Reforms stipulated that the examinations for college students would include
continuous assessment.
Results of the 1977 Reforms
 Grade seven examinations were to be abolished
 Practical subjects were in introduced in schools.
 Continuous assessment became part of College examinations
 Localization of school and college examinations was implemented.
FOCUS ON LEARNING-1992-1995
47
The background of Focus On Learning was the realization that the 1977 Education
Reforms could not be implemented fully due to the economic hardships that the country
was going through. The Education Project Report (1986) was published in the wake of
Zambia’s break with the International Monetary Fund-IMF on May 1, 1987. As a result of
this unfortunate situation, the ERIP was reorganized in a manner that quality primary
education was to last for seven (7) years as opposed to the universal primary education
contained in the 1977 Education Reforms.
The seven- year universal primary education was meant to develop skills and values that
would be useful to the individuals’ survival skills. The general objectives of the Focus on
Learning were as follows:
a) To ensure that the focus in primary schools was on real learning.
b) To expand and rehabilitate existing primary schools in the country.
c) To transform secondary selection examinations at grade seven level so as to

truly serve educational objectives.
d) To improve teacher training facilities in order to increase the number of trained

teachers.
e) To foster morale and competence through improved professional and

administrative support and through a comprehensive programme of in-service
of Teacher education.
f) To develop primary schools and equip them with books and other learning
materials.
g) To enable the inspectorate to carry out in an effective way its school monitoring
and quality control activities.
h) To strengthen the organization and management of education system of

individual schools, giving special attention to the roles of school heads.
i) To enable undernourished ,handicapped and other disadvantaged school

children to profit from the school system.
EDUCATING OUR FUTURE-1996-TO DATE
48
In 1996, the government produced a policy document called ‘Educating our Future’’. This
policy document stipulated measures that were to be taken in order to address the problems
faced by the Zambian education system. This policy was as result of the 1990 World
Conference on Education which was followed by the 1991 Zambian conference. The world
conference stipulated there should be education for all, up to at least Grade 9 through
provision of required policies and resources.
Some of the key concepts were:
Quality
This refers to the content of what is taught in schools.
The pupils can only stay in school when they see value in what they are taught. The
community too can only value and support the educational system when they feel that their
expectations are met by the system. The curriculum should be in such a way that it
includes meaning subjects to learners and the nation, e.g. Technical subjects, Home
economics, etc.
Quantity
This refers to the availability of education services; the challenge of balance between the
over enrolment in urban schools and the under-enrolments in rural schools. Quantity also
has something to do with the number available places as matched with the number of
pupils. The number and caliber of teachers to a large extent determine the number of
places. The educational materials should also match with the enrolment levels so that
quality education is achieved.
Access
This refers to measures put in place to ensure that those who are eligible take up the
places that are available do so. School places could be available but if they are in far flung
areas where the majority of children do not live, no one can take them. The school fees
should accommodative of the poor.
Equity.
The system should not be discriminatory. Education should provide to all, regardless of
tribe, race, colour, nationality or ones religious inclination (Catholic, Watchtower,
49
Seventh-day, Pentecostal, Hindu or Islam and otherwise). There should not be gender
discrimination pupil enrolment as well.
This also may refer to the distribution of resources in and for education, such as teachers.
These are to be distributed in a manner that will ensure that all have access to them.
Democracy in Education
This simply means that the education system should be run transparently with all stake
holders having a say. The stakeholders such as the parents, churches, Non-governmental
Organizations, Donors, etc., should have a say about how education is being run. Pupils
and students as well should be allowed to voice out about their affairs as students. This
has led to the creation of the Parent Teachers Associations (PTAs), Education Boards in
secondary schools and colleges and the Unions in learning institutions.
Decentralization in Education
From the attainment of independence, the education system in Zambia was heavily
centralized. Control of the education system was directly from the Central government.
Decentralization may be married with liberalization. Decentralization is the offloading of
powers to run schools from the central government to the Districts and Schools. The
creation of Educational Boards on the Copper belt in 1995, as a pilot start, was the first
step towards decentralization. This involved colleges, secondary schools, district
education, Basic and primary schools which qualified for such status. This policy left the
Ministry of Education to deal with policy matters, mobilization of resources, standards
and quality control and accountability. The system led to community participation
(resulting in the building of the sense of ownership of schools) in the education system.
Structural Adjustment Program (SAP)
The assuming of poor By the MMD under the President (Chiluba F.T.), in 1991, was
preceded with heavy borrowing by the previous regime from the IMF, World Bank and
other lending institutions, led the country‘s economy and education system into disarray .
As a result the new government had to come up with measures to improve the situation
and these include the following:
 Liberalization of the market(Free Market policy)
 Privatization of the means of production(Private control of Capital)
50
 Less interference in private economies (No price controls, etc.)
Such measures led to the privatization of many companies which were state run under
INDECO. As result many people lost employment through retrenchments, resulting in
lack of money for parents to send their children to school. As a result, primary school
enrolment declined from 95% in 1985 to 85% in 1994 and the number of drop-outs
increase, , especially that of girls.
REULTS OF EDUCATING OUR FURURE POLICY
The Policy led to a number of changes in the running of the education system. Some of
those include the following:
 Decentralization of the running of the schools including the handling of finds,

which led to greater autonomy in grant-aided and private schools
 Liberalization in education resulting in many privately owned learning

institutions.
 Democratization in education
 Cost-Sharing in the running of institutions of learning
 Increased Capacity building, especially Human Resource
 Increased school infrastructure and school furniture
 Partnership in teacher training, resulting in the introduction of ZATEC
 Creation of Education Boards
 Community participation in the running of schools
51
Unit summary
In this unit we have learned about the changes that have kept
changing from the time of independence. It is important to identify
Summary the reasons for these reforms in our education system. It is clear
there is absolute need to transform our education system in order to
meet the expectations of the individual and that of the country as a
whole. You should take note of the latest changed in the school
curriculum in education system today. It is vital to do so as this
affects you directly.
52
Assessment
1. State the priorities that the new government embarked on

immediately after independence.
Assessment ………………………………………………………………………
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2. Explain the reasons for the continuing change that have been
taking place in our country.
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3. Why was the 1977 education reforms not fully implemented?
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53
Unit 4
PHILOSOPHY
Introduction
In this unit we are going to look at the various branches of Philosophy. We will also
study the pure philosophies and what these entail. Upon completion of this unit, you will
be able to:
1. Identify and explain all the branches of Philosophy.
2. Describe the pure philosophies and their view of the world.
Objectives 3. Show the relationship between philosophy and education.
emergence: appearance
dissect: break open.

Terminology
phenomenon: a situation or event that can be seen to happen
or exist
essence: the most important part of something
Unanimous: fully agreed
Transcend: become free from something
54
Meaning of Philosophy
The meaning of the word philosophy has already been given when we defined this in
the very first module but there is no harm in refreshing ourselves by looking at the word
again. The word ‘philosophy,’ is derived from a Greek word, ‘Philosophia,’ which is a
combination of two Greek words, ‘Philo,’ meaning ‘Love,’ and ‘Sophia,’ meaning
‘wisdom.’ The word philosophy therefore means love for wisdom or love of knowledge.
Philosophy is an important branch of the social sciences which emerged on the world
scene about three thousand years ago. The reason for its birth is simple. From time
immemorial, man has been besieged with numerous problems concerning human life
and existence. Philosophy helps man to find answers to questions such as: How did man
come into existence? Who is man? What is the essence of things? What is the difference
between being and existence? How does man think and how does he attain knowledge?
These and many other similar questions led to the emergence of philosophy.
Branches of philosophy
Philosophy like any other area of study has many branches. We are going to look at
each of these in a little much more detail.
Metaphysics.
Firstly, we will look at etymological meaning of the word metaphysics. ’Meta,’ means
‘beyond,’ or ‘after.’ ‘Physics,’ means nature or ultimate reality. Metaphysics therefore
means the study of ultimate reality-the study of that which is unknown. Metaphysics is
believed to have originated from Italy in 70BC. It started with Greek peripatetic
philosopher Andronicus as he worked on the works of Aristotle. Andronicus worked on
the first philosophy or what was also called theology which was followed by the treatise
physics, Thus, the first philosophy became known as meta (ta) physica or ‘following the
Physics,’. This was shortened to Metaphysics. Metaphysics took on a different meaning
to mean matters relating transcending to material reality.
In Aristotle’s physics the subjects included causality, the nature of being and the
existence of God. During the medieval period metaphysics was called the ‘trans
physical science on the basis that scholars would make the transition from
philosophically from the physical world to a world that was beyond sense perception. .
55
Theologian St, Thomas Aquinas acknowledged that the existence of God was the aim of
metaphysics. Increased scientific study especially during the 16 th Century, the merging
of science with faith in a God became an important aspect of metaphysics.
Metaphysics has three main braches. These are Monism, Dualism and pluralism. Let us
dissect each of these perspectives of metaphysics.
a. Monism
This aspect of metaphysics maintains that reality consists of only one

substance or element. The reality of man for example, is his ‘rationale, ’that is
his ability to think. Reason is the critical attribute of man and the human being
is described as a rational being.
b. Dualism
Dual means double-sided or having two sides or parts. This aspect of
metaphysics maintains that reality comprises two elements or substances.
Again taking the same example of man, the reality of a human being is the
mind and body.
c. Pluralism
This aspect of metaphysics states that reality consists of many or various

elements. The reality of a human being is said to be made up mind, body, race,
gender, and so on.
Metaphysics is therefore a central discipline of philosophy. We can sum it up

as follows:
 Is the study of questions concerning the nature of reality and asks

questions like;’ what is real?’ ‘What is the difference between
appearance and reality?’ ‘Do humans possess free will or are our
human actions determined by forces far beyond our control?
 Is a theory that tries to answer questions regarding the nature of

man-it includes living things, body and soul.
 Study of being or existence which is ontology
56
 Is the study of cosmology which includes the study of the
universal as a whole
 It is theory of the nature and structure of reality that

includes concepts such as monism, spiritualism, dualism
and pluralism,
Aesthetics
This is branch of philosophy that deals with the creation and principles of the Arts and
beauty. Aesthetics studies our feelings, attitudes and thoughts whenever we see hear or
read something that is beautiful. The arts to be appreciated include music, modern arts
and theatre or drama. The beauty of the Arts means the beautiful qualities of the Arts
such as painting and architecture. Aesthetics is concerned with questions like; how can
the taste in people be improved? How should the Arts in learning institutions be taught?
What should be the role of governments regarding the Artistic expression? Should there
be interference from the governments? Should the governments dictate artistic
expression?
Ethics
This branch of Philosophy defines human conduct and character. It puts emphasis on the
standard of behaviour of a given group of people. Ethics is concerned with what is right
and wrong and also tries to explain what we can call good and evil. Ethics defines the
nature of justice, what a just society ought to be and also about a person’s obligations to
himself, to others and to society at large. It asks questions like what makes right actions
right and wrong actions wrong. What is bad and what is it we can call good? In short,
ethics is a philosophy of moral theory and action.
Logic
This is the study of human thinking and reasoning. It explores on how we distinguish
between sound or good reasoning and unsound or bad reasoning. An example of
reasoning is known as an inference or argument.
Axiology
57
This is a branch of philosophy that studies the theory of values. It is study of questions
regarding the nature of values. These values range from personal values, social and
public and values. They also include moral and subject values. It asks questions such as
what are the right values for a person, society and so forth. Values may differ from one
society to another.
Epistemology
The etymological meaning of epistemology.
Epistemology comes from two Greek words. These are ‘episteme,’ which means
‘knowledge,’ and ‘logos,’ meaning ‘theory.’ Epistemology therefore means the Theory
of Knowledge. Epistemology is concerned with how knowledge is acquired, the criteria
of knowledge, the limits of knowledge and the relationship between the one who knows
and the object known. Epistemology can be all these things below:
 It is a theory of knowledge
 It is the study of the source and nature of the truth and knowledge and how
these are obtained.
 It deals with concept formation
 It is the study of the roots, limits, and extent of knowledge
 It is the study of the process of knowing
 It is the study of the teacher’s role in transmission of knowledge
 It deals with the selection of teaching and learning materials
 It deals with methodology
 It is the study of rational knowledge, empirical knowledge, and revelation

knowledge
Epistemology asks questions such as, ‘What are the features of genuine knowledge as
different from what appears to be knowledge?’ ‘What is truth?’ ‘How can we know what
is true and what is false?
58
As Teachers and learners we need to know the various ways of knowing in the different
subjects that we teach. This will greatly assist us in choosing the types of teaching
materials to use and where to put emphasis as we teach the learners.
Epistemology stipulates the following ways of attaining knowledge.
a) Reasoning (rational knowledge)
This is the type of knowledge that humans acquire through the power of
reasoning. For instance if we say that Mr. Hamukoma is a farmer it follows
that there must be a farm that he owns somewhere. This is known as
inference. We infer that since Mr Hamukoma is a farmer, he must have a
farm where he grows crops or keeps animals or he carries both activities.
Most Philosophers unanimously agree that this kind of rational thinking is the
best method of discovering answers to philosophical questions.
b) Scientific knowledge
This is also known as empirical knowledge. This knowledge is acquired

through sense perceptions as well as ones’ personal experience. It is
knowledge obtained through natural and social sciences. Empirical knowledge
is that which can be verified for its truth. As a teacher you must encourage
pupils to discover things own their own by observing their environment. They
should record these findings for further verification.
c) Revelation
This is the knowledge that is acquired through revelation from the

supernatural to the prophets of various religions. These prophets recorded it
for all mankind. It includes religions such as Islam, Christianity, Hinduism
and many others. The whole purpose is to spread through knowledge to the
rest of the world and is based on faith. It cannot therefore be proved by
reasoning or logic or any empirical test. This knowledge is reliable because it
can be verified for its truth. As a teacher, you should encourage your learners
to be observant of their surrounding and record whatever they find out.
59
d) Axiology
As we have already seen, axiology is the study of the theory of values. It

studies the needs and importance of values. Axiology deals with questions
such as, ‘What are the proper values of life? ‘What are the things that you as
an individual view as values, say in your personal life? If you take the aims
and objectives of education you will realise that these come about as a result
of values! Objectives in education takes can either be personal, social or
public.
PURE PHILOSOPHIES
There are four types of philosophies which are called pure philosophies.
Naturalism
This is a philosophical thought which maintains that knowledge is restricted to the

phenomenal world of scientific investigation; Naturalists believe that man is a product of
organic evolution and throughout nature he is considered as a mental and physical
continuity. This continuity is government by the operation of natural forces and laws.
Idealism
This philosophy tries to explain all existence in terms of the mind and its workings.
Idealists regard the mind as the single most important element that emphasis that all
things or objects can only be known through the ideas. Idealism explains the mental and
spiritual elements of the human mind.
Realism
This philosophy maintains that the objects of sense perceptions exist independent of the
perceiver; that objects continue to exist even when they are not being perceived and that
abstract ideas also exist independent of their names. Realism believes in accepting the
facts of life as they are, favours practicality and literal truth. Realists believe that the
world can be understood in scientific terms without turning to spiritual or supernatural
explanations
Pragmatism.
60
This philosophy was propagated by an America called John Dewey. Pragmatists
maintain that everything that works well in practice is good. They believe in the validity
of empirical methods and see the necessity of changing hypothesis in the light of new
discovery. Realists go further to state that test of what is right or true must sought out in
the practical results. They maintain that truth must be established practically through
experiments. The practical results are the criteria of knowledge, meaning and value.
Existentialism
This philosophy emphasizes the existence of an individual who should enjoy freedom of
choice will and action. This philosophy emanated from Europe and assumes that people
are completely free and therefore responsible for their own actions.
Unit summary
In this unit, we have looked at the different branches of philosophy. We

have also considered the different ways of how human beings obtain
Summary knowledge and finally we have studied the five important philosophies
that exist. These pure philosophies will be considered more broadly
when we look at the roles that they play in education. This will be
looked at in the next module.
61
Assessment
.1.What is epistemology?
Assessment …………………………………………………………………………………
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2. Explain the following terms

a)Aesthetics…………………………………………………………
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b)Metaphysics………………………………………………………
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c)Naturalism………………………………………………………
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...
d)Realism……………………………………………………………
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62
Need help!
NB: Ensure that you do not refer to your notes as you write this
assessment. Its only when you are through that you can look at
your notes and compare with what you have written.
TIP
Read your notes regularly!
63
References
Kelly M.J, (1999) The Origins and Development of Education in Zambia,

Lusaka,Image Publishers Limited
Msango & others, (2000) Philosophy and Education, Vol.1
Mwanakatwe M.J (1974) The Growth of Education in Zambia Since Independence:

Oxford UNZA Press
Occitti, J.P (1973) African Indigenous Education, Nairobi:East Africa

Literature Bureau
Snelson P.D, (1974) Educational Development in Northern Rhodesia 1883-1945
64

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MUFULIRA PROFESSIONAL COLLEGE

HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION MODULE 2

MUFULIRA PROFESSIONAL COLLEGE

About this Module 1

How this Module is structured....................................................................................................1

Welcome to the Origins and developmentof Western education……………………………….5

Study skills: ……………………………………………………………………………………7

Getting around this Module 10

Origins and development of Western Education......................................................................11

Western/Missionary education in Northen Rhodesia................................................................26

Education in Zambia After Independence.................................................................................38

How this Module is structured

The course overview

The course overview gives you a general introduction to the course.

 If the course is suitable for you.

 What you will already need to know.

 What you can expect from the course.

The overview also provides guidance on:

 Where to get help.

 Course and assessments.

We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully

The module content

The module is broken down into units. Each unit comprises:

 Core content of the unit with a variety of learning activities.

After completing this module, we would appreciate it if you would

 module content and structure.

 module reading materials and resources.

 Course support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.)

Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance

Is the course for you?

Course Learning Objectives:

Upon completion of this course, a SSBAT :

 Demostrate understanding of History and Philosophy of Education

 Explain the meaning of formal, informal, non-formal education

Objectives  Discribe the aims of education, structure and organization of traditional

 Explain the appropriateness of philosophy of education in Teacher

 Discuss critically the aims, structure, and organisation of Missionary and

 Explain the History of education in post Independence Zambia in terms of

Expected duration of this course is 3 Years

You require 48 hours contact hours with your lecturers

Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a

We recommend that you take time now—before starting your self-study

The “How to study” web site is dedicated to study skills resources.

Another “How to study” web site with useful links to time

tips for staying motivated, developing a learning plan.

A course website will be availed to you in due course

P.o Box 40297

There will be two assignments of equal weight for this module

You will be required to write to 2 Assignments, 2 Tests and 1 Promotion

Assessments There will be both self-assessment and teacher marked assessments

Students will submit assignments at the beginning of residential school.

Getting around this MODULE 2

A complete icon set is shown below. We suggest that you familiarize

Activity Assessment Assignment Case study

Discussion Group activity Help Note it!

Outcomes Reading Reflection Study skills

Summary Terminology Time Tip

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 Trace the origin of Western education.