The Husbandry of Companion and Aviary Birds

Bob Doneley BVSc FANZCVS

UQ Veterinary Medical Centre

Introduction

More companion and aviary birds are kept in Australia than dogs and cats combined. Yet
they are often overlooked by the veterinary profession, dismissed as ‘not important’. Bird
owners, up until recently, had given up on the profession as a source of help when dealing
with health and behavioural problems. This has slowly been changed by the hard work of a
relatively small number of avian veterinarians, and now avian medicine is recognised as an
important and growing field of veterinary medicine.

In order to assist bird owners, veterinarians must have some knowledge of how these
animals are kept. Without that knowledge, important clues about the background and origin
of problems will be missed. This purpose of this lecture is to introduce you to the basic
concepts of bird keeping. It is by no mean comprehensive or complete – that would take
many more lectures – but it is a start on the basics.

Taxonomy

There are over 9,000 species of bird, contained in 29 orders. There are five orders of major
veterinary interest:
 Psittaciformes – parrots
 Passeriformes - soft bills, including canaries and finches
 Galliformes - poultry
 Anseriformes - waterfowl
 Columbiformes - pigeons

History of bird keeping

The keeping of birds goes back thousands of years and is spread across the globe. Ancient
Romans and Greeks, Egyptians, Aztecs, Mayans, Indians, Chinese – all these people kept
birds as pets, zoo animals, or objects of worship.

Over the centuries bird keeping has become more refined, with scientific research and
decades of practical experience shaping aviculture today. But the fact remains – people are
fascinated by birds and want to be connected with them.
Why do people keep birds?

There are many reasons for keeping birds and as veterinarians you are likely to be exposed
to all.

 Companionship: Whether it be a senior citizen’s canary or a young girl’s cockatiel,

birds can make great companions. Hand reared birds, in particular, are highly sought
after for their pet qualities
 Aviculture: The keeping and breeding of birds is not only a popular hobby around the
world, it is also a high dollar industry. The value of birds can range from under a
$100 to well over $100,000.
 Food: Birds have long been kept as a food source – poultry, meat pigeons, ostriches
and emus, and even quail and pheasants.
 Sport: Racing pigeons are the most obvious form of sport, but in some cultures
cockfighting is also another sport utilising birds.

How are birds kept?

Companion birds: Birds have been kept as pets for many hundreds of years, but the last fifty
years have seen a surge in their popularity. A large number of species are kept as pets, with
interactions ranging from a bird that becomes a part of the household to a bird that rarely
leaves its cage, serving more as a decoration than a pet. They all share a common feature in
that their living arrangements nearly always involve life in a cage for all or part of their day.
These cages have a direct effect on the health of the occupant, and it is important that
veterinarians include an assessment of the cage and the owner’s husbandry as part of their
initial workup of a patient.

Aviary birds: Aviculture is the practice of keeping birds in captivity, normally within the
confines of an aviary, for hobby, display, research, conservation, or income purposes. It is a
popular hobby around the world, with operations ranging from a small backyard aviary with
a handful of budgerigars to large commercial operations producing birds for the pet market
or other hobbyists. The birds are generally housed outdoors (in Australia) in either full flight
or suspended aviaries. Full-flight aviary floors can be dirt, gravel, sand, or concrete (or a
mixture), in order of increasing order of ease of care. Full flight planted aviaries are ideal for
small parrots and finches, but larger parrots will usually destroy them. Suspended aviaries
have the advantage of been easy to clean and maintain, and the birds may feel more secure
in them, but they can be enrichment deprived.

Poultry are kept either as backyard or commercial flocks. Backyard flocks are kept as pets,
food producers, or show birds. They can be kept in fixed sheds (usually with a run attached)
or in mobile pens. Commercial poultry are kept either in cages or as free range. Caged
poultry has gradually been phased out over welfare concerns.

Pigeons are kept in lofts, similar to free flight aviaries but more communal and with the
ability to release the birds for a daily flight.

Animal welfare

People today are increasingly conscious of animal welfare – not a bad thing, but some are
more vocal than others in pointing what they perceive to be cruelty. If the ownership and
keeping of birds is to remain part of modern life, the owners of these birds must retain
social licence i.e., society’s general acceptance and approval of what is done. The only way
this can be given is for all bird owners to demonstrate a high standard of animal welfare.

Many people are aware of the Five Freedoms, used to guide and assess animal welfare for
over 60 years. However, these ‘Freedoms’ do not always result in good outcomes. For
example, if a bird is free from hunger, what would motivate it to forage for food? This
recognition, that emotional needs are equally important as physical needs for animals, has
given rise to the concept of the Five Domains.

These have now been revised as the ‘Five Domains’ of nutrition, environment, health,
behaviour, and mental state. This newer approach allows a distinction to be made between
the physical and functional factors that affect an animal’s welfare, and the overall mental
state of the animal arising from these factors. They are:
 Nutrition: Birds have access to clean water and enough food in a balanced diet.
Available food is nutritious, appropriate for the species and individual bird, and
varied.
 Environment: Birds are comfortable and safe and provided with opportunities and
choices to engage in natural and rewarding behaviour.
 Health: Birds are fit and healthy and injuries and illnesses are prevented or
immediately and appropriately treated.
 Behaviour: Birds are able to express natural and rewarding behaviour and are able
to engage in free movement and play and have positive contact with birds and
people to form social bonds.
 Mental or affective state: Nutrition, environment, health, and opportunity for
expression of natural behaviour all influences an animal’s mental state. Each of
these can provide positive and pleasurable experiences that enhance a bird’s
mental state.

Basic Considerations For Enclosure Design

There are several basic considerations that need to be considered when building an
enclosure for birds or assessing someone else’s design. These considerations are:
  Where to put it?
 Enclosure design and construction
 Management
 Environmental enrichment

Where to put it?

While pet birds can enjoy interacting with their human companions, they can also become
stressed by constant noise and movement, lack of privacy and security, irregular diurnal
cycles and the possibility of the cage been knocked over. Indoor cages should be positioned
with these stressors in mind. Some suggestions include: position the cage in a corner of a
room, so that at least two approaches to it are secure; keep the cage off main traffic routes
through the house, lessening close contact with people and other pets; and having a day
cage and a night cage, so that birds can be ‘put to bed’ (rather than been covered) at
nightfall.

Aviaries, backyard poultry pens and pigeon lofts have to deal with other factors. Firstly,
local council regulations often stipulate where a backyard structure can be built and how big
it can be. Although not an obvious veterinary concern, it can impact on suggestions for
alterations and extensions. The next consideration is what land is available – not everyone
lives on acreage! Ideally the open side of aviaries, pens and lofts should face north,
maximising exposure to direct sunlight. This helps to keep enclosures dry and allows the
birds to engage in normal daytime activities. The closed side of the aviary, on the other
hand, should face towards the direction of prevailing weather, offering some protection
against rain and wind. Finally, the aesthetics of the aviary should be considered – it is, after
all, someone’s backyard, not a zoo.

Enclosure design and construction

The safety of the birds is influenced heavily by the design and construction of the enclosure.

Companion bird enclosures

While the size of the cage must obviously reflect the size of the bird it houses, and also, it’s
lifestyle. A bird that is allowed free range of the household, spending only a small amount of
time in the cage each day, can do well in a smaller cage than a similar-sized bird that spends
most its time in the cage. As a general rule, the minimum size of the cage should be large
enough so that the bird can stretch its wings out without touching the sides and sit on a
perch without the tail touching the floor of the cage. If the bird has restricted out-of-cage
time, the cage must be large enough for the bird to engage in normal behaviours such as
grooming, playing, and moving. Most birds will do better in a cage that is longer, rather than
high, as they fly or hop in a horizontal direction rather than vertical.
The cage should be constructed from material that is strong enough to withstand the power
of the bird’s beak; is easy to clean; and is non-toxic if ingested. Plastic-coated wire is
commonly used for small bird cages while powder-coated bars, or even stainless steel, are
used for larger cages. Small gauge wire, e.g., chicken wire netting, is easily chewed and
ingested by large parrots, resulting in heavy metal intoxication, and should be avoided.

The floor of cage should be lined with an easily replaced, non-toxic substrate. Newspaper or
paper towel are appropriate; sand, wood shavings, corn cob bedding and crushed nut shells
are not. The latter style of cage liners can cause problems if ingested and may harbour
fungal spores and bacteria. Many cages have a wire floor; this is appropriate so long as it is
cleaned regularly to prevent spoilt food and dried faecal material adhering to the wire.

Unless very large, most cages are placed on a stand so that the bird is able to perch at a
height level with a person’s chest. Placing the cage on the floor, with human companions
and predators such as dogs and cats looming over the top of the bird may lead to it
becoming fearful. The stand should be strong and stable enough to hold the weight of the
cage and bird and should ideally be mobile.

Aviaries
Basic considerations for aviary design include:
 The individual requirements of the species held need to be met by the size of the
aviary and by providing shelter sites, perches, feeding areas and access to water
within the cage.
 Common to all good cage design is the recognition that access to all parts of the cage
is necessary for cleaning.
 Good visibility also contributes to good husbandry as it allows the health of
occupants to be regularly assessed and any problems recognised early.

The frame can be of wood, metal, or PVC construction. While wood is the cheapest and
easiest to work with, it has several disadvantages: the birds can chew it; it is often treated
with preservatives that can be toxic; it cannot be disinfected; and it can harbour external
parasites such as Red mite (Dermanyssus spp).

There are several requirements for wire: it must be strong enough to withstand chewing by
the species in the enclosure; it must be small enough to prevent wild birds entering the
enclosure; it must be rust proof, but not so heavily or poorly galvanised that the zinc poses a
toxic threat to the birds; and it should be ‘see through’ (this can be achieved by painting it
black).

Aviary roofs can be either partial or complete. By this I mean that the roof is either solid
across the entire length or it is partially complete, and the rest is wire. The latter design
allows sunshine and rainfall to reach the birds, allowing a more natural effect, but the
disadvantage is wild birds, possums and rats running along the top. Some aviculturists reach
a compromise by having a small, wire-roofed ‘porch’ or landing where the birds can get into
the rain, and then withdraw into cover if a threat presents.

The aviary floor is another area where opinions differ. Dirt floors are cheap, but they are
impossible to clean and allow access to the aviary by mice, rats, or snakes. Concrete is
expensive and permanent (the aviary can’t be moved) but is easy to clean and maintain.
Sand & gravel are used by some as a compromise between concrete and dirt. This has to be
raked regularly to turn it over and replaced every few months. Weighing up against hygiene
is environmental enrichment – some birds, especially Australian species, like to forage for
food on the ground, and this is of great psychological benefit to them.

Regardless of the aviary design, at some stage someone will have to enter it – to clean it, to
recover a bird, to check nest boxes, and so on. This means opening a door and allowing an
escape route for a bird. It is never a good idea to allow a captive bird to go free; not only
does it lack the skills needed to survive, but it may also be harbouring disease that could be
devastating to native birds. It can also be financially disastrous – some birds are worth many
thousands of dollars. For these reasons, responsible aviculturists often have a safety porch
or walkway so that they can always maintain a closed door between the bird and freedom.

Enclosure furniture
Perches, while giving the birds somewhere to sit, should not be so numerous that the bird
cannot move freely in the cage. In aviaries, this can be done by placing one perch at each of
the aviary or by running a perch along one wall. They should be positioned so that they do
not sit above food and water dishes as faecal contamination will otherwise occur. The
perches should be destructible i.e., it is normal for parrots to chew on them. Using metal
pipe to avoid replacing perches is not a sound practice. Cotton fibre perches have to be
monitored carefully, as gastrointestinal obstructions following ingestion of these fibres is
becoming a more common diagnosis. Perches should be irregular in shape and diameter, to
exercise the birds’ feet and the diameter should be such that the birds’ nails just meet when
gripping the perch. The perches should be removed and replaced when they are soiled or
badly damaged. Natural non-toxic branches usually make the best perches. The provision of
a concrete ‘grooming perch’ can assist the bird in keeping its beak clean and blunting of the
nails. The practice of covering perches with sandpaper should be discouraged as it can lead
to abrasions of the plantar aspect of the foot and subsequent pododermatitis. A general
guide to perch diameter is that the perch should not be so small that the bird’s nails overlap
excessively while perched, and not so large that the bird is defecating on the perch.
Feed and water bowls should be of a material suitable for the species; while plastic dishes
are fine for a canary, a cockatoo or macaw will destroy them with ease. Stainless steel, glass,
or glazed ceramic bowls are generally suitable for most species. Galvanised water dishes,
coated in zinc and often soldered with lead, can be highly toxic to birds. Terracotta dishes,
although they keep water cool, are both absorbent and difficult to clean. The practice of
placing water and feed dishes side by side should be avoided, as many parrots are fond of
dunking their food in water, leading to contamination and rapid bacterial overgrowth in the
water.
The provision of nest boxes and other sleeping/privacy shelters in an enclosure is a
contentious subject. While some species e.g., conures and small macaws prefer a secure
sleeping area, other birds will see it as a stimulus for reproductive behaviour. Each situation
may have to be weighed on its own merits but if egg laying is not desired, it may be best to
remove potential nesting sites.

Management

Feeding practices
The nutrition of birds will be covered in later years. However, this lecture will address
feeding practices. Birds should be fed at least daily; it is a common practice to fill a feed
bowl and leave it till empty. This practice, while labour saving, is misguided; empty seed
husks can be mistaken for seed, leaving the bird to starve, and food left for long periods of
time becomes contaminated with water and faeces, and attracts insect and mice. Seed is
not a complete diet for a bird and should be only a small amount of the daily diet. A fresh
mix of pelleted foods, vegetables and some fruit can be fed each day, along with a small
amount of seed. Feed bowls should be of a material suitable for the species been fed; while
plastic dishes are fine for a canary, a cockatoo or macaw will destroy them on the first day.

Water should also be provided every day. Be careful of galvanised water dishes – they are
coated in zinc, and often soldered with lead – both are highly toxic to birds. Terracotta
dishes, although they keep water cool, are both absorbent and difficult to clean. Be careful
of placing water and feed dishes side by side – many parrots are fond of dunking their food
in water, and this contamination can lead to rapid bacterial overgrowth in the water. For the
same reason, avoid placing dishes underneath perches – faecal contamination is common in
this situation.

Diurnal cycle
Most companion birds are diurnal species, evolving with a diurnal cycle of 8-12 hours
complete darkness, followed seasonally variable lengths of daylight. Their body functions,
especially reproduction, are tied into this cycle. Not only that – like all animals, birds also
require rest!
Artificial lighting may not contain ultraviolet light, but the white light it emits has a marked
effect on a bird’s health and temperament. Extended ‘daylength’ – triggered by the bird
staying up late at night until the owner goes to sleep – is harmful to birds in many different
ways (e.g., it is a powerful trigger for prolonged and excessive egg laying).
Covering a cage is not sufficient to ensure a pet bird is stimulated by lights, sound, and
movement. Moving the cage to a spare room (or having a night cage) is a sound means of
ensuring a normal diurnal cycle is maintained.
Cleaning
Cleaning of both the cage and the cage furniture needs to be done frequently and regularly.
Cleaning should be aimed at removing organic material and then, where possible,
disinfection should follow with a non-irritant chemical.
Quarantine
Although often overlooked by the owners, any newly acquired bird should be quarantined
for 6 weeks after purchase. During this time, when the new bird is geographically isolated
from any other birds in the house, the bird should be given a health check by a vet, its sex
identified, and monitored/treated for parasites. This quarantine period allows the new bird
to become accustomed to a new diet, new surroundings, and a new owner – before it has to
interact with a new bird (or birds).
Parasite control
Concerns over parasites in household companion birds are greatly exaggerated. Unless the
bird was infected with parasites on purchase and no treatment was provided at that time, a
pet bird is very unlikely to have either internal or external parasites. Regular worming and
spraying for mites and lice are simply not warranted. New purchases should, however, be
treated appropriately during their quarantine period and checked to ensure treatment has
been successful.
Parasites, both internal and external, are more common in aviary birds than pet birds.
Regular worming and spraying for mites and lice are now warranted and should be
combined with regular assessment to ensure the appropriate treatments are being given.

Nest boxes
Most aviculturists and some pet bird owners keep birds for the purpose of breeding them as
a hobby and/or for profit. This requires a nest site, the design of which varies between
species – canaries and pigeons prefer an open nest, while parrots prefer a deep hollow.
Aviculturists have come up with numerous designs for nest boxes: A-frames, L-frames, Z-
frames, vertical boxes, horizontal boxes, and so on. The preferred design varies between
species, and often between individuals, and so it is a sound practice to offer birds a choice of
nest box designs and locations, allowing them to select their preferred box (the other boxes
can be removed).

Nest boxes should be removed, cleaned thoroughly and left open to ventilate during the
winter months. This prevents/minimises fungal contamination, especially with Aspergillus
spores which can cause pneumonia in both adult birds and chicks.

Nest boxes should be positioned so that the bird feels safe entering and leaving it. In
particular, sun shining directly into the entrance hole will frequently discourage birds from
using them. A privacy shelter frequently overcomes this issue.
Cleaning needs to be done frequently and regularly. Cleaning should be aimed at removing
organic material and then, where possible, disinfection. Remember though, that organic
surfaces such as dirt and wood cannot be effectively disinfected.

Pest control
Bird enclosures are inherently dirty – food and bird droppings attract insects and mice,
which in turn attract rats and snakes. Small birds attract big birds – crows, currawongs,
hawks and falcons. Things that can be done to minimise these problems include:

 Fully roofing aviaries, and ensuring there are no overhanging branches

 Suspended aviaries minimise pest problems, but this may be compromising the
birds’ psychological welfare
 Concrete floors are easily cleaned and maintained, but can be expensive to build
 Fine mesh wire, sometimes doubly wired, can help to restrict access by rats and
snakes. Mice, however, can through almost anything
 Rat walls – concrete barriers below ground level to a depth of 30cms – can stop rats
and mice burrowing into an aviary
 Regular cleaning of the aviary floor and avoiding the use of feed hoppers – large
dishes of feed that are topped up when emptying – minimise the amount of waste
that attracts pests
 Careful use of mice/rat traps and baits can assist, but care must be taken to ensure
that the birds do not become inadvertent victims

Environmental enrichment
Most researchers agree that wild birds spend 80% of their day searching for, and
consuming, food. The rest of the day is spent socialising, grooming, and sleeping. In captivity
this ratio is virtually flipped; with the food in the same place at the same time each day, the
bird only needs to spend 10%-20% of its day consuming food. This leaves 80% of the day to
be filled with other activities. When a bird is housed by itself, with limited social
opportunities available, it is no wonder that some captive birds develop behavioural
problems such as over-grooming, stereotypic behaviours, and mental dullness.

Environmental enrichment therefore aims to provide activities for the bird to engage in that
‘fill’ the currently empty 80% of the day and stimulate the bird’s brain while doing so.

What happens if we don’t provide enrichment?

It is generally considered that animals behaviourally well-adapted to their environment
display “species‐specific behaviour” as permitted by their social and physical environment
and not abnormal behaviours. Birds that are not adapting well display a range of abnormal
behaviours, including:

 Feather damaging behaving behaviour

  Stereotypic behaviour (repetitive behaviour that serves no purpose)
 Aggression towards other birds and people
 Constant screaming
 Poor socialisation skills e.g. chewing a cagemate’s feathers
 Excessive sleeping
Environmental enrichment should therefore be seen as a means of both preventing and, to
an extent, treating these abnormal behaviours.

A key concept in environmental enrichment requires that we know ‘species‐typical’

information. It is then important to select enriching strategies that are behaviourally
relevant and physically feasible for the bird. Designing an enrichment plan that is
incompatible with the animals’ normal behaviour, physical attributes or its existing
environment may not only be fruitless but may also cause frustration and potential harm.

There is a tendency to think that environmental enrichment means providing some toys or
maybe some branches to chew on. This is only a small part of the process. An enrichment
plan can include some or all of the following:

a. Foraging enrichment
b. Physical enrichment
c. Sensory enrichment
d. Social enrichment
e. Occupational enrichment
Foraging enrichment
Foraging is the act of searching for and finding food. As mentioned earlier, wild birds can
spend up to 80% of their day foraging and feeding, most actively in the morning and the
evening. Foraging therefore has great social and behavioural importance but is one of the
most severely constrained classes of behaviour in captive parrots; obviously there are
potential implications of this common behavioural deficit for bird welfare. Given that we
know birds engage in four basic behaviours on a daily basis – foraging, socialising, grooming,
and resting – removing the ability to forage (by feeding the same food in the same bowl at
the same time) leaves a gaping hole that has to be filled with the other behaviours. A bird
that lives alone without other birds to socialise with may therefore start to overgroom
(feather damaging behaviour) or sleep excessively. Worse it may develop stereotypic
behaviours such as screaming, pacing, biting the wire of its enclosure, etc.

Foraging enrichment therefore seeks to prevent or treat these problems. It requires the
bird(s) to chew and sort through, manipulate and/or open objects to get to food. It should
reflect the bird’s natural foraging behaviour and can be increased in complexity as the bird’s
skill levels increase. Examples of foraging behaviour can include:

a. Scattering the food over the floor of the cage or aviary

 b. Scattering the food in a sand pit or kitty litter tray filled with wooden blocks or
recycled paper kitty litter
c. Placing the food in small cardboard boxes or paper parcels that have to be chewed
open to access the food
d. ‘Baffle cages’ – wire framed boxes that require beak dexterity to access the over
e. Multiple food dishes around the cage the cage or aviary, some with food, some
without
f. Covering the food dishes with paper or cardboard that the bird has to chew through
to access the food
The bird will have to be taught how to use some of these foraging tools e.g. leaving a
cardboard box open till the bird learns there is food in it, and then gradually closing it.

Physical enrichment
Physical enrichment ranges from objects placed in the bird’s environment (such as toys,
swings, ladders, mirrors, etc.) to the environment as a whole (e.g. the space available for the
bird to engage in locomotory behaviours such as flying, running, or swimming). This is where
the toys that many people provide come in. Some of these toys are suitable for the
inquisitive but destructive nature of parrots; others are not.

Here are some general guidelines to follow when considering safe enrichment items for
birds:

 If the item is constructed of synthetic components, use sturdy and large enough
materials to prevent ingestion. Toys with cotton fibres should be avoided as
ingestion of these fibres is a common cause of gastrointestinal obstruction.
 Cheaply made plastic toys or toys with metallic components are easily destroyed and
ingested, presenting the possibility of toxicosis or obstruction. Alternatives include
non-toxic seed pods (e.g., pinecones, eucalyptus nuts), natural browse, blocks of soft
untreated wood, and small cardboard boxes.
 For multiple birds in a cage, provide multiple enrichment devices to reduce item
guarding and aggression
 For birds fearful of new items, slowly introduce the enrichment to the bird’s cage (or
the bird to the enrichment area)
Sensory enrichment
Sensory enrichment utilises the bird’s senses such as sight, hearing, smell, and touch.
Providing ‘a room with a view’, background noises, videos, toys, etc. can improve a bird’s
welfare. It must be used with caution, as some birds may become visibly stressed with loud
sounds, certain images, or a lack of security/privacy. Placing a bird’s enclosure in the middle
of the family room can certainly provide sensory enrichment but the bird must have the
ability to ‘get away from it all’ when the family activities become too much.
Social enrichment
Social enrichment is the social interactions between birds, and between birds and people. It
can be indirect, where the bird can see or hear other animals, such as when a bird is in an
outdoor cage or aviary. Direct social enrichment includes cage mate pairing, social rooms or
flights with numerous birds interacting, and allowing contact between enclosures. Done
well, it allows the birds to perform ‘species‐specific’ behaviours (which is likely high when
compatible birds are housed together), but it has the potential to have drawbacks and
unwanted behaviours such as cagemate aggression. Social enrichment may need to be
carefully chaperoned until it is clear the birds can safely intermingle and there is an escape
mechanism in case aggression occurs.

Occupational enrichment
Occupational enrichment includes items that elicit activities including problem solving,
learning, and choosing and controlling some feature in the bird’s environment. (This is
different from the use of puzzle foraging toys that do require problem solving.) Rather these
may include items that give birds choices about how they spend their time. For example,
although it comes with certain risks, free flight in the house (or even outside) can provide
occupational enrichment.