CIBD Practise Guidelines 02

Labour-based methods and
technologies for employment-

intensive construction works
A cidb guide to best practice
Best Practice Guideline – Part 1
An overview of labour-based technologies

and methods in employment-intensive works
Labour-based methods and technologies for
Confronting joblessness employment-intensive construction works
This set of best practice guidelines for labour- In this set: (colour coded)
based construction represents a significant
investment of leadership by the South African
Construction Industry “to spearhead job
Part 1
An overview of labour-based technologies and
creation and skills development so that our
growing economy is increasingly accessible to methods in employment-intensive works
all citizens”
(Minister Stella Sigcau, SA Construction Part 2
Industry – Status Report 2004). Labour-based construction methods
2.1 Labour-based construction methods for
In finalising this set as a tool for designers and earthworks
practitioners, the Construction Industry
Development Board (cidb) has assembled the
knowledge and experience given freely by
Part 3
Labour-based methods for materials
industry through a consultative process that
manufacture
commenced in 1996.
3.1 Precast concrete products, bricks and block
making
Taking forward this process, the cidb has 3.2 The BESA building system
published these guidelines in fulfilment of its
mandate to “establish and promote best
practice… and the improved performance Part 4
of… participants in the construction delivery Labour-based construction technologies
process”. 4.1 Labour-based open channel flow
technology
4.2 Rubble masonry dam construction
“We have made the firm commitment to
technology
confront the challenges of poverty and
4.3 Rubble masonry concrete arch bridge
joblessness. We have made the solemn construction technology
pledge that we will do everything 4.4 Foamed bitumen gravel
possible to achieve the goal of a better 4.5 Cast in situ block pavement
life for all our people.” 4.6 Emulsion-treated gravel
President Thabo Mbeki, 18 May 2004 – 4.7 Waterbound Macadam
launch of the Expanded Public Works 4.8 Slurrybound and composite Macadam
Programme. construction
unsealed roads
These best practice guidelines are supported by The guidelines draw on international experience
the Expanded Public Works Programme (EPWP), and are endorsed by Engineers Against Poverty
which directs a significant and increasing pro- (EAP), an international development NGO esta-
portion of South Africa’s public investment blished by leading UK engineering institutions.
towards a labour-intensive programme of EAP is working to ensure that the engineering
construction, drawing the unemployed into industry remains at the forefront of efforts to
productive work and providing access to skills reduce and eventually eliminate global poverty.
development.
Labour-based methods and technologies
for employment-intensive construction works
Best Practice Guideline – Part 1 1ST

Edition
of CIDB
document
An overview of labour-based technologies 1022
March 2005
and methods in employment-intensive works

Contents
Overview of best practice labour-based guidelines 2
1. Background 3
2. The employment potential of construction projects 4
3. The impact of the choice of technology 9
4. Implementation mechanisms 11
5. Selected specialist and related literature 15
Appendix 1 17
Appendix 2 63
Acknowledgements 69
cidb is a public entity established in terms of the CIDB

Act, 2000 to provide strategic direction for sustainable
growth, reform and improvement of the construction
sector and its enhanced role in the country’s economy.
In pursuit of this aim cidb partners with stakeholders
and regulates the construction industry around a
common development agenda underpinned by best
practice procurement and project processes.
ISBN: 0-621-35565-8 Printed March, 2005
Construction Industry Development Board

Private Bag X14, Brooklyn Square, 0075
Tel: 27 12-481 9030 Fax: 27 12-343 7153
E-mail: cidb@cidb.org.za Website www.cidb.org.za
Part 1 – An overview of labour-based technologies and methods in infrastructure projects
Overview of the best practice labour-based guidelines
T
he South African White Paper Creating an Enabling Environment for
Reconstruction, Growth and Development in the Construction Industry
(1999) expresses a vision for public-sector delivery aimed at optimising
employment opportunities through labour-intensive construction. This can be
realised in the delivery of infrastructure through the adoption, where technically
and economically feasible, of:
• labour-based methods of construction and manufacture where labour,
utilising hand tools and light equipment, is preferred to the use of heavy
equipment for specific activities; and
• labour-based technologies where there is a shift in balance between labour
and equipment in the way the work is specified and executed for selected
works components.
Appropriate specifications and labour-based technologies are required to

optimise employment opportunities generated per unit of expenditure. The
absence of adequate design information on labour-based technologies
frequently limits the choices available in project design. As a result labour-based
technologies are often approached circumspectly and conservatively.
These best practice guidelines present current state-of-the-art practices in a wide

range of labour-based construction methods, manufacturing methods and
technologies which have been successfully utilised in South Africa in recent years.
They are intended to provide sufficient technical information on such methods
and technologies to enable those responsible for the design of projects to make
confident and informed choices on their use in projects.
The cidb best practice guidelines establish desirable and appropriate standards,
processes, procedures and methods relating to the implementation of
employment-intensive works using:
• labour-based construction methods for earthworks;
• labour-based methods for materials manufacture; and
• labour-based construction technologies.
Following a process of peer review and public comment cidb has published the
guidelines in Government Gazette No 27352 on 11 March 2005.
The guidelines can be downloaded from the cidb website www.cidb.org.za free
of charge and can be obtained in hard-copy from cidb or the South African
Institution of Civil Engineering (SAICE), website www.civils.org.za, at the cost of
printing and postage.
1 Background
Engineers have traditionally used their skills and expertise to ensure that
structures or structural components are serviceable and durable in addition to
possessing adequate strength and stability. A well designed structure is,
normally, considered to be one which meets these requirements in the most
economically efficient manner, least cost being the measure of value for money.
Engineers similarly design services using the same approach. In recent years,
however, the term ‘value for money’ has in South Africa been broadened to take
cognisance of socio-economic and political benefits. Government has realised
that there is a cost to unemployment and poverty and that there is a price to be
paid for the economic empowerment of marginalised communities. Accordingly,
value for money is now assessed in a revised context.
There are definite relationships between employment opportunities, available

skills, entrepreneurship and the use of small scale enterprises in the creation and
maintenance of assets. The construction strategies that are adopted can be used
to address social and economic needs and concerns and, depending upon how
they are structured, to facilitate the economic empowerment of marginalised
sectors in a focussed manner. Thus, the process of constructing assets can be just
as important as the provision of the assets themselves.
Projects involving the creation of assets can also promote sustainable community
development should they be structured so as to:
• create employment opportunities;
• promote community involvement;
• impart technical skills to the unskilled and semi-skilled members of the
community;
• transfer administrative, commercial and managerial skills to the community;
• retain, as far as is possible, the funds expended on the project within the
community; and
• develop contractors from within the community in which they are to be
constructed.
Projects that address these objectives allow the resources of the community to be
built up in an endogenous manner, i.e., to be grown from within.
The Green Paper on Public Sector Procurement Reform in South Africa (1997)
suggests that Procurement should facilitate the generation of jobs in South
Africa by:
• ensuring that the foreign content in contracts involving goods, services and
works is minimised.
• encouraging the substitution of labour for capital.
• supporting the use of ‘labour friendly’ technologies which utilise a higher
degree of labour input than is the case for conventional technologies, or are
well suited to implementation by small scale enterprises.
• encouraging and developing small scale enterprises to implement
employment-intensive practices and ‘labour-friendly’ technologies.
All of the above presupposes that appropriate labour-based methods and

technologies are readily available to those engaged in construction works as
designers and constructors.
labour-based methods and technologies

3
2. The employment potential of construction projects
2.1 An overview
Expenditure in any sector of the economy will create employment opportunities.
Some sectors of industry are, however, more efficient than others at generating
employment opportunities for a given capital inflow. Industries where the
potential for the effective substitutions of labour for capital and local resources
for imports exist, can expect to achieve enhanced performance in the provision of
employment opportunities. The construction industry is an industry that may be
regarded as being amongst the most efficient in generating employment for a
given capital inflow.
The Green Paper on an Enabling Environment for Reconstruction, Growth and

Development in the Construction Industry (1997) suggests that the construction
industry in 1997 could generate between 11 and 23 direct, indirect and derived
jobs per million Rand invested in the different sectors of the industry. (Average of
approximately 17 jobs per million Rand invested). It points out, however, that
although these figures are slightly higher than other industrial sectors they do
not justify infrastructure investment beyond the immediate requirements in
order to create jobs. If, however, the number of jobs created can be increased for
example by substituting people for machines, investment in infrastructure
projects will become more attractive.
Employment-intensive works have been highly visible in the civil engineering

sector. The civil engineering sector is plant-intensive when compared to the
building sector. The building sector, in general, generates more employment
opportunities per unit of expenditure than does the civil engineering sector. If,
however, labour is substituted for machines, this position can be reversed.
Alternatively, if a blend of labour and light equipment is used on civil engineering
projects, the difference in labour-intensiveness between the two sectors reduces.
Several employment-intensive works programmes have been implemented in

Africa and Asia over the last two decades. These labour-and resource-based
programmes have aimed to serve several purposes simultaneously. Above all they
have aimed to influence infrastructure investment policies so as to maximise
employment and income generation, the creation of productive assets and
poverty alleviation.
Employment-intensive methods have been employed in South Africa on

construction projects which include rural gravel roads; low level bridges; small
dams; residential township roads (surfaced and gravel); water and sewerage
reticulation for townships; bituminous surfacing of roads; low voltage electrical
reticulations; stormwater drainage systems; and on-site sanitation. Road
maintenance projects have included regravelling, and routine road maintenance.
Other employment-intensive construction-related projects have included

materials manufacture (precast concrete products, timber roof trusses, metal
window frames); agricultural structures (dams, erosion control measures,
irrigation projects); building works (community centres, clinics, schools,
classrooms, housing); and electrification.
2.2 Quantitative information on the potential of labour-based

technologies and methods
The authors of a report commissioned in 1994 by the National Housing Forum in

South Africa, suggested that there are a number of ways in which employment
opportunities in the provision of housing and related infrastructure can be
4 a cidb – guide to best practice

maximised. These relate to forms of construction,

Table 1 : Approximate number of person-hours required to
construction methods, and manufacturing methods.
manufacture some building and construction materials
They recognised that in order to achieve the goal of ITEM DESCRIPTION UNIT PERSON-
maximising employment opportunities, quantitive HOURS
information needed to be made available to PER UNIT
developers, architects, engineers and the like as to Aggregate - sands for mortar, plaster and ton 0,12
which technologies, construction methods, subbase material
materials etc. would be likely to promote high - stone for concrete, waterbound
employment. Employment opportunities in the macadam; and road bases ton 0,27
construction of the built environment, i.e., houses, - transport (20 km haul) ton 0,13
amenities and infrastructure, were examined in Bitumen - road grade ton 0,7
Cement - OPC ton 1,1
some detail in this National Housing Forum study.
Clay sewer pipes - 150 m diam 100 m 68,2
Manufacturers and producers of a wide range of - 150 x 150 junction 1 0,9
construction materials were approached to provide Clay masonry units - 106 x 212 x 73 (high-tech plant) 1 000 3
information regarding the number of person hours - 106 x 212 x 73 (normal plant) 1 000 9-9,5
required to produce their products. It appeared Concrete masonry - 140 mm hollow (plant
logical that this figure should include all the time units manufacture) 10 m2 5,6-8,2
spent on obtaining raw materials, manufacturing of - 140 mm hollow (hand manufacture) 10 m2 22,4
Concrete paving - 65 mm thick (plant
the item and stockpiling the item prior to
units manufacture) 10 m2 3,6-4,1
distribution and could be based on the total number
Concrete pipes - 450 mm dia 100 m 100
of person-hours worked in the industry - 600 mm dia 100 m 125
(management, administrative staff, workers etc.) Concrete roof tile 10 m2 0,9
and the quantity of the item produced. Some of the Door frames - standard pressed metal 1 0,5
results of this survey are summarised in Table 1. The FC roof sheeting 10 m2 4,1
researchers, using the CSIR Division of Building FC ceiling board 10 m2 1,9
Technology's Housing Delivery Systems Analysis FC sewer pipe - 150 mm dia 100 m 23
Gate valve - 80/90 mm dia RSV 1 2,0
(HDSA) database, were able to estimate the number
Glass - 3 mm float 100 m2 4,2
of person-hours required to construct a masonry Gypsum ceilings 10 m2 3,3
house for any given floor plan. In this manner, they HDPE pipe - 32 mm dia (water) 100 m 3
were able to compare the total number of person Paint - PVA 100 litre 5
hours required to construct houses using different Polyethylene - pipe grade ton 3,3
forms of construction (see Table 2). They suggested Polypropylene - pipe grade ton 5,2
that employment opportunities should be linked to Precast concrete
products - average ton 7,8
cost to ensure that sector effectiveness and
Steel roof sheeting - 0,6 mm galvanised ton 21,1
efficiency were not impaired. Table 3 compares the
Steel sections - commercial grade angles, channels ton 10,1
cost per person-hour generated for the different and IPEs
forms of house construction presented in Table 2. Timber - structural grade m3 19,6
uPVC pipes - 160 mm dia (sewer, HD) 100 m 30
Window frames - ND54 1 1,3
- NC1 1 0,8
Table 2 : Comparison of the number of person-hours required to construct non-masonry and masonry
houses
CONSTRUCTION NUMBER OF PERSON-HOURS (hours) NUMBER OF PERSON-HOURS (hours)

(NON-MASONRY) EQUIVALENT MASONRY HOUSES (hours)
MATERIALS SITE LABOUR TOTAL MATERIALS SITE LABOUR TOTAL
Timber
(SALMA) 300 1 180 1 480 200 1 700 1 900
Precast concrete panels
and posts (Blitz) 150 210 360 120 1 120 1 240
Steel frame with 110 mm
brick infill panels (Belaton) 330 880 1 210 160 1 400 1 560

5
The researchers demonstrated how similar statistics could be generated for the
provision of township services. Table 4 presents such statistics for the servicing of
stands in a specific low-cost housing development in South Africa (typical
electrification costs are included for comparative purposes). Table 5 presents
statistics relating to the potential in roadwork activities. Person hours associated
with the excavation of trenches using labour-based construction methods, based
on statistics derived from Soweto's Contractor Development Programme, were
then substituted for those associated with plant-based construction. The
implications of using these construction methods are reflected in Table 6.
Table 3 : Evaluation of non-masonry house types
CONSTRUCTION TYPE ESTIMATED COSTS (1994) COST/PERSON-HOUR

(Rand) (Rand/person-hour)
NON-MASONRY MASONRY EQUIVALENT NON-MASONRY MASONRY EQUIVALENT
Timber (SALMA) 47 200 46 100 32 24
Precast concrete panels
and posts (Blitz) 16 000 20 300 44 16
Steel frame with 110 mm
brick infill panels (Belaton) 28 400 30 800 23 20
Table 4 : Person-hours required in the provision of infrastructure for a low cost township using
conventional construction methods
SERVICE ESTIMATED PERSON-HOURS (%) ESTIMATED TOTAL COST/PERSON-HOUR

MATERIALS SITE LABOUR NUMBER OF PERSON- (Rand/person hour)
MANUFACTURE HOURS/ERF (March 1992)
NON-MASONRY MASONRY EQUIVALENT NON-MASONRY MASONRY EQUIVALENT
Water 13 87 39 20
Sewerage 16 84 43 14
Roads (low standard) 14 86 21 36
Stormwater 8 92 26 16
Electricity 70 30 117 20
Table 5: The employment potential of various roadwork activities
ACTIVITY THICKNESS PERSON-HOURS TO PRODUCE AND CONSTRUCT

(mm) (person-hours/m2)
PLANT-BASED LABOUR-BASED
Road bed preparation (R&R) – 0,033 0,350
Gravel wearing course (G5) 125 0,160 1,000
Base course (G4) 150 0,192 1,200
Base course (G3) 125 0,165 NA
Subbase (G6) 150 0,192 1,200
Waterbound macadam base course 100 1,040 1,370
Slurry 15 0,110 2,011
Asphalt 25 0,140 1,170
Concrete blocks 60 0,930+ 2,120#
Cast in situ (plastic cell) blocks – 0,38 1,80

Table 6: Provision of water and sewer reticulation in a housing development using labour-based methods
of construction
SERVICE LABOUR PERSON-HOURS/ERF COST/PERSON-HOUR

(Rand/person hour) (March 1992)
Plant-based Labour-based Plant-based Labour-based
Water 39 58 20 14
Sewerage 43 72 14 9
An analysis of Soweto's Contractor Development Programme, a programme

which embraced labour-intensive methods and labour-based technologies and
trained and encouraged the community to participate in the managerial,
commercial and administrative aspects of construction, revealed some interesting
statistics some of which are set out in Tables 7 to 9. The programme generated
employment at a cost of approximately R18 /person-hour, whereas the average
cost for the civil engineering industry in South Africa during the study period
amounted to approximately R37-50 /person-hour.
Table 7: Estimated number of person-hours generated in Soweto's Contractor Development Programme
TYPE OF CONSTRUCTION UNIT ESTIMATED NUMBER OF PERSON-HOURS/UNIT (hours/unit)

Road construction (waterbound
macadam + stormwater) m2 0,5 6,8 1,8 9,1
Road construction (concrete
block paving + stormwater) m2 0,7 8,0 1,8 10,5
Secondary Water Mains m 0,4 5,9 0,9 8,2
House Connection erf 0,6 31,4 6,0 38,0
Table 8: Expenditure per unit of employment generated in Soweto's Contractor Development Programme
TYPE OF CONSTRUCTION UNIT ESTIMATED

EXPENDITURE/PERSON-HOUR
(RAND)
Road construction (waterbound macadam) m2 17,9
Road construction (concrete block paving) m2 18,4
Secondary Water Mains m 17,4
House connections erf 17,1
Table 9: Percentage of construction cost retained by the community in Soweto's Contractor Development
Programme
DESCRIPTION ROAD CONSTRUCTION SECONDARY WATER MAINS HOUSE CONNECTIONS

(PLUMBING)
Labour contract 26 22 33
Transport 2 8 9
Materials Management 2 3 2
Construction Management 7 6 6
TOTAL 37 39 50

7
2.3 The impact of choice of technology and construction methods on

employment
An examination of Tables 3 to 8 indicates that the choice of technology has a
marked influence on the number and location of employment. For example, a
masonry house may generate 3,5 times more person-hours of employment than
an equivalent precast concrete house. The same precast concrete house may,
however, generate 1,25 times more person-hours of employment in the
manufacture of materials than the masonry equivalent.
The choice of construction method can, particularly in the case of civil

engineering projects, significantly influence the total number of person hours of
employment generated. The construction of conventional masonry housing
units, depending upon the standards adopted, realises approximately 50% more
employment opportunities per unit of expenditure than plant-based servicing of
sites. If, however, sites are serviced using labour-based construction practices,
without increasing the total construction cost, this is 50% more effective than the
construction of masonry housing units in creating employment opportunities.
The choice of manufacturing method of construction components can also

significantly affect the number of employment opportunities generated. For
example, the ratio of person hours employment generated in conventional
construction on-site to that generated in the conventional off-site manufacture
of the associated materials is 9 : 1 for house construction and 6,5 : 1 for township
services (roads, stormwater drainage, water supply and sewerage). There is,
clearly, considerable scope for increasing employment opportunities through the
use of employment-intensive methods of manufacture of materials.
Changes in methods and technologies, which increase the labour content of

construction and the manufacture of materials, can yield increases in the number
of employment opportunities generated per unit of expenditure. This however,
requires large, well established companies to change their work methods and
reduce their reliance on capital intensive technologies; a difficult task. In
contrast, small scale enterprises, who, being small, have limited access to capital
and invariably operate and conduct their businesses in a more employment-
intensive fashion and favour light equipment-based forms of construction, would
have little difficulty in adopting new methods and technologies.
Recent research in South Africa has indicated that, provided there is little or no
cost premium associated with employment-intensive practices, the overall
increase in employment opportunities for a given project over conventional
plant-based practices may reach a factor of 2 in urban infrastructure and 3 in rural
road construction; increases which are extremely valuable.

3. The impact of the choice of technology
The choice of technology not only influences employment parameters, as

previously described, but determines who is able to participate in a project. The
following two examples on the impact of technology choices illustrate this.
In the first example, a church community wished to construct a 600 m2 church

hall on a site where moderately expansive clays were present. A member of the
congregation, who had recently been made redundant, volunteered to construct
the building on a labour only basis. He had some building experience and had
access to some bricklayers and a small truck and trailer. In addition, he had the
necessary commercial credibility to hire any minor equipment which he required.
The builder did not, however, have access to carpenters capable of constructing
forms for reinforced concrete work. Nor did he own any formwork or have the
experience to supervise reinforced concrete works. So, if the hall had been
designed as a reinforced concrete framed building, he could not have constructed
it and the church would have had to look outside their congregation for someone
to construct the hall.
To accommodate the builder, the hall was designed as a reinforced masonry

structure. Reinforcement was placed in masonry columns and bedjoints, and
fabric reinforcement in cavity walls. Using this form of construction, no formwork
was required and the builder was able to use his bricklayers to construct the
entire structure. The form of construction proved to be very cost effective,
particularly in view of the founding conditions.
In the second example, a rural community was allocated funds for the
construction of school classrooms and toilet blocks, the intention being that the
community, with appropriate management and technical support, would itself
undertake the construction. Most of the structures were located on expansive
clay and total surface movements of approximately 50 mm were predicted.
Typically, structures built on sites of this nature in South Africa are founded on
stiffened reinforced concrete rafts, or on piles. The community simply did not
have the skills necessary for these forms of construction.
Alternative solutions were sought. A cellular raft (Boucell, i.e., a foundation system
which comprises two horizontal fabric reinforced slabs interconnected by a series of
web beams) was finally decided upon. This system did present a few construction
challenges that required some innovation to overcome. Old tyres that were
obtained at no cost, filled with soil were used as void formers. Masonry was used
to create a perimeter beam. (As the width of an average tyre is 170 mm, this
solution enabled a course height of 85 mm to be maintained in the structure). The
space at the centre of four adjoining tyres proved ample for the placing of shear
links. The rafts were readily and economically constructed by the community.
Sometimes it is more appropriate to look to old technologies rather than to

attempt to optimise current technology. In Zimbabwe and South Africa, rubble
masonry, an old technology that was investigated by 19th century engineers has
been resurrected. Rubble masonry is a building material comprising uncut stones
bound together with cementitious mortar. Several small dams and bridges have
recently been constructed at considerably lower costs than conventional
alternative designs. The advantages of using this employment-intensive
technology instead of conventional alternatives, include the following:
• The only material purchased is cement.
• The acquisition costs of sand and stone, sourced in close proximity to the site,
are limited to wages for the gatherers and any blasting of rock which may be
necessary.
9
• Transportation costs are minimised, as cement which accounts for

approximately 7% of the mass of the rubble masonry structure is the only
material which is hauled any significant distance.
• Rubble masonry requires no vertical formwork to contain it during
placement.
This technology has not only increased employment opportunities per unit of
expenditure, but has also afforded unskilled people, who live in close proximity
to the projects, access to employment opportunities in Contractor development
in the roads sector can be viewed as a function of the mechanisation level of the
contractors as illustrated in Figure 1. As contractors master technologies that
make use of light plant, they can purchase and acquire increasingly more costly
plant and transform their businesses into fully mechanized ones.
Figure 1: Mechanisation level of some labour-intensive construction techniques
Level of
Construction technique Mechanisation Discussion
Crushed Stone / Cemented High • Machine intensive
100 – 150 mm water-/dry bound Macadam High • Heavy (12 tonne) roller required.
• Density specification to be met.
• Light surfacing types (seals) not recommended.
Foam gravel bases High • Graded material to be compacted to specification.
• Mechanical mixing often introduced.
100 – 150 mm composite Macadam Medium Heavy (12 tonne plus) roller required.
Density specification to be met.
Emulsion treated bases Medium • Graded material to be compacted to specification.
• Mechanical mixing often introduced.
Concrete Interlocking blocks Medium Manufacturing considered mechanised.
75 mm composite Macadam Low Only light pedestrian rollers required.
“Orientation of aggregate sufficient.
Slurry-bound Macadam Low Only light pedestrian rollers required.
“Orientation” of aggregate sufficient.
Direct labour Entry point Entry point

4. Implementation mechanisms
4.1 Overview
In several countries in Africa and Asia long term national programmes of labour-
intensive road construction and maintenance have been established. These
national programmes have resulted in the creation of employment and the
efficient production of as good a quality of construction and maintenance as is
allowed by the funding available. This has usually, however, been executed on a
pilot project basis. These programmes have resulted in the development and
establishment of the skilled personnel required to supervise the site works, to
liase with the beneficiary communities and to plan and administer these
programmes.
The World Bank in a paper on expanding labour-based methods in road works

(1996) has identified six basic delivery/implementing mechanisms, viz.:
I The force account model (‘in house’ workforce) whereby a government body
hires labour directly (either as individual workers or as worker teams) and
provides the necessary supervision, administration and management required
to execute the works.
II The conventional model whereby a conventional contractor hires labour
directly and provides the supervision, administration and management
required to execute the works.
III The sub-contracting model whereby a large contractor or firm sub-contracts
the portions of the projects that are labour-based to small contractors and
assumes overall responsibility for the supervision, administration and
management required to execute the works.
IV The government-run model whereby the responsibility for all aspects of
contractor development, including small contractor administration and
payment, and the overall responsibility for the supervision, administration
and management required to execute the works, lies with a government
agency.
V The agency model whereby the responsibility for all aspects of contractor
development including small contractor administration and payment and the
overall responsibility for the supervision, administration and management
required to execute the works, lies with an independent non-profit
management agency or with a for-profit
consulting firm.
Model VI – a South African innovation
VI The development team model whereby the
responsibility for all aspects of contractor
Model V is commonly encountered in French speaking nations in West Africa
development and the management of the works
where it is referred to as the Agetip model (non-profit contract management
is divided amongst the Client Body (Employer), a
agency). Generally, model IV involves fixed rate contracts. Model VI was
Construction Manager and a Materials Manager. developed in South Africa and pioneered through Soweto’s Contractor
Development Programme. It is sufficiently flexible to be used either to
Models II and III promote the use of labour-based develop and support small scale contractors, particularly in the early stages
construction practices amongst established of their development, or to implement ‘labour pool worker programmes’ in
contractors; models IV to VI promote the expansion the same manner as is done in the force account model, but with private
of such methods among small-scale contractors. sector firms (construction or consulting) assuming responsibility for the
supervision, administration and the management of the labour, and the risk
In force account operations (Model I), government of cost overruns or failure to achieve the required quality or programme
objectives being shared between the parties.
has direct control over the outcomes of
employment-intensive projects and is at risk for any
failure to achieve programme objectives. The Government's control over the
works in all the other models is, however, diminished. Its risk of failure in these
models is reduced, the extent of which is dependent upon the model which is
selected. The total project costs of each of the models which involve the private
sector is in turn directly related to how risk is managed and assigned to the
contracting parties and the nature and complexity of the work involved.

11
4.2 The engagement of small scale contractors in construction contracts

Construction can be regarded as the synthesis of the following:
• Construction management
• Materials management
• Materials supply
• Plant and equipment
• Labour
Employment-intensive construction is by nature management-intensive and

requires that all the aforementioned functional activities be addressed in a
project. This is true irrespective of whether or not the construction work is
executed by means of force account or large or small scale contractors.
Contractors, as is the case with labour units established within governmental
agencies, need to have administrative, managerial and technical skills. In addition
contractors, if their businesses are to be sustained, need to have commercial skills.
Small contractors, particularly newly established businesses, frequently have
limited skills and are unable to control cost, time and quality on their projects.
Models IV to VI are structured to address these problems.
Numerous pilot projects in a number of countries, using the abovementioned

implementation methods, have demonstrated that providing adequate controls
and management are put in place, direct labour and small scale contractors can
successfully execute labour-based/employment-intensive projects. The challenge,
however, lies in expanding these pilot projects into major programmes which can
make a significant impact on the employment problem or programme objectives.
Many of the aforementioned models attempt to develop small scale contracting

capacity to effect employment-intensive works that may previously have been
executed using the force account model. Frequently the development of small
Targeted Procurement Procedures scale enterprises is seen as a means of expanding programmes in a manner which
reduces the management, supervisory and administrative burden placed on
An innovative new approach to government's in-house resources and the risk exposure of cost overruns on
procurement which addresses the programmes.
current short comings of Models II and III
has been developed in South Africa, viz The quantum of work which can be executed by small contractors in terms of
Targeted Procurement. Targeted Pro- models IV to VI on works of a relatively complex nature, or which have significant
curement enables Models II and III to be specialist or high equipment components, is limited as the breaking down of
efficiently and effectively implemented
projects into small contracts is not always justifiable from either a cost or
with minimal interference on a
management point of view owing to:
contractor’s ability to perform. (See
• the division of responsibilities, interdependence of activities, programming,
Appendix 2)
duplication of establishment charges and utilisation of resources
• the lack of skilled management resources;
• the general lack of commercial skills in small scale enterprises; and
• the increased administration of such contracts by public bodies and their
agents.
As a result, the use of large scale contractors to engage more labour or to

subcontract to small scale contractors has been reconsidered. Unfortunately,
onerous conditions have frequently been imposed on contractors which in many
instances has impaired their performance and ability to efficiently and effectively
deliver infrastructure. This has often translated into increased construction costs
and a concomitant erosion of the total volume of potential employment which
can be realised through construction projects. In extreme cases, conventional
equipment-based construction may have yielded more employment opportu-
nities for the same amount of expenditure.

4.3 Increasing employment opportunities generated per unit of 1

The Guidelines for the
expenditure
implementation of labour-intensive
Two alternative procurement approaches to implementing employment-intensive infrastructure projects under the
works methods can be adopted: Expanded Public Works
Method 1: Lay down the use of specific employment-intensive technologies and Programme (EPWP) require that
methods of construction/manufacture in the tender document (a variation to method 1 be used in the
this approach is to specify the minimum amount of wages which are required construction of low volume roads,
1
to be paid in respect of a particular contract); sidewalks, stormwater drainage
Method 2: Afford tenderers the opportunity to choose the technology/con- and shallow trenches.
struction method/method of materials manufacture which they wish to use in
order to maximise the participation of labour in construction works and in so
doing win bids .
Suitable resource specifications can be used in both methods to ensure that the
deliverables are attained. Either method may be used to increase the quantity of
employment generated per unit of expenditure. Method 1 achieves this objective
by restricting the use of certain types of plant/manufacturing methods and by
specifying particular technologies. Method 2 (i.e. the Targeted Procurement
approach), on the other hand, by means of development objective/price
mechanisms and resource specification, enables tenderers to tender the amount
of targeted labour, which they undertake to engage in the performance to the
contract. Method 2, accordingly, permits tenderers to use their knowledge, skill
and creativity in arriving at an optimum economic mix of equipment, technology
and labour in order to meet objectives and win bids.
The economic viability of Method 1 is, however, dependent on the ability of the
designer/specifier to forecast cost. Any potential price premium in Method 2 can
be readily assessed during the adjudication of bids. Method 2 therefore has the
distinct advantage that bid prices will usually fall within acceptable limits and
economic justification of decisions relating to employment-generation will not be
necessary.
The Green Paper on Public Sector Procurement Reform in South Africa in this
regard proposes the following:
• A distinction should be made in the targeting of local labour in order to
stimulate local economies and the increase in employment opportunities
generated per unit of expenditure. Increased credits in development
objective/price mechanisms should be granted to encourage the increase in
employment opportunities generated per unit of expenditure where
tenderers are permitted to choose technologies and work methods.
• Any premiums to be paid in respect of employment-intensive practices should
be determined and accepted prior to the award contracts. employment-
intensive practices should result in the generation of jobs as opposed to the
displacement of jobs.
The Interministerial Task Team for Construction Industry Development in their

Recommendations on Refinements in Public Sector Procurement Policy, Practices
and Procedures in the Construction Sector reinforce the green paper proposals,
viz:
• Procurement in engineering and construction works should facilitate the
generation of jobs in South Africa by:
❍ encouraging the substitution of labour for capital;
❍ supporting the use of ‘labour friendly’ technologies which utilise a higher
degree of labour input than is the case for conventional technologies, or are
well suited to implementation by small scale enterprises; and

13
❍ encouraging and developing small scale enterprises to implement

employment-intensive practices and ‘labour-friendly’ technologies.
• Targeted Procurement should be used to encourage cost-effective
employment-intensive practices.
• Any premiums to be paid in respect of employment-intensive practices should
be determined and accepted prior to the award of contracts. employment-
intensive practices should result in the generation of jobs as opposed to the
displacement of jobs.
Appendix 2 provides guidance on the use of Targeted Procurement Procedures on

infrastructure projects to increase employment per unit of expenditure. It should
be noted in this regard that SANS 1914-5 (Participation of Targeted Labour) can
be used to measure the nature and quantum of employment used in both of the
aforementioned procurement approaches to implementing employment-
intensive works. SANS 1921-5 (Earthworks activities which are to be performed by
hand) identifies earthworks activities and sub-activities which the contractor must
execute by hand, can be used to readily describe the scope of work in a contract
which is be executed using Method 1.

5. Selected specialist and related literature
1. Standards South Africa: SANS 1914: Targeted construction procurement

Part 1: Participation of targeted enterprises
Part 2: Participation of targeted partners in joint ventures
Part 3: Participation of targeted enterprises and targeted partners in joint
ventures
Part 4: Participation of targeted enterprises and targeted labour (local
resources)
Part 5: Participation of targeted labour
2. Standards South Africa: SANS 10396: Implementing Preferential Construction

Procurement Policies using Targeted Procurement Procedures
3. Watermeyer RB. (Ed) Contractor Development in Labour-based Construction.

The Contractor Development Team, Johannesburg 1992.
4. McCutcheon RT, van Zyl CWL, Croswell J, Meyer D and Watermeyer RB.
Interim Guidelines for Labour-based Construction Projects. Development
Bank of Southern Africa 1992.
5. Watermeyer RB. Community-based construction : a route to sustainable

development. JSA Inst Civ Eng Vol 36, No. 1, First quarter, 1995.
6. Watermeyer RB. Evaluating employment and community opportunities

presented by building and construction projects. employment-intensive
Construction Fifteenth Annual Transportation Convention, University of
Pretoria, June 1995./Volume 5, ATC Research Forum, ISSN 1019-1909, 1995.
7. Watermeyer RB. Soweto's Contractor Development Programme: 1988-1998.

City Development Strategies. Issue no 1 October 1999
8. Watermeyer R.B. Job creation in public sector engineering and construction

works projects : why, what and how ? Commonwealth Engineer’s Council
50th Anniversary Conference : Engineering to survive - human shelter and
the relief of poverty : sustainable solutions. Fourways, August 1997.
9. Watermeyer R.B. Mobilising the Private Sector to Engage in Labour-Based

Infrastructure works : A South African Perspective. Sixth Regional Seminar
for Labour-based Practitioners. Ministry of Works, Transport and
Communications in collaboration with ILO/ASIST, Jinja, Uganda, October
1997.
10. Watermeyer R.B. Socio-economic responsibilities : the challenge facing

structural engineers. The Structural Engineer, September 1999.
11. Watermeyer RB. The use of Procurement as an Instrument of Local

Economic Development. Institute of Municipal Engineers of South Africa’s
Biennial conference, Kempton Park, October,1999.
12. Watermeyer R.B. The use of Targeted Procurement as an instrument of

Poverty Alleviation and Job Creation in Infrastructure Projects. Public Sector
Procurement Law Review, Number 5 pages 201-266. 2000
13. Watermeyer RB and Band NG. The Development of Small Scale Enterprises,
Skills, Entrepreneurship and Employment Opportunities through the
Provision of Housing. Working Group 3, National Housing Forum,
November 1994.
15
14. Watermeyer RB, Nevin G, Amod S and Hallett RA. An evaluation of projects
within Soweto's Contractor Development Programme. JSA Inst Civ Eng, Vol
36, No.2, Second quarter, 1995.
15. Watermeyer R, Gounden S, Letchmiah D and Shezi S. Targeted

procurement: a means by which socio-economic objectives can be realised
through engineering and construction works contracts. SA Inst CivEng,
March 1998.
16. National Department of Public Works. Guidelines for enhancing

employment opportunities in the delivery of infrastructure projects.
A National Public Works Programme Initiative, May 1999.
17. Technical Committee on a Public Works Programme. National Employment

Creation Programme for the Provision of Public Infrastructure Using Labour
Intensive Methods. National Economic Forum, April 1994.
18. Department of Transport. Synthesis document on Labour-based work for

road and street construction and the development of small business
opportunities in South Africa. South African Roads Board.
19. Steidl D. Productivity Norms for Labour-Based Construction. ASIST

Information Service Technical Brief No. 2. International Labour Organisation
1998.
20 Standards South Africa. SANS 1921-5, Construction and management

requirements for works contracts, Part 5: Earthworks activities which are to
be performed by hand.
22 McCutcheon, RT and Taylor Parkins, FLM (Editors). Employment and High-

Standard Infrastructure. Work Research Centre for Employment Creation in
Construction. School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of
the Witwatersrand, 2003.
Note
The International Labour Organisation has a publication which catalogues a
number of key publications which may be obtained from their ASIST Information
Service entitled “The Labour-Based Technology Source Book”
(see www.ilo.org/asist for further particulars).

Appendix 1: Quantitative Employment Data on selected construction activities
Sources of data
A: HOUSING AND RELATED INFRASTRUCTURE

Source: Watermeyer and Band’s National Housing Forum Report (1994) on the
Appendix 1: Quantitative
Development of Small Scale Enterprise, Skills, Entrepreneurship and
employment data on selected
Employment Opportunities through the Provision of Housing (see
construction activities
www.targetedprocurement.com)
Comprehensive quantitative data on

Table A1: Approximate number of manhours required to manufacture various
employment generated by various
building and construction material
construction activities is generally
Table A2: Comparison of engineering materials
lacking in the literature. The data which
Table A3: Manufacture of precast concrete components follows, however, appears in the
Table A4: The use of bitumen in plant-based and labour-based surfacing literature. Users of this data should
options consult the publications referenced to
Table A5: Manhours associated with the manufacture of 150 mm diameter obtain the assumptions behind the
sewer pipes reported data.
Table A6: Typical manhours required in the manufacture of building
components
Table A7: Number of manhours required in the construction of various
masonry houses
Table A8: Kwa Thema Extension 7: civil services for 805 erven constructed
using conventional plant-based methods
Table A9: Manhours required in the provision of infrastructure for a low cost
township using conventional construction methods
Table A10: Comparison of the number of manhours required to construction
non-masonry and masonry houses
Table A11: Kwa Thema Extension 7: water and sewer reticulation for 805 erven
using labour-based methods of construction
Table A12: Manhours required to provide and construct various township roads
Table A13: Manhours associated with roadwork layers
Table A14: Manhours required to surface roads
Table A15: Manhours required to provide and construct an in situ paved
blocked pavement
Table A16: Productivities for piece and task work in KwaZulu-Natal
Table A17: Trends in excavation rates for pickable material in various projects
Table A18: Trench excavation rates for a 6-hour task
Table A19: Productivities for labour performing various construction activities
Table A20: Manhours associated with layerworks and kerbing on various
township roads
B: MINIMUM PRODUCTIVITY LEVELS

Source: Notice in terms of Section 70(2) of the Labour Act, 1992. Agreement
on conditions of employment entered into between the Metal and
Allied Namibian Works Union and the Construction Industries
Federation of Namibia 6 April 2000, Government Gazette 31 May
2000 (No. 2340).
No Tables
C: ESTIMATED PRODUCTION RATES FOR CONCRETE BLOCK PAVING

Source: A Nkambule: A review of Labour-intensive Concrete Block Paving
van Wyk and Louw Inc.
Table C1: Labour-intensive production rates

17
D: CONCRETE MASONRY GRAVITY DAMS CONSTRUCTION

Source: King CD. Employment creation through the design and construction
of medium sized concrete masonry gravity dams in South Africa
using labour-based construction methods: A comparison of
alternative technologies. A project report submitted to the Faculty
of Engineering, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of
Science in Engineering Johannesburg, 1994.
Table D1: Balfour dam: Productivity figures for required construction activities
E: EXCAVATION
Source: A critical analysis of the community-based Public Works Programme
in South Africa. A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of
Engineering, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in
fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science
in Engineering, Johannesburg, July 1996
Table E1: Productivity data for excavation by hand
F: LABOUR-BASED STONE PAVED ROADS

Source: S AL-Fayadh. Labour-based Stone Paved Roads. Kampang Cham
Province International Labour Organisation. Technical Assistance to
the Labour-based Rural Infrastructure Works Programme
CMB/97/M02/S10
Table F1: Work norms: Labour-based stone paved roads
G: EARTHWORKS
Source: McCutcheon, RT, van Zyl CWL, Croswell J, Meyer D and Watermeyer
RB. Interim guidelines for labour-based construction projects.
Construction and Development series. Number 2 Development Bank
of Southern Africa, February 1993.
Table G1: Average task output values

Table G2: Detailed task rates for excavation
H: STORMWATER DRAINAGE
Source: Balmaceda P, John R and Horak E. Planning and construction of a
stormwater system by labour-intensive methods in an urban
environment. Fifteenth Annual Transportation Convention, 1995.
Table H1: Output data assumed for feasibility analysis

Table H2: Laying concrete pipes – summary of information from work study
J: BITUMEN SURFACING
Source: SABITA Labour-enhanced construction for bituminous surfacings
Manual II March 1993
Table J1: Preliminary South African bitumen surfacing production rates under
average conditions

K: ROAD PROJECTS
Source: Greyling MR, Critical analysis of labour-intensive road projects in
South Africa funded form the sale of strategic oil. A dissertation
submitted to the faculty reservers of Engineering, University of the
Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfillment of the requirements for
the degree of Master of Science of Engineering, 1994.
Table K1: Productivity achieved per activity (Pa) for each road authority
Table K2: Productivity data for standard conditions
Table K3: Adjustment factors applied to standard productivity data (According
to Coukis et al, 1983: Table 7.7)
Table K4: Range of adjustment factors applied to standard productivity data
(Coukis et al, Table 7.7 1983)
Table K5: Productivity ratings (Pr-1) per activity (Assessment 1)
Table K6: Productivity achieved in Kenya (de Veen, 1983) and Malawi (Relf,
Hagen and Akute, 1987)
Table K7: Productivity rating (Pr-2) Assessment 2
L: ROADWORKS
Source: Watermeyer R(ed) Contractor Development in Labour-based
Construction
M: EARTHWORKS
Source: Steidl D. Productivity Norms for Labour-Based Construction ASSIST
Information Service Technical Brief No. 2 International Labour
Organisation 1998.
Table M1: Soil excavation characteristics

Table M2: Site clearing norms – country data
Table M3: Site clearing norms – recommended values
Table M4: Excavation norms – country data
Table M5: Excavation norms – recommended values
Table M6: Wheelbarrow haulage norms – country data
Table M7: Wheelbarrow haulage norms – recommended values
Table M8: Typical haulage rates for manually loaded equipment
Table M9: Loading, unloading and spreading norms – country data
Table M10: Loading, unloading and spreading norms – recommended values
Table M11: Compaction norms – country data and recommended values
Table M12: Culvert laying norms – country data
Table M13: Culvert laying norms – recommended values
Table M14: Typical equipment/labour combinations for gravelling
Table M15: Summary of recommended values
Table M16: Average worker input for completed operations
Table M17: Country data for site clearing activities
Table M18: Country data for excavation activities
Table M19: Country data for haulage activities
Table M20: Country data for loading, unloading and spreading activities
Table M21: Country data for compaction activities
Table M22: Country data for culvert laying activities
N: TASK OUTPUT RATES

Source: Department of Public Works: Guidelines for enhancing employment
opportunities in the delivery of infrastructure projects – a national
Public Works Programme Initiative
Table N1: Task output rates

19
O: TYPICAL TASK RATES

Source: McCutcheon and Marshall. Labour-intensive construction and
maintenance of rival roads: Guidelines for the training of road
builders. Construction and Development Series, November 14,
Development Bank of Southern Africa. Development Paper 60,
November 1996.
Table O1: Average task output values

Table O2: Detailed task rates for excavation
A: HOUSING AND RELATED INFRASTRUCTURE

Source: Watermeyer and Band’s National Housing Forum Report (1994) on
the Development of Small Scale Enterprises, Skills, Entrepreneurship
and Employment Opportunities through the Provision of Housing
(see www.targetedprocurement.com)
Chapter 2: Employment opportunities through the provision of housing

Table A1 : Approximate number of manhours required to manufacture various building and construction
materials
PRIVATE DESCRIPTION UNIT MANHOURS SOURCE OF REMARKS
ITEM PER UNIT INFORMATION
Aggregates – sands for mortar, ton 0,12 Hippo Quarries
plaster and (M Doyle)
subbase material
– sands for ton 0,15
concrete
– stone for ton 0,27
concrete;
aggregate for
waterbound
macadam;
crushed stone
for road base
courses
– transport ton 0,13 20 km haul distance,
12 ton truck; one
mechanic to 10
trucks
Asbestos ton 41,5 Central Asbestos (Pty) Ltd
(J Maree)
Bitumen road grade ton 0,7 SABITA (R Vos) Distribution to
within 200 km.
Excludes imported
crude oil
Cement OPC ton 1,1 Anglo Alpha Transport and
(C Ehrke) distribution excluded
Clay sewer pipe 150 mm diam 100 m Vitro Building Including constituent
– raw material 1,90 Products materials, but no
– manufacture 66,30 (H Grobler) distribution
TOTAL 68,20
100 mm diam pipe 100 m
– raw material 1,03
– manufacture 45,04
TOTAL 46,07
150 x 150 mm junction No
TOTAL 0,87
100 mm 902 Bend No
TOTAL 0,31
Clay masonry 106 x 212 x 73 No Clay Brick Association Production manhours
units – hightech plant 1 000 3 (N Louw) vary depending
– normal plant 9 – 9,5 on plant used
Concrete 140 mm (hollow) 10 m2 Concrete Masonry Excludes
masonry units – materials 0,6 Association transport to site.
– production 5,1 – 7,6 (P Kelly) Production
TOTAL 5,6 – 8,2 manhours vary
140 mm (solid) 10 m2 depending on
– materials 1,1 plant used
– production 5,1 – 7,6
TOTAL 6,2 – 8,8
140 mm (hollow) 10 m2
– materials 2,4 Portland Cement Manual equipment
– production 20,0 Institute Own quarry
TOTAL 22,4 (B Raath) Hand mixing
21
materials – (continued)
Concrete paving 65 mm thick 10 m2 Concrete Masonry Excluding transport
units – materials 0,5 Association (P Kelly) to site
– production 3,1 – 3,6
TOTAL 3,6 – 4,1
Concrete pipes Stormwater pipe Fraser Fyfe (Pty) Ltd Including raw
450 mm diam 100 m 100 (A Dotton) materials
600 mm diam 100 m
– material 45
– production 80
TOTAL 125
900 mm diam 100 m
– material 100
– prodction 100
TOTAL 200
1 350 mm diam
– material 100 m 215
– production 120
TOTAL 335
Sewer pipe
450 mm 100 m 104
600 mm 100 m 132 Including raw
900 mm 100 m 210 materials and
1 350 mm 100 m 350 sacrificial lining
Concrete roof – production 10 m2 0,66 Watson Tile
tile – materials 0,22 Corporation (K Watson)
TOTAL 0,88
Door frames standard No 0,5 Wispeco (N Crosby) Excludes steel in frame
FC Roof 10 m2 Everite (P North)
sheeting – production 3,9
– materials 0,2
TOTAL 4,1
FC Ceiling 4 mm 10 m2 Everite (P North)
board – production 1,8
– materials 0,1
TOTAL 1,9
PC sewer pipe 150 mm diam 100 m 23 AC Pipes Klipriver Includes all constituent
(A Kapp) materials
Gate valve 80/90 mm diam RSV No 2,0 Czechtech cc Includes casting,
(R Garrett) machining, assembly
and overheads
Glass 3 mm float 100m2 PFG Flat Glass
– production 3,6 (J Henning)
– materials 0,6
TOTAL 4,2
Gypsum ceilings 10 m2 3,25 Gypsum Industries 12,5 mm
(Snowden)
HDPE pipe 600 mm spiral wound 100 m Spiropipe
– material 7 (A Rex)
– production 178
TOTAL 185
32 mm diam (water) 100 m
– materials 1 Main Industries Class 12
– manufacture 2 (D Chesney-Jones)
TOTAL 3
Hyson-cells 100 m2 0,03 Hyson-cells
(J Brokenshire)
Paint PVA 100 litre Plascon Group Services Excludes raw
(R Johannsen) materials

materials – (continued)
Polythylene ton Safripol
(Pipe grade) – raw material 0,08 (J Kellerman)
– production 4,59
– quality control 0,56
– stockpiling 0,06
TOTAL 5,23
Precast ton Blitz Betonwerke Average for product
Concrete – raw materials 0,54 (N Erasmus) range
Products – mixing process 0,14
– casting of concrete 4,02
– transport 1,77
– administration 0,66
– maintenance 0,75
TOTAL 7,82
Steel roof ton Iscor (S Evans) Includes mining, etc
sheeting 0,6 mm galvanised 1,1 but excludes
– mining of iron ore, production of zinc
dolomite, coal, etc for galvanising
– Steel making to
profiled section 20
TOTAL 21,1
Steel sections Commercial grade ton Iscor (S Evans) Includes mining,
angles, channels and etc.
IPEs
– mining of iron ore, 1,1
dolomite and coal, etc
– steel making to
rolling into sections 9,0
TOTAL 10,1
Timber Structural grade 1 m3 SALMA (P Bryant) Planting to saw mill
– planting/thinning 2,5 represents a 28-year
pruning period
– harvesting 2,5
– transport of logs to 0,3
sawmill
subtotal 5,3 Processing to handling
– processing 10,0 by merchants
– presevative treatment 2,0 represents a 6-week
– transport to merchants 0,3 period
– handling by 2,0
merchants
subtotal 14,3
TOTAL 19,6
uPVC sewer 160 mm diam (sewer) 100 m Main Industries (Pty) Ltd Heavy duty pipe
pipe – materials 1 (D Chesney-Jones)
– manufacture 22
– distribution 7
TOTAL 30
90 mm diam (water) 100 m Class 12
– materials 1
– manufacture 24
– distribution 7
TOTAL 32
Window frames – ND 54 No 1,25 Wispeco Excludes steel in frame
– NC1 No 0,8 (N Crosby)
– NC2 No 0,9
Zinc ton 25,4 Zinc Corporation of South
Africa (Ltd) (M Buncombe)

23
Table A2 : Comparison of engineering materials
MATERIAL MANHOURS MANHOURS REMARKS

TO PRODUCE TO PRODUCE
A CUBIC METRE A TON
Concrete+ 1,6 0,7
High density Pipe grade
polyethylene 3,1 3,3 quality
Masonry (class II
mortor) 5,0 2,3
Polypropylene 4,9 5,2 Pipe grade
quality
Steel 78,8 10,1 Angles, channels
Timber 19,6 39,2 and IPEs Structural
grade
+ Mechanical batching and mixing included
* Pipe extrusion excluded
' Laying of units and mixing of mortar excluded
Table A3 : Manufacture of precast concrete components
OPERATION ACTIVITIES MANHOURS/TON

Raw materials Cement: production, transport to yard, pump into silo
Aggregates: quarry operations, loading, transport 0,54
Mixing process Boomscraper; weigh process, wash supply 0,14
Casting of Cleaning of moulds: brushing, cleaning, carrying to cleaning area,
Concrete mixing of oil, applying of oil to moulds, move to
casting yard
Mesh reinforcements: cutting, carrying, placing
Casting and finishing: transport moulds, casting, vibrating, smoothing off
Curing: cover moulds with canvas, placing of wet steamer,
firing of boilers, steaming, filling of water tank,
stacking
Remoulding: loosen sides, strip mould, transport to stacking area,
stacking, carry moulds to steaming area 4,02
Transport Load on fork truck, drive to truck, load truck with laour, cover load with netting
transport to erection are/township, offload 1,77
Administration 0,66
Maintenance of
moulds Welding, repairing, straightening, inspecting 0,75
TOTAL 7,82
Table A4 : The use of bitumen in plant-based and labour-

based surfacing options
TYPE OF DESCRIPTION MANHOURS/

CONSTRUCTION TON OF BITUMEN
Plant-based Hot-mix asphalt 0,8
Chip and spray 2,4 – 4,3
Slurry 2,4
Labour-based Cape seal and chip and spray 30
Coarse slurry 60
Hot-mix asphalt 15 – 20
* Sum of manhours involved in manufacture of materials, transport of
materials and placing of surfacing

Table A5 : Manhours associated with the manufacture of

150 mm diameter sewer pipes
PIPE MANHOURS REQUIRED TO UNIT COST/MANHOUR

MATERIAL PRODUCE A METRE OF PIPE (Rand/manhour)
Clay 0,68 R 27–94
UPVC 0,23 R 65–22
Fibre cement 0,23 R 86–96
* No allowance for transport and distribution included.
Table A6 : Typical manhours required in the manufacture of building components
COMPONENT UNIT APPROXIMATE NUMBER REMARKS

OF MANHOURS REQUIRED
TO MANUFACTURE A UNIT
Ceilings – 4 mm fibre cement m2 0,3 Including timber supports
– 6,4 mm gypsum m2 0,3
Concrete – m2 1,2 Grade 15 or 20
Cladding – 12,7 mm gypsum m2 0,35 Excludes timber supports
Doors – external No 2,2 Standard door (timber) + frame
– internal No 1,4
Masonry – 90 mm walls m2 0,45
– 110 mm wall m2 0,55
– 140 mm walls m2 0,7
– 220 mm walls m2 1,1 Negligible
Paint –
Plaster – one coat (external) m2 0,95
– one coat (internal) m2 0,9
Roofing – concrete tiles m2 0,2 Includes purlins/battens
– galvanised iron m2 0,2
– fibre cement m2 0,5
Roof trusses55 6 m span assumed;
– concrete tiles m2 0,3 Fabrication excluded
– fibre cement m2 0,25
– galvanised iron m2 0,25
Screeds m2 1,2 Includes glass and frames
Windows m2 1,0
* Imported asbestos excluded.
Table A7 : Number of manhours required in the construction of various masonry houses
FLOOR PHYSICAL STRUCTURE AND FINISHES NUMBER OF MANHOURS (hours)

AREA FACTOR
(m2) MATERIALS SITE LABOUR TOTAL
45 38,6 • No water and sanitary fittings 120 1 120 1 240
• No electricity
• Double pitched, sheeted roof
• Ceilings
• Bagged and painted internally and externally
51 56,5 • Internal water and sanitary fittings 160 1 400 1 560
• Internal electrical reticulation
• Double pitched sheeted roof
• Ceilings
• Plastered and painted internally and externally
80 82,3 • Internal water and sanitary fittings 200 1 700 1 900
• Internal electrical reticulation
• Double pitched sheeted roof
• Ceilings
• Plastered and painted internally and externally

25
Table A8 : Kwa Thema Extention 7: civil services for 805 erven constructed using conventional plant-
based methods
SERVICE LEVEL OF SERVICE UNITS/ COST/ ESTIMATED NUMBER OF MANHOURS
ERF ERF (manhours/erf)
MATERIALS CONSTRUCTION+ TOTAL
Water • Class 9 uPVC pipes (63 mm to 10,0 m 789 5 34 39
200 mm diam.)
• Resilient seal gate valves and fire hydrants
• Erf connections and water meters in boxes
Sewer • 100 mm diam clay sewer pipes 8,4 m 618 7 36 43
• Manholes and erf connection
Stormwater • 450 - 750 mm diam concrete pipes 0.9 m 403 2 24 26
• Junction boxes, manholes and catchpits
• Headwalls and stone pitching
• Concrete stormwater channels across
roads
• Earth drains
Roads • Cast in situ kerbing 47 m2 755 3 18 21
• Cable ducts
• 25% asphalt, surfaced roads on crushed
stone bases; remainder provided with
a gravel wearing course
TOTAL All services 2 565 17 112 129
* Including P & G but excluding VAT and professional fees (March 1992)
+ Construction labour including non-productive P & G time (Average between two construction companies)
Table A9 : Manhours required in the provision of infrastructure for a low cost township using conventional
construction methods
SERVICE ESTIMATED MANHOURS (hours) ESTIMATED TOTAL NUMBER OF COST/MANHOUR
MANHOURS/ERF (rand/manhour)
MATERIALS SITE LABOUR
Water 13 87 39 20
Sewerage 16 84 43 14
Roads 14 86 21 36
Stormwater 8 92 26 16
Electricity 70 30 117 20
Table A10 : Comparison of the number of manhours required to construct non-masonry and masonry
houses
CONSTRUCTION NUMBER OF MANHOURS (hours) NUMBER OF MANHOURS FOR EQUIVALENT
TYPE MASONRY HOUSES (hours)
MATERIALS+ SITE LABOUR TOTAL MATERIALS+ CONSTRUCTION TOTAL
Timber 300 1 180 1 480 200 1 700 1 900
(SALMA)12
Precast concrete panels 150 210 360 120 1 120 1 240
and posts (Blitz)11
Steel frame with 110 mm 330 880 1 210 160 1 400 1 560
brick infill panels
(Belaton)56
+ Based on information received by manufacturers and estimates from Table 2.12; manhours involved in sanitary services,
electrical services and sundry items not included.
' Plant-based masonry manufacture.

Table A11 : Kwa Thema Extention 7: water and sewer

reticulation for 805 erven using labour-based methods of
construction
SERVICE LABOUR MANHOURS/ERF* COST/MANHOUR+

(Rand/manhour)
Water 39 58 20 14
Sewerage 43 72 14 9
* Includes manhours in respect of P & G and manufacture of materials.
+ Based on assumption that plant-based and labour-based technologies
have no effect on cost.
Table A12 : Manhours required to provide and construct various township roads
ROAD CONSTRUCTION WIDTH MAN- MAN- LABOUR-BASED

TECHNOLOGY (m) HOURS/m2 HOURS/km TO PLANT-BASED RATIO
Class D: light Plant-based 5 0,24 1 215
gravel Labour-based 5 1,86 9 300 7,7
Class D: heavier Plant-based 5 0,50 2 475
gravel Labour-based 5 3,67 18 350 7,4
Manhours for 3 m wide surfaced Class D roads
Slurry with gravel Plant-based 3 1,4 4 431
base Labour-based 3 8,06 24 183 5,5
Slurry with WBM Plant-based 3 2,27 6 819
Asphalt with G3 base Plant-based 3 1,5 4 500
Labour-based 3 6,39 19 155 4,3
Asphalt with WBM Plant-based 3 2,30 6 909
Concrete block Plant-based 3 2,19 6 555
Labour-based 3 6,82 20 460 3,1
Manhours for 5 m wide surface Class D roads
Slurry with gravel Plant-based 5 1,18 5 885
Asphalt with G3 base Plant-based 5 1,19 5 950
Labour-based 5 5,72 28 575 4,8
Asphalt with WBM Plant-based 5 1,99 9 965
Concrete block Plant-based 5 1,77 8 825
Labour-based 5 6,02 30 100 3,4
Manhours for 6 m wide surfaced Class B roads
Concrete block Plant-based 6 2.01 12 072
Labour-based 6 8,19 49 140 4,1

27
Figure 2.2: Number of manhours required to construct a kilometre of road
50
40
30
20
10
0
3m 5m 6m 3m 5m 6m
Plant-based construction practices Labour-based construction practices
Table A13 : Manhours associated with roadwork layers
LAYER THICKNESS MANHOURS TO PRODUCE

AND CONSTRUCT (manhours/m2)
Road bed preperation (R&R) 0,033 0,350
Base course (G4) 150 0,192 1,200
Base course (G3) 125 0,165 -
Subbase (G6) 150 0,192 1,200
Waterbound Macadam 100 0,040 1,370
base course
Table A14 : Manhours required to surface roads
SURFACING MANHOURS IN RESPECT OF

MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION
(manhours/m2)
TYPE THICKNESS PLANT-BASED LABOUR-BASED
Slurry 15 mm 0,110 2,011
Asphalt 25 mm 0,140 1,170
Concrete blocks 60 mm 0,930+ 2,120
+ Factory produced block paving
' Blocks manufactured on site using labour-intensive equipment

Table A15 : Manhours required to provide and construct an in situ paved block pavement
OPERATION MANHOURS/m2
OPTION NUMBER
1 2 3 4
Concrete pump mixer Concrete pump mixer Hippo drums and with crushing own
and front end loader and wheel barrows to wheel barrows stone and sieving sand
place grout
Laying of cells 0,06 0,06 0,06 0,06
Place stones and 0,10 0,37 0,37 0,99
compact
Mix and place 0,10 0,19 0,37 0,72
grout
Finishing 0,03 0,03 0,03 0,03
TOTAL 0,38 0,65 0,83 1,80
* Sum of manhours involved in manufacture of materials, transport of materials and construction of surfacing.
Preparation of in situ soil not included.
Chapter 4: RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN Table A16 : Productivities for piece and task work in
EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES IN THE PROVISION KwaZulu-Natal
OF INFRASTRUCTURE
ACTIVITY RATE
LAST 500 M SECTION REMAINDER OF PROJECT
Typical production ‘rates, based on the authors'
B (PIECEWORK) (TASK WORK)
experience, for a six hour task, in soft materials
Clearing (medium to 34 m /person/day 20 to 45m /person/day
where the depth of excavation does not exceed
thick bush)
2,5 m, are presented in Table A18 It can be seen Setting out (bulk
from Table A18 that productivity drops sharply as earthworks & surfacing) 125/day 100 m/day
the material becomes more difficult to excavate by – team size (4+1)
hand – the approximate ratios between soft class 1 : Bulk earthworks (incl 3,3 m /person/day 0,8 to 1,8 m/person/day
soft class 2 : soft class 3 being approximately spreading and levelling)
2,1:1,6:1,0 and for depths of 0-1,0:1,0-1,5:1,5-2,0:2,0- Excavation of storm- 1,5 m /person/day 0,9 to 2 m /person/day
water drains (average
2,5 being approximately 2,2:1,9:1,5:1,0.
depth 1 m, 350 mm
width)
Alternative excavation rates for different types of Drifts (unlined) – team 1 drift/day for 5 man drift/day for 5 man team
material, including hard rock, are presented in Table size (5+1) team
A19. It should be noted that productivities can vary Surfacing 5,5 m/person/day 5 m/person/day
between communities, for the same ground
conditions. This may be attributed to different work
ethics being prevalent. Thus although the figures
Table A17 : Trends in excavation rates for pickable material
contained in Table A18 may be regarded as being
in various projects
typical, they do not necessarily apply in all PROJECT/PROGRAMME PRODUCTION RATES FOR EXCAVATION
communities. IN PICKABLE MATERIALS
Soweto's Contractor Development 2,8 to 3,2 m3/6 hour task
Programme
Kenyan Rural Roads Programme 3,0 m3/man/day
KwaZulu road construction 0,7 to 1,0 m3/man/day
KwaZulu road construction 0,3 to 1,1 m3/man/day
Gazankulu and Venda 1,0 m3/person/day
Ciskei 0,6 to 0,8 m3/man day
Ilinge 2,3 m3/man day
Ibhayi 6,0 m3/man/day
Siviele Konstruksie 5 – 12 m3/man/day
SAFCEC
– up to 1,0 m deep 2,5 – 5,0 m3/man/day
– up to 1,5 m deep 1,1 – 4,0 m3/man/day
World Bank standard 3,0 to 4,0 m3/man/day
29
Productivity is also affected by the level of skill. This

Table A18 : Trench excavation rates for a 6-hour task is clearly evident in certain of the production rates
presented in Table A19. A document prepared for
EXCAVATION TYPICAL PRODUCTION PER 6-HOUR TASK FOR the South African Roads Board makes the
DEPTH RANGE (m3) observation that improved productivity can be
0 – 1,0 1,0 – 1,5 1,5 – 2,0 2,0 – 2,5 expected once skills have been extensively
Soft class 1 3,5 3,0 2,4 1,6 developed. The people involved will realise that
Soft calss 2 2,8 2,4 1,8 1,3 they can improve their income by producing more
Soft class 3 1,7 1,5 1,2 0,8 of the finished or required product. This will
* Refer to Appendix B for classification of material types. develop a healthy competition for the available
work.
APPENDIX A: STUDY ON LABOUR COMPONENT OF ROADS

Basis for calculation
Estimates of the number of manhours/m2 of road constructed are based on the
sum of the following, as appropriate:
• labour required to produce raw materials such as cement in a cement plant;
• labour required to manufacture precast concrete products either in a factory
or on site;
• labour required to obtain materials in quarrying
Table A19 : Productivities for labour performing various operations;
construction activities • labour to transport materials or precast concrete
Construction Activity Rate products to the site; and
Road construction (man-days per km): • labour to construct layers and items.
Low specification rural access roads 1500 - 2600
Assumptions
Road maintenance (km per man):
The following assumptions were made:
Unsurfaced roads, using the lengthman system 1,5 - 2,5
• Plant productivity is equal to SAFCEC norms.
Excavation (man-days per m3): • Labour-based tasks are based on an 8-hour day
Ordinary soil these rates can be doubled 0,43 - 0,67
}
Gravelly soil for trench excavation
Boulder mix below 2 metres
0,77
1,10
and plant-based tasks on a 9,5 hour day.
• All gravel materials are available at a 20 km haul
distance.
Medium rock cutting 1,60
Hard rock cutting 2,50 • Crushed stone is available at a 20 km haul
distance.
Aggregate Production (man-days/m3): 5 - 14
• All plant and equipment are freely available on
Concrete (man-days per m3 placed): 1,1 the site in question.
Mason labour 4,0 • Roadway has single camber.
Unskilled labour
• Ground surface has a fall parallel to the camber.
Brick masonry (man-days per m3 placed): 1,1 - 1,4 • Depth of final road surface is 120 mm below
Mason labour 2,8 original ground level.
Unskilled labour • Box cut extends 300 mm beyond kerb.
Rubble stone masonry (man-days per m3 placed): • All material from box cut is spoilt.
Mason labour 1,4 • Double handling is required with respect to
Unskilled labour 3,2 excavated material as spoil is stockpiled prior to
3
Dressed stone masonry (man-days per m placed): spoiling in labour-based approach.
Mason labour 2,8 • Hand quarrying and hand loading assumed in
Unskilled labour 5,0 labour-based approach.
2 • All excavated material is classified as soft class 2.
Plastering (man-days per m placed):
Mason labour 0,14
Unskilled labour 0,22

Table A20 : Manhours associated with layerworks and kerbing on various township roads
LAYER TYPE MANHOURS REQUIRED TO CONSTRUCT A SQUARE

METRE OF ROAD
Light gravel road, 5 m wide
Wearing course 125 G5 0,160 1,000
Box cut to spoil 0,050 0,510
R&R subgrade 0,033 0,350
Kerbing nil – –
TOTAL 0,243 1,860
Heavier gravel road, 5 m wide
Wearing course 150 G4 0,192 1,200
Subbase 125 G5 0,160 1,000
Kerbing nil – –
TOTAL 0,495 3,670
Class D road, 3 metre wide, with bituminous slurry surfacing
Surfacing Slurry 15 mm 0,110 2,011
Basecourse 150 G4 0,192 1,200
Subbase 150 G6 0,192 1,200
Kerbing Mountable 0,730 0,980
TOTAL 1,477 8,061
Class D road, 3 metre wide, slurry surfacing, WBM
Basecourse 100 WBM 1,040 1,370
Subbase 125 G6 0,160 1,000
TOTAL 2,273 7,751
Class D road, 3 metre wide, with asphalt surfacing
Surfacing Asphalt 25 mm 0,140 1,170
Basecourse 125 G3 0,165 0,165
Subbase 150 G6 0,192 1,200
TOTAL 1,500 6,385
Class D road, 3 metre wide, asphalt, WBM
Subbase 125 G6 0,160 1,000
TOTAL 2,303 6,960
Light gravel road, 5 m wide
Surfacing Concrete block 1,040 2,310
Basecourse 150 G4 0,192 1,200
TOTAL 2,185 6,820

31
Table A20 – continued
LAYER TYPE MANHOURS REQUIRED TO CONSTRUCT A SQUARE

METRE OF ROAD
Class D road, 5 metre wide, with bituminous slurry surfacing
Basecourse 150 G4 0,192 1,200
Subbase 150 G6 0,192 1,200
TOTAL 1,177 7,541
Class D road, 5 metre wide, slurry surfacing, WBM
Subbase 125 G6 0,160 1,000
Kerbing Mountable 0,440 0590
TOTAL 1,953 7,131
Class D road, 5 metre wide, with asphalt surfacing
Basecourse 125 G3 0,165 0,165
Subbase 150 G6 0,192 1,200
TOTAL 1,190 5,715
Class D road, 5 metre wide, asphalt, WBM
Subbase 125 G6 0,160 1,000
TOTAL 1,993 6,330
Class D road, 5 metre wide, concrete block surfacing
Basecourse 150 G4 0,192 1,200
TOTAL 1,765 6,020
Class B road, 6 metre wide, with bituminous slurry surfacing
Basecourse 125 G3 0,165 0,165
Subbase 150 G4 0,267 1,800
TOTAL 1,125 6,606
of the production rates presented in Table A19. A document prepared for the
South African Roads Board makes the observation that improved productivity can
be expected once skills have been extensively developed. The people involved will

Table A20 – continued
realise
LAYER that they can improve their income
TYPE by producing moreMANHOURS
of the finished or
REQUIRED TO CONSTRUCT A SQUARE
required product. This will develop a healthy competition for the available
METRE OF ROAD work.
APPENDIX A: STUDY ON LABOUR COMPONENT OF ROADS
Class B road, 6 metre wide, slurry surfacing, WBM
Basis for calculation
Basecourse
Estimates of the number of manhours/m2 125 WBM of road constructed 1,160
are based on the 1,580
Subbase
sum of the following, as appropriate: 150 G5 0,192 1,200
• Box cut to
Labour spoil to produce raw materials such as cement in0,190
required a cement plant, 1,990
• Labour required to manufacture precast concrete products either in a factory
or on site,
TOTAL 2,045 7,621
• Labour required to obtain materials in quarrying operations,
Class B concrete
• Labour to transport materials or precast road, 6 metre wide,towith
products theasphalt
site, surfacing
Surfacing
• Labour to construct layers and items. Asphalt 30 mm 0,170 1,400
Basecourse 125 G3 0,165 0,165
Subbase
Assumptions 150 G4 0,267 1,600
The following assumptions were made:
• Kerbing
Plant productivity is equal to SAFCEC norms.
Mountable 0,360 0,490
• Labour-based tasks are based on an 8-hour day and plant-based tasks on a 9,5
TOTAL 1,195 6,075
hour day.
Class B road, 6 metre wide, asphalt, WBM
• All gravel materials are available at a 20 km haul distance.
• Surfacing
Crushed stone is available at a 20 km Asphalt
haul30 mm
distance. 0,170 1,400
Basecourse 125 G3 0,160 0,580
• All plant and equipment are freely available on the site in question.
Subbase 150 G4 0,192 1,200
• Box
Roadway
cut to has
spoilsingle camber. 0,200 2,070
• R&R
Ground surface has a fall parallel to the camber.
subgrade 0,033 0,350
• Kerbing
Depth of final road surface is 120 mm below original ground
Mountable level.
0,360 0,490
• TOTAL
Box cut extends 300 mm beyond kerb. 2,115 7,090
• All material from box cut is spoilt.Class B road, 6 metre wide, concrete block surfacing
• Double handling is required with respect to excavated material as spoil is
stockpiled prior to spoiling in labour-based
Basecourse 150 G5 approach. 0,267 1,600
• Subbase
Hand quarrying and hand loading150 assumed
G5 in labour-based 0,192approach. 1,200
• Box
All excavated
cut to spoilmaterial is classified as soft class 2. 0,230 2,430
TOTAL 2,012 8,190

33
B: MINIMUM PRODUCTIVITY LEVELS

Source: Notice in terms of Section 70(2) of the Labour Act, 1992. Agreement
on conditions of employment entered into between the Metal and
Allied Namibian Works Union and the Construction Industries
Federation of Namibia 6 April 2000, Government Gazette 31 May
2000 (No. 2340).
The minimum wage rate as determined and agreed under item three above are
subject to minimum productivity levels as below. Failure to maintain productivity
levels will be addressed by additional training or disciplinary and incapacity
procedures as the case may be.
1. Labourer
Excavations in pickable material 2 to 7 m3 /day
(not exceeding 2 m deep)
Filling under surface beds 5 to 7 m3 /day
Concrete (mix and place in terms of
1 artisan / 10 labourers) 3 to 6 m3 /day
2. Bricklayer/Plasterer
Stock bricks 685 no. / day
Face bricks 450 no. / day
Plaster to horizontal surfaces 22,5 m2 /day
Plaster to vertical surfaces 31,5 m2 /day
3. Carpenter
Rough formwork to all structures 22,5 m2 /day
Smooth formwork to all structures 16,2 m2 /day
Hanging doors with furniture 8 no. / day
Ceilings including brandering 27 m2 /day
Roof covering including purlins 67,5 m2 /day
4. Tiler
Glazed tiles to walls 19,8 m2 /day
Ceramic tiles to floors 21,6 m2 /day
5. Painter/Glazier
Undercoat and two coats paint to walls 37,8 m2 /day
Undercoat and two coats paint to ceilings 30,6 m2 /day
Two coats varnish to wood 32,4 m2 /day
Prime, first coat and two coats enamel to surfaces 32,4 m2 /day
Glazing generally 31,5 m2 /day
6. VA Tile/Carpet Layer
VA tiles to floor 72 m2 /day
Carpet plus underfelt to floors 67,5 m2 /day

Source: A Nkambule: A review of Labour-intensive Concrete Block Paving

van Wyk and Louw Inc.
Table C1 : Labour-intensive production rates
OPERATION ACTIVITY MINIMUM TASK

(R McCutcheon)
Site clearance Bush clearing 150 - 750 m2/day
Stripping and grubbing 100 - 200 m2/day
Tree and stump removal Experience
Earthworks Slotting 4 m3/day (R McCutcheon)
Excavation to level:
Cut < 250 mm 5 m3/day
> 250 mm 4 m3/day
Borrow to fill:
Excavate & load (throwing 0-4m)
in:-
loose soil 3,5 m3/day (K25-Work study)
firm soil 2,5 m3/day
hard soil 1,5 m3/day
Haulage (wheelbarrow):
0 - 20 m 13,5 m3/day (R McCutcheon)
40 - 60 m 8,0 m3/day
80 - 100 m 5,5 m3/day
Spreading 12 m3/day
Edge restraint Lay precast kerb units 10 m/day (C. Dyer)
Backfill to side wall and hand tamping 3 m3/day
Concrete edge beam 10 m/day (Montshioa Report)
Block paving Placing the bedding sand, laying the units, 6 m2/day (SA Const World Oct 1994)
compacting the units, filling the joints and
removing excess sand
100 m2/5 persons/day (Montshioa Report)
D: CONCRETE MASONRY GRAVITY DAMS

CONSTRUCTION Table D1 : Balfour Dam: Productivity figures for required
construction activities
Source: King CD. Employment-creation
through the design and construction of ACTIVITY DATE OUTPUT
medium sized concrete masonry gravity Stone collecting 1991 0,09 m3/man/day
dams in South Africa using labour- September 1994 0,57 m3/man/day
based construction methods: A Concrete building September/October 1993 0,71 m3/man/day
comparison of alternative technologies. October/November 1993 0,61 m3/man/day
A project report submitted to the November/January 1994 0,43 m3/man/day
faculty of engineering, University of the January/February 1994 0,74 m3/man/day
Witwatersrand, Johannesburg in partial September 1994 2,29 m3/man/day
fulfilment of the requirements for the Block making September/October 1993 3,14 blocks/man/day
degree of Master of Science in October/November 1993 2,2 blocks/man/day
Engineering, Johannesburg, 1994. November/January 1994 2.14 blocks/man/day
January/February 1994 2,83 blocks/man/day
September 1994 4,56 block/man/day
NOTE:
(i) Items like stone collecting is not on-going everyday. The team is used for
excavating and cleaning as well, so accurate figures are not obtainable.
(ii) Stones are added to the concrete when it is cast in the wall. These two
operations can only match the volumes of concrete batched and the teams
cannot thus control their own productivity.

35
E: EXCAVATION
Table E1 : Productivity data for excavation by hand
Source: A critical analysis of the community-based
MATERIAL TYPE EXCAVATION ONLY m3/MANDAY Public Works Programme in South Africa.
DAILY PAID TASK WORK PIECE WORK A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of
Soft/very loose soil 1.67 – 5.00 3.34 – 10.00 6.67 – 20.00 Engineering, University of the
Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in
Firm/loose soil 1.04 – 3.13 2.09 – 6.26 4.17 – 12.50
fulfilment of the requirements for the
Stiff/compact soil 0.75 – 2.25 1.50 – 4.50 3.00 – 9.00
degree of Master of Science in Engineering,
Very stiff/dense soil 0.60 – 1.79 1.19 – 3.57 2.38 – 7.14 Johannesburg, July 1996
Hard/very dense soil 0.49 – 1.47 0.98 – 2.94 1.96 – 5.88
Soft rock 0.42 – 1.25 0.84 – 2.51 1.67 – 5.01
Source: Derived Table from World Bank (in Coukis, 1983:180 & 284)
F: LABOUR-BASED STONE PAVED ROADS

Source: S AL-Fayadh. Labour-based Stone Paved Roads. Kampang Cham
Province International Labour Organisation. Technical Assistance to
the labour-based Rural Infrastructure Works Programme
CMB/97/M02/S10
Table F1 : Work Norms: Labour-based stone paved roads
TASK METHOD UNIT WORK NORM REMARKS

UNIT/DAY
Breaking stone Crowbar and sledgehammer Blocks 17 200 mm thick blocks
boulders 20 150 mm thick blocks
Loading and unloading Wheelbarrow and/or by hand Blocks 180 Unskilled labour
blocks from trucks or oxcarts
Shaping the blocks Club hammer and cutting tools Blocks 100 Unskilled labour
Dressing the blocks Club hammer and cutting tools
Box cutting, sand How, shovel, spade, rake/spreader m3 1,75 Unskilled labour
cushioning and construction pickaxe, mattock, bungee or basket,
filter drains wheelbarrow, hand rammer and
watering can
Packing stones Club hammer and by hand m2 6,5 Skilled labour
Filling voids Shovel, spade, rake/spreader, bungee m 2
30 Unskilled labour
or basket and wheelbarrow
Compaction Plate compactor and pedestrian roller m2 20 Unskilled labour
Construction of shoulder How, shovel, spade, rake/spreader m3 1,75 Unskilled labour
pickaxe, mattock, bungee or basket,
wheelbarrow, hand rammer and
watering can
Clearing the site m 20 Unskilled labour

G: EARTHWORKS
Source: McCutcheon, RT, van Zyl CWL, Croswell J, Meyer D and Watermeyer
RB. Interim guidelines for labour-based construction projects.
Construction and Development series. Number 2 Development Bank
of Southern Africa, February 1993.
Table G1 : Average Task Output Values

Site clearance Bush clearing – dense Determine on site
– light to medium 150 – 750 m2/day
Stripping and grubbing 100 – 200 m2/day
Tree and stump removal Experience
Boulder removal 200 day/km
Earth works Slotting 4 m3/day
Excavation to level:
Cut < 250 mm 5 m3/day
> 250 mm 4 m3/day
Borrow to fill: 4 m3/day
Haulage (wheelbarrow):
0 – 20m 13,5 m3/day (R McCutcheon)
40 – 60m 8,0 m3/day
80 – 100m 5,5 m3/day
Spreading 12 m3/day
Drainage Ditching 3,75 m3/day
Sloping 3,75 m3/day
Camber formation 100 m2/day
Mitre drains 3,75 m3/day
Catchwater drains 3,75 m3/day
Scour checks 25/day
Culvert installation max. 20 days/line
Gravelling Excavation 3 m3/day
Load 6 m3 (loose)/day
Spreading 12 m3/day
Source: McCutcheon (1983) an Simpson (1980)
Table G2 : Detailed task rates for excavation
SOIL TYPE TOOLS TASK RATES (m2/man-day)

THROWING DISTANCE (m)
0–4 4–6 6–8
Loose, not sticky soil Shovel, jembe 5,0 – 6,0 4,5 – 5,5 3,5 – 4,5
Firm soil Shovel, fork jembe 3,5 – 4,5 3.0 – 4,0 2,5 – 3,5
Very hard soil, hard soil Pickaxe. frk jembe, 2,0 – 3,0 1,8 – 2,5 1,7 – 2,5
mixed with stones shovel
Source: de Veen (1980)

37
H: STORMWATER DRAINAGE
Source: Balmaceda P, John R and Horak E. Planning and construction of a
stormwater system by labour-intensive methods in an urban
environment. Fifteenth Annual Transportation Convention, 1995.
Table H1 : Output data assumed for feasibility analysis
MAIN ACTIVITY SUBACTIVITY GANG SIZE PRODUCTION RATE

Machine Excavation of soft soil Only supervisor 100 m3
Excavation Excavation of soft rock Only supervisor 30 m3
Excavation of hard rock Only supervisor 6 m3
Hand Excavation of soft soil,10-man gang 10-man gang 20 m3
Excavation Excavation of soft rock, 10-man gang 10-man gang 10 m3
Pipe laying Concrete pipes (ø 450 mm): trimming, bedding, laying, 5-man gang 14,4 m
by machine backfilling & compaction
Concrete pipes (ø 600 mm): trimming, bedding, laying, 5-man gang 14,4 m
backfilling & compaction
Pipe laying Concrete pipes (ø 450 mm): trimming, bedding, laying, 10-man gang 12 m
by hand backfilling & compaction
Concrete pipes (ø 600 mm): trimming, bedding, laying, 10-man gang 9,6 m
Plastic pipes (ø 450 mm): trimming, bedding, laying, 5-man gang 18 m
Masonry Batching, mixing and pouring concrete for channel floor 5-man gang 3 m3
Construction of brick-wall for culvert (transport, batching 10-man gang 60 m2
and mixing concrete)
Construction of kerb-inlets, manholes and grids
(max length of chamber: 2,4 m)
(Transport, batching and mixing of mortar, machine 5-man gang 0,33 number
backfilling & compaction)
Construction of kerb-inlets, manholes and grids 5-man gang 0,25 number
(max length of chamber: 2,4 m)
(Transport, batching and mixing of mortar, hand
backfilling & compaction)
Table H2 : Laying concrete pipes - summary of information from work sudy
PIPE COSTING INFO GANG UTILISATION INPUT/OUTPUT COEFF OPTIMUM

DIAMETER GANG SIZE
(mm) (Man-hours/m) Idle time Utilisation (min/pipe) (m/hour) (number)
% %
450 1,16 49,4 50,6 27,782 5,2 6
525 1,16 49,4 50,6 27,782 5,2 6
600 1,16 49,4 50,6 27,782 5,2 6
675 1,54 55,2 44,8 27,782 5,2 8
750 1,54 55,2 44,8 27,782 5,2 8

J: BITUMEN SURFACING
Source: SABITA Labour-enhanced construction for bituminous surfacings
Manual II March 1993
Table J1 : Preliminary South Afican bituman surfacing production rates under average conditions
ITEM METHOD PRODUCTION RATE

Sweep basecourse Hand broom 1 000 m2/man-day
Load and spray water and prime Tractor, trailer, 2 000 litre tank, pump, spraybar 6 100 m2/5 man-days
Bakkie, 750 litre tank, handlances 3 800 m2/5 man-days
200 litre drum on trolley 3 300 m2/5 man-days
Load, heat, spray dust palliative Tractor, trailer, 2 000 litre tank, pump, spraybar 2 8002/5 man-days
or bitumen onto geotextile
Bakkie, 750 litre tank, handlances 1 800 m2/5 man-days
200 litre drum on trolley 1 500 m2/5 man-days
Spread chip and backchip as Stone or sand 200-400 m2/man-day
required
Slurry mix on site and spread Small concrete mixer, hand tools 10 m3/15 man-days

39
K: ROAD PROJECTS
Source: Greyling MR, Critical analysis of labour-intensive road projects in
South Africa funded form the sale of strategic oil. A dissertation
submitted to the Faculty reservers of Engineering, University of the
Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for
the degree of Master of Science of Engineering, 1994.
Table K1 : Productivity achieved per activity (Pa) for each road authority
ACTIVITY UNIT KWZ QWA LEB KWD GAZ BOP CIS TRN- TRN- TRN-
& QMC DWE DAF
VEN
Site clearance
(grubbing) m2/md 20–45 15–30 – – 9 15–95 64–210 – – 25
Excavation
– loose m3/md 3 1,5–2,5 0,8 – 1 1,2–1,9 0,4–0,8 1,3 2,0 1,3
– stiff m3/md – 1–2 0,6 0,3–0,5 – 0,5–0,8 – 0,8 – 0,8
Loading (1m rise) m3/md 6 6 – – – 1,4–1,9 15 – 2,0 2,0
Unloading m3/md 6 7 – – – 1,4–2,2 3 – – –
(300mm)
Spreading/shaping m2/mcd 12 2,5 – 93 2,5 6 1,7 1–2 2 2,5–3
Watering: cart m2/md 25 – – – 12–64 – – – –
: cans m3/mcd – – 35 14,7
Compaction m3/md
vibratory
– roller 12 – – – 17–53 – – 52 20
– tamper – – – – 1,5 – – –
Grouted stone m3/md 0,6 – 2,5 – – – – 0,2 –
pitching m3/md 1 – 0,4 – 1 0 3,6 – 0,6
Loose stone m/md 0,5 0,8 0,4 0,4 1,5 – – – 1 –
packing m/md – – – – 50 3,5 – – –
Pipe laying m3/md 0,5 1 0,4 – – – 0,5 – – –
Fencing m3/md 0,6–1,5 1,5– – – – 0,75 1 0,3 –
Rock Collection no/md 0,2 0,6 2 0,02 0,2 0,03 – 0,8– 0,6 –
(1km)
Masonry walls m3/md 1,5 – 2 0,4 – – 1,5 0,6 –
Drifts (dry m/md 125 – 1,5 – – 48 – – – –
masonry)
Concrete mix m3/mcd 0,45 – – – – 1–2 – – –
& pour
Setting out m3/mcd – 0,4– – – 10–19 2 – – –
Gabion 0,6 –
construction 57 – – 15 – –
Haul – m3/md 37 – –
tractor/trailer
– truck 3km – – – – –
– w/barrow 2 – 1 –
(100m)
NOTE:
1) md = man-days; mcd – machine-days
2) measurement and control of productivity only carried out on a limited basis
3) TPA, PAO,NPA CPA and KaNgwane have been excluded due to either the plant – intensive nature of their projects or lack of
sufficient representative data

Table K2 : Productivity data for standard conditions
ACTIVITY UNIT PRODUCTIVITY NORM(Pn) SOURCE

Site clearance (grubbing) m /md
2
100 ILO (CTP 40)
Excavation – loose m3/md 5,1 (ave) WB, Tab F-3
– stiff m3/md 2,7 (ave) WB, Tab F-3
Loading (1m rise) m3/md 3,8 WB, Tab F-4
Unloading (300mm) m3/md 6 WB, Tab F-4
Spreading / shaping m3/md 11 WB, Tab F-7
Watering: cart (4000L) m3/mcd 886 Appendix N
: cans (20L) m3/md 37 Appendix N
Compaction – s roller (200kg) m3/mcd 8 (150–200 mm layer) WB, Tab F-8
– tamper (75mm) m3/md 3,8 (75 mm, 3 passes) WB, Tab F-9
Grouted stone pitching m3/md 0,5 ILO (CTP 40)

Loose stone packing m3/md 1,5 ILO (CTP 40)
Pipe laying m/md 0,5 ILO (CTP 40)
Rock Collection (1km) m3/md 2,5 ILO (CTP 40)
Masonry walls m3/md 0,5 ILO (CTP 40)
Drifts (dry masonry) No./md 1,5 ILO (CTP 40)
Concrete mix & pour m3/md 0,5 ILO (CTP 40)
Setting out m/md 100 ILO (CTP 40)
Haul – w/barrow (100m) m3/md 2,2 WB, Tab F-9
– tractor/trailer (3km) m3/mcd 18 Appendix N
– truck 3km m3/mcd 24 WB, Tab F-10
WB: World Bank (Coukis et al, 1983)
ILO (CTP 40): World Employment Programme (Ghana), (de Veen, 1985)
– Average management and incentives
md = man-day
mcd = machine-day
Table K3 : Adjustment factors applied to standard productivity data (according to Coukis et al, 193: Table 7.7)
AUTHORITY MANAGEMENT ENVIRONMENTAL PAYMENT FACTORS (f)

QUALITY (REFER CONDITIONS (2) SYSTEM (See below)
TOTABLE 6.8) (1)
KWZ Good Good Daily 0,75
QWA Good Fair Piecework 1,5
GAZ Poor Fair Daily 0,33
KWD Good Good Taskwork 1,5
LEB Good Good Daily 0,75
BOP Fair Good Daily; Taskwork 0,75
VEN Poor Fair Daily 0,33
CIS Fair Good Taskwork 1,25
TRN - OMC Poor Fair Taskwork 0,75
- DWE Fair Fair Daily 0,5
- DAF Poor Good Daily 0,5
(1) Supervision and quality control
(2) See note below Table K4
Table K4 : Range of adjustment factors applied to standard productivity data (Coukis et al, Table 7.7 1983)
PAYMENT SYSTEM AREAS WITH LITTLE OR NO EXPERIENCE IN LI CONSTRUCTION

Daily paid 0.25 – 0.75
Taskwork 0.5 – 1.5
Piecework 1 – 3 (Upper limit will be taken as 2 due to insufficient planning time)
NOTE: The top end of the range in Table K4 has been used in Table K3 where management and/or environmental conditions have been more
than satisfactory. Consequently the reverse applies to poor conditions. The conditions recorded on site visits by the author include: site/human
environment as well as climate, i.e. temperature, rainfall, drought, type of work, terrain, traffic interference, nutrition, local violence and so forth.

41
Table K5 : Productivity ratings (Pr-1) per authority per activity (Assessment 1)
ACTIVITY UNIT KWZ QWA LEB KWD GAZ- BOP CIS TRN- TRN- TRN- %
VEN OMC DWE DAF
Site clearance m2/md 2 1 1 3 5 3 50
(grubbing)
Excavation
– loose m3/md 4 2 1 3 2 1 2 5 3 51
– stiff m/md 2 2 1 2 2 3 40
Loading (1m rise) m3/md 5 5 3 2 5 5 83
Unloading m3/md 5 4 2 2 65
(300mm)
Spreading/shaping m3/mcd 5 1 3 3 1 1 2 3 48
Watering:
– cart (4000L) m2/md 1 1 1 20
– cans (20L) m2/mcd 2
Compaction
– v roller (200 kg) m2/mcd 5 5 5 5 5 100
– tamper 75 mm m3/md 2 40
Grouted stone m3/md 4 5 4 87
pitching
Loose stone m2/md 5 2 5 5 4 84
packing
Pipe laying m/md 5 5 5 3 5 5 93
Rock Collection m3/md 2 2 1 1 30
(91km)
Masonry walls m3/md 5 5 5 5 5 100
Drifts (dry No./md 1 2 1 2 1 5 4 46
masonry)
Concrete mix m3/md 5 5 5 5 5 100
& pour
Setting out m/mcd 5 3 80
Haul –
wheelbarrow m3/md 3 2 50
100 m
– tractor/trailor m3/mcd 5 1 60
(3km)
– truck (3 km) m3/mcd 5 3 5 87
Rating (%) 75 63 60 65 69 55 49 67 86 73 66
Where:
Pr RANGE
5 Pa ≥ fPn
4 0.75fPn ≤ Pa < fPn
3 0.5fPn ≤ Pa < 0.75fPn
2 0.25fPn ≤ Pa < 0.5fPn
1 0 ≤ Pa < 0.25fPn
Pa = productivity achieved (Table K1)
Pn = productivity norm (Table K2)
f = factor (Table K3)
Pr-1 = productivity rating (/activity)

Table K6 : Productivity achieved in Kenya (de Veen), 1983) and Malawi (Relf, Hagen and Akute, 1987)
ACTIVITY UNIT PRODUCTIVITY AVERAGE SOURCE

RANGE
Site clearance (grubbing) m2/man-day 100-250 175 K.R.A.R.P
Excavation – loose m3/man-day 5-6 5,5 K.R.A.R.P
– stiff m3/man-day 3,5-4,5 4 K.R.A.R.P
Loading – 1m rise (loose) m3/man-day 12-15 13,5 K.R.A.R.P
Haulage – w/barrow (100m) m3/man-day 5,5-7 6,3 K.R.A.R.P
Spreading / shaping m3/man-day 12 12 K.R.A.R.P
Compaction – tamper m3/man-day 12-15 13,5 K.R.A.R.P
Pipe laying m/man-day 1,7 1,7 D.R.I.M.P
Masonry walls m3/man-day 1,3 1,3 D.R.I.M.P
Concrete mix & pour m3/man-day 1,6 1,6 D.R.I.M.P
Grouted stone pitching m3/man-day 1,75 1,7 D.R.I.M.P
Loose stone packing m3/man-day 3 3 D.R.I.M.P
Table K7 : Productivity rating (Pr-2) Assessment 2
ACTIVITY UNIT KWZ QWA LEB KWD GAZ & BOP CIS TRN- TRN- TRN- %
VEN OMC DWE DAF
Site clearance m3/md 1 1 – – 1 2 4 – – 1 33
(grubbing)
Excavation
– loose m3/md 3 2 1 – 1 2 1 1 2 1 31
– stiff m3/md – 2 1 1 – 1 – 1 – 1 23
Loading (1m rise) m3/md 2 2 – – – 1 1 – 1 1 27
(loose)
Haulage – m3/md – 2 – – – – 1 – – – 30
w/barrow
(100 m)
Spreading/shaping m3/md 5 1 – – 1 3 1 1 1 – 37
Compaction
– tamper m3/md – – – – – – 1 – – – –
Pipe laying m/md 2 2 1 1 4 – – – 3 – 43
Masonry walls m3/md – 4 5 – – – 3 4 1 – 68
Concrete mix m3/md – 4 4 5 2 – – – 2 – 68
& pour
Grouted stone m3/md – 2 – 5 – – – – 1 – 53
pitching
Loose stone m3/md 2 1 1 1 2 1 5 2 1 – 36
packing e.g. drifts
Rating (%) 50 42 43 52 37 33 43 36 30 20* 41
NOTE:
md = man-day
* Transkei (D.A.F): Too few activities were monitored for an accurate assessment to be made.

43
L: ROADWORKS
L: Roadworks
Source: Watermeyer R(ed) Contractor Development
ACTIVITY DAILY PRODUCTION TASK in Labour-based Construction
(production/ (production/
contractor/day) labourer/day Since task work forms the basis of measurement
Soft excavation 80,0 m3 3,2 m3 and payment in labour-based construction work,
Intermediate excavation 40,0 m3 1,6 m3 construction rates need to be assessed at an early
Loading and carting away 137,5 m3 5,5 m3 stage of a project. Pilot schemes (small scale, trial
of spoil or demonstration projects) can be run before the
Leveling of road bed 1 500,0 m2 60,0 m2
main project to determine these rates. A recent
Picking of road bed 1 000,0 m2 40,0 m2
road building pilot project undertaken in Soweto
Compaction of road bed 500,0 m2 –
Construction of kerbing: yielded the following production rates for a
straight 162,5 m 6,5 m contractor employing 25 labourers:
curved 50,0 m 2,0 m
Spreading of waterbound 1 250,0 m2 50,0 m2
macadam
Leveling of waterbound 625,0 m2 25,0 m2
macadam
Spreading of fines (dry 1 250,0 m2 50,0 m2
processing)
Compacting of waterbound 500,0 m2 20,0 m2
macadam
Table M1 : Soil excavation characteristics M: EARTHWORKS

Source: Steidl D. Productivity Norms for Labour-
ACTIVITY SOIL DESCRIPTION SUITABLE TOOLS Based Construction ASSIST Information
DEFINITION (Rand/manhour) Service Technical Brief No. 2 International
Cohesive Non-cohesive Labour Organisation 1998.
Soft Soft Very loose Easily excavated with a
shovel or hoe
Medium Firm Loose Can be dug with a shovel
Hard Stiff Compact Mattock, pick or other
swung tool required
Very hard Very stiff or Dense or Crowbar required in
hard very dense addition to pick
Rock Rock Sledge hammer and chisels
required
Table M2 : Site clearing norms - country data
COUNTRY AVERAGE PRODUCTIVITY BY TYPE OF COVER

m2 per worker day
Dense Medium Light Grubbing De-stumping
bush bush bush
Botswana – 750 750 150 –
Cambodia 30 60 100 15 0,75
Ghana – – 375 375 –
Indonesia 130 175 – 37,5 1
Kenya 50 150 300 100 –
Lesotho 50 100 250 65 –
Tanzania 50 100 250 150 3,5
Zimbabwe 200 – 300 250 –
WB Study – – 150 15 –
Median 50 125 275 100 1

Table M3 : Site clearing norms - recommended values
AVERAGE PRODUCTIVITY BY TYPE OF COVER

m2 per worker day
bush bush bush
Country median 50 125 275 100 1
Site trials 105 209 311 209 –
RARP 320 480 640 I75 –
Recommended 100 200 350 175 By experience
value
Table M4 : Excavation norms - country data
COUNTRY AVERAGE PRODUCTIVITY BY SOIL CLASSIFICATION

m3 per worker day
Soft Medium Hard Very hard Rock
Botswana 4,15 3,8 2,5 1,9 –
Cambodia 2,75 2 1,25 0,75 –
China 9 7,0 3 2 –
Ghana 3,75 3,75 3,75 3,75 –
Indonesia – – 2,75 – –
Kenya 5 3,5 2,25 1,75 0,75
Lesotho 4,5 3,5 2,75 1 0,05
Nepal – 3,3 2,5 – 0,61
Tanzania 5,5 4,5 4 2,5 –
Zimbabwe 5,5 5,5 4 3,5 2
WB Study 6,7 2,1 3 2 1,7
Median 5,00 3,50 2,75 2,0 0,75
Table M5 : Excavation norms - recommended values
AVERAGE PRODUCTIVITY BY SOIL CLASSIFICATION

m3 per worker day
Country median 5,00 3,50 2,75 2,00 0,75
Site trials 3,6 3,2 3,45 2,2 0,8
RARP 5,5 4 3 2 –
Recommended 5,0 3,5 3,0 2,0 0,8
value
Table M6 : Wheelbarrow haulage norms - country data
COUNTRY WHEELBARROW HAULAGE NORMS BY HAUL DISTANCE

m3 per worker day
0-20 m 20-40 m 40-60 m 60-80 m 80-100 m 100-150 m
Botswana 8,4 7 6,7 5,6 5,2 4,7
Kenya 10,5 10,5 8 6,5 5,5 4,5
Lesotho 8 6 5 4,5 4 –
Tanzania 11 11 8,25 6,25 5,25 5
Zimbabwe 5 5 5 5 5 4
Median 8,4 7 6,7 5,6 5,2 4,6

45
Table M7 : Wheelbarrow haulage norms – recommended

values
WHEELBARROW HAULAGE NORMS BY HAUL DISTANCE
m3 per worker day
0-20 m 20-40 m 40-60 m 60-80 m 80-100 m 100-150 m
Country 8,4 7,0 6,7 5,6 5,2 4,6
median
Site trials 5,3 4,8 4,6 4,3 4,2 4,1
RARP 13,5 10,5 8,5 6,5 5,5 –
Recommen- 8,5 7,0 6,5 5,5 5,0 4,5
ded value
Table M8 : Typical haulage rates for manually loaded

equipment
Haul route Good Average Poor
condition
Haul distance 2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10
(km)
Trips per day 22 19 16 11 8 18 15 12 8 6 16 12 10 7 5
per truck
Trips per day 20 12 8 6 4 18 11 6 5 4 16 9 4 4 3
per tractor/
trailer
combination
Table M9 : Loading, unloading and spreading norms –

country data
COUNTRY AVERAGE PRODUCTIVITY RATES m3
Loading Unloading Spreading
Botswana 12 – 14
Cambodia 8 15,5 5,25
Ghana 6,7 10 –
Kenya 10 9 13,5
Lesotho 5 – 14,25
Tanzania 11 – 15
Zimbabwe 8,5 – 9
World Bank – – 11
Median 8,5 10 13,5
Table M10 : Loading, unloading and spreading norms –

recommended values
COUNTRY AVERAGE PRODUCTIVITY RATES
m3 per worker day
Country median 8,5 10 13,5
Site Trials 6,5 11 12
RARP 8,5 – 13,5
Recommended 8,5 10 13.5
value

Table M11 : Compaction norms – country data and

recommended values
COUNTRY MANUAL COMPACTION EQUIPMENT COMPACTION
m3 per worker-day m2 per roller-day
Cambodia 10 –
China 3,2 –
Kenya 7,5 700
Lesotho 15 700
Tanzania 9 700
Median 9,0 700
Recommended 9,0 700
value
Table M12 : Culvert laying norms - country data
COUNTRY ACTIVITY
Culvert installation Concrete Masonry
m per worker-day m3 per m3 per
worker-day worker-day
Cambodia – 1,25 1,25
China 1,2 – –
Kenya 0,3 1 1,5
Lesotho 1,1 1,75 1,35
Zimbabwe 0,8 0.8 0,75
Median 0,9 1,13 1,3
Table M13 : Culvert laying norms – recommended values
COUNTRY ACTIVITY
Culvert installation Concrete Masonry
Country media 0,9 1,13 1,3
Site trials 0,95 0,6 0,6
Recommended 0,9 1,0 1,0
values
Table M14 : Typical equipment/labour combinations for gravelling
HAUL DISTANCE LOAD PER DAY TOTAL VOLUME EXCAVATION LOADING UN-LOADING SPREADING
Km Unit Loose m 3
Workers per Workers per Workers per Workers per
tractor tractor tractor tractor
0 to 2 18 54 18 7 6 4
2 to 4 11 33 11 4 4 2
4 to 6 7 21 7 3 2 2
6 to 8 5 15 5 2 2 1
8 to 10 4 12 4 2 1 1

47
Table M15 : Summary of recommended values

SITE CLEARING
AVERAGE PRODUCTIVITY BY TYPE OF COVER
m2 per worker day
bush bush bush
Recommended 100 200 350 175 By experience
value

EXCAVATION
AVERAGE PRODUCTIVITY BY SOIL CLASSIFICATION
m3 per worker day
Recommended 5,0 3,5 3,0 2,0 0,8
value

WHEELBARROW HAULAGE
WHEELBARROW HAULAGE NORMS BY HAUL DISTANCE
m3 per worker day
0-20 m 20-40 m 40-60 m 60-80 m 80-100 m 100-150 m
Recommended 8,5 7,0 6,5 5,5 5,0 4,5
value

LOADING, UNLOADING AND SPREADING
AVERAGE PRODUCTIVITY RATES
m3 per worker day
Recommended 8,5 10 13,5
value

COMPACTION
MANUAL COMPACTION EQUIPMENT COMPACTION
m3 per worker-day m2 per roller-day
Recommended 9,0 700
value

CULVERT LAYING
CULVERT INSTALLATION CONCRETE MASONRY
Recommended 0,9 1,0 1,0
value


TYPICAL HAULAGE RATES FOR MANUALLY LOADED EQUIPMENT
Haul route Good Average Poor
condition
Haul distance 2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10
(km)
Trips per day 22 19 16 11 8 18 15 12 8 6 16 12 10 7 5
per truck
Trips per day 20 12 8 6 4 18 11 6 5 4 16 9 4 4 3
per tractor/
trailer
combination

TYPICAL EQUIPMENT/LABOUR COMBINATIONS FOR GRAVELLING
HAUL DISTANCE LOAD PER DAY TOTAL VOLUME EXCAVATION LOADING UN-LOADING SPREADING
Km Unit Loose m3 Workers per Workers per Workers per Workers per
tractor tractor tractor tractor
0 to 2 18 54 18 7 6 4
2 to 4 11 33 11 4 4 2
4 to 6 7 21 7 3 2 2
6 to 8 5 15 5 2 2 1
8 to 10 4 12 4 2 1 1
Table M16 : Average worker input for completed operations
PROJECT OPERATION INPUT

Construction of worker days/km
Botswana Earth road 1981
Botswana Gravel topping only 2157
Ghana DFR Gravel lowland road 1580
Kenya MRP Earth lowland road 1442
Kenya MRP Gravel topping only 1819
Kenya MRP Regravelling 1209
Laos LAO/90/MO1/FRG Gravel lowland road 2203
Lesotho LCU Gravel lowland road 2645
Lesotho LCU Gravel mountain road 4400
Zimbabwe LBDU Gravel lowland road 3260

49
ANNEX 2: Country productivity data

Note: There are many gaps in the tables below. However, it is hoped that the
publication and dissemination of this brief will stimulate readers to contribute
to filling in the gaps. If you have relevant data, please send it to one of the
ASIST offices (see the back cover for addresses).
Table M17 : Country data for site clearing activities
PRODUCTION BUSH CLEARING OTHER CLEARING

TARGETS Dense Medium Light Grubbing De-stumping Boulder removal
Country m2 m2 m2 m2 m2 m2 m2 m2 No No No No
Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max
Botswana 750 750 150
Cambodia 20 40 40 80 80 120 10 20 1 1
China
Ghana 350 400 350 400 5 15
India 130 150 200 30 45 1
Kenya 50 150 300 0 200 Exp Exp
Lesotho 50 100 250 30 100 1 Ds
Mozambique
Tanzania 50 100 250 150 2 5 Ds Ds
Thailand
Zimbabwe 200 300 200 300 1 10
World Bank 150 15
Minimum 20 40 40 80 80 120 0 15 1 1 1 10
Maximum 20 200 150 750 350 750 350 400 2 5 5 15
Average 20 87 95 230 215 315 103 153 1 2 3 13
Median 20 50 95 125 215 275 30 150 1 1 3 13
Number of records 1 6 2 6 2 8 6 9 2 4 2 2
Table M17 : Country data for site clearing activities
ACTUAL UNIT BOTSWANA GHANA KENYA LESOTHO MOZAMBIQUE ZIMBABWE

OUTPUT
Clearing Hr/task Max Hr/task Max Hr/task Max Hr/task Max Hr/task Max Hr/task Max
Dense Bush m2 17,4 33,9 11,3
Medium Bush m2 29,2 53,8 27,5 45
Light Bush m2 35 64,9 52,5 65
Grubbing m2 27,5 31,3 75
<20 cm
De-stumping No
> 20 cm
Boulder No
removal
Ds = Depends upon the size; Exp = By experience

Table M18 : Country data for exacavation activities
PRODUCTION TARGETS FOR EXCAVATION IN CUBIC METRES PER TASK

SOFT MEDIUM HARD VERY HARD ROCK
Country Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max
Botswana 3,8 4,5 3,1 4,5 2,5 2,5 1,9 1,9
Cambodia 2,5 3,0 1,5 2,5 1,0 1,5 0,5 1,0
China 9,0 7,0 3,0 2,0
Ghana 3,0 4,5 3,0 4,5 3,0 4,5 3,0 4,5
Indonesia 1,7 3,5 2,5
Kenya 4,0 6,0 2,0 5,0 1,5 3,0 1,5 2,0 0,5 1,0
Lesotho 4,0 5,0 3,0 4,0 2,5 3,0 0,5 1,5 0,5 1,5
Mozambique
Tanzania 5,0 6,0 4,0 5,0 3,5 4,5 2,0 3,0
Thailand
Zimbabwe 5,0 6,0 5,0 6,0 3,0 5,0 3,0 4,0 1,0 3,0
World Bank 6,7 4,2 3,0 2,0 1,7
Minimum 2,5 3,0 1,5 2,5 1,0 1,5 0,5 1,0 0,5 1,0
Maximum 5,0 9,0 5,0 7,0 3,5 5,0 3,0 4,5 1,0 3,0
Average 3,9 5,6 2,9 4,6 2,4 3,3 1,8 2,4 0,7 1,8
Median 4,0 6,0 3,0 4,5 2,5 3,0 1,9 2,0 0,5 1,6
Number of records 7 9 8 10 7 10 7 9 3 4
Table M18 : Country data for exacavation activities
ACTUAL OUTPUT OF EXCAVATION IN CUBIC METRES PER TASK

SOFT MEDIUM HARD VERY HARD ROCK
Country Hr/task Max Hr/task Max Hr/task Max Hr/task Max Hr/task Max
Botswana 5,2 3,6 5,2 3,2 5,2 2,9
Cambodia 6,0 6,0 6,0 6,0 6,0
China 10,0 10,0 10,0 10,0
Ghana 5,0 4,1 5,0 4,1 5,0 4,1 5,1 4,2
Indonesia
Kenya 4,0 3,0 5,0 2,5 5,0 2,0 1,5 1,3 5,0 0,9
Lesotho 3,3 2,9 1,4 0,7
Mozambique
Tanzania
Thailand
Zimbabwe 5,0 5,0 5,0 4,5 5,0 4,0 5,0 3,0
World Bank 6
Minimum 4,0 3,0 5,0 2,5 5,0 2,0 1,5 1,3 5,0 0,7
Maximum 10,0 5,0 10,0 4,5 10,0 4,1 10,0 4,2 6,0 0,9
Average 5,9 3,8 6,0 3,4 6,0 3,3 5,5 2,5 5,5 0,8
Median 5,1 3,6 5,1 3,2 5,1 3,5 5,1 2,2 5,5 0,8
Number of records 6 5 6 5 6 4 5 4 2 2

51
Table M19 : Country data for haulage activities
PRODUCTION TARGETS FOR HAULING IN CUBIC METRES PER TASK

0-20 m 20-40 m 40-60 m 60-80 m 80-100 100-150 m
Country Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max
Botswana 8,4 7,0 6,7 5,6 5,2 4,7
Cambodia
China
Ghana
Indonesia
Kenya 10,5 10,5 8,0 6,5 5,5 4,5
Lesotho 8,0 6,0 5,0 4,5 4,0 -
Mozambique
Tanzania 10,0 12,0 10,0 12,0 7,5 9,0 6,0 6,5 5,0 5,5 5,0
Thailand
Zimbabwe 5,0 5,0 5,0 5,0 5,0 4,0
World Bank
Minimum 10,0 5,0 10,0 5,0 7,5 5,0 6,0 4,5 5,0 4,0 0,0 4,0
Maximum 10,0 12,0 10,0 12,0 7,5 9,0 6,0 6,5 5,0 5,5 0,0 5,0
Average 10,0 8,8 10,0 8,1 7,5 6,7 6,0 5,6 5,0 5,0 0,0 4,6
Median 10,0 8,4 10,0 7,0 7,5 6,7 6,0 5,6 5,0 5,2 0,0 4,6
Table M19 : Country data for haulage activities
ACTUAL OUTPUT OF EXCAVATION IN CUBIC METRES PER TASK

0-20 m 20-40 m 40-60 m 60-80 m 80-100 100-150 m
Country Hr/task Max Hr/task Max Hr/task Max Hr/task Max Hr/task Max Hr/task Max
Botswana 5,0 6,0 5,0 5,0 5,0 4,5 5,0 4,0 5,0 3,8 5,0 3,3
Cambodia
China
Ghana 5,9 4,6 5,9 4,6 5,9 4,6 5,9 4,6 5,9 4,6 5,9 4,6
Indonesia
Kenya
Lesotho 3,5 3,5 3,5 3,5 3,5 3,5
Mozambique
Tanzania
Thailand
Zimbabwe 5,0 9,0 5,0 9,0 5,0 8,0 5,0 7,0 6,0 6,0 6,0 5,0
World Bank
Minimum 5,0 3,5 5,0 3,5 5,0 3,5 5,0 3,5 5,0 3,5 5,0 3,3
Maximum 5,9 9,0 5,9 9,0 5,9 8,0 5,9 7,0 6,0 6,0 6,0 5,0
Average 5,3 5,8 5,3 5,5 5,3 5,2 5,3 4,8 5,6 4,5 5,6 4,1
Median 5,0 5,3 5,0 4,8 5,0 4,6 5,0 4,3 5,9 4,2 5,9 4,1

Table M20 : Country data for loading, unloading and spreading activities
PRODUCTION BOTSWANA CAMBODIA CHINA GHANA INDONESIA KENYA

TARGETS
Load, unload Unit Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max
spread
Loading soil m3 12 8 12 8 10
Loading m3 5 7 6.7 8 10
gravel
Unloading soil m3 15 20 8 10
Unloading m3 12 15 10 8 10
gravel
Spreading soil m3 10 5 7.5 12 15
Spreading soil m2 50 60
Spreading m3 18 3.5 5 12 15
gravel
Spreading m2 50 75 35 50
gravel
PRODUCTION LESOTHO MOZAMBIQUE TANZANIA THAILAND ZIMBABWE WORLD

TARGETS BANK
Load, unload Unit Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max
spread
Loading soil m3 12 15
Loading gravel m3 5 7 10 8 9
Unloading soil m3
Unloading m3
gravel
Spreading soil m3 14 16 15 18 7 10 11
Spreading soil m2 90 60 90
Spreading m3 12 15 12 10
gravel
Spreading m2 60 60
gravel

53
ACTUAL BOTSWANA CAMBODIA CHINA GHANA INDONESIA KENYA

OUTPUT
Load, unload Unit Hr/task Max Hr/task Max Hr/task Max Hr/task Max Hr/task Max Hr/task Max
spread
Loading soil m3 6 6 9
Loading m3 6 6,25 6,25 6 9
gravel
Unloading soil m3 6 9
Unloading m3 6 12,7 6 9
gravel
Spreading soil m3 6
Spreading soil m2 5,4 91 6 13
Spreading m3 6 6 13
gravel
Spreading m2 5,8 86
gravel
ACTUAL LESOTHO MOZAMBIQUE TANZANIA THAILAND ZIMBABWE WORLD

OUTPUT BANK
Load, unload Unit Hr/task Max Hr/task Max Hr/task Max Hr/task Max Hr/task Max Hr/task Max
spread
Loading soil m3 5 6
Loading m3 5 6
gravel
Unloading soil m3 5 11
Unloading m3 5 11
gravel
Spreading soil m3 5 11
Spreading soil m2
Spreading m3 5 11
gravel
Spreading m2
gravel

Table M21 : Country data for compaction activities
PRODUCTION HANDRAMMER
TARGETS Formation Structure Slopes
m3 m3 m3
Country Min Max Min Max Min Max
Botswana
Cambodia 10,0 12,5 7,5 10,0
China 5,7 2,5 1,5
Ghana
Indonesia
Kenya 6,0 9,0 6,0 9,0
Lesotho
Mozambique
Tanzania 8,0 10,0
Thailand
Zimbabwe
World Bank
Minimum 8,0 5,7 6,0 2,5 6,0 1,5
Maximum 10,0 12,5 6,0 9,0 7,5 10,0
Average 9,0 9,4 6,0 5,8 6,8 6,8
Median 9,0 10,0 6,0 5,8 6,8 9,0
Number of 2 3 1 2 2 3
records
Table M21 : Country data for compaction activities
PRODUCTION MECHANICAL
TARGETS
Formation Structures Slopes Structures Slopes Structures
m 3
m 3
m 3
m 3
m 3
m3
Country Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max
Botswana
Cambodia 75,0 100,0 10,0 13,5
China 16,7
Ghana
Indonesia
Kenya
Lesotho 100,0 150,0 700,0
Mozambique
Tanzania 140,0 700,0
Thailand
Zimbabwe 250,0
World Bank 170,0 280,0
Minimum 75,0 16,7 10,0 13,5 0,0 700,0
Maximum 170,0 280,0 10,0 13,5 0,0 700,0
Average 115,0 156,1 10,0 13,5 0,0 700,0
Median 100,0 145,0 10,0 13,5 0,0 700,0
Number of 3 6 1 1 0 2
records

55
Table M22 : Country data for culvert laying activities
PRODUCTION BOTSWANA CAMBODIA CHINA GHANA INDONESIA KENYA

TARGETS
Compaction Unit Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max
Culvert laying
600 mm m 6 12 1,4 0,33
900 mm m 0,9 0,33
Concrete m3 1 1,5 0,1 0,2 1
work
Stone m3 1 1,5 1,5
masonry
PRODUCTION LESOTHO MOZAMBIQUE TANZANIA THAILAND ZIMBABWE WORLD

TARGETS BANK
Compaction Unit Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max
Culvert laying
600 mm m 1 1,1 0,36 0,5 0,9
900 mm m
Concrete m3 1,5 2 0,6 1
work
Stone m3 1,2 1,5 0,5 1
masonry
ACTUAL BOTSWANA CAMBODIA CHINA GHANA INDONESIA KENYA

OUTPUT
Compaction Unit Hr/task Max Hr/task Max Hr/task Max Hr/task Max Hr/task Max Hr/task Max
Culvert laying
600 mm m 7 5
900 mm m
Concrete m3 7 6 0,28
work
Stone m3 7 6 0,3
masonry
ACTUAL LESOTHO MOZAMBIQUE TANZANIA THAILAND ZIMBABWE WORLD

OUTPUT BANK
Compaction Unit Hr/task Max Hr/task Max Hr/task Max Hr/task Max Hr/task Max Hr/task Max
Culvert laying
600 mm m 7 1 0,9
900 mm m 7 0,8
Concrete m3 7 0,5 1
work
Stone m3 7 0,5 1
masonry

N: TASK OUTPUT RATES

Source: Department of Public Works: Guidelines for enhancing employment
opportunities in the delivery of infrastructure projects – a national
Public Works Programme Initiative
1. Indicative production rates for selected activities
The following production rates are presented as a guide only. Actual production
rates may vary, depending on local conditions.
Table N1 : Task output rates
ACTIVITY DESCRIPTION UNIT PRODUCTION RATES RECOMMENDED

(Various sources) PRODUCTION RATE
Clear and grub Clearing m2 150
250
150 150–300
300–800
Clearing and grubbing m2 150 –
60
80 80–150
100
180
Excavation Trenches (± 0,5 m wide) m 9,5
(0,0 m to 1,0 m deep) 7,5 7–10
10
Trenches (± 0,5 m wide) m 7,0
(1,0 m to 1,25 m deep) 5,5 5–7
6,0
Trenches (normal trench width and depth) m3 6,0
5,6
4,5 3–6
2,5
2,0
3,5
Excavation Earthworks m3 4,0–5,5
– Soft class 1 soil) 4,8
(In wider excavations double handling 2–5,5
might have to be allowed for) 4,0
2,8–3,2
3,0
2,3
6,0
5–12 2,5–5,0
2,5–5,0
3,0–4,0
4,8–5,5
3,0
2,5
3,5
3,3
2,0–4,0
1,6–2,4
2,0–3,0
– Intermediate (soil) m3 2,5–3,5
(In wider excavations double handling 3,3
might have to be allowed for) 4,0 2,0–3,0
2,5
2,0
– Hard (soil) m3 2,1–2,2
(In wider excavations double handling 2,0
might have to be allowed for) 1,6 1,0–2,0
0,5–2,0

57
Table N1 : Task output rates
ACTIVITY DESCRIPTION UNIT PRODUCTION RATES RECOMMENDED

(Various sources) PRODUCTION RATE
Borrowpits Select and load rock m3 2 2
Feed crusher m3 3,5 3,5
Load gravel m3 6 6
Spreading Earthworks m3 12,0
7,0 7,0–12,0
12,0–16,0
Remove oversize material m3 2,5 2–3
Verge (incl. Compaction) m3 4,7 4–5
Hauling Wheelbarrow m3 13,5 10–13
0m–20m 10,5
40m–60m m3 10,5 8–10
60m–80m m3 8,0 6–8
6,5
80m–100m m3 7,0 5–6
5,0
Backfilling Trenches m3 4,0 4–8
10,5
Excavations m3 2,0–5,0 2–5
Waterbound Construct m3
0,8
Macadam (WBM) 0,6 0,5–0,8
0,16
Spread coarse material m3 4,7 4,7
Spread and broom fines m3 4,7 4,7
Surfacing Sweep basecourse m3 490 1 000
1 000
Spread chips and backchip m2 300 200–400
200–400
Slurry mix and spread m3 1,5 0,8–1,2
0,67
Spread asphalt m3 0,4 0,4
Concrete blocks Laying of blocks m3 20 15–20
17
Kerbs Laying of pre-cast m 10 10–20
26
Manhole Place precast manhole rings (300 mm high) no 4,5 4,5
construction Mix and place benching no 2 2
Place precast manhole cover-slabs no 2,5 2,5
Concrete Mixing m3 0,7–3,0 0,7–1,5
Placing m3 1,1–4,0 1,0–4,0
Roadmarking Painting (100 mm line) m 150 150
Pipe laying 100–150 mm diameter sewer m 19–24 19–24
100–150 mm diameter water m 14–19 14–19
HDPE water pipe m 125 125

O: TYPICAL TASK RATES

Source: McCutcheon and Marshall. Labour-intensive construction and
maintenance of rival roads: Guidelines for the training of road
builders. Construction and Development Series, November 14,
Development Bank of Southern Africa. Development Paper 60,
November 1996.
Table O1 : Average task output values

Site clearance Bush clearing – dense light to medium Determine on site
Stripping and grubbing 150 m2 - 750 m2/day
Tree and stump removal 100 m2 - 200 m2/day
Boulder removal Experience
200 day/km
Earthworks Slotting 4 m3/day
Excavation to level
Cute < 0,25 m 5 m3/day
> 0,25 m 4 m3/day
Borrow to fill 4 m3/day
Haulage (wheelbarrow)
0-20 m 13,5 m3/day
40-60 m 8,0 m3/day
80-100 m 5,5 m3/day
Spreading 12 m3/day
Drainage Ditching 3,75 m3/day
Sloping 3,75 m3/day
Camber formation 100 m2 /day
Mitre drains 3,75 m3/day
Catchwater drains 3,75 m3/day
Scour checks 25/day
Culvert installation max. 20 days/line
Gravelling Excavation 3 m3/day
Load 6 m3 (loose)/day
Spreading 12 m3/day
Source: McCutcheon (1983) and Simpson (1980)
Table O2 : Detailed task rates for excavation
SOIL TYPE TOOLS TASK RATES (m3/man-day)

THROWING DISTANCE (m)
0-4 4-6 6-8
loose, not sticky soil Shovel, jembe 5,0 - 6,0 4,5 - 5,5 3,5 - 4,5
Firm soil Shovel, fork jembe 3,5 - 4,5 3,0 - 4,0 2,5 - 3,5
Very hard soil, hard soil Pickaxe. fork jembe, 2,0 - 3,0 1,8 - 2,5 1,7 - 2,5
mixed with stones shovel
Source: De Veen (1980, 1983)

59
Table O3 : Resource inputs, example from Lesotho
REF WORK ITEM UNIT LABOUR PLANT MATERIALS

m.d
tpd rd ftd Spray cd Mixer Cement Stone Bitume Weldi-
day day pkt cu.m drum mesh m2
1 Formation work
Excavation 1500 cu m/km km 1280
2000 cu m/km km 1480
2500 cu m/km km 1730
3000 cu m/km km 1980
2 Gravelling - haul = 0-2 km km 823 14 10
5 m wide km 1025 20 10
- haul = 2-7 km km 1175 41 10
3 5 m wide
- haul = 7-20 km
5 m wide
Road maintenance
(lengthmen system)
4 Dry stone masonry cu.m 2,5
= w.bhaul of stone cu.m 2 0,065
5 = tphaul
of stone & sand cu.m 3,7 0,022 1,7
Cement bound cu.m 3,1 0,098 1,7
6 Stone masonry cu.m 3,5 0,091 7
= w.bhaul of stone & sand cu.m 3 0,161 7
7 = tphaul cu.m 3,7 0,065 5
of stone & sand cu.m 3,1 0,141 9 5
8 1:2:4 concrete km 336 5,6
9 = w.bhaul of stone & sand km 224
10 = tphaul lin.m 1
of stone & sand lin.m 0,84 0,007 0,5
1:3:6 concrete 0,029 0,5
= w.bhaul of stone & sand
= tphaul
of stone & sand
Track excavation
Ditch excavation
Ditch lining
= tphaul
of stone & sand
11 Grassing sq.m 0,1 0,006 0,003
12 Gabions cu.m 3,2 0,05
= w.bhaul of stone cu.m 2,7 0,12
= tphaul
of stone & sand
13 600 pipe culvert per culv 11 0,3
900 pipe culvert per culv 12 0,5
14 Stone slab culvert per culv 42 0,212 8
= w.bhaul of stone & s and per culv 41 0,374 8
15 = tphaul per culv 6 0,039 3
of stone & sand per culv 5 0,185 3
Culvert headwalls
= tphaul
of stone & sand

Table O3 : Resource inputs, example from Lesotho (continued)
REF WORK ITEM UNIT LABOUR PLANT MATERIALS

m.d
tpd rd ftd Spray cd Mixer Cement Stone Bitume Weldi-
day day pkt cu.m drum mesh m2
16 Vented ford = w.bhaul lin.m 29 0,53 44 2 shts
of concrete lin.m 25 1,05 44 2 shts
17 = tphaul lin.m 18 0,3 0,25 25 2 shts
of stone & sand lin.m 15 0,63 0,25 25 2 shts
18 Vented ford (rock)
= w.bhaul per arch 63,3 1,1 76 16,2
of stone & sand per arch 54,7 2,26 76 16,2
19 = tphaul m/bridge 51 0,26 20
of stone & sand m/bridge 44 1,18 20
20 Minibridge = w.bhaul per arch 731 12 800
of stone & sand per arch 635 25 800
21 = tphaul per struc 375 2 150
of stone & sand per struc 323 9 150
(wingwalls) = w.bhaul
of stone & sand
= tphaul
of stone & sand
Pipe arch = w.bhaul
of stone & sand
= tphaul
of stone & sand
(wingwalls) = w.bhaul
of stone & sand
= tphaul
of stone & sand
22 Lime stab base
= gravel km 1589 14 20 2500li
hl=0-2km 5m wide km 1800 20 20 2500li
= gravel km 1950 41 20 2500li
23 hl=2-7km 5m wide km 56 2 20 48
24 = gravel km 630 20 25 35 107 123
25 hl=7-20 5m wide km 830 10 15 25 10 99 87
Thickened edge
(bitumen surfacing)
Double seal surfacing
Cape seal surfacing
26 Concrete blocks (production) 100 blocks 4,1 0,065 5,1
27 Concrete blockwork 100 sq.m 7+4,5* 2,05 71
28 (building) cu.m 3+2,5* 0,105 1,7
29 Random rubble masonry 100 sq.m 3,3+8* 0,062 3,4
30 (building) 100 lin.m 30 14
Pointing (masonry)
Security fencing 0,5

61
ABBREVIATIONS
sq.m square meters m2 st m2 stone lu load & unload rd roller day

cu.m cubic metres db drum bitumen cd day sc spread and compact
quantity ftd flat truck day lpkt lime packet bit. bitumen emulsion
m.d. man-day bp budge productivity sqmwm sq.m weldmesh cpkt cement packet
tpd tipper day cl collect and load mp mix and place swm sweet weldmesh
std spray truck day h haul lh load and haul
* Skilled labour
Source: Extracted from Taylor, 1987. Labour-Construction Unit; Scott Wilson Kirkpatrick

Appendix 2: Implementing employment-intensive infrastructure projects which target

the increase of employment opportunities generated per unit of expenditure
(Annex G of SANS 10396: Implementing Preferential Construction Procurement
Policies using Targeted Procurement Procedures)
G1 Introduction
Changes in methods and technologies, which increase the labour component in
construction and the manufacture of materials, yield the greatest increase in the
number of employment opportunities generated per unit of expenditure. This
requires established companies to reduce their reliance on capital intensive
technologies. Suitable methods and technologies are usually readily implemented
by small scale enterprises, who by being small, have limited access to capital and
invariably operate and conduct their businesses in a more employment-intensive
fashion and favour light, non-equipment-based forms of construction.
Various statistics have been put forward to quantify the impact of introducing
employment-intensive construction practices. Many of them relate to the
methods of measurement which are adopted. The following parameters are
commonly used to evaluate employment-intensive construction practices:
The multiplier in employment opportunities (i.e. the ratio of the total number of
personhours generated in the construction of a specified structure, service or
activity using labour-based technologies, to that using plant-based technologies).
Expenditure per unit of employment generated (i.e. the ratio of total

construction costs excluding VAT but including any management fees directly
related to construction activities to total volume of employment-generated
(manhours) in the construction of a structure or service.
Construction expenditure retained within the community.
This informative annex focuses on the use of the SANS 1914-5 targeted
construction procurement (Participation of Targeted Enterprises) standard to
encourage cost-effective employment-intensive practices.
NOTE : The fundamental difference between the SANS 1914-4 targeted

construction procurement standard (Participation of Targeted Enterprises and
Targeted Labour (Local Resources)) and the SANS 1914-5 standard (Participation
of Targeted Labour) is that the former targets enterprises and labour whereas the
latter targets only labour. Many of the techniques presented in this Annex can
also be applied to the targeting of labour in terms of the SANS 1914-4 standard.
G2 Defining targeted labour

Increases in employment opportunities generated
per unit of expenditure on infrastructure projects SAMPLE DEFINITIONS
can best be achieved by targeting unskilled/semi-
skilled labour. Targeted labour may accordingly be South African citizens who permanently reside within the boundaries of
defined in terms of statutory wage rates, e.g., ........................... and earn wages and allowances amounting to less than
R........................ per hour. It is incumbent on individuals to demonstrate
persons who earn not more than one and a half
their claims to such residency on the basis of identification and association
times the minimum statutory wage rate. In some
with and recognition by members of the community residing within the
instances, there may be merit, in the interests of
aforementioned areas.
local economic development, to include residency
within a broad geographical area in the definition.

63
G3 Encouraging contractors to make more use of targeted labour in

excavation activities
In order to meet goals for the engagement of targeted labour, or to tender
increased contract participation goals, contractors may have to undertake some,
or all, soft excavations by the use of hand labour. In order to minimise their risk
exposure in performing such activities, there needs to be :
• A labour policy in place which sets out the conditions of employment for
temporary workers (i.e. project specific workers),
• A mechanism in terms of which contractors can define the portion of the
excavation works which will be excavated by hand methods.
If this is not done, contractors will not be able to increase job opportunities in
earthworks activities as they would be exposed to unacceptable risks. The
abovementioned employment policy and mechanism should accordingly be
clearly set out in the tender documents and form an integral part of the contract.
The conditions of employment pertaining to the employment of temporary

workers (i.e. project specific workers) can be described in the Works Information.
(These conditions will not be necessary should project specific workers be
engaged in terms of statutory labour provisions. It may, however, in certain
circumstances be desirable to vary such provisions in order to increase the
participation of targeted labour, in which case such conditions should be fully
described.). SANS 1914-5 requires contractors to enter into formal contracts with
targeted labour. Credit towards the attainment of contract participation goals
can be denied should contractors fail to engage targeted labour in accordance
with the conditions of employment as laid down in the Works Information.
A suitable mechanism to enable contractors to define portions of excavation

work which may be carried out by hand methods is to permit contractors during
the tender stage to nominate the quantity of materials which they wish to
excavate using hand methods. The approach outlined below is suggested.
The initial classification of material to be excavated should be in accordance with

the relevant provisions of a standard system of measurement. However, soft
excavation to be undertaken by hand labour, using hand tools, can be further
broken down by the introduction of an additional class of material, viz., soft
excavation Class A, in accordance with the provisions of the Contract Prices as
follows:
ABBREVIATIONS
Criteria for classifying material as soft excavation Class A *

Dynamic cone penetrometer - Granular materials Cohesive materials
minimum number of blows
required to penetrate 100 mm 7-15 + 6 to 8 +
Consistency Dense - high resistance to Stiff / Very stiff
penetration by the point of a Stiff - can be indented by thumb-nail;
geological pick; several blows slight indentation produced by pushing
required for removal of material. geological pick point into soil; cannot
be moulded by fingers.
Very stiff - indented by thumb-nail
with difficulty; slight penetration of point
produced by blow of geological pick.
* Soft excavation Class A is material which, using a pick or equivalent hand swing tool, can only be excavated with difficulty.

The total estimated quantity of excavation, as classified in terms of a standard

system of measurement, should be indicated in the Contract Prices. The
contractor should be permitted to sub-divide this quantity into two components,
viz., the quantity of material to be excavated by the use of powered, mechanical
equipment and the quantity to be excavated by hand labour using hand tools.
One third (1/3) of every quantity of excavation to be undertaken by hand labour
should be entered against the appropriate extra-over items provided in the
Contract Prices, but left blank, for soft excavation Class A. This will ensure that
material which can be picked with difficulty is catered for and the transition from
hand excavation to machine excavation is graded.
Should the contractor fail to indicate a quantity of

excavation to be undertaken by hand labour,
Insert the following into the conditions of tender:
SOFT EXCAVATIONS
notwithstanding that he would find it necessary to
utilize hand labour, it will be assumed that all
excavation, whether undertaken by machine, or by In order to meet goals for the engagement of Targeted Labour, the Tenderer
may intend to undertake some, or all, soft excavations by the use of hand
hand labour, is to be paid for at the rates tendered
labour.
for machine excavation.
The initial classification of material to be excavated shall be in accordance
The contractor should be required to undertake at with the relevant provisions of ……... However, soft excavation to be
least the quantities of excavation by hand labour undertaken by hand labour, using hand tools, shall be further broken down
which he tendered, unless the total quantity of by the introduction of an additional class of material, viz., soft excavation
Class A, in accordance with the provisions of the project specification.
excavation proves to be less than scheduled, in
The total estimated quantity of excavation, as classified in terms of ……… is
which case the minimum quantity to be undertaken
indicated in the Contract Prices. The tenderer may sub-divide this quantity
by hand labour will be reduced pro-rata by the
into two components, viz., the quantity of material to be excavated by the
Employer’s Representative. This procedure will also use of powered, mechanical equipment and the quantity to be excavated by
provide a basis for reducing contract participation hand labour using hand tools.
goals should such adjustments be necessary. One third (1/3) of every quantity of excavation to be undertaken by hand
labour must be entered against the appropriate extra-over items provided in
Should the total quantity of excavation prove to be
the Schedules for soft excavation Class A.
greater than that scheduled, the contractor may
Should the tenderer fail to indicate a quantity of excavation to be undertaken
choose the method of excavation for the excess by hand labour, notwithstanding that he would find it necessary to utilise
quantity, unless the rates for excavation by machine hand labour, it will be assumed that all excavation, whether undertaken by
would result in lower costs than for hand machine, or by hand labour, is to be paid for at the rates tendered for
excavation, in which case the Employer’s machine excavation.
Representative will have the right to instruct the
contractor to undertake the excavation by machine.
The Contract Prices can reflect this mechanism as follows :
The Contract Prices can reflect this mechanism as follows:
ITEM NO. DESCRIPTION UNIT QUANTITY RATE AMOUNT

R C
3.1 Earthworks
Excavate trenches in all materials, backfill and
dispose of surplus material for stormwater pipes
not exceeding 1,5 m deep (Total quantity 1 500 m3)
to be allocated in items 3.1.1 and 3.1.2 below in
accordance with Part 3 of the Conditions of Tender.
3.1.1 Machine excavation m3 ................... *
3.1.2 Hand excavation m3 ................... *
3.1.3 Extra over 3.1.2 for hand excavation in soft class A. m3 ................... *
(Quantity to be one third of quantity entered
under 3.1.2)
3.2 Extra over items 3.1.1 and 3.1.2 for :- m3 250
: Intermediate excavation m3 150
: Hard rock excavation
* To be completed by the contractor.

65
G4 Encouraging contractors to implement employment-intensive road

technologies
The labour-intensiveness of roadworks is highly dependent upon the choice of
technology and the cost of roadworks is, accordingly, sensitive to the choice of
technology. If, however, the contractor is permitted to select the technology and
contracts are awarded in terms of a development objective price mechanism, a
balance between price and the attainment of socio-economic deliverables can be
achieved.
A simple way to do this is to present contractors with a range of options which

are acceptable to the employer and to permit contractors to tender and price
what they see to be the most competitive options.
Contract Prices can reflect this mechanism as follows :
The Contract Prices can reflect this mechanism as follows:

R C
1.1 BASE
Option A:
Construct base course with graded crushed stone
from commercial sources
Option B:
Construct dry/-waterbound Macadam base course
with stone imported from designated sources.
Construct base course using Option .............................
(to be completed by contractor) m2 2010
R C
1.2 PAVEMENT STRUCTURE
Option A :
150 mm C4 subbase, 100mm G1 base,
20 mm AC wearing course, complete
Option B :
100 mm C4 subbase, 100mm WM2 base,
20 mm AC wearing course complete
Option C :
100 mm G7 subbase, 20mm bedding sand,
60 mm type SA interlocking blocks complete
Construct pavement using option ................................
(to be completed by contractor) m2 2000
The following clause should be inserted into the Conditions of Tender in order to
cater for the different quantities which result from the different thicknesses of
layerworks. This is important in the adjudication of tenders.
PAVEMENT STRUCTURES
In order to meet the contract participation goal, the Contractor may select a pavement structure from the alternatives presented on the
drawing. Each option or component thereof is scheduled separately in the Contract Prices. The Contractor must state in his tender under
the relevant scheduled item which alternative his tender is based on. Contractors will be bound to the pavement structure so selected.
The quantities scheduled in respect of earthworks are based on the pavement design with the greatest depth. Adjustments will be made
by the engineer in the tendered price to reflect changes in earthworks costs arising from pavement selections prior to the awarding of points
for price.

Notes
l a b o u r -b
baas
seed
d m
mee tt h
hood
dss a
annd
d tt e
ecch
hnno
o ll o
ogg ii e
ess
67
Notes

Acknowledgements
This guide to best practice would not have been possible

without the contribution of all sectors of SA Construction Major contributing organisations
and its stakeholders, a contribution of time and leadership
made in the interests of a better industry. Department of Public Works
Department of Transport
It is impossible to list all those who have made an input to Department of Water Affairs and Forestry
this product since the 1996 initiative between the Minister
Gautrans
of Public Works and Captains of Industry. The “Captains’
South African National Roads Agency Limited
Initiative” kick-started a number of key interventions
Soweto City Council
towards a transforming industry including a focus on
labour-based construction. Johannesburg City Council
eThekwini Metro
Initial conceptual work was taken forward by the Inter- Tshwane Metro
ministerial Task on Construction Industry Development, South African Federation of Civil Engineering
which established a focus group under the leadership of Contractors
Graham Power. The Focus Group built on the experience South African Association of Consulting Engineers
of pilot public works projects to develop a preliminary set South African Institution of Civil Engineering
of guidelines.
University of the Witwatersrand
University of Pretoria
Building on the work of the Task Team, the cidb has
International Labour Organisation (Asist Programme)
expanded the application of technologies and methods to
increase the employment generated per unit of expendi- CSIR Boutek and Transportek
ture. A focus group of industry specialists and stakehold- Development Bank of Southern Africa
ers has further reviewed and refined these guidelines, The South African Roads Board
which are now recommended by the Expanded Public Agrément South Africa
Works Programme in the delivery of national, provincial Standards South Africa
and municipal infrastructure, Cement and Concrete Institute
South African Bitumen Association
cidb wishes to thank the many individuals whose passion,
South African Black Technical and Allied Careers
commitment and knowledge has enabled the develop-
Organisation
ment of this publication as a common resource in the fight
Concrete Manufacturing Association
against poverty and joblessness, both in South Africa and
globally. Building Industries Federation of South Africa
National Economic Forum
A special thanks is due to Ron Watermeyer (past President National Housing Forum
of the SA Institution of Civil Engineers) whose involve- Congress of South African Trade Unions
ment has ensured a continuity of focus throughout the
process. Plus many individuals from construction companies
“Like slavery and apartheid, poverty is not natural. It is
man made and it can be overcome and eradicated by
the actions of human beings.”
Nelson Mandela, 2005 – Global Campaign for Action against Poverty
Best Practice Guideline – Part 2-1
Labour-based construction methods

for earthworks
Part 1
all citizens”
Part 3
manufacture
commenced in 1996.
making
technology
technology
unsealed roads
development.
Best Practice Guideline – Part 2-1 1ST

Edition
of CIDB
document
Labour-based construction methods 1023
March 2005
for earthworks
Contents
1. Introduction 3
2. Clearing and grubbing 4
3. ELHUS and compaction 6
4. Safety 23
5. Specialist literature 25
Acknowledgements 29


Tel: 27 12-481 9030 Fax: 27 12-343 7153
Part 2 – Labour-based construction methods for Earthworks
T
works components.


1. Introduction
1.1 History, current practice, brief description

Note: Earthworks – traditionally a labour-based activity
of the activities (ELHUS)
An extensive study on the feasibility of labour- Earthworks are at the core of most civil engineering construction, especially
based construction conducted by the World Bank road construction. For centuries earthworks have been executed using
concluded that "Labour-intensive methods are employment-intensive methods and there is no doubt that a wide range of
technically feasible for a wide range of construction earthworks can be executed in this manner. In recent decades, however,
activities and can generally produce the same most earthworks have been executed using equipment-based methods.
quality of product as equipment-intensive Accordingly, most of the knowledge and skills that are needed for effective
methods". The term ‘employment-intensive’ does employment-intensive earthworks have been lost. Furthermore there are
labour-related activities that are very difficult and therefore time consuming
not mean that only labour should be used in the
and uneconomic. With these activities it is often recommended to use some
construction process, but implies the use of a range
equipment to complement the labour-based activities. These guidelines try
of machine/labour combinations, based on con-
and address these issues by providing best-practice guidelines for
siderations of quality, cost and time constraints. earthworks.
This World Bank study specifically singled out the
earthworks operations of Excavate, Load, Haul, Unload and Spread (ELHUS), as
being activities that could potentially be undertaken economically by labour.
More recent experience in South Africa and elsewhere has expanded this list of
activities.
Several specifications have been written for employment-intensive earthworks;

the more successful ones being modelled on SANS 1200 series (Standardized
specification for civil engineering construction). Standards South Africa has
recently published SANS 1921-5 (Construction and management requirements for
works contracts, Part 5: Earthworks activities which are to be performed by hand).
This standard identifies earthworks activities and sub-activities which a contractor
must execute by hand.
1.2 Common general difficulties

Before continuing, it is important to note that labour-based earthworks activities
are often perceived as the simplest and most ‘backward’ of all construction
activities in many projects. Because of this attitude, the works are often not
planned properly. The perception that labour-based earthworks are just ‘pick and
shovel’ activities that do not require a serious approach is probably the most
important reason that productivities on the projects where this attitude prevails
are below expectations (and the costs above expectations).
It cannot be stressed enough that in order to have cost-effective employment-

intensive earthworks, one needs to approach, plan, execute and monitor the
works with the same level of commitment and seriousness as is done when
expensive equipment is hired. The work must be planned, ensuring sufficient
manpower so that the required deadlines can be met, different activities should
often have different team sizes so that the productivities are balanced, proper
tools should be provided and adequate supervision should be in place. All of
these and other important activities are often neglected and as a result the
obtained productivities are too low. The fact that employment-intensive
methods were used is then often blamed. If any work is not taken seriously and
not planned properly, productivities will be low, regardless of whether
employment-intensive or equipment-intensive methods are used.

3
2. Clearing and grubbing
2.1 Introduction
Note
Clearing and grubbing involves the cutting down of trees, bush and other
SANS 1921-5 requirement for clearing vegetation and the subsequent grubbing and removal of the root systems.
and grubbing is: Topsoil removal is sometimes included or is scheduled under earthworks. The
Grass and small bushes shall be cleared ground is left clear for further construction activities.
by hand.
2.2 Standards
In conventional specifications, clearing and grubbing is specified as follows:
COLTO, 1998, Section 1700: Clearing and grubbing

Clearing and grubbing is measured in hectare, to the nearest one-tenth ha, and
encompasses all work necessary for the clearing of the surface, the removal of
boulders, the removal and grubbing of trees and stumps (except large trees as
defined below), cutting branches, backfilling cavities, demolishing and disposal of
structures, and the removal, transporting and disposal of all materials arising.
Large trees are defined as having a girth exceeding one metre. Removal and
Tools grubbing of large trees is paid by individual number of trees, categorised into
girth steps of one metre.
The tools used for clearing and grubbing
depend on the materials to be cleared. SANS 1200 C, 1982: Site clearance
The list below gives tools typically
Clearing and grubbing is measured in hectares, to the nearest one-tenth ha, and
required. However, if there are no trees
encompasses all work necessary for the clearing of the surface, the removal of
to be cleared, then tree-cutting tools are
boulders, the removal and grubbing of trees and stumps (except large trees as
not needed.
defined below), cutting branches, backfilling cavities, demolishing and disposal of
• Axe
structures, and the removal, transporting and disposal of all materials arising.
• Saw
Large trees are defined as having a girth exceeding one metre. Removal and
• Rope
grubbing of large trees is paid by individual number of trees, categorised into
• Slasher or sickle
girth steps of one metre. Several options are given for specific items unsuitable
• Rake
for inclusion in the general clearing pay item, like fences, hedges, pipelines,
• Pick
transmission lines, cables, structures and buildings. Topsoil is separately scheduled
• Shovel or spade
in m3.
• Fork
• Watering can and water
• Hand stamper
2.3 Practical guidelines for labour-intensive clearing and grubbing
• Drinking water Many of the activities are conventionally carried out by labour teams.
With modest training and good organisation, clearing and grubbing can be
efficiently carried out by labour. The sequence of operations is important [Ntja,
2000]. Team sizes should generally comprise about five people. Once one activity
has progressed to the point where sufficient space has been cleared, the next
activity can be initiated. The numbers of teams engaged should be related to
their productivity and speed. The teams should be in some reasonable balance, so
that no portion of the work delays other activities or progresses too far ahead.
1. Trees within the area to be cleared should be cut first. The tree tops should be
cut, leaving a trunk about five metres high. All side branches should be cut off
using axes and saws. The timber resulting from the trees should be sawn up
into convenient lengths and stacked to one side. Separate piles should be
made for leaves and thin branches.
2. Bush and other tough vegetation should be cut down, to ground level if
possible, cut to convenient lengths and stacked.
3. Grass and remaining vegetation should then be removed at ground level by
means of spades or hoes. The resulting debris should be raked to one side and
added to the piles of thin branches and leaves.
4. Once a large enough portion of ground is clear, a trench should be dug
around the nearest tree and roots chopped through. The trench should be

about one metre deep (less if the tree is small) and should attempt to
undermine the tree stump. As soon as one tree has been trenched and all
accessible roots cut through, a rope should be fixed to the top of the trunk
and a team of labourers tasked to pull the tree down. As the tree moves,
further roots may become visible and accessible: these roots should be cut free
at the level of the base of the hole while the pulling team rests. Progressively
the tree trunk is thus brought down, using the leverage of the length of the
trunk to tear out as many roots as possible. Once the tree and stump have
been brought down, they should be rolled away from the hole and cut into
convenient lengths. Depending upon the specification, major roots may need
to be dug out and removed to a specified depth.
5. Large bushes should be trenched and their root systems removed. The roots
of smaller bushes can be dug out together with the grass roots (see 7 below).
6. The soil dug out of the trenches around trees and large bushes can then be
returned to the trenches. Roots should be carefully separated from the soil
and only clean soil used for backfill. Some specifications will require the tree
hole backfill to be compacted in thin layers [CSRA, 1987].
7. Specifications generally require all roots to be removed to a particular depth,
dependant on subsequent operations. To achieve this, the soil should be dug
over to the specified depth and all root material removed. Garden forks are
efficient tools for this activity. If the topsoil has to be removed, this is best
combined with the digging for root removal. It is often advantageous that
topsoil contains a relatively high proportion of vegetable matter.
8. The debris resulting from the clearing and grubbing should be disposed of as
instructed. Timber will usually be snapped up by the local people for
firewood. If regulations permit, the thin sticks, roots and leaves can be burnt
and the ashes dispersed into the bush adjacent to the works (where it will act
as fertiliser). Otherwise the rubbish may need to be transported to worked-
out borrow pits and spread.
2.4 Productivities
Typical productivities and task rates for clearing and grubbing are tabulated in
Tables 1 and 2.
Table 1: Productivities for clearing and grubbing (Ntja, 2000)
ACTIVITY DESCRIPTION OPTIMUM PRODUCTION IN

SQUARE METRES PER PERSON-DAY
Bush clearing Medium dense bush (4 - 7 bushes per 100 m2) 500
Grass clearing Removal of vegetation to ground surface 124
Destumping Removal of stumps and major roots 85
Grubbing Root removal to 250 mm depth in soft loamy soil 60
Note: The figures given above are standard productivity rates and should be factored downwards to take account of environmental, social and
other local conditions.
Table 2: Typical Task Rates for clearing and grubbing ( MRP Technical Manual, 1992)
ACTIVITY TASK RATE IN SQUARE METRES PER PERSON-DAY

Bush clearing 300 to 1000
Stripping and grubbing 200
Tree and stump removal From experience

5
3. ELHUS and compaction
3.1 Introduction
Note: SANS 1921-5 requirement for ELHUS activities
Excavating, Loading, Hauling, Unloading and
Trench excavation Spreading can together be referred to as ELHUS.
All materials excavatable by hand in trenches that have a depth of less than These activities are often grouped together because
that indicated in the specification data (see annex A) shall be excavated by they usually follow each other during earthworks
hand. construction and involve the same material, i.e. the
The excavation of any material in trenches shall not be performed by hand if material that is excavated is usually also loaded,
it presents the possibility of danger or injury to workers. hauled, etc. Furthermore, material that is spread, is
Compaction of backfilling to trenches in areas not subject to traffic usually also compacted again, and the spreading
Backfilling to trenches in areas not subjected to traffic shall be placed in and compaction activities are also linked as will be
layers of thickness (before compaction) not exceeding 100 mm. Each layer described. The links between these activities, and
shall be compacted using hand stampers such that: how these links affect the planning and execution
a) a Proctor density of 90 % is achieved, of these activities and so create the need for team
b) more than five blows of a dcp are required to penetrate 100 mm of the balancing, will be described first. After this, these
backfill, provided that the backfill does not comprise more than 10 % activities will be dealt with individually focusing on
gravel of size less than 10 mm and contains no isolated boulder, the specifics of each.
c) The density of the compacted trench backfill is not less than that of the
surrounding undisturbed soil when tested comparatively with a dcp.
3.2 Team balancing
Excavations other than in trenches
3.2.1 Description and importance
All material excavatable by hand in excavations other than trenches including
topsoil shall be performed by hand. Harder material may be loosened by While the individual activities of ELHUS are
mechanical means before excavation by hand. different, they are so interdependent that it is
The excavation of any material in excavations other than trenches shall not important that they are considered together,
be performed by hand if it presents the possibility of danger or injury to especially in the planning stages. These activities
workers. seldom occur in isolation on a roads project.
Shaping Generally, the material that is excavated needs to be
All shaping in material excavatable by hand shall be undertaken by hand. loaded, hauled, unloaded and spread in an area
where there is a need for fill. As such these activities
Loading
All loading shall be done by hand, regardless of the method of haulage. should be planned together and the teams of
Haul labourers executing the different activities should
Where the haul distance is not greater than 150 m, excavated material shall be selected in such a way that the teams’
be hauled to its point of placement by means of wheelbarrows. productivities are equal so that no team is delayed
by the subsequent one. This is referred to as team
Offloading
All material, however transported, shall be off-loaded by hand, unless tipper- balancing and is crucial in achieving a productive
trucks are utilized for haulage. labour-intensive construction site. While team
balancing may seem obvious, it is often overlooked
Spreading
in the planning phase. This is probably due to the
All material shall be spread by hand.
fact that many contractors are unfamiliar with the
Compaction different productivity rates for different activities
Small areas may be compacted by hand provided that the specified and often assume that one labourer has the same
compaction is achieved.
productivity for each activity. An example of team
balancing is provided below.
3.2.2 Example – Team balancing exercise

Table 3: Team balancing exercise In this example, 150 m3 of soft soil needs to be cut
(excavated) and used for fill on a section which is on
ACTIVITY Productivity Man days average 100 m further. The overall planning
(worker/day) Quantity required demands that this activity is completed within one
1 Excavation of soft material 3m3 150 50 week.
2 Loading of soft material 5m3 150 30
3&4 Hauling & Unloading (100 m) 6 m3 150 25
5 Spreading 15m3 150 10

Since this activity needs to be completed in one week, which has five working
days, the teams would have to be as follows in order for each worker to work
optimally:
Excavation team: 50 person-days /5 days = 10 labourers
Loading team: 30 person-days / 5 days = 6 labourers
Hauling and unloading team 25 person-days / 5 days = 5 labourers
Spreading team 10 person-days / 5 days = 2 labourers
Every team is now balanced and no workers should be idle, waiting for other
workers to finish their tasks. In general productivities can vary and often one
needs to do a trial in which the assumed productivities are tested and the team
adjusted if the productivities assumed are not accurate. This must be done at the
beginning of the project so that the measured productivities can be used.
While this may seem a very simple planning exercise, unfortunately it is often not
done and it is not common to find construction sites where the teams for each
ELHUS activity are of the same size. The principle of team balancing does only
apply to ELHUS activities of course but applies to most roadwork activities to be
executed using labour-intensive methods.
Together the ELHUS activities form the bulk of the earthworks in most road
construction. If they are not planned properly and the productivities are low,
costs will escalate and it is likely that the client will be pressured into bringing in
equipment for speeding up productivity. This does not mean that labour-
intensive earthworks are not economically feasible, it just means that it was
poorly planned.
The ELHUS activities will now be described individually, as their specifications are
different and they are usually separate items in a Bill of Quantities. Nonetheless,
the team-balancing requirements described above must be kept in mind.
3.3 Classification of material and effect on productivity for each activity

One very important aspect influencing productivity is the type of material in
which ELHUS activities take place. Harder materials are more difficult to excavate
by hand and so the productivities will be lower. It is therefore important to
distinguish between the different materials with which one works and to adjust
the productivities and team sizes accordingly.
It is not simple, however, to distinguish between different kinds of materials and

it is often difficult to accurately classify a material and thus predict the
productivity. It is therefore necessary to have a trial and /or work study done to
be able to accurate measure the productivity. In many cases though, existing
standards and guidelines can provide a classification that will enable sufficiently
accurate predictions for the purposes of initial team planning.
The classification of materials can be profoundly affected by the season during

which excavation is carried out. Relatively hard material can be significantly
softened during the wet season and conversely, very soft materials (particularly
heavy clays) can be extremely hard during the dry season. Slow but sustained
application of water can thus change the consistency/excavatability of a material
significantly. It should be remembered that the material classification at the time
of planning a project may thus differ significantly from that at the time of
construction, and the capacity to modify team balance/compositions and tasks or
expected rates of production on site must thus be available.

7
Materials for layer works should not contain large particles; a maximum size of
less than two-thirds of the compacted layer thickness is usually specified for
support layers and a maximum size of wearing course materials for unsealed
roads should be restricted to 40 mm. In order to minimise unnecessary haulage
costs and material spoiled during construction, oversize material should be
removed during the excavation/loading process. This can be effectively done
using screens or small grizzlies. The material removed during this process should
be stockpiled separately in the borrow area as it is often a potentially useful
source of concrete stone, rip-rap, erosion protection material, material for gabion
baskets or even stone packing or grouted stone pitching.
3.4 Tools and plant

3.4.1 Quality of tools
Under no circumstances should tools ever be bought only on the basis of lowest
price. The quality of tools is of prime importance. Tools can influence productivity
positively or negatively. As the cost of tools rarely exceeds 1% to 2% of project
costs, it is not worth saving on part of one percent and as a consequence reduce
productivity by perhaps 40%, which has a much larger influence on project costs.
In South Africa with unrestricted imports, it is easy to buy poor tools when buying
only on price. Tools must be made from appropriate steels, properly tempered.
Handles must be of good quality: steel, timber or reinforced rubber can all be
acceptable if made to high standards. Tool to handle fastening must also have
had sufficient attention: e.g. round-eyed hoes will spin around the handle, where
oval eyes provide fixity. Guidance in this regard can be obtained from
publications such as the ILO's "Guide to tools and equipment for labour-based
road construction" [Howe, 1981] and the many South African National Standards
with regard to specific tools. If in doubt about quality, it is good practice to obtain
a sample of each tool needed and to test the tool against the relevant South
African National Standards.
Appropriate tools must be chosen. The productivity of labour and the quality of
the job depends strongly on the provision of the
correct tools. For example, as a roads engineer you
Different kinds of tools (i.e. many kinds of shovels,
would not choose a bulldozer to cut basecourse
wheelbarrows, etc.)
levels, you would insist on a grader in good
condition.
Typical types of tool that are needed are:
Excavation: Soft: Shovel
Training in the use of hand tools is also important.
Medium: Pick and shovel
Unskilled labour, with a passing knowledge of
Hard: Pick, crowbar and shovel
agriculture, need to be taught the correct way to
Material processing: Screen
handle unfamiliar tools. For example, people who
Grizzly
know only the use of a hoe will not know how to
Loading: Shovel swing a pick. The increase in productivity after being
Haul: Wheelbarrow: Typically 50 to 70 litres shown the proper use of a pick will be considerable.
Donkey Cart
Unload: Wheelbarrow Tools also require regular sharpening, failing which
Shovel/ rake productivity will drop.
Spread: Shovel
3.4.2 Tools and equipment for measuring and
Rake
Leveling beam quality control
It is important that equipment for measuring and
Mechanical compaction equipment and pneumatic and rock-breaking quality control is not neglected on employment-
equipment may also be required to complement manual activities. Apparatus intensive projects. They are as essential for
for carrying out a Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) test should also be achieving the required quality as is the case with
available.
equipment-based construction. As always, as the

size of the project decreases, less spending in real terms (not in relation to the size
of the project) is available for quality control. However, it is important that the
same proportion if not more is spent on quality control and measurements than
in the case of equipment-based projects.
3.5 Practical guidelines for excavation

3.5.1 Methods of classifying earthworks
Excavation is normally classified for purposes of payment. SANS 1200 D, for
example, classifies plant-based earthworks as being soft, intermediate, hard rock,
boulder class A and boulder class B. Boulder class excavation is classified in terms
of the size and volume of boulders contained in the soil matrix whereas the
classifications for soft, intermediate and hard rock are in terms of the capabilities
SANS 1921-5 classifies material excavated by hand as follows:
Material excavatable by hand: cohesive and granular material b) Cohesive materials:

the properties of which are such that it can be efficiently 1) where the consistency of the material, when profiled
removed by hand. in terms of table A, is classified as very soft, soft,
Unless otherwise stated in the scope of work or in the firm, stiff or stiff to very stiff,
specification data, all materials that have the following 2) where the material is a gravel that has a maximum
characteristics shall be deemed to be materials excavatable by particle size of 10 mm and contains no cobbles or
hand: isolated boulders, no more than 8 blows of a dcp are
a) Granular materials: required to penetrate 100 mm.
1) where the consistency of the material, when profiled
in terms of table 1, is classified as very loose, loose, Note:
medium dense, or dense, In some instances it may be appropriate to modify the
2) where the material is a gravel that has a maximum definition for materials excavatable by hand (see annex B).
particle size of 10 mm and contains no cobbles or
isolated boulders, no more than 15 blows of a dcp
are required to penetrate 100 mm.
Table A — Consistency of materials
GRANULAR MATERIALS COHESIVE MATERIALS

CONSISTENCY DESCRIPTION CONSISTENCY DESCRIPTION
Very loose Crumbles very easily when Very soft Geological pick head can easily be pushed
scraped with a geological pick in as far as the shaft of the handle
Loose Small resistance to penetration Soft Easily indented by thumb; sharp end of a
by sharp end of a geological geological pick can be pushed in 30 mm
pick. to 40 mm; can be moulded by fingers
with some pressure
Medium dense Considerable resistance to Firm Indented by thumb with effort; sharp end
penetration by sharp end of a of geological pick can be pushed in up
geological pick to 10mm; very difficult to mould with
fingers; can just be penetrated with an
ordinary hand spade
Dense Very high resistance to penetration Stiff Can be indented by thumb-nail; slight
by the sharp end of geological pick; indentation produced by pushing geological
requires many blows for excavation pick point into soil; cannot be moulded
by fingers
Very dense High resistance to repeated Very stiff Indented by thumb-nail with difficulty;
blows of a geological pick slight indentation produced by blow
of a geological pick point

9
of specific items of plant. The classification system for labour-based methods is,
however, frequently coupled to the equipment or tools needed in the excavation
operations. Early earthworks classifications (Croukis, 1983) required materials to
be classified initially as being cohesive or non-cohesive and thereafter to be
codified in terms of a field recognition test (i.e. in terms of moulding in fingers or
excavation with a specified tool), unconfined compressive strength, relative
density and liquidity index. (The liquidity index equals the quotient of the natural
water content minus the plastic limit and the liquid limit minus the plastic limit).
Expected rates of production were then coupled to earthworks classifications.
Several labour-based excavation classifications evolved in South Africa to enable

not only expected productivities to be estimated, but also to facilitate payment
to contractors in a number of contracting strategies.
Standardised specifications for community-based construction,

S100 D: Earthworks [Soderlund and Schutte, 1993]
"The Engineer will classify excavated materials as soft Class 1, soft Class 2, soft
Class 3, firm, intermediate or rock".
"In the first instance, the classification shall be based on the descriptions given in
Table 4. In the event of disagreement between the Contractor and the Engineer,
the Engineer shall classify the material in accordance with Tables 5 and 6. The
decision of the Engineer on the classification shall then, subject to the provisions
of the Contract, be final and binding.
The Contractor shall notify the Engineer of the presence of what he considers to
be rock or intermediate material immediately upon discovery thereof. The
Engineer will inspect the material and decide whether it warrants the use of
pneumatic tools or rock breaking equipment. In the case of isolated boulders set
in a soil matrix, the Engineer may order the Contractor to either widen the
excavation and roll the boulders sideways or lift the boulders out from the
trenches.
In the event that the Engineer decides that the use of pneumatic tools, rock
breaking equipment, or blasting is necessary, he will classify the material
accordingly and arrange for the quantity thereof to be measured. The
Construction Manager will supply all necessary pneumatic equipment and
arrange for others to break up rock into manageable pieces".
Table 4: Classification of excavated materials
CLASSIFICATION DESCRIPTION
SOFT Class 1 Material which can be excavated by means of a suitable shovel without the use of a pick or other hand
swung tool
SOFT Class 2 Material which can be readily excavated with the aid of a pick or other hand swung tool
SOFT Class 3 Material which can be excavated with difficulty with the aid of a hand swung tool
INTERMEDIATE Material which is difficult to excavate by hand even with the aid of a crow bar and requires the assistance
of pneumatic tools for economic removal
ROCK Material which cannot be economically fragmented and loosened by hand implements and pneumatic
tools except by drilling and blasting or the use of rock breaking equipment

Table 5: Classification of materials in terms of consistency and shear strength
MATERIALS NUMBER OF DCP BLOWS

CLASSIFICATION CONSISTENCY (as defined in Table 6) TO PENETRATE 100 mm+
GRANULAR SOIL COHESIVE SOIL GRANULAR SOIL COHESIVE SOIL++
SOFT Class 1 Very loose to loose Very soft to soft <2 <1
SOFT Class 2 Loose to medium dense Soft to stiff 2–6 1–5
SOFT Class 3 Dense Stiff to very stiff 7 – 15 6–8
INTERMEDIATE Very dense Very stiff 16 – 50 >8
ROCK – – – –
+ Only applicable to materials comprising not more than 10% gravel (particles having dimensions > 2 mm) of size less than 10 mm and
materials containing no isolated small boulders.
++ This could be subjective depending on the moisture content of the cohesive material
Table 6: Consistency of materials
GRANULAR MATERIALS COHESIVE MATERIALS

CONSISTENCY DESCRIPTION CONSISTENCY DESCRIPTION
Very loose Crumbles very easily when Very soft Geological pick head can easily be pushed
scraped with a geological pick in as far as the shaft of the handle
Loose Small resistance to penetration Soft Easily indented by thumb; sharp end of a
by sharp end of a geological pick geological pick can be pushed in 30-40 mm;
can be moulded by fingers with some
pressure
Medium dense Considerable resistance to pene- Firm Indented by thumb with effort; sharp end
tration by sharp end of a of geological pick can be pushed in
geological pick up to 10mm; very difficult to mould with
fingers; can just be penetrated with an
ordinary hand spade
Dense Very high resistance to pene- Stiff Can be indented by thumb-nail; slight
tration by the sharp end of indentation produced by pushing geological
geological pick; requires many pick point into blows for excavation
blows for excavation soil; cannot be molded by fingers
Very dense High resistance to repeated Very stiff Indented by thumb-nail with
blows of a geological pick difficulty; slight indentation
produced by blow of a geological
pick point
The Soderlund and Schutte classification contains three classes of excavation

relating to excavation by means of hand tools. As is the current practice when
using SANS 1200 D, the Engineer will classify the material on the basis of a visual
inspection and his knowledge of expected productivity rates in terms of Table 4.
In practice, however, the establishment of the boundaries between soft Class 2
and soft Class 3, and soft Class 3 and intermediate can be highly subjective and
the Engineer requires a less subjective means of determining the classification of
a particular material in the event of a dispute arising. In the event of a
disagreement on the classification between the Contractor and the Engineer, the
Engineer can be called upon to classify the material in accordance with Tables 5
and 6. The methodology also permits labour-based contractors to classify material
themselves should they be in possession of a dynamic cone penetrometer (DCP)
and the profile does not have more than 10% gravel particles (Watermeyer,
1997).

11
VARIATIONS AND ADDITIONS TO SANS 1200 DM – EARTHWORKS (ROADS,

SUBGRADE) FOR LABOUR-INTENSIVE CONSTRUCTION OF LIGHTLY TRAFFICKED
ROADS
[WPC van Steenderen MSc project report: 1995]
VA-DM 3 MATERIALS
VA-DM 3.1 CLASSIFICATION FOR EXCAVATION PURPOSES
Delete this clause entirely and replace with:
Excavation will be classified for payment as follows:
VA-DM 3.1.1 Soft
Soft material shall be loose soil which can be efficiently excavated
with a flat spade not exceeding 250 mm in width.
VA-DM 3.1.2 Firm
Firm material shall be soil which can be efficiently loosened with a
fork or a forked hoe.
VA-DM 3.1.3 Hard
Hard material shall be soil which can only be loosened with many
blows of a sharp pickaxe or mattock.
VA-DM 3.1.4 Soft Rock
Soft rock shall be material which is too hard to pick loose by hand
and requires pneumatic tools to loosen it sufficiently for
subsequent excavation with hand tools.
VA-DM 3.1.5 Hard Rock
Hard rock shall be rock which cannot be efficiently loosened with
pneumatic tools and normally requires blasting.
VA-DM 3.1.6 Boulders
Boulders shall be hard rocks over 0.01 cubic metre and up to 0.20
cubic metre in volume. Larger boulders shall be classified as hard
rock.
ANNEX G OF SANS 10396: IMPLEMENTING PREFERENTIAL PROCUREMENT

POLICIES USING TARGETED PROCUREMENT PROCEDURES
A suitable mechanism to enable contractors to define portions of excavation

work which may be carried out by hand methods is to permit contractors during
the tender stage to nominate the quantity of materials which they wish to
excavate using hand methods. The approach outlined below is suggested.
The initial classification of material to be excavated should be in accordance with

the relevant provisions of a standard system of measurement. However, soft
excavation to be undertaken by hand labour, using hand tools, can be further
broken down by the introduction of an additional class of material, viz., soft
excavation Class A, in accordance with the provisions of the Contract Prices as set
out in Table 7.
The total estimated quantity of excavation, as classified in terms of a standard

system of measurement, should be indicated in the Contract Prices. The
contractor should be permitted to sub-divide this quantity into two components,
viz., the quantity of material to be excavated by the use of powered, mechanical
equipment and the quantity to be excavated by hand labour using hand tools.
One-third (1/3) of every quantity of excavation to be undertaken by hand labour

should be entered against the appropriate extra-over items provided in the

Contract Prices, but left blank, for soft excavation

Table 7: Criteria for classifying material as soft
Class A. This will ensure that material which can be
excavation Class A *
picked with difficulty is catered for and the
transition from hand excavation to machine Dynamic cone pene- Material
excavation is graded. trometer – minimum
number of blows
Should the contractor fail to indicate a quantity of required to penetrate
excavation to be undertaken by hand labour, 100 mm
notwithstanding that he would find it necessary to 7-15 + Granular materials
utilize hand labour, it will be assumed that all Dense consistency – high resistance to
penetration by the point of a geological pick;
excavation, whether undertaken by machine, or by
several blows required for removal of material
hand labour, is to be paid for at the rates tendered
for machine excavation.
6 to 8 +, ++ Cohesive materials
Stiff / Very stiff consistency
The contractor, should be required to undertake at Stiff – can be indented by thumb-nail; slight
least the quantities of excavation by hand labour indentation produced by pushing geological
which he tendered, unless the total quantity of pick point into soil; cannot be moulded by fingers.
excavation proves to be less than scheduled, in Very stiff – indented by thumb-nail with difficulty;
which case the minimum quantity to be undertaken slight penetration of point produced by blow of
by hand labour will be reduced pro-rata by the geological pick
Employer’s Representative. This procedure will also * Soft excavation Class A is material which, using a pick or equivalent hand
provide a basis for reducing contract participation swing tool, can only be excavated with difficulty.
+ Only applicable to materials comprising not more than 10% gravel
goals should such adjustments be necessary.
(particles having dimensions > 2, mm) of size less than 10 mm and
materials containing no isolated small boulders.
Should the total quantity of excavation prove to be ++ Cohesive materials with a DCP penetration rate of 6 to 8 blows/100 mm
greater than that scheduled, the contractor may when wetter than Optimum Moisture Content would still be diggable with
choose the method of excavation for the excess a spade and pick.
quantity, unless the rates for excavation by machine
would result in lower costs than for hand
excavation, in which case the Employer’s Representative will have the right to
instruct the contractor to undertake the excavation by machine.
3.5.2 Excavating to level

When excavating to level, approach the final level with care: do not over-
excavate. Instruct the workers how to measure the depth of the excavation. It
may be necessary to dig a small hole to the correct depth to show the worker
where the final level is. These ‘demonstration holes’ should be set out with
boning rods or string-lines.
Each worker should be instructed in the importance of obtaining the right level.
Properly instructed workers take a pride in their work. The team leader must also
carry out quality control regularly. It is not good enough to check the depth and
level when the work is finished, as this is always too late. Regular checking is
important, as it shows the worker the importance of
achieving the correct level. Excavating bedrock and boulders
The excavatability of a material is seldom consistent Bedrock or large residual boulders are frequently encountered in the sub
over wide areas, with isolated areas or thin layers of grade. If these are localised or sporadic, it is not always necessary to use
harder (or drier material). The use of controlled explosives for their removal during excavation to level. Considerable success
applications of water in these areas to make the has been achieved using fires and water. In this process, scrub and dry wood
material easier to excavate should not be ignored. removed during the clearing and grubbing is placed directly on the exposed
rock and burnt. Once the rock is at a high temperature, relatively large
This is particularly relevant to clayey materials,
amounts of cold water are thrown onto the rock. The rapid cooling effect
which can become very hard when dry. In these
results in effective fracturing and comminution of the material for relatively
cases, however, they should not be over watered as
easy removal and disposal. The fractured rock is usually relatively fresh and
it is almost equally difficult working with excessively can often be used as a construction material for other activities.
sticky materials.
13
3.5.3 Excavating to shape

Most excavations must be made to a specific shape. The hole for a foundation
must be wide enough and long enough to fit the foundation. If the hole is too
large, then more concrete may have to be used to fill it, which is a waste of
concrete and money and time.
For foundation excavations, set up profiles to show exactly where the sides of the
excavations need to be. String-lines and spirit levels or plumb bobs may be
needed to transfer the lines of the excavation to the floor of the hole.
Ditches need the outer edges to be set out by means of pegs, joined by string.
Alternatively, powdered lime or coloured sand can be used to mark edges of the
ditches. Ditch templates are then useful to control the width and side slopes.
Templates are made up of a few wooden planks to the shape or slope desired.
Templates must be used with a spirit level. Workers should be instructed in the
correct use of ditch templates and the team leader must regularly check on the
quality and accuracy of the work and the condition of any templates being used.
3.5.4 Excavating to stockpile

Testing stockpiled materials Material being excavated in borrow pits for use as unsealed road wearing course
or structural layers in sealed roads must be stockpiled to ensure homogeneity and
Stockpiled materials should be tested to consistency of quality during placing. This requires a careful design of the borrow
ensure the correct quality for their area such that a continuity of material movement is possible and the need for
intended purpose. Generally four double handling is minimised. In borrow pits where the material quality is
samples per 1 000 m3 are adequate:
variable, a dedicated stockpile area away from the excavation area is preferable.
these samples should be randomly
Material should be excavated into wheelbarrows and dumped nearby. This
collected and be representative of the
full thickness of the stockpile.
should be spread in layers about 200 mm thick over an area of about 2 000 m2 (45
by 45 m). A second and third layer of excavated material should be placed above
this resulting in a layer some 600 mm thick. This would generally provide
adequate material for construction of one kilometre of wearing course with a
width of 6 metres and a compacted thickness of 150 mm. Depending on the
materials involved, difficulties may be encountered during the movement of
wheelbarrows on the uncompacted stockpile surface, in which case wooden
boards or planks should be placed to facilitate this movement. Plank ramps are
also necessary for the wheelbarrows to access the top of the stockpile for the
second and third layers.
Where material removed from cut or adjacent to the road is to be used for
pavement or wearing course layers, this needs to be relatively homogeneous.
Variable materials will need to be stockpiled along the road and tested prior to
use. Homogeneous materials can be placed directly on the road but will require
more testing than is generally specified.
3.5.5 Productivities
Productivities can be linked to earthworks classifications and specific activities as
illustrated in Tables 8 and 9.
Table 8: Trench excavation rates (Watermeyer and Band, 1994)
Excavation type* Typical production per 6 hour task for depth range (m3)
0 – 1,0 m 1,0 – 1,5 m 1,5 – 2,0 m 2,0 – 2,5 m
Soft class 1 3,5 3,0 2,4 1,6
Soft class 2 2,8 2,4 1,9 1,3
Soft class 3 1,7 1,5 1,2 0,8
* Excavation classified in accordance with Soderlund and Schutte’s classification

Table 9: Excavation, measured in place
EXCAVATION TOOLS TASKS IN M3/M-D

THROWING DISTANCE
UP TO 4 M 4 TO 6 M
Loose soil Shovel 5 to 6 4,5 to 5
Sticky soil Spade, fork, forked hoe 2 to 3 1,5 to 2
Firm soil Pick, shovel, spade, hoe 3 to 4,5 2,5 to 4
Hard stony gravel Pick, shovel, crowbar 1,5 to 2 1 to 1,5
3.5.6 Quality control

Excavation quality control comprises essentially correct setting out and
subsequent checking that the excavation complies with the geometric
requirements. In the case of borrow pit excavation, the geometry is irrelevant and
the material quality is crucial. This requires materials quality control, usually
exercised by a qualified technician, as described above.
Comprehensive guidance on the selection of materials and quality assurance can

be found in the ILO publication Material selection and quality assurance for
labour-based unsealed road projects (1998). A comprehensive field test kit
containing all of the equipment necessary to carry out the specified tests has been
developed to complement the ILO document.
3.6 Practical guidelines for loading

3.6.1 Practical tips
Several possibilities exist for loading. Wheelbarrows may be loaded directly from
an excavation and wheeled away when full. Other, more costly forms of transport
require rapid loading in order to contain costs. Therefore, loading from a
stockpile becomes important. This is also recommended for materials where the
quality is closely specified, e.g. unsealed road wearing coarse and structural
pavement layers.
Tipper trucks, flatbed trucks and tractors and trailers can all be used for
transportation. As they are expensive machines, the economics of loading and
offloading can strongly influence the choice of machine for a project. Each
machine must earn its cost. A prime mover that stands for most of the day is not
earning: these machines must travel.
Tipper trucks have the advantage that they are able to discharge their load
quickly and without assistance, but have the disadvantage that they are high and
difficult to load by hand. Flatbed trucks are lower than tippers and can therefore
be more easily loaded, but have to be offloaded by hand. Tractors must be used
with more than one trailer, so that one trailer can be loaded while the other
trailer is being towed away with gravel for the works. When the tractor returns
with an empty trailer, the next must already be loaded and ready to be hitched
up to the tractor in the place of the empty trailer. One tractor with two or three
trailers can be quite efficient. However, if only one trailer is available, then the
efficiency drops and the transport will be more costly.
The loading area must be carefully planned so that the transport can enter, be
loaded quickly and leave again. Loading by throwing materials upwards takes
much effort and is slow. Loading at the same level is quicker and does not need
as much effort. Loading downwards is easy and therefore quick. It is accordingly

15
preferable to arrange the loading area so that the

Table 10: Loading productivities vehicles are below and the loaders work from
LOADING TOOLS TASKS m3/m-d above. If a U-shaped recess can be used as loading
Volume measured loose bay, then more workers can cluster around each
Wheelbarrow Shovels 12 to 15 vehicle and load it rapidly from pre-arranged
Trailer 7 to 10 stockpiles.
Truck 4 to 6
3.6.2 Productivities
Tables 10 and 11 provide typical productivities. As
Table 11: Influence of loading height (Coukis, 1983) can be seen the productivity rates in each vary
considerably. This is not untypical though, because
Loading height m Loading productivity per man-day, m3
of the many factors affecting the productivity in
Below 5.88
labour.
Level 5.26
0.5 m above ground level 4.55
1.0 m above 3.85 3.7 Practical guidelines for hauling
1.5 m above 3.23 Transportation is an essential part of roadworks.
2.0 m above 2.70
Soils and gravels need to be excavated and moved,
placed and compacted. Transportation ranges from throwing soil with a shovel a
few metres to carrying it in a truck for several kilometres. Each kind of
transportation has different characteristics and gives different problems.
Different countries use different methods. For example, in India, head-baskets are
widely used for transporting soils, gravels and other materials like concrete.
The volume of the vehicle transporting the material is frequently used for
payment. Therefore, it is important to make sure that all vehicles are fully loaded:
wheelbarrows, trailers, trucks, etc.
Shovels: Shovels can be used to throw soil up to about 4 m. If a longer distance

is needed, only a very strong worker will be able to throw soil further than 4 m,
perhaps up to 6 m or 7 m. Less strong workers will have to carry the shovel with
soil until near enough to throw it. Excavation productivity is lower if the soil has
to be thrown or carried over a distance. A point is quickly reached where
productivity will increase when wheelbarrows are used instead of carrying and
throwing from a shovel. This distance is between 6 m and 10 m.
Wheelbarrows: Wheelbarrows are used for haulage

Table 12: Wheelbarrow productivity
up to 100 m, and in certain circumstances, up to
Haul distance m Trips per day: wheelbarrow loaded by pusher 200 m. Good quality wheelbarrows with rubber tyres
Up to 20 270 trips @ 50 litre =13,5 m3 on steel wheels with roller bearings are best. Solid
20 – 40 220 trips = 11,0 m3 rubber tyres are preferred to pneumatic tyres, to
40 – 60 160 trips = 8,0 m3 avoid problems with punctures. Most wheelbarrows
60 – 80 130 trips = 6,5 m3 made for concrete work have a capacity of 50 litres
80 - 100 110 trips = 5,5 m3 to 65 litres. Larger wheelbarrows are also available.
* Excavation classified in accordance with Soderlund and Schutte’s
classification Wheelbarrows function best when a smooth path or
runway is available for travel. It improves pro-
ductivity to spend some effort in providing a better pathway. One way traffic or
a ‘circular’ route should be chosen whereever possible to speed up the
transportation of soils, as waiting is reduced or eliminated and as it reduces time
lost in turning the wheelbarrow around after tipping or loading. The productivity
and time taken for a wheelbarrow trip depends not only on the length of the
haul, but also on the rise. Pushing a loaded barrow uphill takes more effort and
time than if the path were level. If steep slopes have to be negotiated, a helper
with a hook can greatly speed the passage of the wheelbarrow up the slope, by
hooking onto the front and pulling the load up the slope.

If wheelbarrows are to be used to transport loads up scaffolding, care must be

given to making the scaffolding runways wide enough and to providing
substantial handrails to the runways. If a worker pushing a heavily loaded
wheelbarrow looses his balance, he must be supported by the handrailing and
must not be able to fall through and off the scaffold.
Donkey carts: Donkey carts are efficient transportation for distances of up to

about 2 or 3 kilometres. Carts have a capacity of between 0.50 m3 and 2.0 m3. This
is a large variation, so every cart should be measured to ascertain its volume.
The care of the donkeys must be good, as they can easily be overworked. Donkeys
need regular water and fodder. Fresh clean water must be provided at the
loading and the offloading points. In order to perform their function correctly,
donkey carts must be kept in good condition. Well lubricated wheels lighten the
load. If steep gradients are to be negotiated by donkey carts, it is essential that
they be fitted with brakes. Punctures must be mended immediately.
Tractor-trailer combinations: Trailer volumes vary from about 1,0 m3 up to 5 m3

and sometimes larger. This is a large variation so every trailer should be measured
up and its volume calculated.
Tractors must be used with more than one trailer, so that one trailer can be
loaded while the other trailer is being towed away with gravel for the works.
When the tractor returns with an empty trailer, the
next must already be loaded and ready to be Minimising load vibration and segregation of particle sizes
hitched up to the tractor in the place of the empty
trailer. One tractor with two or three trailers can be Whatever the mode of hauling, the haul road should be as smooth as
quite efficient. However, if only one trailer is possible to minimise vibration of the load and segregation of the particle
available, then the efficiency drops to low levels and sizes. Where particularly rough sections of the haul ‘road’ exist, travel speeds
the transport will be costly. should be reduced. This problem applies more to larger loads than smaller
ones such as wheelbarrows. The application of moisture to the material in
Trucks: Tipper trucks have several advantages over the stockpile reduces its propensity to segregate during transport. This water
tractors. They travel faster and are able to discharge has the added benefit of providing a more uniform distribution of moisture
than can usually be obtained by applying water on the road.
their load quickly, and so are more economical on
longer haul routes. However, tippers have high sides
and can be slow to hand-load. Loading from ground level requires every shovel-
full to be heaved upwards to a height of at least two metres. Accordingly, the
loading area should be so arranged that the truck is below the loaders so that
they can work from above. Flatbed trucks are lower than tippers and can
therefore be more easily loaded.
3.8 Practical guidelines for unloading

Unloading of construction materials requires planning to eliminate excessive
double handling. Road gravels should be offloaded down the middle of the
roadway, unless the layer work is being constructed under traffic, in which case,
the material should be offloaded down the middle of a lane.
Wheelbarrows can be tipped across the width of the layer, at the spacing required
by the quantity requirement of the layer. This will reduce later handling.
Offloading a trailer from a tractor-trailer combination, should be done quickly, in

order to keep the tractor from idling. Some trailers are fitted with a tipping
mechanism, which, when released, allows the load to tip backwards onto the
road. Other trailers have hinged sides that can be flapped down to facilitate
offloading with shovels. Others still have a fixed body and simply have to be

17
Table 13: Donkey cart haulage productivity (based on emptied with shovels. Sufficient workers must be
0,5 m3 carts) (McCutcheon and Marshall, 1996) allocated to offloading, but no more. Too many
workers will either get in each other’s way and slow
Haul distance m Trips per donkey cart per day down the offloading, or will distract the offloaders
UP TO 200 19 with chatting and joking. When the trailer is empty
200 – 300 16 and the tractor tows it back to the borrow pit, the
300 – 400 14 workers should spread the loads while waiting for
400 – 500 13 the next tractor to arrive.
500 –650 11
650 – 800 10
If large four-wheeled trailers are used, thought
800 – 900 9
should be given to possible increases in productivity
900 – 1050 8
1050 – 1150 7 if a fully loaded trailer could be unhitched at the
1150 – 1500 6 offloading point, to be cleared at leisure, while an
1500 – 2000 5 empty trailer is hitched up to the tractor to be taken
Note: The figures include loading and offloading by team members (not the back to the borrow pit for reloading. This system
donkey cart driver). therefore has full and empty trailers at both the
borrow pit and at the road, while the tractor travels
between, towing trailers each way. Obviously several trailers are needed.
Offloading a truck must, likewise, be done quickly, in order to keep the truck
from idling. Tipper trucks can offload the material quickly onto the road and do
not need workers to help. Flatbed trucks have hinged sides that can be flapped
down to facilitate offloading with shovels.
Productivities Care must be taken during loading and offloading of material that segregation
of the particles does not occur. This is usually minimised during tipping but can
For use of wheelbarrows, the unloading be a problem if material is unloaded using shovels, particularly if the material is
is usually included in the haulage thrown some distance: the larger heavier particles travel further resulting in most
productivity rate. Furthermore other of the fines being near the truck/trailer and the coarser materials lying separately
haulage equipment has a means for some distance away. This is particularly common when the labour attempts to use
unloading that requires negligible labour
the unloading phase of the operation to spread the material. Unloaded material
input. The notable exception is the
should be dumped over as small an area as practically possible to avoid
offloading of a flatbed truck where a
segregation.
productivity of 15 m3/m-d can be
assumed.
3.9 Practical guidelines and productivities for spreading
A common problem in the construction of earthworks is the control of moisture
content. In conventional road construction, the material is spread and watered
and then windrowed by a grader from one side of the road to the other. During
this process all the material in the layer is gathered together and mixed. The
process ensures uniformity of material and of moisture. Once mixed, the material
is placed and compacted.
Using labour the above process cannot easily be duplicated. Particularly when in
situ soils are being used, the material characteristics can change within the space
of a few metres. Usually the material is spread to level, watered and mixed by
being turned over a few times by a team of labourers with shovels. The material
is not mixed from side to side or longitudinally, as would be the case with a
grader. The resulting material and its moisture content are non-uniform across
the width and length of the section.
Most water bowsers throw water unevenly: more in the centre and less at the
sides. If water is applied by hand using a hose, the application is probably even
more non-uniform.
To solve the problems enumerated above, the following method is proposed:
• The material to be compacted in the layer should be placed along the middle

of the road, in the correct quantity to produce a compacted layer at the

correct level.
• The material should be opened out to form a flattened heap about 2 to 2.5 m
wide, roughly levelled across the top.
• This ‘windrow’ should then be watered, preferably with a water bowser. If a
hose is used, particular care must be taken to obtain an even application of
water.
• The material should then be mixed by a labour team, using shovels or forks
which best suit the soil. The material will probably need additional
applications of water, which should be done as above. The extra water should
be mixed into the soil to produce uniform moisture throughout the flattened
heap.
• Once uniform and at a moisture content somewhat higher than optimum, the
heap should be spread across the road width and levelled using string-lines Productivities
from profiles for level control, making allowance for bulking (33% to 50%).
The soil should be above OMC to allow for evaporation during placing and
Typical productivities for spreading and
levelling. It should be noted that the Modified AASHTO OMC (Method A7 in related activities are:
TMH1) is generally applicable to plant used on conventional road projects. • Spreading only
OMC determined at Proctor compaction effort (Test ASTM D698) is probably 12 m3 per worker per day
more appropriate for labour-based projects, where pedestrian rollers are • Water, mix, spread and level
employed. This is usually two or three per cent higher than the Mod AASHTO 3 m3 per worker per day
OMC, with a concomitantly lower maximum dry density.
• Rolling should commence, working from the sides towards the middle to
preserve the camber, or from the low side to the high side to preserve the
cross fall. The first pass of the roller should be without vibration, to press the
soil into shape without much compaction. The shape and level must
immediately be carefully checked and corrected, with all hollows being filled
and all bumps being skimmed, by a small skilled labour team. Compaction
then continues, using vibration. The shape and level must be continually
checked and corrected during the first few compaction passes, as, unlike with
conventional plant construction, it is practically impossible to use labour to
provide a smooth final cut.
3.10 Practical guidelines for compaction

3.10.1 General considerations
Compaction by hand in earthworks activities can at Note: SANS 1921-5 requirements for compaction of backfilling to
best only reduce settlements to within acceptable trenches in areas not subject to traffic
limits as the compactive effort is insufficient to
provide satisfactory engineering properties required Backfilling to trenches in areas not subjected to traffic shall be placed in
in most applications. Accordingly, in practice, hand layers of thickness (before compaction) not exceeding 100 mm. Each layer
compaction can only be contemplated in trench shall be compacted using hand stampers such that:
excavations in untrafficked areas where a level of
compaction in excess of 87 to 88% of modified a) a Proctor density of 90% is achieved,
AASHTO density is likely to contain trench b) more than five blows of a dcp are required to penetrate 100 mm of the
settlements to within acceptable limits. Higher backfill, provided that the backfill does not comprise more than 10%
gravel of size less than 10 mm and contains no isolated boulder,
compaction levels can only be achieved by using
c) The density of the compacted trench backfill is not less than that of the
mechanical compaction equipment and not by
surrounding undisturbed soil when tested comparatively with a dcp.
means of hand methods with any degree of
consistency.
Tests to provide compaction characteristics of soil were first introduced by Proctor

in the USA as a means of controlling the degree of compaction during
construction. Proctor's test represented in the laboratory the state of compaction
that could be reasonably achieved in the field using plant available at the time.
However, with the subsequent introduction of heavier earth moving and

19
compaction equipment higher densities became obtainable in practice. As

laboratory test using increased energy of compaction was then introduced to
reproduce higher compacted densities viz modified AASHTO test. Accordingly,
density requirements where light equipment or hand stamping is used should
rather be measured in terms of Proctor densities and a value of 90% Proctor
density should suffice for untrafficked areas. This is achievable by means of hand
stamping.
DCPs can be readily used to control compaction in trenches in untrafficked

trenches. Material with a medium dense / stiff consistency (refer to Table 6) are
unlikely to settle under conventional loads. A value of not less than five blows /
100 mm of material at compaction moisture content can be used to specify the
compaction requirements.
3.10.2 Existing standards for compaction

Compaction is normally classified for purposes of payment. The classification
system is usually coupled to the equipment or tools used for compaction
operations.
Conventionally, compaction operations are classified as follows:
COLTO, 1998, Section 3300, Mass earthworks

Three classes of compaction are specified. These are given below. The engineer is
given considerable authority in terms of the specification to order the contractor
to use specific items of plant in various combinations.
• Compaction to a minimum percentage of modified AASHTO density, where

"the contractor shall be at liberty to employ any type of compaction
equipment he may choose so as to achieve such density over the full specified
depth of the layer",
• Eight-pass roller compaction comprises eight passes of any combination "of
the following items of plant: heavy grid rollers, sheep's-foot rollers, tamping
rollers, flat wheel rollers and vibratory rollers or any other item of plant
deemed by the engineer to be suitable". The rollers are described in terms of
size, mass, speed and frequency of vibration,
• Three-pass roller compaction comprises three passes of a heavy roller, as
described under the 8-pass roller compaction clause, or with an impact roller
(which is described in some detail).
SANS 1200 D, 1988, Earthworks

Compaction requirements are given in terms of percentage of modified AASHTO
maximum density.
SANS 1200 DM, 1981, Earthworks (roads, subgrade)

Compaction requirements are given in terms of percentage of modified AASHTO
maximum density.
Labour-based specifications: Soderlund and Schutte, 1993: Standardised

specifications for community-based construction, S100 DB: Earthworks (service
trenches).
Clause 5.7.2 Compaction (areas not subject to traffic).

“Each trench shall be backfilled in layers of thickness (before compaction) not
exceeding 100mm and the material shall be compacted, using hand stampers, to
95% Proctor density. Where in terms of the Project Specifications, hand stamping
is not permitted, trenches shall be backfilled in layers of thickness (before

compaction) not exceeding 150 mm and the material shall be compacted by

means of mechanical equipment to 90% of mod AASHTO density.”
3.10.3 Compaction equipment

For roadworks, mechanical compaction is needed to ensure that compaction is
achieved throughout the depth and over the area of the layerworks. The problem
is actually one of plant selection. The compactor
must be massive enough to achieve the specified The problem in perspective
performance, but should be small enough to keep
up with the production of teams of labourers. The problem is put into perspective when one realizes that a large self-
Within limits, more labour teams can be allocated to propelled vibrating roller can compact up to 300 m3 per hour, which is
earthworks in order to balance the compactor approximately the weekly output of one labour team. Small walk-behind
output. pedestrian rollers are often too light and therefore too slow, as multiple
passes of the roller are required to achieve the soil densities. These small
Many projects have been successfully carried out rollers quickly become costly, particularly when the layer thickness is reduced
using small pedestrian or sit-on rollers. It is, however and multiple layers are required to make up the total thickness. This practice,
essential that compaction is carried out at the is however, not recommended as layers less than about 50 mm often
correct moisture content for the effort. delaminate under traffic.
It is not good practice to restrict the use of mechanical compaction plant on a

labour-based project. The contractor should be allowed unfettered use of his
hard-won expertise in the selection and use of compaction plant.
3.10.4 Practical tips

Labour-based compaction of large areas is generally a slow and tedious process,
difficult to control with any accuracy. Hand stampers should not be used for
compaction of large areas, but can be quite successful in narrow or restricted
areas like trenches in untrafficked areas.
The control of moisture content
For compaction around pipes and cables, hand
stampers are probably the safest and most reliable
A common problem in the compaction of earthworks is the control of
method of ensuring adequate soil support. Before
moisture content. (see 3.9). In labour-based roadworks, much effort must go
enough soil cover has been achieved, machine into achieving some uniformity of both material and moisture content across
compaction to pipes and cables will almost a layer. This will ensure better compaction.
guarantee damage or overstressing of the pipe or
cable materials. Adequate soil cover is generally The following is recommended:
accepted to be about 300 mm for small mechanical • After the moist material has been spread and levelled, rolling should
compactors (SANS 1200 LB, 1983). Greater commence, working from the sides towards the middle to preserve the
precautions (and therefore greater soil cover) camber, or from the low side to the high side to preserve the cross fall. The
should be taken for larger mechanical compactors. first pass of the roller must be without vibration, to press the soil into
shape without much compaction. The shape and level must immediately
be carefully checked and corrected, with all hollows being filled and all
Service trenches can be adequately compacted over
bumps being skimmed, by a small skilled labour team. Compaction then
their full depth by hand, using stampers. Because the
continues, using vibration, until the planned number of passes is reached.
energy input is relatively low, the layer thickness needs The shape and level must be continually checked and corrected during
to be restricted. 100 mm (compacted) is generally the compaction.
maximum thickness that can be compacted by hand. • After compaction the density should be checked, before the layer dries
Attention must be given to achieving soil moisture out. A nuclear density probe with parallel gravimetric moisture
conditions close to optimum moisture content. The determination is preferred, but is rarely justified in terms of cost. A DCP
preferred standard is the Proctor test, with its opti- can be used, but calibration will be needed. If the density is not as
mum moisture requirement. The Proctor optimum, specified, the roller must continue with a few more passes. Additional
which is wetter than the modified AASHTO optimum, water may be required.
lends itself to hand compaction.
It is recommended that all structural pavement layers and unsealed wearing
courses are compacted to refusal for the plant available. This requires proof rolling
where after each roller pass, a DCP test is carried out through the layer. It will be
found that at a certain number of passes the DCP penetration rate will become
21
constant and additional passes may even result in

Productivities
decreased density. This allows a method specifi-
cation to be employed for that material as well as
As in general, on labour-based projects, compaction equipment is used, the
providing a target penetration rate for quality
productivities can be obtained from the relevant manuals for the type of
control purposes.
equipment used. As mentioned earlier, crucial to achieving cost-effectiveness
is to select the type of equipment that has comparable productivities with
that of the labour team that uses it (i.e. the compactor needs to be
incorporated in the team planning exercise). Important when doing this is toQuality control is required at different stages of the
ensure the availability of the compactor, as improper planning when sharing work. Material quality is the first essential one.
a compactor can lead to unavailability when required. Geometrical compliance of the finished layerwork
is the second requirement and only then com-
pliance with the density specification. Geometrical requirements should be
checked carefully and adjusted, during the rolling.
Quality control of the finished layer requires that the material thickness is correct
Quality assurance guidance and the density has been achieved. Using the proof rolling method described
above, the refusal density (in terms of the DCP penetration rate) for the
Comprehensive guidance on the prevailing conditions and a “method specification is identified. These are
selection of materials and quality generally sufficient to control compaction of labour-based projects. Their
assurance can be found in the ILO
simplicity and ease of testing allow significantly more testing than would
publication ‘Material selection and
normally be carried out for quality assurance, even on large projects using
quality assurance for labour-based
conventional construction methods.
unsealed road projects’ (1998) and the
Roads Directorate of the Johannesburg
City Council’s Technical note on the In trenches across trafficked areas, the DCPs and Rapid Compaction Control
backfilling and reinstatement of Devices (a spring loaded steel rod with a 32 degree cone shaped point complete
trenches (Horak, 1993). with trigger mechanism) should be used to confirm the adequacy of the
compaction.

4. Safety
4.1 Introduction
The provisions of the Occupational Health and Safety Act (Act 85 of 1993) have
to be met. Employment-intensive sites are sometimes more informal than
conventional construction sites, and either ignore the OHS Act or make the
application of strict safety regulations more difficult. Safety is not a matter that
can be neglected, so whatever shape or form the management of employment-
intensive sites may take, it must be aware of safety and all its implications.
Employment-intensive construction, as an industry, is more likely than the

conventional construction industry to employ people that have no previous
employment experience at all. These people are most vulnerable to becoming
involved in accidents, because they have not learned the potential dangers.
Induction into safety on site is essential for all newly recruited workers, but even
more important for the first-time employees.
Few employers in the construction industry have a vision of an injury-free and

damage-free workplace (Strydom, 1999). However, this vision may be workable
on employment-intensive construction sites, largely due to the absence of large
machines. Because of this, employment-intensive construction sites should be
inherently safer than conventional construction sites. Even so, a proactive
approach to safety is the only possible way to achieve an injury-free workplace
(Strydom, 1999 and Smallwood, 1999a). If employers realise that one of their
most important resources are people, then the goals of health and safety in the
workplace are logical and cost effective. The vision of an injury-free workplace
then leads to sharp focus of management (Smallwood, 1999a). Injury free means
zero injuries. Any lesser goal would imply that injuries are acceptable.
4.2 Management of safety

Start with a financial budget. Implementing a safety programme costs money and
takes time. Once a safety culture has been established, the ongoing costs of safety
are very much less than the costs of accidents. The budget must make provision
for: planning, training, implementation, measuring, feedback to top
management and to the work force, and retraining.
The management plan demonstrates how the company will fulfil OHS policy by
setting objectives and targets. It will note the resources, particularly the people,
needed to implement safety systems. Site specific safety plans include safety of
the chosen method of construction, by risk identification followed by risk
minimisation and management of the remaining hazards. Contingency planning
is essential. Emergency procedures must be established. Communication systems
may have to be set up, as the construction site may impose its own limitations on
conventional communication.
Keep safety planning as simple as possible within the complexity imposed by the
work being undertaken. Address the culture, allocate enough resources and set
up a user-friendly system.
4.3 Safety in any operation

Below are some of the steps necessary to achieve an injury-free workplace:
• Implement the Occupational Health and Safety Act provisions, rules and
regulations,
• Talk about safety,
• Implement ‘Behaviour-Based Safety’ or ‘pro-active control of safety’
[Strydom, 1999],
• Hold ‘toolbox talks’ [Smallwood, 1999, b].
23
Implement the Occupational Health and Safety Act

This Act defines the legal framework within which every employer and employee
has to conduct business. Implementing the Act includes the identification of all
hazardous and unsafe conditions and then taking all possible measures to
improve these conditions. Training of the management, supervisors and workers
must be included in the measures used to mitigate unsafe conditions.
Implementing the rules, regulations and the spirit of the Act must be the starting
point and the basis upon which a culture of safety at work can be built.
Talk about safety

Talk about safety at every meeting (on site and off site). Safety MUST be on the
agenda of every planning and construction meeting. People have to be made
aware of safety and the part they can play to enhance safety.
Implement ‘Behaviour-Based Safety’

‘Behaviour-Based Safety’ or ‘pro-active control of safety’ [Strydom, 1999] can be
introduced by saying that accident statistics show only the tip of the unsafe
iceberg. For every reported accident there are many near misses and probably
also many small-damage incidents (which are not reported). Each near miss was
almost a severe ‘accident’. Luck played a major role in keeping the statistics of
‘accidents’ down. All these near misses and low-damage incidents need to be
recorded so that the accident profile of the construction site can be assessed and
the true magnitude of the risks evaluated. Once the frequency of the ’accidents
waiting to happen’ has been assessed, then management is in a position to take
remedial action. This is a relatively new approach but is probably the only pro-
active approach to safety that can be implemented [Strydom, 1999].
Toolbox talks
Toolbox talks should be given by first line supervisors. Toolbox talks should take
no more than 10 to 15 minutes and can be used to introduce a new activity or to
discuss generic health and safety issues. If held at the start of a workday, they
have less impact on work time than when presented during the day. Toolbox talks
should encourage worker participation and engender teamwork. They provide
the opportunity to discuss quality, productivity and safety issues [Smallwood,
1999b] or any other matters. Toolbox talks are the ideal way in which behaviour-
based safety principles can be communicated to the work teams. Site Managers
should attend these talks as frequently as they can, to indicate that safety is part
of the job and has their full support.

5. Specialist literature
1 IBRD. "The study of the substitution of labour and equipment in civil

construction: a research and implementation project completion report"
(IBRD, Operations Policy Staff, Transportation), Washington, DC, April 1986.
2 Horak E. (1993) Improved backfill and reinstatement control of trenches.

Technical note issued by the Roads Directorate of the Johannesburg City
Council.
3 Howe, JDGF (1981) Guide to tools and equipment for labour-based road
construction, (hand cart and bowser, page 9.27) Geneva, International
Labour Office, 1981.
4 Minor Roads Programme (MRP): Technical Manual, Volume 1. Republic of

Kenya, Ministry of Public Works, Roads Department. Nairobi, January 1992.
5 Ntja, M M. MSc thesis, University of the Witwatersrand, 2000
6 Phillips, S D, McCutcheon, R T, Emery, S J, Little, R, and Kwesiga, M B. (1995).

"Technical analysis of the employment creation potential of a National
Public Works Programme". Journal of the South African Institution of Civil
Engineers, Volume 37, number 3, third quarter.
7 SANS 1200 C: Standardized specification for civil engineering construction:

Site Clearance. SA Bureau of Standards, Pretoria, 1982.
8 SANS 1200 D: Standardized specification for civil engineering construction:

Earthworks. SA Bureau of Standards, Pretoria, 1988.
9 SANS 1200 LB: Standardized specification for civil engineering construction:

Bedding (pipes). SA Bureau of Standards, Pretoria, 1983.
10 SANS 1200 DM, Standardized specification for civil engineering construction:

Earthworks (roads, subgrade). SA Bureau of Standards, Pretoria, 1981.
11 Strydom, L; “Behaviour-based safety”. Construction World, Feb 1999, p 53.
12 Smallwood, J; “The seven features of a world-class SHE contractor”. The Civil

Engineering and Building Contractor, January 1999, p 44.
13 Smallwood, J; “Toolbox talks”. Construction World, March 1999.
14 NOSA: Occupational Health and Safety Act, abridged version. National

Publishing (Pty) Ltd, 1998.
15 Soderlund and Schutte, 1993: Standardised specifications for community-

based construction, S 100 D: Earthworks
16 Watermeyer, RB. Mobilising the private sector to engage in labour-based

infrastructure works: a South African Perspective. Sixth regional seminar for
labour-based practioners, Jinja, Uganda. 1997.
17 Coukis, B et al. labour-based construction programs: - a practical guide for

planning and management. Oxford University Press for the World Bank,
1983.
18 MCCutcheon, RT and Marshall, J. Labour-intensive construction and

25
maintenance of rural roads: Guidelines for the training of road builders.

Construction Development Series, Number 14. Development Bank of
Southern Africa. Development Paper Number 60. November 1996.
19 Antoniou J, Guthrie P and de Veen J. Building roads by hand. International

Labour Organisation, Longman. 1990.
20 Intech Associates. Technical Manual . Volume 1. Ministry of Public Works.

Roads Department. Minor Roads Programme. Republic of Kenya. January
1992.
21 Page-Green, P. 1998. Material selection and quality assurance for labour-

based unsealed road projects. Technical Brief No 9, ILO/ASIST, Nairobi.
22 SANS 1921-5, Construction and management requirements for works

contracts, Part 5: Earthworks activities which are to be performed by hand
(2004).
23 Watermeyer RB and Band NG. The Development of Small Scale Enterprises,

Skills, Enntrepreneurship and Employment Opportunities through the
Provision of Housing. Working Group 3, National Housing Forum, November
1994.

Notes

27
Notes

Acknowledgements

Gautrans
Soweto City Council
eThekwini Metro
of guidelines.
Organisation
Precast concrete products, bricks and

block making
Part 1
all citizens”
Part 3
manufacture
commenced in 1996.
making
technology
technology
unsealed roads
development.

Edition
of CIDB
document
Precast concrete products, bricks and 1024
March 2005
block making
Contents
1. Introduction 3
2. Overall considerations and planning 4
3. Material requirements 7
4. Major equipment required with commennts on their use 9
5. Manufacture 10
6. Material quantities for concrete 17
7. Quality control checks on manufacturing process

(Schedule of checks) 19
8. Employment potential of precast concrete operations 23
Acknowledgements 41


Tel: 27 12-481 9030 Fax: 27 12-343 7153
Part 3 – Labour-based methods for materials manufacture
T
works components.


3.1 – Precast concrete products, bricks and block making
1. Introduction
Precasting is an economical means of producing

Note
high-quality concrete items. It is an accepted,
proven and traditional method for making items
required in buildings and civil engineering such as The small-scale manufacture of precast concrete products, bricks and blocks
is a labour-based form of producing units that can be used in construction
bricks, blocks, sills, lintels, paving blocks and slabs,
and other uses. Production can be carried out in the open, the processes are
kerbs, pipes of small diameter, and retaining blocks.
simple and equipment does not require high capital investment. Products can
Precast concrete units for the garden, such as flower be competitive compared with in situ cast concrete elements.
pots, trellis supports, security fences, fencing posts, This chapter covers small-scale operation, from completely labour-intensive
decorative slabs, poles for clothing lines, manufacture to the use of some machinery either fuel or electricity driven.
washbasins, gravestones, flower bed edging, Concrete is made by mixing stone, sand, cement and enough water to make
sculptures, bird baths and drainage elements are the mixture workable (suitable for compaction). The basic concrete mixture
popular. The range of precast concrete products to and the ingredients are discussed together with plant and equipment
be made is only limited by the imagination and requirements.
market requirements.
Concrete is probably the most widely used construction material worldwide in

both volume and diversity of application. Concrete is a material that literally
forms the basis of our modern society. It has a proven record of use by both small-
and large-scale operators.
Precast concrete is a design material with its own criteria of optimum size, shape
and profile and its own peculiar dimensional, production and erection problems.
Repetition is inherent in the precasting operations for simple economic reasons.
An understanding of precast concrete begins with the realisation that it is more
a process – a production process than a material, i.e. precast concrete products.
A typical element must be designed within certain size limitations because of

transportation from plant to site. The thickness of an element directly affects its
rigidity and is important not only for handling but also for deformation while
curing or storing to minimise warping and damage.
Precast concrete is produced either by placing and compacting wet concrete into
moulds, stripping the moulds when adequate strength has been reached, curing
and storing until used or using a semi-dry concrete mix which is placed in the
mould, compacted and extruded (pushed out) from the mould immediately
compaction is completed, the units being cured and stored until use.
This latter process is used in the manufacture of concrete masonry and paving
units as the most economic system of producing large volumes of bricks, blocks
and pavers. (It should be noted that bricks and blocks are referred to in the South
African National Standards as masonry units.)

3
2. Overall considerations and planning
Before embarking on the manufacture of precast concrete products (in this

section includes bricks and blocks), many decisions have to be made and
consideration should be given to a number of issues, as detailed below:
What products should be made and how many?

This will involve a market survey of the following:
• What is the target market? Precast products to be used in building residential,
(single, double or multi-storey), commercial, industrial, educational, health,
community or other types of building, for domestic use around the house or
for road construction, etc. If concrete masonry units (CMUs) are to be made,
should they be bricks or blocks, should they be solid or hollow, what size and
especially the thickness of the unit? Should they be strong enough only for
single storey houses or for use in walls that are more highly stressed?
See Annex A Determining the demand for the various products is an essential step in
planning for production,
• What other competing manufacturers of precast concrete products are in the
In Annex A, details are given of
area and what are their prices?
various precast concrete products
• What should the target volume be for production – immediately and say in
and concrete masonry units that
two, five and ten year’s time? (A thumb-suck exercise).
can be made by a small-scale
manufacturer.
Where should the plant be located?
Where is the main market situated now, and where will it be in the future? What
area of land is required? This will take account of size and type of plant, its
capacity and associated storage areas, ancillary buildings such as office,
storerooms, workshop, laboratory, change rooms, display area, etc. Costs of
transporting the products to various markets (is the site accessible to an existing
road structure?) and the maximum viable distances should be considered. Is
labour readily available on site? Is the area secure or do special provisions have to
be made to prevent theft, etc? Is the site level or nearly so?
What materials should be used?

What types of cement are available? What aggregates are available, at what cost
and how should they be combined to meet the requirements of the products to
be made? Have the aggregates, especially pit and river sands been used before to
make sound concrete or do the materials have to be tested?
What equipment should be purchased?

This will obviously relate to the size of the market and whether production
should be completely labour-intensive or fully automated or somewhere in
between, i.e. semi-automated.
With precast products determien what moulds are required – size, type of mould
material – steel, fibreglass, wood, etc? Is the concrete to be compacted into the
moulds by hand-compaction, immersion or mould vibrators or on a vibrating or a
jolting table?
With the manufacture of concrete masonry units should the brick or block
making machine be fixed or should it be mobile, easily moved to meet the needs
of new markets in a different location? Should the machine be stationary and use
pallets or should it be an egg-laying machine depositing units on a concrete slab?
How should the materials be stored (cement, aggregates, etc.), in star

compartments, hoppers or in piles and how should materials be handled and
transported (wheelbarrows or conveyors for subsequent batching)?
Should the cement and aggregates be volume or weight batched? How should

they be mixed, by hand or mechanical mixer, and if so, how large and what type
of a mixer?
How will newly de-moulded or extruded products be handled, stacked,

transported and packaged for delivery, by hand or specialised equipment?
Does the equipment or part of it need to be under cover? What is the likely
interruption of production from inclement weather – rain, lightning, hot or cold
weather? How does working under cover or in the open affect the productivity
of the operators?
How will the products be cured – under plastic cover, watered at regular intervals
or not cured at all? How does this affect strength gain and after what period will
the products have sufficient strength to be sold and delivered?
Will there be a laboratory on site or are there outside facilities available for
control and acceptance testing?
Will the plant be profitable?

This involves an estimate of all costs: land buildings, equipment; cost of labour
and materials; allowance for wastage, maintenance, replacement, etc, and all
other economic factors affecting money, interest, profit, taxation, etc.
Planning production
Once the type and quality of concrete products to be made have been decided
upon, planning of production is required.
This involves deciding on materials to be used, mix proportions, raw material

handling and storage, batching, mixing, manufacture, transporting, curing, de-
moulding or de-palletising or removal of products from concrete slab and
stacking ready for delivery.
The capacity of each piece of equipment to perform its task in the allotted time
is important.
Thus all equipment should be in phase, i.e. the mixer capacity should be adequate
to keep the block machine in full production. Consideration should also be given
to alternate forms of production, if one piece of equipment is not performing
satisfactorily.
A typical flow chart of the various manufacturing operations is shown in Figure 1.

5
Figure 1: Flow diagram of main activities in precast concrete production
Market requirements for concrete products
Raw material approval Design of mixes
Manufacturing process
Ordering, receiving
inspection and storage Batching Testing and approval
Mixing
Sampling and testing

Correct mould Moulds and pallets
Filing moulds
Maintenance
Equipment operation
Curing
De-moulding or Mould and pallet

depalletising CMUs cleaning and repair
Storage and protection
Re-assessment of Testing
manufacturing process Visual and/or laboratory
Non-acceptance Acceptance
Delivery
Management decision
on disposal of defective
products

3. Material requirements
3.1 Cement
Cement is the standard binder used with aggregates for the manufacture of
precast concrete.
The quality of cement, particularly with regard to the rate of strength gain and
sensitivity to curing, or lack of curing in many cases, should be considered in
choosing a cement. In cold weather the rate of gain of strength is reduced and
‘ultimate’ (say 7 or 28 day required strength) strength may take longer. Concrete
may have to be left in the moulds for a longer period before de-moulding or
masonry units made on an egg-laying machine may have to be left on the
concrete slab for an extra day.
Only cements or cement blends bearing the SABS mark should be used. This means
that all aspects of manufacture have been controlled and meet acceptable standards.
All cement should comply with SANS 50197-1, Cement types CEM II and CEM III
will develop strength more slowly than CEM I. This may affect production rates.
For precast concrete it is recommended the strength class be at least 32,5N
preferably 42,5N or 42,5R.
3.2 Aggregates No ideal grading
Aggregates form the bulk of concrete. They significantly affect the cost and
There is no such thing as an ideal
quality of the final product and the ease with which the products are grading as there are conflicting
manufactured and finished. Aggregates used are mostly derived from solid rock, requirements for an aggregate in the
which is crushed or has been broken down by weathering. Alternative aggregates manufacturing process.
or waste products such as furnace clinker and furnace bottom ash, fly ash, crushed For instance for the filling of moulds,
burnt clay brick and slag are also used extensively in the manufacture of concrete aggregates of rounded chunky shape
masonry units, where available. All sources of these aggregates should be and smooth texture (like glass marbles)
checked to see they are of adequate quality. This might be done by testing the produce concrete that flows easily. But
aggregates in a laboratory or by reference to the successful service performance on de-moulding or on extrusion of the
of the aggregates in concrete, say over a five-year period. masonry unit from the mould green
strength (early strength) is required. This
is best achieved by using aggregates of
Aggregates are divided into two types according to size:- sand (or fine aggregate
elongated shape and rough surface
– most material passing though a 4,75 mm square opening) and stone (or coarse texture.
aggregate consisting of particles too big to pass through a 4,75 mm sieve).
The physical properties of shape, surface texture

and grading of the aggregates are significant Checking for aggregate suitability
factors in the manufacture of concrete.
The choice of aggregates is a compromise or optimisation of factors. Blending
However, in the manufacturing and quality control of up to three aggregates is generally the practical solution to obtaining
process the most important factor is the consistency suitable aggregates. To evaluate the suitability of an aggregate, check:
of the quality of aggregate, thus avoiding frequent
Before use
adjustments of mix proportions or in concrete
• general soundness and chemical stability (especially waste products),
masonry unit manufacture adjustments to the
• physical characteristics (particle shape, surface texture, grading and
operation of the ‘block’ machine. water absorption).
Generally, the choice of an aggregate depends on its In use

availability, cost, the ease with which it can be made • performance in the manufacturing process noting any production
into the required product (especially hollow problems,
masonry units with thin shells) and the properties • influence on the properties and characteristics of the final product,
(strength, durability, appearance) the aggregate noting surface textures, arrises, uniformity, density and strength.
imparts to the product.
In general, aggregates should consists of clean, hard, strong, dimensionally stable

7
and durable particles free from clay coatings or foreign materials (especially
organic matter) that may interfere with the normal strength development of the
cement. Aggregates that do not have a reliable service performance record
should be tested in a laboratory.
3.3 Pigments
Pigments may be used to colour concrete. The production of colour-stable
concrete requires care both in choice of colours and in the composition of the
concrete mix. Specialist advice should be sought on best pigments to use to
obtain the required colour and their dosage.
The final choice of pigment and appropriate dosage will be made on the visual
examination of dry concrete in which the pigment has been used. Usually in the
preliminary stages, concrete is made with a range of dosages of cement pigment
to determine the optimum dosage to give the required colour. Dosages should
not exceed 7% of the mass of cement.
3.4 Admixtures
Concrete properties modified
Chemical admixtures are materials (usually in liquid
Properties of concrete that may be modified by the use of an admixture are
form) that are added in small amounts to the
one or more of the following: concrete at the mixing stage to modify the
properties of concrete in either the fresh and/or the
Fresh concrete
• workability and cohesiveness in the wet concrete, viz. concrete flow may
solid state.
be improved and the likelihood of segregation reduced,
• reduction of water content without changing workability means a The type of admixture to be used should, in the first
reduction in drying shrinkage and cement content, instance, be based on the manufacturer’s advice.
The final decision should be based on cost
• setting time, either retarded or accelerated to suit special requirements of
precasting, finishing and de-moulding. comparisons and experiments. Observations of the
Hardened concrete effect of admixtures on the concrete would cover:
• increased rate of gain of strength, • flow and compaction of concretes in the mould
• increased durability, • ease of de-moulding or extrusion from the
• decreased permeability. moulds (CMUs),
• visual examination noting uniformity and
segregation, if any
• strength and drying shrinkage of the hardened unit.
Admixtures should not be regarded as a substitute for good materials, good mix
design and good workmanship.
3.5 Water
Water in concrete makes the fresh concrete workable and reacts with the cement
to give strength to the concrete; its quality is important. Water fit to drink is
normally suitable. Evaluation of suspect water such as industrial wastewater,
water from underground mining activities and raw effluent may be carried out
by observing if the setting and strength gain of the concrete is affected.
Turbid (murky) water should be allowed to settle before use to remove suspended
solids which could have unexpected effects. Algae in mixing water can give a
greenish tinge to the concrete, while entrained air might reduce strength.
Seawater may be used in concrete where efflorescence and mottling does not
matter and in un-reinforced concrete. Seawater causes rusting of steel-
reinforcement, lifting hooks, ties, etc. and should not be used in reinforced
concrete.

4. Major equipment required with comments on their use
4.1 Mixers
Free-fall mixers, e.g. tilting drum and reversing drum have blades that lift the
concrete to the top of the drum and allow it to fall and so mix. These mixers are
suitable for most normal concretes but cannot handle concretes of low
workability, of lean mix proportions and concrete that is over-cohesive (very
sticky). Mixing time is between 90 and 150 seconds.
Forced-action mixers, e.g. pan mixers have blades that shear the concrete. Pan
mixers consist of either a stationary pan with rotating blades or a rotating pan
and blades. This type of mixer can handle concrete of any workability especially
the semi-dry concrete mixes required for making bricks and blocks. Mixing time is
between 60 and 120 seconds.
It should be noted that concrete can be mixed by hand if so required in the

planned manufacturing process.
4.2 Block making machines

Machines are of two types:
A stationary machine deposits its extruded units on a pallet, which is removed for
subsequent maturing and curing of units.
An egg-laying machine deposits its extruded units on a concrete slab, then moves
forward to ‘lay’ the next set of units. Units are removed from the slab the next
day, or, in cold weather, two days after manufacture unless richer mixes are used.
The essential features of a machine are a hopper to store the concrete for feeding
into the mould, apparatus for compacting the concrete in the mould and
subsequent pushing out of the units from the mould.
Depending on the type of machine and the

abovementioned factors, machines cycles vary from Factors affecting machine productivity
1,5 to 4,0 per minute.
The productive capacity of a machine depends on:
With egg-laying machines, allowance has to be • The type of unit being made. With solid units moulds are quickly filled with
made for the time it takes to move to the new slight primary vibration and say one pass of the feeder drawer. With
hollow units with 25 to 27 mm thick shells, longer vibration times are
dropping position and the time it takes at the end
required with up to seven or eight passes of the feeder drawer over the
of a run to turn the machine around.
mould to fill the mould,
• The number of units that can be fitted into the available mould area for
The planeness, trueness and surface texture of the extrusion onto a pallet or dropped on the concrete slab in the case of egg-
concrete slab surface significantly affects the height laying machines,
of the units and the ease with which they can be • The concrete mix and its flow characteristics in the filling of the mould, its
removed from the concrete surface. The minimum sensitivity to primary and secondary vibration, viz. duration required for
area of slab should be such that it can accommodate compaction, and subsequent extrusion.
one day’s production. Details of the casting of the
slab are given in Appendix D.
In the market place, there are a range of machines available and machine
manufacturers should be consulted on type of machine and ancillary equipment
available, their costs of operation and potential production capacity.

9
5. Manufacture
5.1 Operations
The manufacturing process involves a wet side, viz. batching, mixing and casting
or extruding of the CMUs, with appropriate concrete mixes, and a dry side, viz.
curing, handling and assessment of the finished product.
5.2 Batching (including storage and handling)

Basic principles for batching
5.2.1 Cement
Basic principles are that: Cement may be stored in paper bags but protected
• materials should be protected from deterioration or contamination until from any deterioration, or in silos. Cement should
used; preferably be batched by mass, either using a full
• methods of storing, handling and batching should ensure minimum 50 kg bag or weighing each batch of cement either
segregation of the aggregates, i.e. separation of the different sizes in the from a silo or opened bags. Volume batching must
aggregate; and
allow for the bulking of the cement, normally
• all materials, cement, aggregates, water, pigments and admixtures must
around 20%.
be batched to acceptable degrees of accuracy.
Containers used for batching should be robust. Builder’s wheelbarrows
5.2.2 Aggregates
(which have a capacity of 65 l ) and steel buckets and drums are suitable.
Batching should be done by pouring material loosely into the container to Aggregates should be stored and handled so as to
overfill it, and striking off level with the brim. Partial filling of containers reduce segregation and contamination. Storage
leads to non-uniform batching. Containers should therefore be sized areas should be adequate for frequency of delivery
accordingly. and subsequent demand. There should be no
To avoid errors, there should be sufficient containers to measure out a intermingling of different aggregates.
complete batch without having to use any container more than once.
The concrete must be thoroughly mixed. If wet aggregates are delivered they should be
allowed to drain; normally on a concrete surface.
When some sands drain silt and/or clay are deposited at the base of the stored
sand. These materials should be removed and discarded when ground storage
areas are emptied. When frequent rain occurs aggregates should be stored under
cover.
Batching may be carried out by volume or mass. With volume batching, an

allowance for moisture in the sand should be made and for its bulking.
Some clinker or ash aggregates absorb up to 20% of their mass in water. Pre-
wetting the aggregate reduces the likelihood of a rapid loss in workability of the
concrete during and after mixing.
5.2.3 Water
Water is batched by volume. An experienced operator can judge the amount of
water required in the particular concrete. If stored in tanks, the water should be
protected from low temperatures, as this affects the setting time of the concrete
and its rate of gain of strength.
In hot weather, water flowing in black pipes subject to direct sunlight can become
excessively hot and cause rapid loss of workability of the concrete. Pipes should
either be protected or insulated, or water should be stored when cool for
subsequent use.
5.2.4 Pigments
Pigments are best batched by pre-weighing, and storing in plastic or other
suitable containers. The pigments should be introduced gradually into the dry
ingredients (cement and aggregate) during the mixing process.
5.2.5 Admixtures
Admixtures are usually liquid and measured by volume. Admixtures should be
checked for settlement. Stirring at regular intervals may be required.

Admixtures should preferably be added to the mixing water during the mixing
process.
5.3 Mixers and mixing

The concrete must be thoroughly mixed. Small quantities may be mixed by hand
on a concrete floor or steel sheet. Machine mixing is preferable. For semi-dry
mixes the best type of mixer is a pan mixer. Free-fall drum mixes are suitable for
the more workable concrete.
The order of charging the mixer and the duration of the mixing are important
factors affecting the quality of unit being made and its variability.
Natural aggregates of low water absorption are best charged with all aggregates,
then all cementitious materials.
Dry mix combined materials and then add required water. Mix for at least 60
seconds with pan mixers and 120 seconds with drum mixers. If subsequently mixes
have to be re-tempered, mix concrete for at least one minute after addition of
water.
For clinker (ash) type aggregates of high water absorption charge mixer with
aggregates. Add half to two-thirds of total mixing water and mix for 30 seconds.
Then add cementitious materials and balance of mixing water and mix for at least
90 seconds.
Mixing duration should ensure thorough and intimate mixing of the mix
ingredients. Excessively long mixing times, more than 15 minutes, affect the
workability of the concrete adversely. The amount of water added to the mix
depends on the workability required. This depends on how the concrete is to be
compacted in the moulds.
5.4 Transporting
Transport the concrete from the mixer to the mould in such a way that it does not
segregate. If segregation (separation of stone and cement paste) is unavoidable,
remix the concrete before placing it in the mould. Protect the concrete from
contamination and from drying out.
Distribute the concrete evenly in the mould. Do not place the concrete in one
position and rely on the vibration to distribute it because this causes segregation.
5.5 Compaction and finishing

The concrete is to be compacted into the mould by any method that will ensure
dense concrete.
Precast concrete is usually compacted by means of mechanical vibrators attached
to the mould or by placing the mould on a vibrating table. Continue to vibrate
the concrete until a water sheen appears on the surface and air bubbles no longer
break through the surface.
Hand compacting, which should be used only for limited numbers of small items,
may be done by: tamping the concrete with the end of a conveniently sized piece
of timber or steel; jigging or jolting the mould; or a combination of tamping and
jigging.
Use the edge of a screedboard (a planed wooden plank used on edge) which rests

11
on the top edges of the mould to strike off the concrete flush with the top of the
mould. The concrete may be wood-floated if necessary.
Newly cast concrete must be protected from rain which could damage and soften
the surface. It is also most important to protect the concrete against loss of
moisture from the exposed surface. If moisture is lost the fresh concrete shrinks
and this shrinkage can cause serious cracking. Possible ways of preventing
moisture loss are:
• Work indoors or at least in shade,
• Place screens around the working area to keep out drying winds,
• Once the concrete has been compacted, struck off and floated, maintain a
water sheen on the surface by fog spraying with water or cover with plastic
sheeting.
Concrete must be protected until it sets and curing can start.
Precast items must be de-moulded carefully so as to avoid damage to the

concrete. Once they are de-moulded, they should be stacked or supported in such
a way that they do not warp or twist.
Finishes and decorative effects are basically achieved by either casting the
concrete against a formed or sculptured mould surface or by the early-age
working of the surface.
Working the surface while the concrete is in a green state might involve wood or
steel trowelling, brooming, tooling, rubbing and carving, sprinkling special colour
aggregates and compacting into the surface, or exposing the coarse aggregate by
gently washing out the fines.
The concrete should be easily de-moulded. Either the moulds can be pulled apart
and the product left in position or the moulds turned upside down to remove the
product from the mould. The ease of de-moulding will depend on the mould oil
used and the taper of the mould, usually 1 to 50 to 200 for steel moulds and less
Figure 2: Edges to repairs
for plastic moulds.
Any minor blemishes on the finished products such as small chipped edges and
corners and blowholes (small voids of roughly spherical shape) should be repaired
as soon as possible if the quality and value of the product warrants repair.
With the repair of blowholes no surface preparation is necessary. Use a mixture

of one cement to two plaster sand, by volume, plus enough water to give a slurry
consistency. Do not pre-wet the concrete and work the repair mix over the whole
area with a sponge until holes are filled. Remove excess material with a wet
sponge, spray surface lightly with a mist sprayer and cover immediately, with
plastic sheeting. Keep covered for seven days and then allow to dry slowly.
With other repairs, ensure that feather edges are avoided. Where necessary, the
outline of a repair should be cut with a masonry cutting disc or saw to ensure a
square edge. (See Figure 2.)
Removes loose material and clean. Prime the surface with a slurry of equal
volumes of cement and dry plaster sand with sufficient water to achieve a paint
consistancy. Apply the mix one volume cement to two volumes sand, with
sufficient water to be able to fully compact with a trowel. Finish surface with
wood or steel trowels, sponges or brushes. Moist cure the repair for at least seven
days.

5.6 Concrete mix proportions

5.6.1 General
The ingredients of concrete should be combined to give the required properties
to the product at lowest cost, i.e. with the hardened concrete the product should
have strength, durability and suitable appearance and in the fresh state
workability and cohesiveness so the concrete can be ‘cast’ into moulds easily
without segregation of the ingredients, and can easily be compacted.
Precast concrete requires a wet flowable mix, the concrete is compacted finished
and left in the moulds for some time, hours or days before de-moulding. Precast
products are prone to damage and breakages when they are de-moulded and
when they are handled. Concrete should therefore have a relatively high
strength, which should develop as rapidly as possible after casting.
Concrete for making masonry units, while having the same ingredients, has
different mix proportions and workability because of different equipment being
used and manufacturing techniques. As the units are extruded (pushed out) from
the moulds after only 5 to 30 seconds in the moulds the concrete has to have
sufficient ‘green’ strength so that the bricks or blocks will not, after extrusion,
collapse or lose shape. This is achieved by using semi-dry concrete of low
workability and aggregates and mix proportions that mechanically interlock.
Strength is required for the units to be removed from the slab or pallet so they
are not damaged in handling.
To determine the best mix proportions trial mixes are necessary. In the first
instance, nominal mix proportions are used and then by a process of trial and
error the mixes are adjusted to suit the particular product being made, the
manufacturing equipment and the competence of the operator using the
equipment. In assessing the best concrete mix the quality of the final product is
the main criteria, while ease of manufacture at lowest cost must be considered.
Strength may be determined by testing the whole product or by making concrete

cubes from the mix used and testing in a laboratory.
Durability suggests long-life maintenance-free concrete and is based on a service

record of satisfactory performance. This is not necessarily known at the time of
manufacture and therefore good sound and acceptable practices must be
followed, e.g. clayey sands in the concrete should be avoided as drying shrinkage
and the possibility of cracks and crazing occurring are likely. Also sands that
require an excess of water when used in concrete should be avoided. Products
should not crack easily when lifted or handled.
5.6.2 Trial mixes and manufacture: Precast concrete products

Trial mix proportions of cement, sand and stone are given in Table 1.
Table 1: Trial mix proportions by volume for concrete for precasting
6,7 mm stone 9,5 mm stone 13,2 mm stone 19 mm stone

Large batch Small batch Large batch Small batch Large batch Small batch Large batch Small batch
Cement 1 bag 1 1 bag 1 1 bag 1 1 bag 1
Sand 75 l 2 75 l 2 75 l 2 75 l 2
Stone 40 l 1 50 l 11/ 4 55 l 11/ 2 75 l 2

13
Table 2: Minimum concrete thickness for various stone sizes
Stone size, mm 6.7 9.5 13.2 19.0

Minimum concrete thickness, mm 30 40 50 60
Note: The largest size stone should be used for highest strength, or lowest cement content. The size of stone should not exceed about one
quarter of the thickness of the concrete item being precast.
The following should be observed when adjusting the mix proportions:

• Use sufficient water in the mix to give a plastic mix that can be compacted
with the means available,
• For small batches use the same size container for each material. For example,
if the container volume is 6 l the mix for 9,5 mm stone is:
Cement: 6 l
Sand: 2 x 6 = 12 l
Stone: 11/4 x 6 = 7,5 l
• Measure all materials by pouring loosely into the container and striking off
flush with the brim,
• Measure sand in the damp state,
• Sand and stone content should be assessed as follows:
❍ Make up a batch of concrete according to the proportions given in Table 1.
Compact the concrete in the mould using the means available (i.e.
mechanical vibration or hand stamping). Examine the top surface of the
concrete. If stones protrude, the stone content of the mix is too high. If not,
scrape the concrete with the point of a nail. If the stone content of the
concrete is right, stone particles should be found about 2 mm below the
surface. If the shallowest particles are deeper than this, the stone content is
too low.
❍ If stone content is too high, reduce it by say 10% and increase the sand
content by the same amount (same overall volume), then reassess.

❍ If stone content is too low, increase it by 10% and reduce the sand content
by the same amount, then reassess.
5.6.3 Preparing the mould: Surfaces

In the manufacturing process, attention should be given to:
• Surfaces of the mould that will come into contact with the concrete should be
cleaned and then given a very thin coating of mould-release oil. (Rubber
moulds do not normally require a release agent),
• mould-release oils are formulated specifically for concrete casting and are
obtainable from oil companies and reputable manufacturers of concrete
admixtures. The use of straight lubricating oil is not recommended.
5.6.4 Reinforcement and its fixing

If precast units are reinforced, the reinforcement should be kept in the correct
position in the mould while the concrete is placed and compacted. Spacers of
plastic or high-strength mortar may be used to support the steel and ensure that
the minimum concrete cover is provided.
Figure 3: Details of mortar spacer block
Plastic spacers are commercially available from
specialist suppliers.
Mortar spacer blocks may be made with a 1:1 ratio

of cement and concrete sand and sufficient water to
make a workable consistence. Details of a spacer
block are shown in Figure 3. Cover the blocks to
prevent drying out after casting and place them in

water the next day. Keep the blocks in water for at least a week before using
them.
5.6.5 Trial mixes and manufacture concrete masonry units

The trial and error process for determining best mix proportions for concrete
masonry unit manufacture requires a rigorous and thorough approach, otherwise
false conclusions will result and mix proportions will be accepted and used that
are not the best. Final decisions on aggregate blends and concrete mix
proportions are based on observations, analysis of actual manufacture and the
results of tests on the units made.
This involves the following steps and is influenced by the type of machine used,
how it is operated and the units being made, bricks of blocks, hollow or solid:
• determining the best blend of aggregates,
• determining the aggregate to cement ratio,
• determining the optimum water content,
• a cost analysis.
The starting point is using a mix of 1:8 of 50 kg cement to four wheelbarrows

aggregate.
If three materials are available: stone, river sand and

pit sand, try the following blends tabulated in Table 3: Trial mix proportions by volume for
Table 3. If crusher sand is available and does not manufacturing bricks and blocks
have an excess of very fine material (say dust) it may Cement (50 kg bag) Stone River sand Pit sand
replace the river and pit sand blend.
Wheelbarrows
1 4
If an existing mix has been used vary the aggregate
1 3 1
blends; firstly to be coarser and then secondly to be
1 2 2
finer than the existing mix by small changes in the
1 1 2 1
various materials. 1 2 1 1
1 1 1 2
In all cases use as much water as possible in the mix
so that the units don’t lose shape on being extruded from the mould, or become
too sticky (cohesive) because of clayey material in the sand.
Highest strengths of units occur when maximum water content is used. Often the
surface texture of the unit will change from smooth and uniform with little water
to a coarser texture with more water. The coarse texture units are normally
stronger using the same aggregate blends.
If the surface texture is too coarse, increase the fines and reduce the coarse materials.
Besides noting the surface texture of the units observe how easily the concrete
flows into the mould, particularly with hollow units where the shell width is
normally between 25 and 35 mm.
With hollow units the maximum size stone is 6,7 mm but with solid units the stone
size can be up to 19 mm. Generally mixes with large size stone are more economical
in cement than mixes with small size stone for the same compressive strength. Also
more stone and less sand are required in the mix with large size stone.
To determine the best cement to aggregate ratio for the masonry unit being made
is to test the unit to destruction in a compressive strength test. If this is not possible,
then observations have to be on all aspects in the manufacture and service
performance of the unit on site to decide on cement to aggregate proportions
noting any defects that occur such as chipped corners, edges and cracks.
15
If the best blend of available aggregates is unsatisfactory in making the required

masonry unit, consider using admixtures. Further trial mixes are then necessary.
Once the aggregate blends and cement to aggregates ratios have been decided
upon, then the optimum (best) moisture content should be determined. The
water content depends on the materials, mix proportions, characteristics of the
machine and how operated or how well concrete compacted into moulds by
hand, the dimensions and configurations of the units being made. The mixer
operator or machine operator should be trained to achieve the best water
content consistently. A water sheen (glistens) on the external face of the unit
immediately after extrusion is an indication that the water content is near
optimum.
With ‘wet’ mixes using an egg-laying machine, difficulty is sometimes

experienced in removing units the next day from the concrete slab. Usually a
rough-textured concrete slab surface, say wood floated as distinct from steel
trowelled will have less adhesion bond between unit and slab than a smooth
textured surface.
A cost analysis based on the concrete mix proportions to be used in full-scale

production, costed out in terms of material and production costs should be made.
In determining the yield of the mix, the mass of all ingredients divided by the
average mass of the unit will determine the yield.
Often aggregate is delivered and priced by volume and aggregate is batched by mass.
It is necessary to convert the unit cost into an appropriate unit cost, say cost per kg.
5.7 Curing
Concrete is cured by ensuring that there is sufficient moisture available and that
the temperature is suitable for the chemical reaction (called hydration) between
cement and water to occur. Concrete does not gain strength by drying out. If
allowed to dry out soon after manufacture it will not gain its full strength. At low
temperatures the chemical reaction takes place more slowly and products have to
be left in their moulds for longer periods. At higher temperatures, the chemical
reaction is more rapid but the quality of the mature product may be inferior.
Concrete products may be cured by immersing in water, or spraying continuously

with water, or wetting the concrete and wrapping or covering with a plastic
sheet. Curing should be continued for at least seven days in normal weather
(20 °C to 25 °C) and longer at lower temperatures.

6. Material quantities for concrete
The quantities given in Tables 4 and 5 are approximate; they form a basis for a
first estimate of quantities to be used in manufacture. Checks on quantities of
materials used should be made as production progresses. The mix proportions in
the tables are based on materials (sand and stone) being batched in a loose state,
i.e. poured loosely into the batching container without being compacted. The
volume of a 50 kg bag of cement when poured loosely into a container is
approximately 38 to 40 l . No allowance has been made for wastage.
Table 4: Material quantities for precast concrete (± 25 MPa at 28 days)
Material 6,7 mm stone 9,5 mm stone 13,2 mm stone 19,0 mm stone

Large batch Small batch Large batch Small batch Large batch Small batch Large batch Small batch
Quantities for 1 bag of cement in volume of damp bulked aggregates
Cement 1 bag 1 1 bag 1 1 bag 1 1 bag 1
Sand 75 l 2 75 l 2 75 l 2 75 l 2
Stone 40 l 1 50 l 1.25 55 l 1.5 75 l 2
Quantities for 1 cubic metre of concrete in volumes of damp bulked aggregates
Cement, bag 10.0 9.5 9.2 8.4
Sand, litre 750 710 695 625
Stone, litre 400 475 510 625
Quantities for 1 cubic metre of concrete in mass (kg) of damp material
Cement, kg 500 475 460 420
Sand, kg 870 825 805 725
Stone, kg 600 715 765 940
Table 5: Material quantities for concrete masonry units
Mix proportions Whole bag mixes (50 kg)

cement to aggregate Cement-sand mixes Concrete mixes (10 mm stone) per cubic metre of concrete
approximate
per batch per cubic metre of per batch per cubic metre of mortar
mortar
sand, cement, sand, sand, stone, cement, sand, stone,
l /bag bags m3 l /bag l /bag 5h bags m3 m3
1:4 150 8.8 1.35 120 50 8.1 1.0 0.4
1:5:25 200 7.3 1.35 150 60 6.5 1.0 0.4
1:6:50 250 5.8 1.35 200 80 5.0 1.0 0.4
1:8 300 4.8 1.35 240 90 4.2 1.0 0.4
1:10:50 400 3.5 1.35 310 130 3.2 1.0 0.4
1:11:75 450 3.1 1.35 360 140 2.8 1.0 0.4
Table 6 provides materials quantities and mass of single masonry units based on:
• Loose bulk densities, kg/m3 – Sand 1400: Stone 1500

• Relative densities – Sand 2.65: Stone 2,65
• Bulking of sand – 20%

17
Table 6: Volume and masses for concrete masonry units
Work size of unit 1 x b x h Solid units Hollow units

Volume Mass No. of Minimum shell Volume Mass
l kg cores thickness mm l kg
Modular dimensions
190 x 90 x 90 1.6 3.4 – – – –
290 x 90 x 90 2.4 5.2 2 25 1.7 3.5
290 x 140 x 90 3.7 8.1 2 25 1.9 4.2
290 x 140 x 140 5.7 12.6 2 25 2.9 6.5
390 x 90 x 90 3.2 7.0 2 25 2.1 4.6
390 x 190 x 90 6.7 14.8 2 32 3.5 7.7
390 x 90 x 190 6.7 14.8 2 25 4.5 9.9
390 x 140 x 190 10.4 22.9 2 25 5.4 11.9
390 x 190 x 190 14.1 31.0 2 32 7.6 16.7
Imperial dimensions
222 x 106 x 73 1.7 3.8 – – – –
440 x 110 x 220 10.7 23.5 2 25 7.5 16.5
440 x 140 x 190 11.8 25.8 2 25 6.0 13.2
440 x 220 x 220 21.3 46.9 2 37 10.9 24.0
NOTE: Hollow unit (block) quantities are based on maximum core size and minimum shell thickness. Cores taper 3 mm in 190 mm and
1,5 mm in 90 mm. Webs taper in both directions. Solid units have no cores. The mass is based on using natural aggregates with a
concrete density of 2 200 kg/m3

7. Quality control checks on manufacturing process (schedule of checks)
Table 7 provides guidance on quality control checks which should be conducted

in the manufacturing process. Figure 4 outlines some practical checks which can
be conducted in the manufacture of concrete masonry units in the absence of
laboratory equipment.
Table 7: Recommended quality control checks
Item Property to be checked Test Frequency Notes

1. Materials
Cement General quality See notes See notes Check cement of right type
and cement has an SABS
mark on bag
Contamination by moisture Visual examination for When contamination is Cement contamination
lumps in cement suspected occurs during transportation
or storage. If lumps not
broken by had, sieve out
lumps and use a richer mix
Age of cement at time Compare delivery dates and Test when cement is older Ask cement manufacturer to
of use date of proposed use than 3 months and cement test and advise. Loss of
is stored in bags strength occurs with time
Aggregates Quality as ordered and Appropriate tests (Maybe When quality suspect Initial acceptance criteria for
delivered visual such as right size aggregates vary and are
stone, clay or organic unique for each manu-
matter in sand, etc.) facturer. More important is
consistency of quality of
aggregates in manufacture
Pigments General quality Manufacturer / Supplier to At beginning of production
provide test certificate and when changes noted
Admixtures General quality (check Obtain test certificates or At beginning of production BS 5075 Parts 1 and 3
storage and shelf life not quality statement on admix- and when changes noted details specification
exceeded) ture by manufacturer/supplier requirements
Water Purity as it affects setting Refer SANS 10100-2 When quality of water Municipal water needs to
and strength of cement suspect be checked
Reinforcement steel General quality Obtain manufacturers test At commencement of Refer SANS 190, 920 and
certificate contract. 1024
Contamination (free from Visual check Daily or at frequent intervals
loose mill scale and other when rebar is being used
coatings that will adversely
affect bond)
2. Production
Material acceptance
Cement Type of cement Visual check of type, bags When delivered
or delivery note.
Bags not broken
Aggregates Appearance Visual check on type, When delivered
cleanliness, contamination
and segregation
Sampling and preparation SANS 195 When any testing done Testing representative
of test sample SANS 197 samples important for
meaningful test results
Grading (Sieve analysis) SANS 201 When changes noted that Compare grading with
affect quality of product previously established
grading limits.
Relative density SANS 5844 At beginning of contractor Information used in the
if geological type of design of mixes or calcula-
aggregate changed tions of yield of mixes based
on voids in aggregates

19
Table 7: Recommended quality control checks – (continued)

2. Materials
Material acceptance
Bulk density and voids SANS 5845 When changes noted or Information used in design
content every 50 to 150 m3 of mixes or calculations of
yield of mixes. Voids content
used as a control check on
quality of blended
aggregates
Bulking of sand SANS 5856 When moisture content of Required for adjusting
sand changes significantly volumes of sand in batching
Pigments Type Visual check on containers When delivered
and/or delivery note
Batching
General That correct materials and Visual check materials. Daily and when new mix
correct mix proportions used Check mix proportions proportions specified
Cement By mass With 50 kg bags no test Daily A split bag of 25 kg parts
required. Check load scale can be measured by equal
accuracy volumes
By volume Check container volume When container first used Note: Different types of
that allowance made for or when type of cement cement bulk differently.
bulking changed Volume batching of cement
is poor practice
Aggregates By mass Check moisture content of Daily
sand and adjust mass
By volume Check container size. Check When first used. When Establish by experiment a
allowance for bulking significant moisture changes sand bulking versus
occur moisture content curve for
each sand.
Admixture By volume Check dispensing apparatus When first used.
set correctly Daily
Pigments By mass Check correct mass Daily Normally pigments pre-
weighed and placed in
container for subsequent
introduction into the mix
By volume Check container size When first used
Low density aggre- Soundness (pop-outs) Refer to SANS 794 and When pop-outs noted and Test required when clinker,
gates such as clinker SAN 1215 then twice per month ash and similar waste
products used
Sulphur trioxide Refer to SANS 794 Once per month or when
problems noted
Loss on ignition Refer to SANS 794 Once per month or when
problems noted
Water addition Water content Visual assessment by Each mix made Various aids can be used by
operator of concrete operator in visually judging
workability and amount of water required, i.e. hand
water required and bar tests
Reinforcement Type, size and not Measurement and visual When used Check dimensions if
contaminated examination reinforcement bent, i.e.
as in stirrups


2. Materials
Mixing
Materials to be used Visual check that all Daily
ingredients of correct type
and mixer not overloaded
Uniformity of mix Visual Frequently Particularly important with
hand mixing
Cleanliness of mixer Visual Daily or when break in With hand mixing ensure
mixing surface on which ingredients
mixed is clean
Adjustment of scrapers, etc. By measurement Daily Important in pan mixers to
in mixer (if present) for prevent segregation of
wear and correct adjustment ingredients
Order of introduction of Visual Daily Order of batching to be
mix ingredients determined by experience.
Pre-mixing absorbent
aggregates such as clinker
with water to be considered
Mix consistence Visual Each mix If consistence viz workability,
plasticity, etc. not correct
immediately investigate
reason
Duration of mixing Check time of mixing from Frequently Minimum and maximum
time all water and cement mixing times to be given to
are in contact, to discharge mixer operator
Re-tempering Visual When mixing time extended, Operator to be advised on
loss of workability and extra maximum amount of water
water added. that can be added
Discharge Visual to ensure complete After each mix Ensure no build-up of mortar
discharge or concrete in the mixer
Precast concrete products (refer also to general comments)
Mould Correct type, dimensions, Visual and by measurement At beginning of casting and Check moulds for wear and
accuracy and undamaged afterwards at frequent damage
intervals
Preparation for casting Visual Frequently Check use of mould release
oil. Rubber moulds do not
require a release agent
Reinforcement Correct type, diameter and Measurement Frequently Check against drawings
bending dimensions
Position in mould with Measurement and check Frequently Refer drawings and
correct cover spacer blocks specification
Concrete Mix ingredients and Visual At beginning of casting and Refer to section on materials
proportions frequently and batching
Batching, mixing, placing, Measurement and visual At beginning of casting and Ensure concrete does not
compaction and finishing frequently segregate in transporting
and placing. Check best
compaction techniques by
hand, vibration immersion
or mould, or jolting.
Check finishing-trowelling
hessian drag, sand or stone
topping, etc.

21

2. Materials
Concrete masonry units (refer also to general comments)
Mould Correct type, dimensions, Visual and by measurement Regular checks on growth Dimensional tolerances to
accuracy and undamaged of unit sizes SANS 1215
Relationship between plan Visual and by measurement When excessive amount of Also applies to small
dimensions of moulds and concrete extruded between machines hand operated
tamper head tamper head and mould
Machine operation Functioning of machine By observation of how When problems noted With single block moulds
equipment operates ensure proper compaction
of concrete in mould
Distribution of concrete into Measure heights and mass On introduction of new Non-uniform distribution of
mould box of fresh units over total moulds, and/or concrete concrete in moulds requires
mould area mix, at frequent intervals special attention
Primary and secondary Check duration of vibration Frequent intervals The degree of compaction
vibration times of units by vibration
significantly affects strength
of units and productivity.
With hand compaction
ensure unit well tamped to
required height
Surface appearance on Visual Frequently Check presence of water
extrusion from mould that sheen on face of unit,
units not damaged or concrete sticking to tamper
distorted head on extrusion,
uniformity of texture, colour
and compaction
Height of unit By measurement Frequently Weighing unit at same time
as height measured gives an
assessment of the
distribution of concrete in
moulds and uniformity of
compaction
Splitting of units to Visual appearance Visual together with When significant variations For consistent surface
give a ‘rock face’ compressive strength tests in surface texture noted texture compressive
strength of units should be
in an agreed range
General comments: precast concrete and concrete masonry units
Moulds, pallets and Condition of moulds, pallets Visual Frequently Maintain moulds and pallets.
working area and concrete surface on Keep working surfaces free
which operations take place from debris, etc.
Handling Damage, if any, in de- Visual Frequently Products should be stored
moulding, or depalletising, and stacked on hard, plane
transporting and stacking and unyielding surfaces
which drain.
Curing Protection of fresh products/ Visual Ongoing Extent and types of curing to
units and curing (duration suit local requirements and
and temperature) products / units being made
Storage Marking of stacks for Acceptance and control Ongoing Allow for products / units
subsequent identification, testing not complying with required
testing and clearance for standards to be stacked
delivery separately for subsequent
management decision on
their disposal
3. Testing
Ideally all products made should be tested regularly for compliance with requirements such as strength, etc. and the production process
monitored to ensure that products are not over or under strength, i.e. that the manufacturing process is not wasteful, viz. too much cement
being used mainly or products condemned for say inadequate strength. There should be a continuous process of assessing the quality of
products made and modifying the process to give best and most economical production.
If testing is impractical or unaffordable, products should be continually assessed for dimensional accuracy, surface finishes and whether corners
and edges damaged on de-moulding or when transported, stacked and delivered to site. Reports back from site on satisfactory or
unsatisfactory performance of products in service can assist in assessing the quality of products.

8. Employment potential of precast concrete operations
Table 8 provides some insights into the employment potential of precasting

operations of a typical medium-sized manufacturer.
Figure 4: Simple site guides to quality in the

manufacture of concrete masonry units
Table 8: Manufacture of precast concrete components (Watermeyer and Band, 1994)
OPERATION ACTIVITIES PERSONHOURS/

TON
Raw materials Cement : production; transport to yard; pump into silo
Aggregates : quarry operations; loading; transport 0,54
Mixing process Boomscraper; weigh process; water supply 0,14
Casting of concrete Cleaning of moulds : brushing; cleaning; carrying to cleaning area; mixing of oil;
applying of oil to moulds; move to casting yard
Mesh reinforcement : cutting, carrying; placing
Casting and finishing : transport moulds; casting; vibrating; smoothing off
Curing : cover moulds with canvas; placing of wet steamer;
firing of boilers; steaming; filling of water tank; stacking
Remoulding : loosen sides; strip mould; transport to stacking area; stacking;
carry moulds to steaming area 4,02
Transport Load on fork truck; drive to truck; load truck with labour; cover load with netting;
transport to erection area/township; offload 1,77
Administration 0,66
Maintenance of moulds Welding; repairing; straightening; inspecting 0,75
TOTAL 7,82

23
MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS
SANS 1215: Concrete masonry units

Lane J W. The manufacture of concrete masonry units (available Cement and
Concrete Institute)
MATERIALS OF MANUFACTURE
Cement
SANS 50197-1: 1996 Part 1. Common cement. Part 1. Cement –
composition, specification and conformity criteria
SANS 50413-1: 1996 Masonry cements. Part 1. Specification.
Aggregates
SANS 794 Aggregates of low density
SANS 1083 Aggregates from natural sources – Aggregates for concrete
SANS 1090 Aggregates from natural sources – Fine aggregates for plaster
and mortar
Cement and Concrete Institute Commentary on SANS 1083 – 1994.
Aggregates from natural sources -Aggregates for concrete
USE OF MASONRY UNITS

Building regulations
National Building Regulations and Building Standards Act 1987 revised 1988
SANS 10400 – 1990 Application of the National Building Regulations
National Home Builders Registration Council’s Home Building Manual, 1999
The Joint Structural Division of The South African Institution of Civil Engineering
and The Institution of Structural Engineers.
Code of practice. Foundations and superstructures for single storey residential
buildings of masonry construction. 1995.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
SANS 10100: Part 1 The structural use of concrete Part 1: Design
SANS 10160 The general procedures and loadings to be adopted
for the design of buildings
SANS 10161 – 1980 The design of foundations for buildings
SANS 10164: Part 1 The structural use of masonry Part 1 – unreinforced
masonry walling
Part 2 Part 2 – reinforced and prestressed masonry
SANS 1504 Prestressed concrete lintels
The Joint Structural Division of The South African
Institution of Civil Engineering and The Institution of
Structural Engineers
Checklist for structural design.
Crofts FS; Lane JW Structural concrete masonry. A design guide, 2000.
CONCRETE MASONRY CONSTRUCTION

SANS 10145 Concrete masonry construction
SANS 10249 Masonry walling
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
Cement
SANS 50197-1 Part 1. Common cement. Part 1. Cement – composition,
specification and conformity criteria
SANS 50413-1 Masonry cements. Part 1. Specification.

Lime
SANS 523 Limes for use in building
Sand
SANS 1090 Aggregates from natural sources – Fine aggregate
for plaster and mortar
Wall ties
SANS 28 Metal ties for cavity walls
Damp-proof courses
SANS 248 Bituminous damp-proof course
SANS 298 Mastic asphalt for damp-proofing courses and tanking
SANS 952 Polyolefin film for damp-proofing and waterproofing
in buildings
REINFORCEMENT
SANS 190 – Part 2 Expanded metal. Part 2: Building products
SANS 920 Steel bars for concrete reinforcement
SANS 1024 Welded steel fabric for reinforcement of concrete
CONCRETE MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION PUBLICATIONS

DETAILING OF CONCRETE MASONRY: Volume 1 Solid Units – 140
Volume 2 Hollow Units – 140/190
Volume 3 Cavity Wall – 240/290
FREE-STANDING WALLS Design guide
Technical Note: Unreinforced/Reinforced
LINTELS Design guide
Technical note
BUILDING YOUR HOUSE – STEP BY STEP – WITH BUILDING PLANS

25
ANNEX A: List of Material and Equipment Suppliers/Manufacturers
ITEM SUPPLIER/MANUFACTURER AND NOTES

TELEPHONE AND FAX NUMBERS
ADMIXTURES ASH RESOURCES (PTY) LTD
Tel: (011) 886 6200
Fax: (011) 886 6140
CEMCRETE (PTY) LTD
Tel: (011) 474 2415
Fax: (011) 474 2415
CEMENTATION CHEMICALS
Tel: (011) 868 1139
Fax: (011) 868 3766
CHRYSO SOUTHERN AFRICA (PTY) LTD
Tel: (011) 892 5726
Fax: (011) 892 5723
DGN MANUFACTURING
Tel: (033) 344 3790
Fax: (033) 344 3790
DRIKON (PTY) LTD
Tel: (011) 452 6890
Fax: (011) 452 7161
SAMSON CONSTRUCTION PRODUCTS
(PTY) LTD
Tel: (011) 455 5104
Fax: (011) 455 6632
BATCHING BIRKENMAYER (PTY) LTD
PLANT Tel: (011) 970 3880
Fax: (011) 394 1681
CHAMBERLAIN TRADING FH (PTY) LTD
Tel: (012) 329 0729
Fax: (012) 329 0740
DENITH ENGINEERING (PTY) LTD
Tel: (012) 418 3690
Fax: (012) 419 7678
IAN DICKIE & CO (PTY) LTD
Tel: (021) 534 3431
Fax: (021) 534 3440
PAN MIXERS SA (PTY) LTD
Tel: (011) 397 3754
Fax: (011) 397 4721
PLANT TECHNOLOGY CC
INCORPORATING RACKLIFT INT
Tel: (011) 869 8111
Fax: (011) 869 8196
TURNER MORRIS (PTY) LTD
Tel: (011) 618 2620
Fax: (011) 618 4313
VRN STEEL (PTY) LTD
Tel: (011) 861 5200
Fax: (011) 861 5353
BLOCK AND CONCRETE PUMPS CC
BRICK MAKING Tel: (031) 303 1397
MACHINERY Fax: (031) 312 0294
DEMS (PTY) LTD
Tel: (031) 579 9300
Fax: (031) 579 5139


BLOCK AND EHRENBERG ENGINEERING (PTY) LTD
BRICK MAKING Tel: (011) 493 6280
MACHINERY Fax: (011) 493 1677
JACKSON INSTRUMENTS
Tel: (031) 208 6656
Fax: (031) 208 6656
OELSCHLAEGER & PARTNERS PW (PTY) LTD
Tel: (011) 396 2600
Fax: (011) 396 1412
Tel: (011) 397 3754
Fax: (011) 397 4721
PINETOWN MACHINE
MANUFACTURERS CC
Tel: (031) 701 3132
Fax: (031) 702 7820
Reef Construction Machinery
Company (Pty) Ltd
Tel: (011) 397 3754
Fax: (011) 397 4721
CEMENT ALPHA
Tel: (011) 670 5500
Fax: (011) 670 5793
LAFARGE
Tel: (011) 474 1323
Fax: (011) 474 3110
NATAL PORTLAND CEMENT
Tel: (031) 450 4433
Fax: (031) 465 1774
PPC
Tel: (011) 488 1700
Fax: (011) 726 3537
CURING CHRYSO SOUTHERN AFRICA (PTY) LTD
COMPOUNDS Tel: (011) 892 5726
Fax: (011) 892 5723
CORROLEC CC
Tel: (011) 465 1807
Fax: (011) 467 0458
CORROSION CONTROL CENTRE
INTERNATIONAL CC
Tel: (012) 664 1551
Fax: (012) 664 0319
HALL’S ADHESIVE & CHEMICALS
Tel: (0333) 94 3976
Fax: (0333) 94 6075
JOJUN PAINTS SA (PTY) LTD
Tel: (031) 709 0161
Fax: (031) 709 0166
SHAKA (PTY) LTD
Tel: (011) 452 6890
Fax: (011) 452 7161
SPECIALISED SURFACE
COATINGS (PTY) LTD
Tel: (011) 680 1156
Fax: (011) 680 7781

27

MIXERS CONDRA (PTY) LTD
Tel: (011) 873 9800
Fax: (011) 873 9807
BABCOCK PLANT & EQUIPMENT
Tel: (011) 826 6511
Fax: (011) 823 2030
BIRKENMAYER H (PTY) LTD
Tel: (011) 970 3880
Fax: (011) 394 1681
BUILD PLUMB & TILE RANDBURG CC
Tel: (011) 886 0734
Fax: (011) 789 6856
BUILDEQUIP HIRE & SALES (PTY) LTD
Tel: (021) 948 8127
Fax: (021) 949 7400
BUILMACHINES CC
Tel: (021) 981 6040
Fax: (021) 981 7120
CHAMBERLAIN TRADING FH (PTY) LTD
Tel: (012) 329 0729
Fax: (012) 329 0740
CORPGRO INDUSTRIAL & BUILDING
SUPPLIES (PTY) LTD
Tel: (011) 315 7553
Fax: (011) 315 7589
DEMS (PTY) LTD
Tel: (031) 579 9300
Fax: (031) 579 5139
FORMSCAFF (PTY) LTD (CHLOORKOP)
Tel: (011) 393 4400
Fax: (011) 976 2037
GENQUIP CC
Tel: (031) 569 2133
Fax: (031) 569 2136
JAYTRADE CC
Tel: (021) 706 0002
Fax: (021) 706 0005
LIBRA-PLANT SALES & SERVICES (PTY) LTD
Tel: (011) 392 6245
Fax: (011) 392 6249
LIEBHERR-AFRICA (PTY) LTD
Tel: (011) 365 2000
Fax: (011) 817 3884
MACHINERY MART
Tel: (031) 301 7069
Fax: (031) 301 0633
MALVON EQUIPMENT (CAPE) CC
Tel: (021) 948 5731
Fax: (021) 945 1739
OELSCHLAEGER & PARTNERS PW (PTY) LTD
Tel: (011) 396 2600
Fax: (011) 396 1412
Tel: (011) 397 3754
Fax: (011) 397 4721


MIXERS PROF (PTY) LTD
Tel: (011) 864 4773
Fax: (011) 864 3321
REEF CONSTRUCTION MACHINERY
COMPANY (PTY) LTD
Tel: (011) 397 3754
Fax: (011)397 4721
TURNER MORRIS (PTY) LTD
Tel: (011) 618 2620
Fax: (011) 618 4313
VIBRATE SALES & SERVICES CC
Tel: (011) 493 6254
Fax: (011) 493 6049
MOULDS DGN MANUFACTURING
Tel: (033) 344 3790
HAWK ENGINEERING
Tel: (012) 541 2660/6
Fax: (012) 541 2667
OLD WORLD CONCRETES (PTY) LTD
Tel: (011) 626 2510
Fax: (011) 626 2209
PENTA CC
Tel: (021) 697 4223
Fax: (021) 697 4226
POLYNATES (PTY) LTD
Tel: (021) 691 1438
Fax: (021) 692 2891
PRO STEEL CONSTRUCTION CC
Tel: (021) 981 4530
Fax: (021) 981 2385
ROEJAY EQUIPMENT & ENGINEERING
Tel: (011) 442 6912
Fax: (011 788 7827
RUTEC
Tel: (011) 402 3245
Fax: (011) 402 3246
TRANSVAAL RUBBER COMPANY
Tel: (011) 839 2370
Fax: (011) 830 1629
TRIANGLE FIBREGLASS & CONSTRUCTION
Tel: (016) 451 3051
Fax: (016) 451 1700
MOULD AA BALL ENGINEERING
RELEASE SUPPLIES (PTY) LTD
AGENTS Tel: (021) 425 1950
Fax: (021) 425 1489
ADVANCED MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY
(PTY) LTD
Tel: (011) 392 4232
Fax: (011) 974 4198
AMT DURBAN
Tel: (031) 201 1319
Fax: (031) 201 2803
MOULD CHESTERTON INTERNATIONAL
RELEASE INCORPORATED
AGENTS Tel: (021) 790 6364
Fax: (021) 790 6365

29

MOULD HA FALCHEM (SA) (PTY) LTD
RELEASE Tel: (011) 864 4608
AGENTS Fax: (011) 864 3174
NFC DISTRIBUTORS (PTY) LTD
Tel: (017) 647 5941
Fax: (017) 647 5330
REAC POLYURETHANE
TECHNOLOGIES (PTY) LTD
Tel: (011) 609 3013
Fax: (011) 609 3018
SPRANG TOOL (PTY) LTD
Tel: (011) 618 3600
Fax: (011) 614 9610
KLUBER LUBRICATION (PTY) LTD
Tel: (011) 908 2457
Fax: (011) 864 7373
DGN MANUFACTURING
Tel: (033) 344 3790
Fax: (033) 344 3790
FUCHS LUBRICANTS (SOUTH AFRICA)
(PTY) LTD
Tel: (011) 392 5410
Fax: (011) 392 5686
GREEN TRADING INTERNATIONAL CC
Tel: (031) 466 4106
Fax: (031) 466 4675
QUICKOUT TRACKING SERVICES CC
Tel: (031) 301 5110
Fax: (031) 301 5110
ROCKFORD DEVELOPMENTS CC
Tel: (012) 667 4963
Fax: (012) 667 4963
SPECIAL PRODUCTS
Tel: (021) 854 4808
Fax: (021) 853 2366
PYROTEK ENGINEERING MATERIALS
(PTY) LTD
Tel: (035) 797 4039
Fax: (035) 797 4045
STEVECO (PTY) LTD
Tel: (011) 334 1230
Fax: (011) 334 0548
PIGMENTS BAYER SA (PTY) LTD
Tel: (011) 921 5238
Fax: (011) 921 5128
ROLFES COLOUR PIGMENTS INT.
Tel: (011) 874 0600
Fax: (011) 874 0787
CONCOR TECHNICRETE
Tel: (011) 316 2341
Fax: (011) 316 3397
REINFORCING ALERT STEEL (PTY) LTD
WELDED MESH Tel: (012) 800 1145
Fax: (012) 800 4017
BRAVO STEEL CC
Tel: (012) 250 2196
Fax: (012) 250 2765


REINFORCING BRC MESH REINFORCING (PTY) LTD
WELDED MESH Tel: (016) 421 3520
Fax: (016) 421 3915
GENERAL STEEL
Tel: (011) 614 6625
Fax: (011) 614 9112
HENDOK (PTY) LTD
Tel: (031) 507 6731
Fax: (031) 500 4353
NATIONAL TRADING COMPANY (PTY) LTD
Tel: (011) 821 5200
Fax: (011) 824 3039
NFC DISTRIBUTORS (PTY) LTD
Tel: (017) 647 5941
Fax: (017) 647 5330
NORTH-WEST STEEL & CEMENT CC
Tel: (014) 596 6193
Fax: (014) 596 6323
POLYMESH (PTY) LTD
Tel: (011) 817 1402
Fax: (011) 817 1846
REINFORCING & ALLIED INDUSTRIES
FREE STATE
Tel: (051) 435 2885
Fax: (051) 435 3833
REINFORCING STEEL HOLDINGS (PTY) LTD
Tel: (011) 316 1035
Fax: (011) 316 4072
STEEL STRAIGHTENERS (PTY) LTD
Tel: (011) 825 1690
Fax: (011) 873 2012
STEELEDALE MESH
Tel: (011) 401 6300
Fax: (011) 613 3452
STEELMATE (PTY) LTD
Tel: (011) 894 7094
Fax: (011) 918 2836
STOCON REINFORCING (PTY) LTD
Tel: (011) 316 2227
Fax: (011) 316 1555
WB INDUSTRIAL SUPPLIERS CC
Tel: (031) 465 4561
Fax: (031) 465 5974
WIREFORCE STEELBAR (PTY) LTD
Tel: (011) 873 1144
Fax: (011) 873 9795
REINFORCING & ALLIED INDUSTRIES
FREE STATE
Tel: (051) 435 2885
Fax: (051) 435 3833
REINFORCING STEEL HOLDINGS (PTY) LTD
Tel: (011) 316 1035
Fax: (011) 316 4072
SRICK PARADISE
Tel: (011) 465 2069
Fax; (011) 465 2069
MERCO INDUSTRIES (PTY) LTD
Tel: (011) 760 4094
Fax: (011) 760 4173
VAAL STEAM SUPPLIES (PTY) LTD
Tel: (016) 421 1278
Fax: (016) 421 1593

31
ANNEX B: Details of some precast concrete products that can be made by

a small-scale manufacturer
NOTE: Concrete having a strength (compressive) of 25 MPa should be used for
making all units including paving blocks except for blocks and bricks.
Bird bath and stand
Size and shape determined by demand.
Blocks
Blocks can be solid or hollow
Hollow
Solid
Blocks normally are big and require two hands to lay. Length between 300 and
650mm, width between 130 and 300 mm, height between 120 and 300 mm.
Normal thicknesses of wall specified are 90, 110, 140 and 190 for single leaf walls
and 230 (90-50-90) or 270 (110-50-11-) for cavity walls. 140 mm thick walls are
most popular for external walls of houses. Normal lengths of 140 mm units are
190, 220, 290 and 390 and heights 140 and 190 mm.
190
140
90/106
In the marketplace, there is a proliferation of sizes. Normally the minimum shell

thickness of 90 and 140 mm blocks is 25 mm and for 190 mm blocks 33 mm.
Normally, in practice the shell thickness is 2 to 5 mm thicker. The volume of the
cores of hollow blocks should be between 25 and 60%. The minimum
compressive strength for hollow and solid blocks is 3,0 MPa respectively for single
storey houses but higher strength required for most other uses.

Taper
Shell
Bricks
Bricks can be solid (with or without a frog) or hollow.
Bricks normally require one hand to lay. A brick must comply with all three of the
following dimensional requirements:
length < 300 mm

width < 130 mm
height < 120 mm
Solid
With frog
Hollow
The old imperial brick size was 222 x 106 x 73 mm and the modular size brick is
190 x 90 x 90 mm. (Note: specified wall thickness is 90 and 110 mm. A 140 mm
thick single leaf wall uses units for 140 mm which is a block size). In the market
place, non-modular and non-imperial brick sizes are made such as 222 x 90 x 73
or 114 mm.
These units do not bond well in say brick piers or English or Flemish bond. They
deviate from the basic principle that the length of a unit should be twice the
width, plus the thickness of the joint, i.e. 222 = 2 x 106 + 10 but 222 π 2 x 90 + 10
(190). The minimum compressive strength for hollow and solid bricks is 3,0 and
4,0 MPa respectively.
90
222 10 90
222

33
Capping or coping blocks

Capping or coping blocks are used to protect and give an attractive finish to say
boundary walls.
Drainage elements
Size and shape determined by demand. Gratings and outlets are popular
elements.
Fence posts
Size and shape determined by demand.
Flower bed edging

A typical type of edging is
shown in the sketches.
Flower pots
Flower pots can be precast in all sorts of
shapes and sizes.

Kerbs, channels and edging

The sections of kerbs and channels shown are those in normal use. The length of
each product does not exceed one metre but ease of handling will determine
maximum length.
Lintels
Lintels are required to span openings in walls such as windows, doors, etc. The
length of pre-cast concrete lintels depends not only on the size of opening but on
the ease of manufacture, handling and placing in position.
Lintels may be constructed either of a single reinforced precast concrete beam (a)
or by masonry lintel blocks.
Masonry
lintels
Precast
beam
The amount of reinforcement depends on the loading, span of lintel and depth
(normally related to brick and block heights).
Post and panel fences
A post and panel fence consists of precast concrete posts recessed to accept
precast concrete panels.
Paving blocks
Concrete block pavers can be made in a variety of shapes and sizes. Normally their
plan dimensions are small so they can be laid by one hand with maximum lengths
and widths of 300 and 150 mm respectively though in the market place the
dimensions are around 200 and 100 mm respectively. Typical thicknesses are 50,
60 and 80 mm.
Some block shapes are patented and a check should be made with the mould
manufacturer. With large sophisticated machines concrete pavers are made with
semi-dry mixes. For small operators, casting into moulds to obtain the 25 MPa
minimum strength is recommended.

35
Paving slabs
Paving slabs are bigger than block
pavers with dimensions up to 500 x 500 x
60 mm and are usually of square plan
though sometimes rectangular and
hexagon in shape.
Sculptures
Normally these are cast in rubber moulds
to permit ease of de-moulding. Various
mould shapes are available from
suppliers though moulds can be made
form positives.
Sills
Sills can be pre-cast concrete or of masonry construction, dimensions to suit the
coursing of the masonry.
Sources of information and references to standards:
Sources of information on precast concrete and concrete masonry units.
Aggregate suppliers:
Alpha Tel: (011) 670 5500

Fax: (011) 670 5793
Lafarge Tel: (011) 474 1323

Fax: (011) 474 3110
Boutek Tel: (012) 481 2911

Fax: (012) 481 2834
Cement and Concrete Institute Tel: (011) 315 0300

Fax: (011) 315 0584
Concrete Manufacturers Association Tel: (011) 805 6742

Fax: (011) 315 4683
Cement Companies
- Alpha Tel: (011) 670 5000
Fax: (011) 670 5793
- Lafarge Tel: (011) 474 1323
Fax: (011) 474 3110
- Natal Portland Cement Tel: (031) 450 4433
Fax: (031) 465 1774
- PPC Tel: (011) 488 1700
Fax: (011) 726 3537
- NHBRC Tel: (011) 348 5715
Fax: (011) 285 4111
- Standards South Africa Tel: (012) 428 7911
Fax: (012) 344 1568

ANNEX C: Notes on the design and construction of the concrete slab on

which an egg-laying machine operates.
The minimum thickness of slab is 125 mm. However, in the case of employing a
small machine, a thickness of 100 mm could be adequate. Large machines
operating with intense vibration may require a thickness of 150 mm to 200 mm.
Use mix proportions in accordance with the provisions of Table D1.
Table D1: Concrete mix proportions for production slab
Size of Proportions by volume* Quantities per cubic metre of concrete

stone, mm Cement Sand Stone Cement,** bags Sand, m3 Stone, m3
19.0 or 26.5 1 2 2
1 bag 75 l 75 l 8.7 0.7 0.7
13.2 1 2 11/3
1 bag 75 l 55 l 10 0.8 0.8
* Loose, uncompacted state except for cement in bags
** Complying with SANS 50197-1 CEM1 or CEMII A
The amount of water is not given in the table because it depends on the materials
used. Use enough water to make a workable mix that can be properly
compacted.
For concrete ordered from a ready-mix supplier or contractor, specify a strength

of 30 MPa at 28 days and 19 mm stone. Slump should be 75 mm if the concrete is
to be compacted by mechanical vibration and 125 mm for hand compaction. A
wood-floated finish permits easier removal of blocks.
To prevent uncontrolled cracking of the slab, it should be divided into panels

which should be square or as close to square as possible. A construction joint is
shown in Figure D1. The halfround key prevents differential settlement of
adjacent slabs.
The maximum joint spacing depends on the thickness of the slab and should not
exceed 3,0, 4,5 and 6 m for slab thicknesses of 100 mm, 125 mm, 150 mm and 200
mm respectively.
It is not necessary to reinforce the panels with steel rods or mesh.
An area big enough to stack two weeks’ production is needed for curing and
drying blocks.
It is normally not necessary to pave this area. To avoid muddy conditions, a layer
of concrete stone, about 100 mm thick, should be enough.

37
Figure D1: Construction joint

Notes

39
Notes

Acknowledgements

Gautrans
Soweto City Council
eThekwini Metro
of guidelines.
Organisation
The BESA building system

Part 1
all citizens”
Part 3
manufacture
commenced in 1996.
making
technology
technology
unsealed roads
towards a labour intensive programme of EAP is working to ensure that the engineering
development.

Edition
of CIDB
document
The BESA building system

1025
March 2005
Contents
1. Introduction 3
2. Satisfying legislative requirements 3
3. The manufacture of BESA blocks 5
4. Design and erection 6
Acknowledgements 9


Tel: 27 12-481 9030 Fax: 27 12-343 7153
T
works components.


3.2 – The BISA building system
1. Introduction
The BESA Building System is a walling system comprising bitumen emulsion

stabilised adobe blocks and mortar (see Figure 1) which may be used for single
storey houses, schools, clinics and offices. These 200 mm thick walls incorporate a
composite concrete and block ring beam that:
• stabilises the wall,
• provides an anchorage for roofs,
• spans window and door openings.
Where the horizontal span of the wall exceeds that commonly associated with
houses, the walls are reinforced at regular intervals with brickforce reinforcement
and incorporate full height cast in situ reinforced concrete columns and ring
beams that together stabilise the structure.
External and internal wall surfaces can be finished in a variety of ways using a
mortar mix or a cement/sand plaster. All other aspects of construction are
conventional and utilize conventional building materials.
2. Satisfying legislative requirements
Building systems must satisfy the requirements of the National Building

Regulations and, in the case of contractor-built houses, the technical
requirements of the National Home Builders Registration Council. These
requirements are both framed in terms of performance and can be satisfied by
constructing elements and components in accordance with one or more of the
following:
• a set of deemed-to-satisfy design and construction rules,
• the requirements of a suitably qualified person,
• the requirements of an Agrément certificate.
The BESA system is not covered by the deemed-to-satisfy rules provided in SANS
10400 (The application of National Building Regulations) or the NHBRC’s Home
Building Manual. It also cannot be rationally designed with confidence by a
suitably qualified person as its material properties are relatively unknown. It can
only satisfy requirements if it is the subject of an Agrément Certificate (i.e. a
certificate confirming fitness-for-purpose of a non-standardised product, material
or component and/or the acceptability of the related non-standardised design
and the conditions pertaining thereto) issued by Agrément South Africa in terms
of the powers granted to it by the Minister of Public Works.

3
Figure 1: Elements of the BESA system
Moulds for the manufacture of

BESA Blocks
Alternative footing detail
The BESA Building System is the subject of open certificates issued by Agrèment
South Africa. The concept of an open certificate is that the technology is not
intellectual property of any company or individual and the information is
available to anyone who wishes to use it.
Agrément Open Certificate OC-1/2001 (The BESA Building System) covers the use
of the BESA system for the erection of single storey houses in all parts of South
Africa for the uses (occupancy classes (SANS 10400-A; Table 1 of Regulations
A(20)(1)) set out below:
• H4 Dwelling houses (detached houses and related outbuildings)
Who may apply? • H3 Domestic residences (semi-detached houses, row houses and related
outbuildings)
Any competent person, company or
institution who wishes to use this system Agrément Open Certificate OC-2/2003 (The BESA 2 Building System (Schools, clinic
to build houses, schools, clinics or and offices) covers the use of the BESA system for the erection of single storey
offices, that comply with the National buildings in all parts of South Africa for the uses set out below:
Building Regulations, or is capable of • A3 Places of instruction
carrying out this work in accordance • G1 Offices and clinics
with the terms and conditions of
certification and undertakes to do so,
These certificates and Agrément South Africa’s assessment applies only to BESA
may apply to Agrément South Africa to
buildings that are designed, manufactured and erected as described and
be registered as a holder of these open
certificates. illustrated in the afore-mentioned certificates, and where the terms and
conditions of certification are applied.

3. The manufacture of BESA blocks
Access to sufficient quantities of suitable soil is a

Block manufacture
prerequisite to the use of the BESA Building System.
It is therefore essential that a preliminary
assessment is undertaken to determine the • Mix selected earth, bitumen emulsion and polypropylene fibres with water.
• Place this mix in rectangular open moulds of the requisite size.
suitability of the earth that is available on the site
• Remove the moulds from the blocks.
and where borrow pits may be located. Soil that is
• Stack the blocks when they are sufficiently cured to be moved without
suitable for the manufacture of BESA blocks is distorting.
predominantly a sandy soil with a maximum • Allow the blocks to dry and shrink naturally.
aggregate size of 10 mm and a fines content that is
preferably between 20% and 60%. Almost any well-graded soil that has the
correct particle shape is worth testing in a laboratory.
The earth and other materials are normally mixed on site in a pan mixer. Moulds
may be made from steel or wood and are cleaned and oiled as necessary to
ensure the efficient production of accurately sized blocks. (See Figure 1.) The
block mix is thrown into the moulds by hand or with a shovel. A degree of
compaction is achieved by pressing the mix into the corners of the mould by hand
and working the mix to remove excess air. The top surface is smoothed off with
a straight edge, and a suitable mark to identify the batch is scratched or pressed
into the upper surface of the wet block. The mould is then removed by lifting it
straight up.
After demoulding, the blocks are left undisturbed until they are firm enough to
be turned on edge without distorting. After an initial 24 hours the blocks may be
exposed to full sun to encourage the curing process (in this case the drying
process). If manufactured in the open air, the blocks are protected from rain until
at least a week old. When sufficiently strong, the blocks are carried to a stockpile
and stacked on edge with spaces between them to allow air circulation. No blocks
are used until they are properly dry and at least four weeks old. This period may
be extended if the drying process was delayed by cold or wet weather.
Blocks must be manufactured strictly in accordance with the provisions of

Agrément South Africa’s Guideline 1, The Manufacture of BESA Blocks which
establishes requirements in respect of the following:
a) Materials
i) Earth (particle shape, soluble salt content,
shrinkage product and grading)
ii) Water
iii) Bitumen emulsion
iv) Polypropylene fibres
b) The mix
i) Bitumen emulsion content
ii) Water content
iii) Typical mix for test blocks
c) The test blocks

i) Tests
ii) Acceptance criteria for BESA test blocks
d) Tests for blocks selected from production runs

i) Earth brick drop test
ii) Weight test
iii) Water absorption test

5
4. Design and erection
4.1 Design of houses and related outbuildings

The design and erection requirements are established in Agrément Open
Certificate OC-1/2001 (The BESA Building System). Supporting walls are required
wherever the panel length exceeds:
• 6,0 metres in general, or
• 7,5 metres where walls support tiled roofs.
Wall heights at eaves are not to exceed 2,6 metres (3,6 metres at gable wall apex).
Control joints need to be provided at centres not exceeding 9,0 metres. Roof
spans are not to exceed 6,0 metres.
Designs are also provided for rondavels having a diameter not exceeding 7,0
metres.
4.2 Design of schools, clinics, offices and related buildings

The design and erection requirements are established in Agrément Open
Certificate OC-2/2003 (The BESA 2 Building System - schools, clinics and offices.
The maximum length of wall panels between columns is 3,5 metres.
Wall heights are not to exceed 3,0 metres (4,5 at gable end). Control joints need
to be provided at centres not exceeding 9,5 metres. Roof spans are not to exceed
7,5 metres in respect of tiled roofs. (No requirement in respect of sheeted roofs.)
4.3 Design of foundations for schools, clinics, offices, houses and related
buildings
Foundation designs are based on residential site class designations of H, C, S or R
in accordance with the provisions of the Joint Structural Division of SAICE/
IStructE Code of Practice for Foundations and Superstructures for Single Storey
Residential Buildings of Masonry Construction.

Notes

7
Notes

Acknowledgements

Gautrans
Soweto City Council
eThekwini Metro
of guidelines.
Organisation
Labour-based open channel flow

technology
Part 1
all citizens”
Part 3
manufacture
commenced in 1996.
making
technology
technology
unsealed roads
development.

Edition
of CIDB
document
Labour-based open channel flow technology 1026

March 2005
Contents
Overview of best practice labour-based guidelines
1. Introduction 3
2. Design considerations 3
4. Plant and equipment requirements 7
5. Construction technique 7
Acknowledgements 9


Tel: 27 12-481 9030 Fax: 27 12-343 7153
Part 4 – Labour-based construction technologies
T
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Part 4-1 – Labour-based open channel flow technology
1. Introduction
Stormwater drainage to overcome flooding was introduced to minimise the

Note
inconvenience and disruption of activity caused by the run-off from frequent or
minor storms. It is also provided to minimise the danger to life and property by
control of run-off from infrequent or major storms. This concept can be achieved Open channel construction is by its very
nature labour-based. This guideline has
by the use of two separate but inter-related systems: the minor and major
been compiled to present the
drainage systems.
technology, with direction for design,
materials selection and construction
The minor system forms the conventional urban drainage system that collects against the background of experience
run-off from storms of up to 10-year return periods. As the minor system is gained to date in Southern Africa.
designed in conjunction with a major system, less reliance need be placed on its
function and it can be designed for smaller storms, thus saving on construction
costs. The design of the major system requires working with nature to provide an
orderly drainage system for major flood run-off. It consists of water carrying
routes that include natural watercourses, streets and servitudes. The major system
is usually designed for storms of return periods of 50 years or more.
In practice, the application of the minor / major drainage concept requires the
construction of overflows at critical points, where the underflow is carried by the
minor system and the overflow is directed into the major system. It has also been
found necessary to be generous with allocating freeboard in the design of major
systems, as the calculation of storm flows for long-term flood events is imprecise.
2. Design considerations
2.1 Storm flows

Comprehensive guidance can be obtained from the Roads Drainage Manual
(Rooseboom, 1993) in the different design methods applicable to the calculation
of storm flows. For small catchments (less than 15 km2) the ‘rational method’ is
recommended as it is based on simplified representative processes involved in
run-off. The data collection needed to give the rational method a reasonable
level of accuracy is not onerous and can be done during a site inspection, as long
as the inspection can be supplemented with information found on orthophoto
maps. As the maps are based on aerial photography, some catchment
characteristics can be deduced from them.
Other methods of estimating run-off can be used, if sufficient data can be

gathered. Most methods require large amounts of data on catchment
characteristics that can be time consuming to gather and are rarely justified.
2.2 Open channel design flow

Open channels are the preferred conduits for the conveyance of storm run-off for
several reasons:
• If the channel has been correctly situated in a valley line or low point, its
carrying capacity is large, as the designed high water levels can be exceeded,
even though some damage may occur when the banks overflow. In contrast,
the carrying capacity of a pipe culvert increases steadily as the flow increases
to about 70% of its maximum depth and then reduces by at least seven
percent as the pipe fills and water reaches the top of the pipe. A box culvert
will show a more abrupt loss of capacity as the water surface reaches the
soffit, due to the additional friction. Both pipe and box culverts will then only
increase in capacity after surcharging has taken place. This change to a
pressurised system is not a normal design criterion for stormwater systems.

3
• Closed drainage systems must have access points for maintenance, normally
manholes. Manholes, unless very carefully designed and constructed, are a
major source of head loss due to turbulence. Unbenched manholes will collect
sediment, stones and even boulders. The head lost at each manhole can
severely reduce the flow capacity of the closed system. An open channel is
accessible for maintenance throughout its length.
• Closed conduits conceal blockages, which only become apparent when

flooding occurs, by which stage it is too late. Clearing of the blockage may
then be difficult. Blockages in open channels can easily be seen and
immediately cleared. Their capacity is not as critically dependent upon regular
inspection as that of closed conduits.
2.3 Safety
The easy accessibility of open channels may have a negative side. Because they are
so accessible, children may play in them, especially when water is flowing. In this
regard, a lesson from the Laingsburg flood should be borne in mind: a person is
able to wade through fast-flowing water until the depth reaches knee-deep and
the flow velocity reaches three metres per second. This is the critical combination
of depth and velocity at which a person is swept away. It may not be possible to
design an open channel so that the depth and flow velocity are safe. Other safety
measures must then be looked at. Fencing off the channel may cause more
problems than it solves. A fence can act as an efficient debris filter and eventually
deflect overland flows away from the drain, to cause considerable damage.
2.4 Channel lining

Flow velocities in open channels will dictate the type of channel or channel-lining
required. Sensible limits to the flow velocity must be applied in order to limit
erosion damage. The maximum flow velocity which can be withstood by various
soil types and ditch linings is approximately as follows:
• Fine sandy soil 0,6 m/s

• Gravelly soil and stiff clays 1,2 m/s
• Cement grouted rock lining 3,0 m/s
• Concrete over 5,0 m/s
Further guidance can be found in the Road Drainage Manual (Rooseboom, 1993).
Typical roughness coefficients for various channel materials and various linings
can also be found in the Road Drainage Manual (Rooseboom, 1993).
The chosen lining should be labour-friendly, in other words it should be readily

amenable to construction by labour. For open channels virtually all lining
materials can be laid by hand, so this requirement is hardly a restriction. However,
for reasons of economy, the chosen channel lining should make maximum use of
local materials.
2.5 Road crossings

Culverts are generally chosen as the means by which open channels cross beneath
roads. Adequate waterway area is probably the most important and the most
difficult criterion to meet. Normally headroom is strictly limited which may
severely limit the culvert waterway that can be constructed. If the traffic using the
road is such that flooding can be tolerated for short periods, then a drift can
provide the additional waterway needed to accommodate a long-return period

flood. The drift should be designed as a broad-crested weir. Generous freeboard

should be provided to enable a larger flood to pass safely. If flow depths can be
limited to 200 mm for the design flood, traffic will seldom be hindered from using
the crossing. However, if space does not permit a long drift and flow depths are
larger than 200 mm, consideration should be given to the placement of 200 mm
high blocks or pillars at intervals along the drift edges to act as depth indicators.
A sign should be erected advising that the drift should not be attempted when
the depth indicators are under water. (The drift will provide a measure of safety
against blockage of the culvert beneath.)
As flow velocities over a broad-crested weir at 200 mm depth are quite small, no
special provision need be made to prevent scour of the road surface. However,
the downstream flow velocities can increase significantly and will require armour
to prevent erosion. Gabions are usually a viable solution. A major advantage of
gabions is that pore-pressures cannot build up at the face, as they would
upstream of a masonry wall. Gabion walls can support the edge of the roadway,
can provide a hydraulic sill preventing downcutting by the floodwaters and can
prevent undercutting by the falling water, provided
that a gabion mattress is strategically placed for this
purpose. (See Figure 1) Figure 1: Gabions
If a drift cannot be constructed, then the culvert SURFACE OF

should be made with openings as large as possible, ROADWAY GABIONS
with a generous allowance for blockage by debris.
Storms as large as the 50-year return interval design
storm frequently uproot trees and bushes and drag
along large quantities of debris. A culvert can be
plugged quite rapidly, causing the flow to overtop GABION MATTRESS
the structure and damage the road.

5
3. Materials requirements
Open channel drains may comprise lined or unlined channels, depending on the
ground conditions and the flows that have to be carried. Linings are costly and
should only be used after the conditions for a channel have been properly
assessed. Scour checks can control flow velocities to a limited extent and are
usually cheaper than lining.
Typical channel lining materials include:

• Vegetation: low-growing vegetation - like matted grasses - is the only suitable
type for channel linings. Kikuyu grass should be avoided as it needs fairly
large quantities of water for its establishment and continued growth in arid
climates. In wetter climates kikuyu grows too vigorously and chokes the
waterway, requiring regular cutting. The preferred grass is cynodon dactylon
variety transvaalensis, or ‘transvaal kweek’, which is hardy, well adapted to
arid conditions and is not usually vigorous enough to present problems.
• Masonry linings are rarely appropriate for large channels carrying high flows,
however, for small channels brick linings are technically adequate and can
have positive aesthetic qualities that are difficult to equal in other materials.
• Precast concrete units are available in many shapes and sizes and can give a
channel lining with many desirable properties. Paving units are suitable for
small channels and can have positive aesthetic qualities. Vertically interlocking
units are resistant to higher flow velocities and can be used to provide
greater roughness by alternating blocks of different thickness. Wired
interlocking units are suitable for high flow velocities and the openings
between the blocks encourage the establishment of vegetation. Grass blocks
(precast concrete units with openings) are often suitable for lining channel
bottoms and allow the establishment of vegetation. They combine well with
‘loeffel blocks’ used to support the channel sides. With all such linings, care
must be taken that turbulent flow does not erode the soil behind the lining
or through gaps in the lining and cause the lining to collapse. Geofabrics are
generally used to counter erosion behind the lining, while allowing free
drainage of groundwater. Abrasion of debris-laden water requires high unit
strength.
• In situ concrete as a lining is costly, but used in the right circumstances can be
cost-effective. It can resist high flow velocities when carefully detailed and
properly constructed. Drainage behind the lining must receive attention, as
high ground water levels after storm run-off has been passed, can cause the
lining to be lifted. The surface can be made very smooth to reduce
sedimentation at low flow velocities, but it is more difficult to make the
surface sufficiently rough to control high flow velocities. High flow velocities
are perhaps better controlled by means of a series of steps or stepped pools,
that induce a hydraulic jump at every step (Rooseboom, 1993). Abrasion of
debris-laden water requires high concrete strength.
• In situ concrete cast into ‘Hyson Cells’ combines the advantages of in situ
concrete with the flexibility of discrete blocks. (Reference should be made to
the literature from the supplier.)
• Rock is an excellent channel lining material and can often be obtained locally.
Rock can be used in many forms:
❍ plain stone pitching comprises laying of hand stone onto a compacted area,
the stones are driven into the earth and the gaps between the stones are
filled with spalls or with topsoil and rooted grass shoots,

❍ grouted stone pitching comprises plain stone pitching with the interstices
filled with a 1: 6 cement: sand mortar instead of spalls or topsoil,
❍ wired and grouted stone pitching comprises a wire net of 150 mm mesh
beneath and above the stone pitching with vertical wire ties at 600 mm
centres; when laid and tied together, the area is grouted with a 1: 6
cement: sand mortar. Quality of stone is required to be sound, tough and
durable, generally with a 200 mm minimum dimension. (Some
specifications permit stone with a diameter of up to 600 mm to be used.)
Wire should be four millimetre galvanised wire.
• Various membranes are in use for channel linings, generally for

waterproofing to cut infiltration into the ground. None are, however, robust
enough for township or rural settlement use.
4. Plant and equipment requirements
Compaction equipment comprising hand-guided vibrating rollers or plate

vibrators are adequate for all but the largest channels. Compaction with hand
stampers is adequate for small areas, especially in restricted spaces, but cannot be
recommended for general use. Concrete and cement mortars can be mixed by
hand or by machine, depending upon the size and speed of the lining project.
Hand mixing can produce high quality concrete and mortar, but requires that the
mixing team receive intensive training in technique and quality control. If this is
neglected the results will be poor.
Tools needed for channel linings will depend on the type of lining. Tools
commonly required include spades, shovels, picks, rakes, hand stampers, garden
forks, club hammers, spirit levels, straight edges, watering cans, ditch templates,
string lines, measuring tapes, boning rods and wheelbarrows.
5. Construction technique
Open channels are readily constructed by hand as the requirements for accuracy
and quality are generally not particularly onerous. The essential elements in the
construction of open channels are the following:
• Commence work at the lower end so that any water flowing into the channel
will drain away immediately and not accumulate to saturate the soil.
• Approach the final excavation level with caution so as not to over excavate.
(Overbreak requires costly backfilling that seldom matches the strength and
stability of undisturbed soil, especially in the case of unlined earth channels).
• Encourage the use of templates, as unskilled labour will quickly learn how to
use them to ensure correct shape and side-slope of the channel excavation.
Boning rods used in conjunction with profiles will ensure correct longitudinal
gradients.
• When linings are to be constructed, the channel bottom and sides must be
compacted to at least 90% of ModAASHTO maximum density. Poor soils
exposed during excavations should be removed and replaced with better
quality gravelly soils. Considerable effort is needed to ensure good
preparation before lining, as uneven settlement may destroy the lining and

7
negate its purpose. (Remedial work is more costly than doing the job properly
in the first place.)
• Stone pitching and block-laying is always started at the low side and worked
upstream. The units should be tightly packed.
• Grouting of stone pitching should be undertaken as the job progresses. If

grouting is delayed, storm flows carrying sediments can fill the voids in the
pitching. Should this happen, the pitching will have to be taken up, the
sediments cleaned out and the stone re-laid.
• Attention must be given to the surface finish of linings, in order to fulfil the
design requirements. If the design relies on a finished surface with absolute
roughness (k) of 0,01 m to control the flow velocity, then a steel-trowelled
finish is not desired.
• Drainage of the space behind the lining may be crucial and attention must be
focussed on getting the details to work. Filter layers and the installation of
flap-valves to relieve groundwater pressures may require specialist inputs.
• Concrete work must be properly cured for at least four days. Poorly cured
concrete will not have the abrasion resistance needed to withstand high
velocity debris-laden flows.
• Careful backfilling of spaces along and behind structures is essential to the

correct functioning of the drain constructed. Adequate quality control
measures must be in place.
1. Committee of Land Transport Officials. Standard Specifications for Road and

Bridge Works for State Road Authorities. 1998 edition.
2. SABS 2001 BE 7: Standardised Specification for Construction Works: Gabions

and Pitching.
3. Miles, L C; “Design philosophy for stormwater drainage”. Sixth Quinquennial

Convention of the South African Institution of Civil Engineers, Session 2:
Stormwater Hydraulics, Durban, June 1978, pp 20 to 24.
4. Rooseboom, A et al, Editors “Road drainage manual”. South African Roads

Board, Department of Transport, Pretoria, revised and reprinted 1993.

Acknowledgements

Gautrans
Soweto City Council
eThekwini Metro
of guidelines.
Organisation
Rubble masonry dam

construction technology
Part 1
all citizens”
Part 3
manufacture
commenced in 1996.
making
technology
technology
unsealed roads
development.

Edition
of CIDB
document
Rubble masonry concrete dam construction 1027
March 2005
technology
Contents
1. Introduction 3
Acknowledgements 41


Tel: 27 12-481 9030 Fax: 27 12-343 7153
T
works components.


Part 4-2 – Rubble masonry concrete dam construction technology
1. Introduction
1.1 Background
Note
1.1.1 General
This section introduces the technology in broad The completion in 1996 of two significant Rubble Masonry Concrete (RMC)
principles and illustrates the related benefits to be dams in South Africa heralded the arrival of a cost-effective, low-mainte-
gained by its application, with specific reference to nance, labour-based dam technology. Since then RMC dam construction has
a number of projects completed in South Africa. repeatedly been demonstrated to be appropriate in the local environment
where there is an overriding need for employment creation.
1.1.2 The use of masonry in dam engineering
There is usually more than one design/construction solution for a particular
Although it has been partially washed away, the
dam site, not to mention the fact that by slightly moving the site, a com-
oldest dam wall still standing was constructed using
pletely different type of dam wall may provide the optimal solution. In South
stone and gravel enclosed in a skin of uncemented Africa and especially in Zimbabwe, it has been demonstrated that masonry
rubble masonry. Sadd el-Kafara Dam, constructed arch dams offer a very competitive solution under certain site-specific condi-
circa 4500 B.C. approximately 30 km to the south of tions.
Cairo in Egypt, stands over 11 m in height. In all
probability, this dam failed soon after completion This best-practice guide has been compiled to present the technology of
as a consequence of inadequate spillway capacity. RMC dam construction, with direction for design, materials evaluation and
Many early masonry dams have, however, stood the construction and against the background of experience gained to date in
test of time. For example, the Alicante Dam in constructing RMC dams in South Africa.
Spain, completed in 1594 to a height of 43 m, was
the highest dam in the world for almost 300 years.
Small arch dams were constructed by the Romans as long ago as the first century
BC, while the Mongols built several arches of quite large proportions during the
middle ages. All of these early arches were constructed using cut (or dressed)
stone, although it wasn’t until the middle of the 19th century that rational stress
design was applied for the first time at Zola Dam in France. In 1880, the world’s
first concrete arch dam was constructed in Australia and from this time on mass
concrete construction gave rise to a rapid development in arch dams worldwide.
Arch dams accordingly jumped from cut-stone to concrete without the transition
through variations of rubble masonries that were seen for gravity dams.
With the advent of rational design methods, strong and durable masonry gravity
dams were consistently being produced by the middle of the 19th century and
the majority of these remain standing today. The evolution of the internal
combustion engine, however, and the powerful mechanical equipment and plant
that this development made possible, facilitated more efficient construction for
major dams. Not only could a large dam be constructed in less time and at lower
cost using crushed aggregates and sophisticated mixing plants, but the higher Rubble Masonry Concrete (RMC)
levels of quality and impermeability achieved, encouraged the design of more
efficient structures. With the evolution of shuttered, high strength mass While using rubble, as opposed to
concrete, the horizons of the dam engineer were broadened and a new freedom dressed stone, the arch dam masonry is
constructed as a monolithic matrix of
to develop sophisticated three-dimensional structures was achieved.
large rock particles set in mortar, accord-
ing to the original definition of concrete
While these developments saw the application of masonry dams on large scale
as a ‘binding of loose particles into a
diminish after the first quarter of the 20th century in what is now the developed single mass’. The term ‘Rubble Masonry
world, masonry dam construction has remained popular in the developing world, Concrete’ differentiates between dress-
where low-cost labour is plentiful. In China, for example, very large gravity ed and rubble stone and indicates the
masonry structures (up to 95 m in height) were very popular until the advent of nature of the product of the hand-built
Roller Compacted Concrete (RCC) in the early 1980s. masonry work as a concrete. Qualifying
RMC with the phrase ‘new generation’
The majority of masonry dams constructed around the world in the past have distances the material from historical
been mass gravity structures that transfer load in a vertical plane into the masonries, with a view to signifying a
construction material suitable for use in
foundations. It is only in Zimbabwe since the mid-1980s that more ambitious arch
relatively thin arch dam structures.
designs have been constructed in masonry. Requiring impermeability from thin
structural members, these arch dams have necessitated the development of a

3
masonry of higher density and a more uniform consistency than applied on

earlier gravity structures, where the seepage length to water pressure ratios are
significantly higher. Furthermore, structures such as the high masonry gravity
dams applied in China made use of concrete membranes to provide the necessary
impermeability.
1.1.3 New generation RMC

New generation RMC was born out of a specific set of circumstances in Zimbabwe
during a period of prolific dam construction in the mid-1980s. From 1980 to the
mid-1990s the number of large dams in Zimbabwe increased from 76 to
approximately 169, while by 1993 10 600 small dams were on record in that country.
The particular circumstances in Zimbabwe are such that a general lack of

availability of ready mix concrete, particularly in rural areas, compromises the
competitiveness of all types of concrete dams on a small and medium scale. For
many years, masonry dam construction was accordingly applied on small dams as
a matter of necessity. Since 1985, however, masonry has been applied for larger
dams at which the establishment of an aggregate crushing plant would be
difficult to justify. For embankment dams, spillway sills and sidewalls have often
been constructed in RMC, while arch dam walls and other structure types have
been built up to heights of approximately 24 m. A general availability of suitable
sites, in terms of topography, geology and materials, has now promoted the
universal application of RMC technology on all but major dams throughout the
country.
Bringing this technology to South Africa in the 1990s, a different environment to

Zimbabwe in many aspects, a dam-building material was found and a labour-
based technology that could be demonstrated to be extremely cost-effective,
while producing a durable, low-maintenance dam wall. When considering these
factors and the training offered to previously unskilled labour in the production
of dense, impermeable, high quality masonry work, the merits of the RMC
technology could be seen to be quite exceptional in present day South Africa.
1.1.4 The status of the technology inherited from Zimbabwe

While Zimbabwe’s experience in RMC dam construction can be drawn upon to
assist in applications in South Africa, the prevalent level of understanding of the
material characteristics and the lack of published data and information leave
many questions unanswered. Much of the arch dam design was developed on an
empirical basis and the analytical techniques used appear not to have taken full
cognisance of the critical effects of temperature drop loadings.
Little, or no, large-scale materials testing has been undertaken in Zimbabwe and
the materials and dam behaviour and performance can only be judged on the
basis of physical inspection and verbal reports.
1.1.5 The apparent behaviour of RMC in dams

The Zimbabwe experience of the behaviour of RMC was soon confirmed in South
Africa and reflects a disparate drying and thermal shrinkage performance when
compared to conventional mass concrete. Structures of several hundred metres
in length can be constructed in summer without ever demonstrating the cracking
that would be unavoidable for an equivalent, jointless concrete structure. Whilst
1 Continuous contact of concrete / mortar with water the lack of drying shrinkage can be easily understood, the fact that cracks do not
seals cracks arising from drying shrinkage. In RMC form as a consequence of long-term thermal shrinkage cannot currently be
dams, autogenous healing (i.e. the closing up and
disappearance of breaks or cracks in concrete where satisfactorily justified on engineering principles.
the concrete parts are kept damp and in contact)
occurs on the upstream of the wall.
RMC dams seep1, rather than leak, before sealing themselves and becoming

watertight. In this process of sealing, efflorescence and calcite are deposited in

layers on the downstream face and the white streaking effect detracts from the
finish of the wall. However, as the seepage diminishes, the calcite deposits dry,
weather and discolour to a greenish brown, depending on the dampness and
extent of attached organic growth.
South Africa is home to a broader range of climates, geologies and construction
materials than is the case in Zimbabwe and greater extremes in RMC behaviour
and performance are likely to be experienced in this country.
1.2 RMC dams in South Africa

1.2.2 RMC dams
Rubble Masonry Concrete technology for dams blends ancient manual
construction methods with state of the art design techniques to create a dam
type that history missed - the RMC arch dam. The first ‘new generation’ RMC arch
dams were initiated in South Africa in 1995. Since then, the obvious benefits of
this technology have been demonstrated on more than 10 successfully completed
dams.
RMC dam construction has proved to be an efficient and highly cost-effective

method for the labour-based construction of small- and medium-sized dams.
With favourable conditions for a specific site, an RMC dam will usually be the
lowest cost dam type up to heights of around 25 m. At the sites evaluated and
exploited in South Africa to date, RMC technology has indicated a cost benefit
over the closest competing dam type of generally over 30%. In every instance the
component of the completed cost related directly to labour wages is significantly
higher than would be the case for competing dam types, and in certain instances
labour wages have represented up to 40% of the construction cost. A more usual
figure might, however, be in the region of 20%. At Bakubung Dam, 8 000 person-
days of employment can be directly attributed to the selection of this dam
construction technology.
1.2.3 RMC composition

As a broad definition, RMC is a matrix comprising
Bigger can be better
large stones, or plums, in a mortar binder. To
minimise cost and optimise structural properties, it is
Whilst economy plays a major role in promoting the objective of maximum
necessary to ensure the correct rock or stone large stone content, related secondary benefits are seen in material behav-
content. While a rock component content of 65 – iour, as long as adequate mortar film thickness is maintained and the appro-
70% is achievable, a realistic composition is 55% priate mortar workability is not exceeded in an effort to obtain greater rock
rock with 45% mortar. The mortar used will use.
generally comprise one part cement (one bag = 33
litres) and 4 – 6 parts sand (by volume), giving typical 28 day compressive
strengths for the RMC of the order of 14 down to 9 MPa. Accordingly a cubic
metre of 14 MPa RMC will typically comprise approximately 3,2 + pockets of
cement (160 kg), 660 kg sand and 1 460 kg rock. The concrete mix has a ratio of
one cement to 13,25 aggregate (sand and stone) by mass and can accordingly be
described as a ‘lean mix’.
Rock used will vary in size from approximately 50 mm maximum dimension, to

300 mm, the largest dimension being dependent on the thickness of the member
under construction and the obvious restrictions of manageable weight.
Compromised performance is seen when too few and too large rock particles are
applied, in relation to the size of the particular member under construction.
1.2.4 Construction objectives

A number of variations exist with regard to the placement and compaction of

5
RMC. Whilst the Zimbabweans have developed certain

The monolithic matrix vs. stones cemented together
methods and standard practices, various adaptations of
these methods have been made in South Africa.
In essence, this is similar in concept to the difference between brickwork
and concrete. The former comprises a series of individual entities
The quality and durability of the final structure
cemented to each other, while the latter comprises a body, or matrix of
produced in water retaining RMC is obviously
material made up of component constituents, in the form of cement,
aggregates and water. When a ‘rubble’ masonry structure is built in a inherently sensitive to the methods applied for
similar manner to brickwork, placing mortar as a receiving medium into placement and compaction, as can be witnessed when
which the surfaces of stones are embedded, the overall structural action inspecting many of the leaking masonry dam walls in
of the final body of material is compromised. Stress transfer paths are certain parts of Mpumalanga. It is important to
predetermined and limited, local tension effects become significant, the understand that RMC for arch dams must not be
mortar properties play a more dominant role and overall permeability is perceived as a series of stones cemented together using
high. mortar, but rather as a monolithic matrix, containing
large stones within a body of mortar.
1.2.5 Surface finish and appearance

The approach to surface finish applied in Zimbabwe is
generally one of producing plastered external surfaces,
with the occasional stone partially visible. This requires a
type of flush pointing technique, which produces a
relatively flat and even surface. The overall impression of
such a finish is one of poorly shuttered and discoloured
concrete. However, once through seepage occurs in the
process of sealing, the surface becomes covered by
efflorescent lime deposits and correspondingly white-
Rough finish RMC streaked. In various instances in South Africa, particularly
when a local stone with surface discoloration has been
used, it was considered advantageous to preserve a
natural rock surface appearance as far as possible. This
was achieved by applying recess pointing, whereby the
mortar is recessed behind the exposed surface of the
stone by approximately 15 mm. The result is a structure
that blends well aesthetically into its natural sur-
roundings and takes on an ‘ancient appearance’ very
soon after completion.
Variation in appearance for a recess pointed surface is

further possible, depending on the stone-pointing
method applied for the surface zones. While the
surfaces of Bakubung, Welgevonden and Star Dams
‘Zimbabwe’ finish RMC were finished relatively roughly, with uneven stone
projections, the surface of the masonry on Genadendal
and Hogsback Dams were recess-pointed very carefully,
to produce a stone-pitched wall appearance. Both
approaches have merit. The approach adopted at
Bakubung producing a more ‘ancient’ appearance and
that applied at Genadendal a very neat and decorative
finish.
1.3 RMC dam projects completed in South Africa

1.3.1 The first two South African RMC dams
By coincidence, the first two RMC arch dams to be
constructed in South Africa were initiated
independently, but virtually in parallel, during 1995.
Decorative finish RMC
Bakubung Dam in the Pilanesberg National Park, North

West Province is a 14,5 m high RMC multiple arch

buttress dam, while the Maritsane Dam, near Bushbuck
Ridge, Mpumalanga is an 18 m high single curvature
arch dam with an embankment flank. Both dams were
completed in early 1996. Maritsane Dam follows,
relatively closely, the model arch with an embankment
flank developed in Zimbabwe. (Zimbabwe design and
construction expertise was indeed brought in to assist
the local designers and contractors.) Bakubung Dam
follows the broad principle of multiple arch-buttresses
in Zimbabwe, although it is understood that nothing as
big has been constructed in that country to date.
Bakubung Dam
Bakubung Dam comprises six 12 m radius, 120° aperture
arches, with a crest thickness of 0,8 m and a maximum
base thickness of 1,6 m. The width of the five buttresses
varies from 1,8 m to 3 m dependent on height, and each
flank is completed by a short section of gravity wall and
a low embankment, where the foundation competence
deteriorated. The completed structure contains 2 650 m3
of RMC and required 9 000 person-days of labour to
complete.
In this instance, a mechanical mixer was only brought in

late on the construction and a shuttle dumper, with
earth ramps and scaffold platforms, was used to deliver
Bakubung Dam
mortar to the point of placement. The dam was
constructed with Walcrete masonry cement, local sand
and surface rhyolite stones collected off the local
hillsides and loaded by hand onto a tractor-driven trailer.
Maritsane Dam
Maritsane Dam comprises a single arch on a 60 m radius
with an aperture of 105°, flanked on the right side by a
massive thrust block, which also acts to retain a fill
embankment. The arch has a uniform thickness of
2,4 m, which is flared out to 3,5 m immediately above
the foundation contact. The arch and thrust block
contain 5 600 m3 of RMC, which represents the largest
quantity of RMC yet placed for a single dam in South
Africa. Maritsane Dam
Scaffolding, ramps and wheelbarrows were used for the

delivery of materials to the point of placement and
mortar was mixed using two 300 litre mechanical
concrete mixers. Granite rock particles were blasted
from a dedicated quarry and sand was sourced from
alluvial deposits in the dam basin. Mortar was made
with PC25 Fly Ash Cement (Cem II B – V or W 32,5).
12 000 person-days of labour were required to complete
the masonry construction.
1.3.2 Genadendal Dam

Genadendal Dam was built in 1996 for Bop Parks in the
Genadendal Dam
Madikwe Game Reserve and is a 9 m high embankment
7
dam with a side-wash spillway, for which the sill and

embankment end wall were constructed in RMC. A total
of less than 200 m3 of RMC was placed for the various
components comprising this dam.
This project is of interest because of the method used

for placement of RMC in the footing of the spillway
overspill structure. This involved embedding very large
stones in a flowable mortar, retained within an
excavated trench, without external masonry shell zones.
This technique proved successful and rapid, if a little
costly in terms of total mortar used, save for the fact
that a shrinkage crack of 5 mm width developed at a
shallow section, whose foundation was locally raised by
a rock outcrop.
1.3.3 Likalaneng Weir

Likalaneng Weir comprises a single arch on a 35 m
radius with an aperture of 124°, flanked on the left side
by a gravity thrust block. The arch has a uniform
thickness of 1,7 m, which is flared out to 2,7 m
immediately above the foundation contact. The arch
and thrust block contain 1700 m3 of RMC, which
represents the largest quantity of RMC yet placed for a
single dam in Lesotho.
Most of the construction took place in cold (snow)

Likalaneng Weir
weather and water had to be heated for mortar
batching. Blasted basalt rock particles were delivered as
excavation spoil from another contract. Sand was sourced
from commercial alluvial deposits in the Caledon River.
Mortar was made with PC25 Fly Ash Cement (Cem II B - v
or w 32,5). 6 800 person-days of labour were required to
complete the masonry construction.
1.3.4 Vrede/Thembalihle Dam

Vrede/Thembalihle Dam is an 18 m high earth/rock
embankment dam. The spillway is designed for a flood
discharge capacity of 830 m3/s. The spillway control
structure is a 50 m long x 4,5 m high hollow gravity,
Ogee-shaped RMC structure with 8 m high training
Vrede/Thembalihle Dam walls, also constructed in RMC. The spillway structures
contain 800 m3 of RMC.
Dumpers were used for the delivery of materials to the

point of placement and mortar was mixed using a 450
litre mechanical concrete mixer. Dolerite rock particles
blasted from the spillway excavation and sand sourced
from commercial alluvial deposits was used. Mortar was
made with PC25 Fly Ash Cement (Cem II B – v or w 32,5).
500 person-days of labour were required to complete
the masonry construction.
1.3.5 Welgevonden Dam

Welgevonden Dam Welgevonden Dam at Mooketsi, Northern Province, was
constructed in 1998 for the purpose of irrigation water

supply. The dam is a 15 m high single curvature rubble

masonry arch dam with an embankment on the left
flank. The arch structure comprises a single curvature,
28 m radius arch, with a uniform thickness of 1,8 m. A
flaring of the arch in the vicinity of the foundation
contact is provided to reduce stress concentrations.
The dam is owned by ZZ2 (Pty) Ltd, who utilised their

own labour during the winter season of low farming
production to construct the wall. The wall comprises
1 275 m3 of RMC and was constructed with local river
sand and Granitic ‘gabion stone’ imported from a
quarry located at a distance of more than 80 km from
site. Mortar was mixed using a 250 litre concrete mixer
and transported to the point of placement using a
chute and wheelbarrows. Approximately 1800 person-
days of labour were utilised in the construction.
1.3.6 Hogsback Dam

Hogsback Dam in the Eastern Cape was constructed in
1999 and comprises a 20 m radius central arch spillway,
flanked with embankments on either side. The
maximum dam height is 12 m and the masonry wall is
dovetailed into the embankments using tongue walls
and wrap-around fill. The arch thickness reduces from
2 m at the base to 1,1 m at the crest and the arch
aperture measures 140°, with the arch thrust carried
Hogsback Dam
down into the foundations by means of 10 m high, 3 m
wide buttresses on both flanks. The masonry portion of
the dam comprised 1 750 m3 of material, with blasted
sandstone used for the rock particles and imported sand
for the mortar. A team of 50 labourers from the local
community was employed for the masonry construction.
1.3.7 Star Dam

Star Dam is an 11 m high single curvature arch with a
21 m radius of 120° aperture, with small gravity walls on
both flanks, that was constructed on a private farm in
the Waterberg, Northern Province. The dam was
initiated in 1999 and left partly constructed during the
floods that affected that part of the country during
early 2000, to be completed later that year. The arch
varies in thickness from 1,2 m at the crest to 1,8 m at the
base and arch thrust is carried down by 2 m wide
buttresses on both flanks. On the left flank a 16 m long
gravity wall joins the buttress and the natural ground,
while a gravity wall of 5 m maximum height and 40 m
length completes the right flank.
1.3.8 Keta Dam

Keta Dam is a 10 m high embankment, draining a
catchment of approximately 100 km2 in the Waterberg,
Northern Province. The dam, which is situated on a
private game farm, was breached during intense
flooding and was reconstructed with an RMC spillway Star Dam
on the rocky right flank. The stepped and uneven
9
Keta Dam
pattern of the rock of the flank resulted in the necessity for a strangely shaped
spillway crest and prevented the application of an arch. The embankment end
wall, gravity spillway walls and spillway channel in-fills required a total RMC
volume of 1 230 m3, which was constructed using 1 500 person days of labour.
Rock particles were sourced from the local hillsides and sand from the basin of
the dam.
1.4 The future of RMC for projects in South Africa

Two large RMC multiple arch buttress structures are currently under construction
in South Africa to heights of 19 m and 21 m requiring 13 000 m3 of RMC. Both
dams are being financed by private initiatives as tourism features.
In view of the current growth in tourism and related developments in South

Africa, a strong trend of small and medium sized dam construction is likely to
continue to be seen over the next few years. With many of these developments
relating to eco-tourism infrastructure, the appropriateness of and opportunity for
RMC is obvious. The apparent benefits offered by RMC in terms of low
construction cost, employment creation and skills development make it an
extremely appropriate solution to meet this growth.
Furthermore, RMC dams will offer very cost-competitive solutions for domestic
water supply projects in rural areas where deeply-incised rivers with rock
foundations are available, such as in KwaZulu-Natal and along the Eastern
Escarpment of South Africa.
For South Africa’s northern neighbours, the opportunities for building RMC dams
for water supply and for small hydropower plants are obvious, as have already
been demonstrated in Zimbabwe.

It is the intention of this sub-section to define the nature and materials

requirements for Rubble Masonry Concrete for dams. In addition, some
information and guidance is provided in an effort to foster a deeper
understanding of the typical variations of behaviour that can be anticipated.
These guidelines have been prepared for an engineer with an appropriate level
of knowledge of dam design and do not attempt to cover dam design per se.
2.1 Materials composition

2.1.1 General
RMC is a matrix comprising large stones, or plums, in a mortar binder. To minimise
cost and optimise structural properties, it is necessary to ensure the maximum
realistic rock or stone content. In terms of its basic constituent materials
proportions, RMC is similar in nature to a dry mix concrete, or RCC (roller
compacted concrete), comprising approximately 55% large aggregate (by mass),
5,5% to 7% cement, 6% to 7% water and 30% to 35% sand. The greatest
difference, of course, can be seen in the fact that the large aggregate portion of
RMC comprises particles generally of 50 to 300 mm in dimension.
2.1.2 Typical mix proportions

Recent RMC dam construction has focused on two mortar mix compositions: a
one part cement + 4 parts sand (by volume) mix, for use in the more critical
structural members and a one part cement + 6 parts sand mix, for the more
massive components2. The zones requiring particularly low permeability will
generally be constructed in RMC with the former mortar mix while the latter mix
would generally be applied where seepage paths are longer, hydrostatic
pressures are lower and for non water-retaining components. These mixes were
originally developed empirically in Zimbabwe and while practice in South Africa
has confirmed their appropriateness and associated nominal target strengths, for
realistic design, particularly when considering impermeability, it is necessary to
evaluate carefully the actual composition of an RMC mix.
Mortar composition
Adopting the mortar classification system of SANS 10164 – Part 1, the 1:4 mortar
mix, using a CEM 1 cement (OPC), is equivalent to a mortar Class I, displaying a 28
day preliminary (laboratory) strength of perhaps 14MPa and a works test strength
of 10MPa. The nominal 1:6 mortar mix is equivalent to a mortar Class II, displaying
a 28 day preliminary strength of 7MPa and a works test strength of 5MPa. In SANS
10249, a Class 1 mortar comprises 50 kg cement and approximately 130 litres sand
(measured loose and damp), while a Class II mortar comprises 50 kg cement and
approximately 200 litres sand.3,4 It is very important to maintain a mortar film
2 Common cement CEM I 32,5N or CEM II -A, L, S, V
thickness limited to 7 to 20 mm between the rock particles within the RMC. A
or W 32,5N complying with the provisions of SANS
mortar film of this thickness should provide significantly greater strength than 50197-1 should be used mortar with RMC
indicated in a 100 mm test cube. 3 The designer should specify the minimum cement
content in a cubic metre of mortar. This is more
For the purpose of evaluation, mortar mixes 1:4 and 1:6 by volume are analysed important than specifying the compressive strength of
the mortar in accordance with the provisions of SANS
based on the following data and ignoring air content for simplicity: 10164-1 : The Structural use of Masonry : Part 1:
Material Loose bulk density (kg/m3) Relative density Unreinforced masonry walling as lean mixes will be
permeable. The compressive strength of RMC is
Cement 1150 (1500 in bags) 2,9 relatively insensitive to the strength of mortar.
Sand, dry 1620 2,65 Compressive strength requirements can be used as a
control measure to monitor uniformity in mortar.
Sand, wet 1350 Changes in compressive strength are indicative of
changes in mix proportions, water content and fine
aggregate.
The sand is assumed to be an average sand, and has a water requirement of
4 A ‘concrete’ wheelbarrow has a capacity of 65l.
330 kg/m3 to give adequate workability to the mortar. The water requirement for
Mortar mixes of 1 : 4 and 1 : 6 compositions are
a 1:4 and 1:6 mix would be similar in practice despite the higher cement content accordingly proportioned as 50 kg cement and 2, or 3
of the 1:4 mix (see Table 1). wheelbarrows of sand, respectively.

11
Table 1: Mortar 1:4 (dry sand)
MATERIAL QUANTITIES
per 50 kg cement per cubic metre
Volume (l ) Absolute volume (l ) Mass (kg) Volume (l ) Absolute volume (l ) Mass (kg)
Cement 33,3 17,2 50 6,8 bags 117 340
Sand 133 81,4 216 905 353 1465
Water 48,5 48,5 48,5 330 330 330
Total 1000 2135
Note: cement water ratio = 0,97
In the calculation of quantities of materials for the different mortar mixes, no

allowance is made for entrapped air in the mortar (average air content 2 to 4%)
and for loss of bleeding water. It is also assumed that in volume batching a full
bag of cement weighing 50 kg is used, i.e. the cement is not volume batched.5
For dry materials, a mix of 1 cement + 6 sand and a w/c ratio by mass of 1,05 for
9MPa, assuming zero air voids, the component proportions can be determined as
shown in Table 2.
When wet sand is used and volume batched, allowance must be made for the
bulking of the sand otherwise the cement content will be in excess of that shown
in the Tables 1 and 2.
MATERIAL QUANTITIES
Volume (l ) Absolute volume (l ) Mass (kg) Volume (l ) Absolute volume (l ) Mass (kg)
Cement 33,3 17,2 50 4,8 bags 82 240
Sand 200 122.1 324 960 588 1560
Water 69 69 69 330 330 330
Total 1000 2130
A realistic mortar amount in RMC (see 2.1.2) is 40% to 45%. Accordingly, the
cement content per cubic metre in RMC for a 1:4 mortar mix will vary between
136 and 153 kg/m3 and for a 1:6 mortar mix between 96 and 108 kg/m3.
Mortar of different water contents, and hence different consistencies, should be

used for the outer and inner zones of each body of Rubble Masonry Concrete.
For the external zones, which effectively form a shutter to the internal body, a
drier mortar of a stiff consistency should be applied, while a wetter, more
flowable mix should be used for the core zone. For surface finishing of the faces
5 A bag of common cement having a mass of 50 kg of the final structure, a one part cement to approximately four parts sand mortar
has a volume of approximately 33 litres when packed of a cohesive consistency should be applied.
under air pressure at a factory. Cement, however, fluffs
up (bulks) when poured into a container, with a result
that 50 kg of cement cannot readily be contained in a
Rock particle content
box of 33 litres. The volume of a bag of loose (bulked) A mass concrete might commonly contain up to 60% coarse aggregate by
cement, depending upon its compaction, can be upto
20% more than when in a bag. For this reason, it is volume. Research and practical experience have, however, demonstrated that
preferable to use whole bags of cement when volume while a similar rock particle content is possible in RMC, and indeed of benefit in
batching.
promoting economy, a content of around 50% may be more appropriate to

ensure that rock particles and mortar are well and evenly distributed within the
matrix. In areas of the structure where strength and impermeability are less
critical, higher proportions of rock may be applied.
For a mass gravity structure, consideration can be given to the application of

more traditional, historical rubble masonry techniques, where the rock particles
are cemented together with mortar, as opposed to being bedded into a matrix of
mortar. In such instances, the rock proportion can be increased very significantly,
although it must also be understood that the contents of air voids (entrapped air)
in such a ‘mix’ is likely to be extremely high, with concomitant potential
permeability problems.
When a 1:4 mortar mix RMC is applied in areas where strength and
impermeability are important, the composition of the mortar-rock matrix is
particularly critical. For optimum behaviour, a 7 to 20 mm layer of mortar should
evenly and uniformly separate the rock particles (see Figure 1). A variety of rock
particle sizes should further be applied in order to prevent large volumes of
mortar in voids between the stones.
2.2 RMC behaviour as a construction material

2.2.1 General
While it is relatively simple to test, evaluate and analyse the likely strengths and
performance of the mortar component of the RMC mix, the addition of large-
scale rock particles complicates the picture significantly. It is not just the
combination of materials that makes such analysis more involved, but the
requirement for an accurate replication of the construction process to ensure
representivity of the samples with the actual circumstances prevalent in
prototype structures. No vibration is used for the compaction of RMC and
compaction is provided in the form of the physical effort of driving large stone
particles into the mortar. A further complication inherent to the strength and
performance analysis of RMC is the scale of the rock particles, which limits the
usefulness of small scale testing and requires specialist equipment to ensure
representivity.
In RMC, particles of very different size, shape,

elasticity, density and strength are combined to
Figure 1: Typical RMC wall cross-section indicating zones
create a micro-behaviour environment quite
and correct rock content
different to that of concrete. Test work quoted later
in this text has illustrated how mechanisms set up Incorrect mix –
Insufficient stone Incorrect mix –
between the large particles within the RMC mix can Excessive Mortar Excessive stone
be seen to dominate behaviour, if unfavourably to stone contact
orientated. The problem commonly experienced in
RMC relates to the setting of very stiff and strong
particles within a matrix of more deformable, lower
strength mortar. However, in some instances of
bridge construction, low strength rock particles
External zone con-
have been used. In such cases, RMC structural structed with low
performance has been demonstrated to be Correct mix slump mortar
significantly compromised. It is not intended to Internal zone with

discuss in this text the related performance of such stones embedded into
higher slump mortar
RMC in dam engineering, except to say that only
rock particles of higher strength and stiffness than
mortar should be used in RMC for arch dams.

13
2.2.2 RMC mortar workability

Testing mortar workability
In order to achieve the composition of RMC
described in 2.2.1, mortar workability becomes
It is suggested that site tests be carried out to establish optimum mortar
2
workability. A test placement in a box of perhaps 1 m x 0,5 m deep could
critical. Too wet and flowable mortar will give rise
be broken up a day or so after placement to establish the typical rock parti- to excessive rock particle contact and will prevent an
cle separation achieved. Repeated testing could be applied to observe and even and uniform separation of rock particles with a
establish optimum mortar workability and the same process could serve to thin layer of mortar. Too dry and stiff mortar will
measure the rock and mortar mix proportion variation with mortar workabil- result in excessive separation of the rock particles
ity. and a higher dependence of the strength and
performance properties of the mortar. Wet mortar
will promote a higher rock content and dry mortar, a lower rock content. In
certain non water-retaining zones of RMC, where strength requirements are
minimal, a more flowable mortar can be used to increase rock content and
therefore minimise cost.
2.2.3 The impact of materials variations on RMC behaviour

Recent research focussed on the mechanical properties of RMC, with particular
emphasis on various aspects relevant to dam engineering. Fine and Rankine(1-4)
used 500 mm cubes to test, evaluate and compare the properties of RMC,
primarily in terms of crushing strength and elasticity, or deformation modulus. In
this work it was demonstrated that the deformation modulus of RMC is largely
determined by the elastic modulus, shape and orientation of the rock inclusions.
With rock moduli varying from 24 to 120GPa, a range of RMC deformation
modulus of 5 to 71GPa was demonstrated for a constant mortar deformation
modulus of 18GPa.
In terms of dam engineering, the important behavioural characteristics of RMC

isolated by Fine and Rankine(4) include the following:
• The orientation of the rock inclusions in relation to the main loading
direction becomes critical in final materials behaviour,
• Contact between rock particles in the loading direction can result in a
significantly higher deformation modulus than for loading in the
perpendicular direction,
• Significantly more consistent deformation moduli are obtained when a
constant covering of rock particles with mortar is ensured,
• Under load, stresses within the RMC are significantly greater and more
variable when a few large particles are applied, with inter-particle contact, as
compared with smaller particles separated evenly with mortar,
• It appears that specific load transfer and structural mechanisms play a
significant role within an RMC cube close to and at failure. This effect is likely
to be of lesser significance at lower loadings in relation to ultimate strength.
The particle size in relation to member size is likely to influence the intensity
of these effects,
• Poisson’s Ratio of RMC can vary from 0,03 to in excess of 1,0,
• The placement method applied for RMC has a fairly significant impact on the
final materials behaviour, as a consequence of the foregoing,
• Particles with soft surface weathering are not appropriate for use in RMC.
2.3 Materials requirements

2.3.1 General
In terms of materials quality and strength, the same criteria applicable for
concrete are valid for RMC. For the rock particles, shape is of fundamental
importance for the reasons discussed above, although workability problems that
relate to the flakiness and/or angularity of coarse aggregate particles in
conventional concrete are obviously less significant in RMC.

2.3.2 Rock particles

Testing rock particle strength
Rock particles for use in RMC can be sourced from a
quarry, or from surface stone deposits (usually
The strength tests applied to coarse aggregate for concrete are impractical
colluvial). When the scale of construction is small for the size of rock particles used in RMC, although the aggregate crushing
and no suitable quarry exists within the proximity of value (SANS 5841) and the 10% FACT value (SANS 5842) can be applied to
the dam site, significant economic benefit is gained smaller particles of the same source material. With the same sort of materi-
from the ability to collect suitable rock from surface al competence required for RMC rock particles as for concrete coarse aggre-
deposits, which frequently exist close to sites gate, visual inspection and handling are usually adequate to confirm density,
suitable for RMC construction. One obvious pre- strength, hardness and durability. Should any doubt as to the competence of
requisite in the use of stone from surface deposits is a proposed rock particle exist, mechanical testing of samples must be under-
that any weathering is insufficient to significantly taken to ensure a material of at least 2,65 specific gravity, 30MPa compres-
compromise the mechanical properties of the sive strength and 40 GPa modulus of elasticity.
parent rock. In terms of quality, rock particles must
meet the related requirements of SANS 1083.
For the reasons discussed above, rock particles with weathering that affects the
surface hardness are unsuitable for use in RMC and the maximum particle size
must never exceed one-third of the minimum dimension of the structural element
being constructed (distance between the inside faces of the surface skin zones).
Elongated rock particles should be avoided and the maximum dimension of a
rock particle should not exceed one half of the depth of the lift into which it is
cast.
2.3.3 Fine aggregate or sand

The fine aggregate or sand must comply with the requirements of SANS 1083
(fine aggregates for concrete) or have a water requirement not greater than 10
litres with 10 kg of cement (CEM I or CEM II A) and 50 kg of air dried sand to
reach a consistency suitable for the mortar in RMC.
If judgement of the suitability of the sand is based on its water requirement, then
it must also comply with the requirements in the above mentioned South African
National Standards for dust control, methylene blue content, clay content,
organic impurities, and soluble deleterious impurities.
In general, the Fineness Modulus (FM) of the sand should lie between 2,1 and 2,8.
Where sand from a single source does not conform to the above requirements,
blending of sand from different sources should be considered.

15
In the case of any labour-based construction technology, the prime objective is

An efficient delivery stream
obviously to maximise the overall percentage of the construction cost
attributable to labour wages. One of the primary successes of RMC construction
The key to efficient RMC dam construc- for dams lies in the efficient use of labour that arises from a minimum number of
tion is to push the actual masonry place-
component activities comprising the construction method. The basic construction
ment with a continuous delivery stream
can, however, be split into materials procurement, delivery and blending as one
of mortar and rock particles. If the over-
category and actual construction as another. While the latter category is entirely
all construction tempo is limited by the
delivery rate of construction materials, labour-orientated and the use of any mechanical plant would actually be
efficiency can be seen to be rapidly lost. relatively difficult, significant efficiencies can be gained by the use of equipment
and plant for the former.
The minimum level of plant to be seen on an RMC dam construction will be a

concrete mixer, a (tractor) front-end loader and a tractor and trailer. The other
dam construction plant, such as an excavator for the foundation and a compressor
and percussion drills for foundation dowels, are not addressed in this text.
3.1 Excavation plant

Activities that benefit from the application of plant
Since masonry dams require rock foundations, it is
necessary to have the right excavation equipment to
On the basis that experience has demonstrated the application of plant only
excavate into rock and to prepare the rock
to be of benefit in aspects related to the constituent materials, the appropri-
ate use of plant in RMC dam construction can be addressed under the fol- foundations. As a minimum, compressed air rock
lowing categories: breaking equipment and hand drills will be
• Stone collection, loading and transportation required. For larger structures where a lot of
• Sand procurement and delivery overburden material needs to be removed, it will be
• Mortar mixing advisable to have at least a 20 t break-out force
• Mortar delivery to point of placement tracked excavator on site. Where blasting is required
• Stone delivery to point of placement to form a foundation key or to remove weathered
or loose rock, rock drilling and blasting equipment
must be available.
Manually collected stone
3.2 Blasting equipment
The bulk volume of stone, or rock, required for RMC construction Where stone for masonry construction is not available
of a dam will equate approximately to the final total volume of as surface rocks that can be picked up by hand, it will
the structure. Accordingly, it is obvious that the procurement and be necessary to develop a rock quarry. The minimum
management of stone for RMC construction is a significant aspect plant required for this operation will be hand drills
to be addressed. and blasting equipment. However, for larger dams
When stone or rock for dam construction is collected from surface deposits, requiring substantial quantities of rock, it will be
these will obviously be dispersed over a wide area and it is unlikely ever to be advisable to develop a quarry with tracked drill rigs.
viable to transport such material to the dam construction using wheelbar-
rows. Accordingly, the provision of a tractor with a flatbed trailer has proved
3.3 Drilling and grouting plant
appropriate for stone collection and delivery. The stone collectors pile rock
Drilling and grouting plant will be required where
at a single location. The tractor and trailer are brought to that point and the
stone is loaded manually. Once stockpiled on site, preferably in local piles foundation grouting is specified to improve the
close to the point of placement, stone can be moved to the point of place- water tightness or structural integrity of the
ment by hand, by wheelbarrow, or using a front-end loader. foundation rock. Usually tracked drill rigs will be
required, capable of drilling to depths of about 20 m
and for hole sizes up to 75 mm. High speed colloidal mixers and grout pumps
capable of pumping at pressures up to 100 kPa should be used for grouting.
3.4 Transportation plant

Stone or rock fragments and sand need to be transported to the dam wall site. In
Zimbabwe it is common practice to use tractors and scotch carts for this purpose.
However, in South Africa dumper trucks seem to be the preferred transportation
plant. If large quantities need to be transported within a short period over large
distances, then transportation plant could be an important element in the
production scheduling.

Wheelbarrows are commonly used for transporting stones and mortar from the
Sundry items
stockpiles and batching plants respectively, to the stone masons on the wall. For
dam walls containing large volumes or where access is difficult, it may be more
No RMC dam construction site would of
advantageous to use cranes on conveyor belts for this purpose. A further option
course be complete without numerous
is to deliver to point of placement in the bucket of a front-end loader.
wheelbarrows, spades and shovels.
Tools to knock and press stones into the
3.5 Grizzly screen receiving mortar are also required.
Where rock fragments are mechanically loaded at a quarry and transported to
the site of works in dumper trucks, the transported material will consist of a
mixture of right sized stones, over-sized stones and rock dust and sand. To
separate the undersized material from this mixture, it has been found that a
grizzly screen works well. Railway tracks make good grizzlies and the screen size
should be set for the lower stone particle size limit. Up to a point, oversized
material can be broken down on site by labourers using heavy hammers. If rock
fragments are far too big, they could be stored in a separate stockpile for later
use in constructing plunge pool walls or other appurtenant works.
3.6 Mortar mixing and batching plant

Mortar mixing and batching plant capacity and type are determined by the
production schedule. 300 litre drum mixers seem to be the preferred type of
batching plant in both Zimbabwe and South Africa. The batching plant should be
towable so that it can always be located at the most advantageous position for
delivering mortar on the wall.
3.7 Water heating plant

When constructing masonry dams in very cold weather, it may be necessary to
pre-heat the mixing water before adding it to the sand/cement mix in the drum
mixer. A diesel-fired heater was used for this purpose on a project in Lesotho
when day-time temperatures were typically below 10°C, night temperatures were
below freezing and the mixing water temperature was about 4°C (originating
from snow melt run-off).
3.8 Scaffolds
Other temporary works
Unless mortar and stone is delivered on the dam
wall with cranes or conveyor belts, it will be
Other temporary works consist of the contractor’s site facilities, which could
necessary to construct access to the wall for include:
wheelbarrows and/or front-end loaders. In both • Explosives magazine
Zimbabwe and South Africa, the method so far • Laboratory facilities (mortar sand grading analysis; mortar slump test
adopted consists of constructing a frame from steel apparatus; mortar cubes and crushing apparatus; large masonry cube
scaffold pipes supporting running boards of forms)
construction timber. Fill ramps have been • Storage sheds
successfully used to allow a front-end loader to get • Ablution facilities for the large numbers of workers
close enough and high enough to deliver mortar • Food preparation and dining facilities
• Protective clothing and gloves for the workers.
directly to the point of placement.
Formwork and solar blankets may be required to protect green mortar against
excessive cold.
3.9 Cement storage

Depending on the size of the dam under construction, it may be advantageous to
dispense cement from a silo. If bagged cement is used, facilities to keep this dry
at all times must be provided on site.

17
4.1 General
Performance characteristics of RMC
These guidelines have been prepared for an engineer with an appropriate level of
South African experience has confirmed knowledge of dam design and do not attempt to cover dam design per se, beyond
the general behaviour patterns of RMC suggesting the particular analysis methods that have proved most appropriate in
that form the basis of the empirical the case of small- and medium-size RMC structures. In view of the inherently
design approach applied for dams in greater design complexities of an arch dam, when compared to a gravity structure,
Zimbabwe. This section presents the the guideline concentrates on variants of the arch dam type. While RMC is an
particular performance characteristics appropriate material for gravity dam construction, the reduced material volumes
exhibited by RMC in dams, with a spe- inherent to an arch configuration imply that arch dams are likely to be the
cific focus on the aspects in which the
preferred solution for most RMC dams of heights greater than five to seven metres.
behaviour of RMC differs from that of
conventional mass concrete.
4.1 Factors of importance in relation to RMC behaviour and performance
4.1.1 Seepage
RMC dams seep, rather than leak, before sealing themselves and becoming
watertight. In this process of sealing, efflorescence and calcite are deposited in
layers on the downstream face and the white streaking effect detracts from the
finish of the wall. However, as the seepage diminishes, the calcite deposits dry,
weather and discolour to a greenish brown, depending on the dampness and
extent of attached organic growth. When particularly pure, aggressive water is
impounded, self-sealing, may not occur as effectively and careful consideration
should be given to appropriate section dimensions and indeed even the
appropriateness of RMC in such environments.
4.1.2 Cracking
General observation indicates that RMC does not crack, or does not exhibit drying
shrinkage and thermal cracking in the same manner as conventional concrete.
While this property is not widely understood and cannot currently be
satisfactorily fully justified on engineering principles, reliance in design is placed
on the no-cracking performance of RMC. In an effort to derive an explanation for
this behaviour, several hypotheses can be evaluated.
These hypotheses include the following:

• Mortar drying shrinkage is of little influence, as continuous contact between
rock particles will prevent related shrinkage of the body as a whole,
• Differential stresses established during hydration and cooling are minimal, as
structural elements are thin and the pace of construction is slow,
• Micro-cracking may well occur within the mortar matrix in RMC, but the large
random and interlocking stone particles prevent related continuity causing
single, large cracks,
• On a macro scale, the large stone particles and related interlocking produces
a material of relatively high tensile strength.
Experience has shown that high mortar content RMC can crack and will
undoubtedly exhibit less favourable behaviour than will a high rock content
matrix.6 Whilst conventional concretes are proportioned to ensure that all
surfaces of the coarse aggregate particles are covered in mortar and paste, high
rock content RMC comprises a matrix of large rock particles in contact and
6This
surrounded and in-filled by mortar. In compression, it is likely that the rock
type of cracking is normally related to drying
shrinkage and thus the water requirement of sand. properties will play a dominant role, whilst in tension the mortar and the
High cement content mortar may cause larger cracks interlocking of rock particles are likely to be more significant.
at larger intervals than a leaner mortar which will have
smaller width cracks at closer intervals.
Due to its general proportions, concrete for dams does It is believed that a sensible evaluation of cracking in RMC, on the basis of the
not usually exhibit drying shrinkage in the same
manner as smaller concrete members. Observed current level of material knowledge, might be summarised as follows:
cracking in concrete in dams more usually relates to • RMC exhibits negligible drying shrinkage,
differential thermal, or long term thermal effects.
• RMC in arch dams almost certainly does crack, under load, at the heel of the
tallest cantilevers, but as is the case with other

Avoid inducing high tensile stresses
dam types, this cracking is not visible as it is only
present well beneath the water level,
Cracking of RMC can, however, occur and care should be taken to avoid typ-
• Without sophisticated instrumentation and
ical situations that can induce high tensile stresses, such as:
related measurement, the observance of structural
• large rock particles randomly inserted into a high cement content, and/or
deformation is not really possible, particularly on
wet mortar,
the small scale of the dams in question, and it is • an excessively high mortar / rock ratio, with negligible rock contact and
suggested that fairly large deformations allow the interlocking of particles,
re-distribution of stresses reasonably effectively. • construction at the warmest time of the year, particularly in an extreme
The use of materials of a lower elastic modulus is climate,
obviously significant in this regard. • straight sections of wall with a significant length to height ratio.
4.1.3 Research into the structural behaviour of RMC under load

Structural and materials research into RMC in Southern Africa is currently rather
sparse and has to date largely been pursued by Rankine(1,2,3 and 4). While the
experimentation undertaken has addressed dams peripherally, the central focus
has been the application of RMC in the construction of small bridges.
Furthermore, the scale of the components comprising the RMC mix, with rock
particles as large as 60 kg, makes testing rather difficult and expensive, requiring
specialist, large-scale equipment. Within the scale of the industry related to RMC
and the works constructed in this material, it is difficult to motivate the necessary,
but expensive, research required to develop a comprehensive understanding of
the material.
The most recent research, however, has focussed specifically on the isolation of
the mechanical properties of RMC, with particular emphasis on the relevant
aspects for dam engineering. Fine and Rankine(1,2 and 4) have used 500 mm cubes
to test, evaluate and compare the properties of RMC, primarily in terms of
crushing strength and deformation modulus. In this work it was demonstrated
that the deformation modulus of RMC is largely determined by the elastic
modulus, shape and orientation of the rock inclusions. With rock moduli varying
from 24 to 120GPa, a range of RMC deformation modulus of 5 to 71GPa was
demonstrated for a constant mortar deformation modulus of 18GPa. The particle
orientation of large rock inclusions was demonstrated to be of significant impact
on the modulus for RMC comprising all rock types, with particularly detrimental
effects being observed for low moduli, elongated particles orientated parallel to
the loading direction. A further important aspect that was determined through
testing and modelling was the respective role of particle size and inter-particle
contact within the mix. If the rock inclusions are in
intimate contact, the overall modulus will be higher
Review of the structural implications of RMC research findings
for a large number of small particles than for a few
large particles, with the latter scenario developing
The findings of the RMC research completed to date have been presented in
significantly higher local stresses in transferring
a largely factual format, with very little analysis and review of associated
stress through the matrix. If, however, all particles causative mechanisms, or related structural implications. It is, however, pos-
are surrounded by mortar, the stiffness modulus is sible to draw a great deal more out of these results and there is significant
independent of particle size and transfer stresses are value to be gained in reviewing the impact of such inferences against the per-
significantly reduced. formance requirements inherent to arch dam engineering. It must, howev-
er, be recognised that test cubes containing large rock particles, which are
Hard rock particles with soft surface weathering pressed using extremely hard, un-deformable surfaces, will tend to reproduce
have been used in the past in RMC bridges. the extremes of behaviour in RMC. While the dominant stress paths tend to
Research has demonstrated this rock type to be relatively localised in dam structures, plenty of room for a spreading and
produce particularly low strength RMC. This is not redistribution of stress exists and some of the effects revealed through the
research to date will certainly be mitigated in this process.
only a function of the particle strength, but also the
associated complete lack of surface bond between
mortar and rock. (Refer also to 2.3.)

19
Key aspects may be summarised as follows:
Particle orientation and mortar separation

In dam engineering, placement of RMC in horizontal layers tends to ensure that
any particle to particle contact is predominantly vertical and that the longer
dimension of particles is orientated vertically. This suggests that RMC in dams is
likely to exhibit a higher deformation modulus in the vertical direction than in
the horizontal direction. In an arch dam this can be seen to be of some
advantage, as cantilevers become stiffer, creating lower overall displacement and
arch action allows more yielding, which lowers overall maximum stresses. In the
arch structures typically constructed in RMC, the
Figure 2: Possible structural mechanisms within RMC largest compressive stresses are furthermore
cube orientated in a predominantly horizontal direction,
suiting the better performance axis of the RMC.
While no related testing has yet been completed, it
is quite likely that such particle orientation will also
give rise to greater tensile strength in a vertical
direction, where this is required.
Wedging Diagonal shear ‘Scissors jack’ The improved performance of RMC when the rock
particles are evenly distributed and evenly
separated by mortar of 7 mm to 20 mm thickness
tends to reflect the importance of mortar
workability and construction technique on the final
structural performance characteristics and these
must be given careful consideration in the
Cleaving bulders Pyramid of spheres Cracked rock beam compilation of construction specifications.
Structural mechanisms and Poisson’s ratio

The research of Fine and Rankine(4) suggested the possible existence of a number
of structural mechanisms within the 500 mm test cubes. These are illustrated in
Figure 2 and each of the mechanisms postulated serve to suggest the possible
modes of cube failure and explain why some cubes might exhibit particularly high
poisson’s ratios.
The mechanisms suggested are likely to be particularly influenced by scale effects.

When the size of the stone particles is smaller in relation to the member under
stress, it is very likely that the influence of the identified mechanisms will be
significantly reduced. Furthermore, some measure of three dimensional restraint
will also assist in distributing stresses more evenly through any member that is
relatively massive in relation to its constituent
RMC – the nature of material
components.
While the broad behaviour of RMC in dams can most closely be likened to
that of conventional mass concrete, there are specific differences that must
4.2 Dam design influences
be addressed in the process of design. To understand the important factors 4.2.1 The development of RMC in dam engineering
of influence on design and the approach applied to the design and con- Whilst RMC arch dams have seen broad application
struction of RMC structures, it is first necessary to understand the nature of
in Zimbabwe since 1985, distinct differences exist
the material itself. While the general composition, mixes and behaviour vari-between the application of RMC for dams in that
ations of the material are discussed in subsection 2.2 of this guideline
country and in South Africa. These various
(Materials requirements), the structural characteristics and performance of
differences require that engineers in South Africa
RMC are addressed in this sub-section.
create and develop a greater understanding of the
material and its behaviour, and indeed its likely variations in behaviour, before
implementation on ambitious designs. The dams constructed in Zimbabwe to
date have apparently universally demonstrated exemplary behaviour. However, it
cannot be considered sensible to blindly apply an empirical design approach,
developed for different circumstances, without a full and comprehensive

understanding of all related important factors of influence on design and

construction.
While the history in Zimbabwe of more than 15 years of ‘new generation’ RMC
arch dam construction provides very useful reference, the prevalent level of
knowledge of the material characteristics and the lack of published data and
information leave many questions unanswered. Construction in Zimbabwe has
seen the almost exclusive use of granitic aggregates, on granitic foundations,
while in South Africa. There is a significantly broader range of geologies and
construction material characteristics. Furthermore, climatic variations across
Zimbabwe are less significant than across the breadth of South Africa and
accordingly, while temperature related effects have been rather inadequately
addressed previously in RMC arch dam design, information concerning successful
precedents exposed to environments as extreme climatically as certain parts of
South Africa is sparse.
4.2.2 Construction without contraction joints

RMC dams, particularly arch dams, are usually constructed without contraction
When to include contraction joints
joints, to allow for the effects of thermal shrinkage. While the consequences of
thermal effects on arch action within a dam wall are addressed later in this
There are certain circumstances for
section, it is important that the designer consider very carefully the necessity to
which the inclusion of contraction joints
include contraction joints and the structural implications, should they be omitted.
is considered advisable, including:
• when differential foundation settle-
Multiple arch buttress dams of well over 200 m in length and arch dams of up to ment, or movement is possible,
150 m in length have been constructed in RMC without suffering any cracks. On • when the length to height ratio of a
the basis of past experience it is considered that joints within arch sections can straight section of wall becomes
and should be avoided, if possible, as a joint in an arch would require grouting to excessive,
re-establish structural continuity. A single joint, or widely spaced joints in an arch, • in extreme climatic conditions.
if left un-grouted, may well result in greater stress concentrations than would
occur in a structure with no joints.
4.2.3 Construction without shutters

RMC dams will generally be constructed without shutters, as the drier external
zones are placed first to contain the more flowable mortar matrix into which the
rock particles are embedded. Construction in such a manner, however, implies
that different structural characteristics can be anticipated for the internal and
external zones of the dam wall. Whilst the mass of both zones will contribute to
the overall structural stability, only the internal zone will be capable of carrying
the full design compression, shear and tension stresses and only this zone will
contribute to the water-tightness of the structure.
If the technique of placing a flowable RMC within drier external walls is used,
careful attention should be given to the possibility of rapid drawdown of the
reservoir, when considering rendering (plastering) of the upstream face. If the
dam design allows the impounded reservoir to be drawn down rapidly and a
permeable zone exists within the dam wall between the plastered upstream face
and the impermeable central RMC zone, an unbalanced water pressure can
develop that may result in bursting of the upstream face surface.
In colder placement temperatures and in some instances when a cement with a

retarded set is used, problems may be experienced in movement of the external
wall zones during placement of the internal, structural masonry. Such a
phenomenon can obviously compromise the integrity of the structure and when
it is observed, remedial measures should be taken. Such measures might include
widening the surface zone, constructing in lower lifts, the use of steel
reinforcement in the surface zone, or the use of facing shutters.
21
4.2.4 Practical construction constraints

A large part of the success of RMC dam construction to date has been found in
its simplicity and an ability to utilise low skill labour. The need for simplicity and
the nature of this shutterless construction, however, limits the practicality of more
complex dam geometries and arch shapes. Above a certain height, significant
benefit is derived in creating additional sliding resistance for a concrete multiple
arch dam by sloping the arch forward, to mobilise the weight of the water and
develop additional vertical load on the foundation. To date, no economical
solution has been found to allow inclination of the arches of an RMC multiple
arch dam.
4.2.5 Ineffective self-sealing

When particularly pure, aggressive water is impounded, self-sealing may not
occur as effectively and careful consideration should be given to appropriate
section dimensions and indeed even the appropriateness of RMC in such
environments.
4.3 Dam design considerations

4.3.1 RMC elastic modulus and thermal expansivity
It is likely that a relatively low elastic modulus and the use of material with a low
thermal expansivity in relatively temperate climates are important factors in the
apparently successful behaviour of RMC to date. When investigating higher RMC
arch dams, for which higher strength RMC is necessary, it is very possible that
increased cement contents and/or the use of very hard rock aggregate could
compromise RMC behaviour, producing a material more closely emulating
Testing essential
concrete.
In considering the construction of a high

The relative sensitivity of RMC arch dam performance to thermal expansivity and
(above perhaps 16 m) RMC arch dam in
elastic modulus can be illustrated through the typical effects indicated in a study
South Africa, it is suggested that the
establishment of actual RMC mech-
of stresses for a typical RMC arch dam when subjected to a uniform structural
anical properties through realistic testing temperature drop of 6°C. Table 3 below presents an indicative summary of the
is essential for any constitutive materials impact of typical materials variations on stress and displacement for this relatively
save for granite applied in a mild mild drop in body temperature. Obviously, neither thermal expansivity, nor elastic
climate. modulus variations are of any influence on structural stress levels if no
temperature variation load is applied; only displacements being affected.
Table 3: The effect of materials properties on arch dam stress levels under a 6oC temperature drop load
Modulus of Thermal Compression Shear Displacement Indicated

Elasticity Expansivity Tension
Low Low 6,5 1,2 8,6 4,0
Low High 8,1 1,4 12,2 5,6
High Low 8,4 1,5 4,8 5,9
High High 12,6 2,7 8,4 10,5
4.3.2 Climatic- and environment-specific conditions

In observing an empirical approach to RMC dam design, on the basis of
Zimbabwe experience, we must bear in mind that elsewhere in southern Africa,
we can experience a significantly wider range of construction material types,
foundation geologies, climatic conditions and site specific circumstances. For
instance, it is significantly possible that surface freeze-thaw conditions within
RMC, in through seepage water, could occur in the colder areas of South Africa
and Lesotho. Furthermore, aggressive, ion hungry water may not allow the
process of seepage self-sealing to occur as effectively as has been the case to date.

It is accordingly important that the designer weigh

Understanding range boundaries is important
fully the consequences and implications of the
climate and the materials of the environment in
Analysis of RMC arch dams for a range of climatic conditions and constituent
which it is intended to build an RMC dam, as well as
rock materials characteristics serves to illustrate clearly the specific conditions
any other circumstances of specific relevance. In a
where RMC should be used with great caution. For example, a dam of 20 m
climate where surface freeze-thaw conditions can
height, constructed predominantly in winter using granitic aggregate in an
occur, great care should be taken in relying on the area of temperate climate (6°C structural temperature drop), might indicate
RMC as the impermeable barrier, as ongoing maximum compressive stresses of 6,5MPa and maximum total shear of
degradation of the downstream surface zone could 1,2MPa. The equivalent structure constructed with a competent quartzitic
eventually compromise the overall structural aggregate in an area of more extreme climate (10°C structural temperature
integrity. drop) might indicate maximum compressions of up to 15,8MPa, together
with total shear of up to 4,1MPa. Whilst the former stress levels may be con-
4.4 Dam design approach sidered acceptable in design, the latter would not even be acceptable for a
30MPa RCC, for which cohesions in excess of 5MPa can be developed.
4.4.1 Gravity dams
Many masonry gravity dams were constructed in what is now the developed
world during the latter part of the 19th century and the early 20th century. In
developing countries, such as China and India, the construction of masonry
gravity dams remained commonplace until relatively recently, with the advent of
Roller Compacted Concrete (RCC) being seen to have had a dramatic impact on
the number of high masonry gravity dams constructed since 1980 in China. It is
possible to construct a conservatively proportioned masonry gravity dam to a
height of well over 50 m before stresses reach critical levels. For example,
Zhuzuang Dam in China was completed in 1979 to a height of 95 m, while the
93 m Baoquan Dam, which was completed in 1976, contains over one million m3
of masonry. For such high masonry dams, concrete face slabs have been applied
to ensure impermeability.
On the scale likely to be applicable in South Africa, design and materials strength
considerations for masonry gravity dams are accordingly significantly less critical
than is the case for arch dams, where critical stress levels are reached for much
smaller structures.
4.4.2 Stress criteria for arch dams

Setting design stress criteria for any 3D arch dam is highly inadvisable without
first defining the method of analysis. However, one should bear in mind the basic
principles and material safety factors typically applied in dam design and consider
this against the levels of quality control and the final variation in material
properties achieved using the RMC method of labour construction. Compressive
stresses should only really be evaluated once associated tensions and shears are
within acceptable ranges. Furthermore, to arrive at a fully optimal wide valley
arch dam design, non-linear analysis will be required to allow cracking under
cantilever tensile stresses.
Significant attention should be given to shear stresses within an arch dam toward
the higher end of the range of RMC dam heights, particularly in the case of a
wide valley site, where a tendency for cantilever base translations will be evident.
The effects of shear are specifically critical in RMC arches of simple geometry that
do not benefit from the related advantages of double curvature. A secondary
effect of the inability to stiffen the cantilevers by means of vertical curvature is
the development of vertical bending (bursting) tensions in the middle of the
downstream face.
4.4.3 Design
In view of the various design uncertainties that will undoubtedly be present in
relation to RMC materials behaviour and the final applicable structural

23
temperature drop, it is suggested that the best design tools possible be applied
where ambitious arch configurations are proposed. By using a finite element (FE)
model, and varying material properties, it is relatively simple to isolate
anticipated performance and stress levels within an envelope and accordingly at
least the structural effectiveness of the proposed structure may be confirmed
with some degree of confidence. For a small RMC arch, or multiple arch buttress,
practical construction limitations become the dominant factor and thermal
stresses and effects are small and/or of limited consequence on structural
function. In such instances general principles and hand calculations can represent
an adequate design approach and FE analysis will not necessarily always be
required. It should be possible to analyse and construct straightforward dam
designs confidently on relatively small scale without any surprises. In light of the
fact that RMC arch dams are constructed without groutable joints, temperature
drop analyses must always be included in the process of design.
4.4.4 Temperature-related factors

Temperature effects were apparently only superficially addressed in early RMC
arch dam design and it is considered of critical
importance that this situation be redressed, as
Figure 3: Typical stress movement through arch dam shrinkage effects relating to cold temperatures have
significant effects on the overall structural function
of arch dams, particularly those in wide valleys. This
effect is obviously of even greater significance when
the dam in question is constructed without joints,
which can be filled with grout when shrinkage
occurs. RMC dams are constructed without
Principle Compressive contraction joints and the final structure effectively
Stress Vectors forms a single monolith from one abutment to the
ARCH ELEVATION
other. All thermal effects, expansion as a result of
hot temperatures and contraction as a result of cold,
D/S must be accommodated within the body of the
structure itself. In relatively thin structures, such as
arch and arch buttress dams on the scale applicable
U/S to RMC, the entire wall will be largely subject to
HORIZONTAL ARCH SECTION surface temperature effects, with significant
insulation from external temperatures typically only
occurring at depths in excess of three to four metres
from surface(8). Similar thermal phenomena and
consequential effects have been studied in some
Figure 4: Arch represented as a series of blocks
depth for other concrete dam types and specifically
for RCC dams (7, 8 and 13). RCC arch dams suffer similar
effects, particularly in respect of the fact that both
RCC and RMC dams are constructed as continuous
bodies, usually in horizontal placement layers from
one flank to the other, and not monolithic blocks as
is the case for conventional concrete. Although
placement rates and hydration heat related
DEVELOPED ARCH ELEVATION problems are significantly different in each case,
parallels may be drawn and much experience gained
in thermal and related structural analysis of RCC and
D/S concrete arches may be applied to RMC arches.
A typical South African climate might see effective
VERTICLE
ARCH SECTION RMC placement temperatures averaging perhaps
U/S 22°C, final minimum winter water temperatures of
HORIZONTAL ARCH SECTION perhaps 10°C and a minimum average daily winter
air temperature of around 8°C. Assuming some insu-

lation and temperature time lag, and remembering

the thin sections typical of RMC arches, an effective Figure 5: Arch represented as a series of blocks
temperature drop of the RMC from placement to
minimum winter temperature might very easily be as
much as 10°C. On the optimistic side, an RMC struc-
ture in such an environment might accordingly be Arch Closure
required to accommodate temperature variations of

the order of at least 6°C above and 8°C below place-
al)
ment, ‘zero stress’ temperature. Assuming typical
gin
concrete properties for RMC, the structure would be
ori
UPSTREAM ARCH ELEVATION
R
subject to direct temperature compressions and ten-
(>
nk
Roriginal
sions of at least 800kPa and 1,2MPa respectively. D/S Bursting
hru
stresses
Rs
All variants of the concrete arch dam are inherently D/S
susceptible to temperature related effects, although

U/S Compression stresses
very efficient arches, such as those in tight V shaped
Original Arch Outline Movement to Accommodate
valleys where arch stresses are high, are less sensitive U/S temp shrinkage under load
than those in wider, open valleys, where cantilever
stresses are more pronounced. Whilst an arch dam
is an inherently safe structure which can generally
be pushed way beyond design loadings before
failure, nevertheless it is considered important that Figure 6: ‘Shrunk blocks’ after temperature loss
efficient function is preserved and that the mode of
structural function is well understood by the Blocks shrinking away from each other
as a result of temperature drop
designer.
In the case of an arch dam in a wide open valley, the

water load develops arch stresses that are
transferred internally through the top of the dam in
the centre down into the lower portion of the DEVELOPED ARCH ELEVATION
abutment on each flank (see Figure 3). Very little
lateral compression is developed in the lower
portion of the central section of the wall. When
subjected to low temperatures, the wall structure D/S
effectively shrinks, although its foundation remains

unaffected, causing tension across the structure, Maximum block separation
U/S
from one abutment to the other. To accommodate in middle and at top
HORIZONTAL ARCH SECTION
the water load, the structure must take up these
tensions through movement, which occurs by a general deflection of the crest
downstream and an associated tipping forward of the dam wall, which causes
increased tensions at the upstream heel and increased compressions at the
downstream toe. In addition, the area of effective arch compression, through the
upper portion of the dam in the centre (between abutments), decreases and
associated levels of compression over this smaller area correspondingly increase.
In broad and general terms, less of the structure functions to transfer water load
into the foundations, stress within the effective areas increases and the structure
becomes less efficient in function, with a significant portion of its volume no
longer carrying structural load.
This effect can be described by imagining the dam wall as a series of monolithic
blocks as pictured in Figures 4 to 7.
Temperature shrinkage of the wall would cause each of these blocks to reduce in
size and shrink away from each other as illustrated in Figure 5, the most
significant opening between blocks occurring farther away from the restraining
points (abutments).

25
To accommodate the water load and associated

Figure 7: Deflection of cantilever (Temp. + Water) arching stresses, the blocks deflect as cantilevers in a
downstream direction until closure between blocks
occurs at the crest. As a result of the restraint of the
wall against the abutment on either flank, and the
higher flexibility of the taller cantilevers, the central
portion of the crest moves furthest, with each
successive block to the sides moving less. The
consequence of this effect is a final arch with a
larger effective radius (see Figure 6). The alignment
of the sides of each block remains oriented on the
original radius and accordingly the wedge shaped
blocks are effectively too narrow at their
VERTICLE downstream faces to form complete and even
ARCH SECTION contact with each other on the larger, deflected
radius. This in turn implies that the blocks will make
contact with each other initially only over the
upstream side of their respective surfaces and the
arch will accordingly display a ‘bursting’ effect. In this process horizontal
compressive stresses in the central upstream portion of the arch increase, as do
horizontal tensions in the downstream portion and tensions in the heel and
compressions in the toe at the abutments. Looking at the wall in terms of a series
of cantilevers, this effect is seen as a tipping forward of the upper portion, as
shown in Figure 7.
In the described process a great deal of the efficiency of the arch is lost, with only
the portions of the structure illustrated in Figure 5 actually being effective. If a
zero tensile stress is assumed for the RMC, all areas of tension will be subject to
cracking and compressive stresses in the remainder of the wall will
correspondingly increase to redistribute structural load.
In the case of a conventional concrete arch dam, these temperature effects are
mitigated by construction in monolithic blocks, with subsequent grouting at low
temperature to re-establish structural continuity between the blocks, on the
original arch radius. In the case of an RMC dam, it is
Figure 8: Exaggerated temperature and water structural not possible to re-establish structural continuity by
wall deflection grouting and the design must accommodate these
effects; in virtually every case, the most severe
loading case being hydrostatic, gravity, uplift and
temperature drop loads. (See Figure 8 and Table 4)
It is, however, valid to note that the only

manifestation of the above effects that might be
visibly obvious is the downstream face bursting
tension, if cracking results. As has been demon-
strated through FE modelling and investigation,
using an RMC of relatively low elastic modulus
significantly reduces the level of these tensions. (See
Figure 8.)
The important temperature-related factors of influence can be summarised as

follows:
• Thermal effects are critical in the design of RMC arch dams and may not be
ignored,
• Thermal effects are highly dependent on RMC material properties, specifically
thermal expansivity and elastic modulus,

Figure 9: An example of the stress display of a non-linear static-elastic finite element model of an arch
dam with thrust blocks in a wide U-shaped valley.
A friction gap element is modeled on the upstream foundation contact. Temperature drop and temperature differen-
tials between the upstream and downstream faces were modeled for both winter and summer conditions.
• Even in ideal climatic conditions, temperature drop related stresses are

significant in relation to hydrostatic structural stresses, irrespective of RMC
material properties,
• A low thermal expansivity in RMC is of significant advantage in lowering
Specifications
temperature related structural stresses,
• RMC with a low modulus of elasticity displays greater deformation, but lower
It is always possible to mitigate deleteri-
critical stress levels, as the more malleable structure deforms and re-develops
ous circumstances through clever speci-
arching more effectively than a stiffer structure, in which stress is passed
fications and careful, sensible construc-
through smaller contact areas, tion planning. Minimising the ‘built-in’
• It appears that the Zimbabweans have been very fortunate to date in their RMC temperature will obviously be of
application of RMC in arch dams using granite, as this material’s low thermal benefit in reducing the differential
expansivity and lowish elastic modulus appear to be ideal in producing low between the ‘zero stress’ state and the
stress levels in a wide valley arch dam, lowest, cold winter temperatures, or the
• Where RMC of relatively high thermal expansivity and high elastic modulus is final structural temperature drop.
constructed in an extreme climate, temperature effects are critical and
stresses may very easily reach dangerous levels.
Table 4: The Effect of temperature on arch dam stress levels
Environment Compression Shear Maximum Crest Indicated

and materials (MPa) (MPa) Displacement mm Tension (MPa)
Good Materials *
Ignoring Temp. 5,4 1,1 6,1 0,5
Good Materials + cold
climate (10°C temp.drop) 7,3 1,3 10,3 4,8
*- For RMC, good materials = low thermal expansivity and lowish modulus of elasticity.
4.4.5 Foundation dowels

It is usually considered wise to include dowels into the foundation for an RMC
arch. With a small dam / foundation contact surface area for an RMC arch, the
level of cohesion achieved cannot always be reliably assured and these dowels
serve to promote a greater structural mobilisation of the foundation rock-mass
beneath the dam. As a general rule, dowels of this nature are only used to
increase the factor of safety against sliding and a reasonable factor of safety must
anyway be ensured ignoring the effect of the dowels.
27
5.1 Materials procurement

5.1.1 Stone
A number of variations exist with regard to procuring masonry stone.
If suitable surface stones are available in sufficient quantity, then the masonry
stone can be collected and stockpiled by hand, from where it can be hand-loaded
and transported to the dam wall, usually with a tractor and low-bed trailer.
If suitable surface stones are not available, then quarrying the masonry rock may
be the next best option. The technique used for quarrying the rock is to
fragmentation-blast the rock so that the largest proportion of the rock fragments
break up into the size range 100 mm – 300 mm. In Zimbabwe it is common
Commercial sources for stone
practice to blast the rock so that it is dispersed over a wide area from where it can
be hand-loaded onto scotch carts. This technique is mostly not acceptable in
When no rock is available on site, or if
small quantities are required, it may be
South Africa, for environmental and safety reasons. The most common practice
best to procure masonry rock from a here is to develop a face in the quarry where the blast is contained. The blasted
commercial source such as a crusher. mixture of rock and dust is mechanically loaded onto dumper trucks for
Stone of a suitable size for use in RMC transportation to the dam wall. At the dam wall the rock mixture is dumped onto
for dams is usually sold commercially as a sloping grizzly screen where the undersized material is screened out. As far as
either Gabion stone, or dumped rock. is practically possible, oversized rocks in the building stockpile are broken down
with heavy hammers.
5.1.2 Sand
Sand is the most important ingredient in producing good quality masonry. It is
therefore necessary to locate and test sufficient deposits of mortar sand sources
early in the project phase. The most desirable situation is if suitable mortar sand
can be sourced from within the future dam basin or within the river reach near
the dam wall. When sourcing alluvial sand adjacent to a river, seasonal flooding
should be taken into account as this may prevent accessing the sand at a crucial
time during construction.
Alluvial sand derived from the erosion of many sedimentary rock types, is not
suitable for use in mortar, as a result of a non-continuous single-size grading that
Standards for sand can result in high permeability, bleeding and low mortar strengths. It has been
found that this problem can usually be solved by blending such sand with crusher
The blended sand should comply with sand.
the requirements of SANS 1083, or
SANS 1090. If available sands do not In Zimbabwe and in large parts of South Africa, granites make up the base
comply with these standards, their suit- geology from which good quality concrete sands are derived. Sand is usually
ability for use in RMC should be evalu- deposited according to particle sizes, namely coarse sand under fast flowing
ated and certified by a recognised test- conditions and fine sand under slow flowing conditions. This often necessitates
ing laboratory. sourcing sand from two locations and then blending the ‘concrete sand’ and the
‘pit sand’ to achieve the desired grading.
5.1.3 Cement and cement storage

Cement which is stored on site shall be adequately protected against moisture
and other factors that may cause it to deteriorate.
Cement for masonry mortar in dams is usually specified to contain filler agents
such as Fly Ash, Granulated Blast Furnace Slag or Hydraulic Lime. The purpose of
these filler agents is to improve water tightness, to delay set, to decrease the rate
of hydration and total heat created, to increase strength gain over time and/or to
improve workability of the mortar. It is desirable to procure cement pre-blended
in pockets, or in bulk if a silo is provided. Cement blends are often cheaper when
pre-blended and there is no chance of getting the mix proportions wrong (like

leaving out the cement!). Cement should be stored and kept dry until it is placed
in the drum mixer.
5.2 Preparatory activities

5.2.1 Foundation excavations and treatment
The general approach applicable for the foundations of a concrete dam should
be applied for the rock foundation of a masonry dam. When excavating into rock
foundations by blasting, care should be taken to avoid consequential damage.
This can be achieved by line drilling and pre-splitting to form the sides of the
foundation key and by decreasing the burden and spacing inside the foundation
key. Light blasting or no blasting (i.e. using non-explosive excavation methods) is
the key to creating a sound foundation excavation.
5.2.2 Material storage

Care should be taken to avoid contamination of materials during storage and
particular care is necessary when sands of different gradings are to be blended.
The typical arrangements and procedures of good
concrete practice should be observed for all aspects
related to the materials to be used in RMC dam Assumptions re dam size
construction.
The nature and extent of the necessary river diversion for an RMC dam will,
5.2.3 River diversion as always, depend on the size and hydrology of the river to be dammed and
For small to medium sized RMC dams, where the size and construction duration of the dam itself. However, in this guide-
catchment size is not excessive, as will generally be the line only small to medium sized RMC dams are addressed within the context
case, river diversion and flood handling during of southern Africa and accordingly certain assumptions can be considered
generally valid.
construction are very straightforward. As RMC dams
are constructed as monolithic structures, without
joints, if the arches are constructed in relatively horizontal layers, then the structural
integrity is assured at all times. Whilst early loading of RMC might be undesirable,
hydraulic pressures incurred during the passage of a relatively short-lived flood
event can be handled with ease and without any detrimental consequences.
Normal flow can be handled through a permanent bottom outlet installed at a

low point in the wall. Alternatively, a dedicated river diversion facility can be
installed as described below.
Construct a low (± 2 m high) masonry cofferdam on the upstream side of the weir,
± 2 m away from the upstream face of the arch wall. A large diameter (± 1.5 m
diameter) pre-formed pipe (spun concrete or AC sewer pipes are ideal) must be
cast into the cofferdam so that it will extend through the upstream face of the
weir and beyond, by about one metre. This pipe must be installed in the lowest
section of the riverbed and will be bedded in and surrounded by concrete. A ±
600 mm diameter preformed manhole must be attached to the soffit of the
diversion pipe, adjacent to the upstream face of the arch wall. Upon completion
of the dam wall, first closure will be affected by fixing the permanent bottom
outlet inside the diversion pipe and by closing the upstream and downstream
annulus with formwork, thereby forcing river flow through the bottom outlet.
The annulus between the diversion pipe and the bottom outlet must then be Quality of mortar crucial
concreted up through the upstream manhole. Closure must take place when flow
in the river is less than the outlet capacity of the bottom outlet. The quality of the mortar will ultimately
determine the quality of the masonry,
5.2.4 Mortar batching and mixing both in terms of strength and water
It is usual to complete batching for RMC dam construction by volume. If mass tightness. It is therefore more crucial to
batching can be achieved without excessive additional cost, the related accuracy attend to this aspect of the construction
and increased control is advantageous. Batching plants should be accurate and than anything else.

29
regularly checked. In instances when volume batching is carried out using

wheelbarrows, etc, great care should be taken to ensure adherence to correct
materials proportioning and regular checking and intelligent supervision is
necessary. Cement should not , however, be measured by volume but by mass,
typically per 50 kg bag.
Mortar is made by mixing sand, pre-blended cement and water in a drum mixer.
On smaller projects, mixing can be accomplished manually, although experience
has shown that better results and greater overall efficiencies are achieved using
a mechanical mixer. (The quantity of water added to the mix cannot be controlled
when mortar is mixed manually.) Mixing should ensure that the mortar produced
is of an even consistency, the correct slump and in compliance with the prescribed
mix design and strength requirements. Care should be taken to regularly measure
and/or assess the moisture content of the sand prior to mixing. This is very
necessary to ensure that the correct amount of mixing water is added to the mix.
If the mixing water is very cold and/or the ambient temperature is too low, the
mixing water should be pre-heated. In extremely warm ambient conditions,
cooling the batching water by the addition of ice may be necessary, although this
is not considered viable on anything but the largest projects for which RMC is likely
to be used. Mortar should be placed within two hours of having been batched.
5.3 RMC construction

5.3.1 Stone preparation
Masonry stones should be thoroughly cleaned from all dust, mud and weathered
scale. Stones should be wetted before being transported to the wall for
placement. Jetting down stones with a high-pressure water jet, usually
accomplishes both objectives of cleaning and wetting.
The exposure of stockpiled stones to direct sunlight should be avoided during

warmer periods. If this exposure is unavoidable, stones should be selected for use
only from the shaded side of the stockpile, or by selecting from sub-surface.
Water jetting will also assist in cooling stockpiled stone.
5.3.2 Mortar and stone transportation

Mortar and masonry stones can be delivered to the dam wall mechanically using
cranes, conveyor belts, or a front-end loader or alternatively manually, using
wheelbarrows. Either way, it is important to ensure that stones of mixed sizes are
delivered continuously. In Zimbabwe, manual transportation has been used to
convey stones and mortar for a masonry dam of 16 000 m3 body volume, while in
South Africa a 5 600 m3 masonry body was the largest constructed to date by
conveying material with wheelbarrows. It is however anticipated that two dams
about to be built, with masonry volumes of about 13 000m3 each, will be built by
using cranes to convey stones and mortar onto the wall.
5.3.3 Surface preparation

Before placing mortar and masonry stones on a previous lift, the surface should
be cleaned of all laitance, loose rocks, dust and debris. The surface should then
be watered down. If the surface is very dry, such as can be the case when the
construction site is abandoned for the year-end builder’s break or for phased
construction, then special treatment of the surface will be required in order to
ensure proper adhesion of subsequent lifts.
5.3.4 Placement and compaction

A number of variations exist with regard to the placement and compaction of

RMC. Whilst the Zimbabweans have developed certain methods and standard
practices, various adaptations of these methods have been applied in South
Africa.
The quality and durability of the final structure produced in water retaining RMC
is obviously inherently sensitive to the methods applied for placement and
compaction, as can be witnessed when inspecting many of the leaking masonry
dam walls in places such as Mpumalanga.
It is important to understand that RMC for arch dams must not be perceived as a
series of stones cemented together using mortar, but rather as a monolithic
matrix, containing large stone within a body of mortar. In essence, this is similar
in concept to the difference between brickwork and concrete. The former
comprises a series of individual entities cemented to each other, while the latter
comprises a body, or matrix of material made up of component constituents, in
the form of cement, aggregates and water. When a ‘rubble’ masonry structure is
built in a similar manner to brickwork, placing mortar as a receiving medium into
which the surfaces of stones are embedded, the
overall structural action of the final body of material Optimum structural performance
is compromised. Stress transfer paths are
predetermined and limited, local tension effects The optimal structural performance of RMC would seem to be achieved
become significant, the mortar properties play a when the stone content is maximised without compromising the uniform
more dominant role and overall permeability is and even separation of rock particles with 7 mm to 20 mm of mortar. Typical
high. stone content will accordingly be approximately 55% of the masonry body
by volume, with the balance (45%) comprising mortar.
Accordingly, the method adopted successfully for
the construction of several dams in South Africa has involved the initial
construction of dry stone walls on either side of a particular structural member to
a height of approximately 200 mm, followed by the filling of the trough created
with a relatively flowable mortar, into which large stone plums are embedded.
The stone plums are forced deep into the mortar by being stood on and by being
pressed in using a customised hammer tool created from a length of reinforcing
steel bar, which actions further served effectively to compact the receiving
mortar. Some stones are left projecting slightly above the top surface of each lift,
to allow keying into the subsequent lift, and the receiving placement surface is
cleaned thoroughly and dampened between lifts, as this surface tends to be
damaged and dirtied by pedestrian movement. The ‘dry’ facing walls are
constructed much like conventional brick wall, using stiff mortar as bedding for
the facing stones, which are usually carefully selected for the purpose.
5.3.5 Surface finishes

Where RMC end walls must retain earth fill embankments, the surface against
which the fill is to be compacted, must be plastered on completion to create a
relatively smooth receiving surface with no overhangs or distinct discontinuities.
Surfaces in permanent contact with water must be flush jointed by plastering

mortar into the grooves between surface (facing) stones. This results in less
chemical and physical erosion. This measure is of particular importance for all
surfaces exposed to freeze-thaw conditions, where ice can develop in surface
grooves and then ‘crack out’ the surface mortar and rocks, in the same way as
rocks are weathered.
In mild climates where the surface is not continually in contact with water and
where a certain aesthetic finish is required, joints between the facing stones can
be accentuated by raking out mortar to a specified depth.

31
5.4 Quality control and testing

It is important to address quality in RMC dam construction and whilst mortar cube
crushing tests are a useful reference, the specification and regular
encouragement of correct procedures and methods of construction to be
observed is of greater importance. The labour and the contractor to be employed
on small dams typically suitable to RMC will generally not be highly sophisticated
and the repeated reinforcement of quality requirements and related appropriate
Useful tests
procedures and construction methods will not be wasted.
The following tests are nevertheless use-

The following quality control procedures should be implemented:
ful and should be undertaken on a con-
• Double-check all setting-out. Arch dams rely on their shape for strength and
tinuous basis:
• Sand grading analysis, therefore the overall structural stability and integrity can be severely
• Slump measurement on mortar, compromised if not constructed in accordance with the design dimensions,
• Manufacture and crushing of mortar • Count cement bags for each mortar batch (to ensure that the right amount of
cubes (crush at least half at seven cement went into the mix),
days), • Keep a written record of mortar batches for each day and the amount of
• On larger projects, some larger cement used,
masonry cubes should be manu- • Calculate the volume of masonry batched over a period and compare it with
factured for crushing as a strength the measured increase in the masonry volume. This is a good indicator of the
reference.
relative volume of mortar in a unit of masonry,
• Check that each lift is cleaned and watered before placing the next lift,
• Keep placed masonry wet for proper curing.
5.5 Dealing with inclement weather

Masonry construction can continue in very light rain, but should be stopped in
heavy rain.
When constructing masonry in conditions of persistent extreme cold, such as

during the winter in the mountains of Lesotho, a variety of measures may have
to be implemented. Firstly, the mixing water drawn from the rivers will have a
maximum temperature of about 6°C. This water will have to be pre-heated to
about 60°C, resulting in a mortar temperature of about 25°C when discharged
from the drum mixer. With day-time temperatures below 10°C and night-time
temperatures below freezing, it is also necessary to protect the placed masonry
mortar against freezing. The most effective way identified is to use plywood
formwork to protect the side faces of the masonry structure and to cover the top
surface with thermal blankets during the night.
5.6 Labour
5.6.1 Success factors for employment-intensive masonry construction
Labour productivity determines whether a masonry dam can be constructed at
lower cost and within the same time frame as a plant-intensive
design/construction solution. It is therefore important to pay attention to the
labour-related issues that can make the difference in whether this type of dam
construction is a success or not. Experience has shown that there are only two key
determinants with respect to labour productivity, i.e. the type of labour recruited
and the manner in which labour is employed. These two issues can be addressed
through a range of strategies and measures, i.e. effective recruiting methods;
good training; skills/leadership spotting/development; setting up appropriate
task teams; and creating a productive environment (e.g. transport arrangements,
site facilities, food, communication channels, etc). To develop task-based
measurement criteria and setting productivity targets for remuneration purposes,
require intensive initial experimentation on each project.

5.6.2 Management and skilled technical staff

The requirements for site management staff and skilled technical staff on
masonry dam projects are the same as for any other dam construction project of
similar size and these staff requirements will therefore not be discussed here.
Only the labour requirements peculiar to masonry dam construction will be listed
below.
Skilled masons: Skilled masons are required for building the facing surfaces of the
structure in advance of the core or hearting. Ideally these masons should have
demonstrated their skills on a previous project. They will report directly to the
foreman. Their responsibilities will include the training of new masons and
managing and directing their own support team who deliver material on the wall
and who construct the hearting.
Heavy manual labour: Heavy manual labour can only be done by healthy and
physically strong persons. This work typically includes the pushing of heavily
loaded wheelbarrows up ramps, the handling of large rock particles, etc.
Light manual labour: Light manual labour includes such tasks as pointing or
plastering the facing surfaces of the structures. This work does not place specific
reliance on physical strength.
Mortar batching: Because of the high importance of this activity, it is essential to

place a reliable person with the appropriate technical knowledge in charge of the
mortar batching operations at each and every batching plant. His support staff
must be able to do heavy manual labour.
Laboratory staff: At least one technically competent and very reliable person
should be in charge of quality control. He should have one or two assistants. His
principal functions will be to screen sand, do slump tests on mortar, make mortar
cubes for testing, report results daily to the Site Agent and immediately raise the
alarm if tests indicate that technical specifications are not being met.
Typical construction teams: A masonry construction team typically comprises five

workers as follows:
• One mason, Factors influencing productivity
• Two assistants (for the mason). They place the
hearting masonry and move mortar and stones A wide range of site specific, construction methodology and labour-related
on the wall, factors can affect productivity rates. Specific factors that influence produc-
• Two wheelbarrow labourers (one for mortar and tivity are:
the other stone transportation). • The skills, attitude and experience of the work force,
• Remuneration incentives,
One 300 litre drum mixer manned by a team of • Leadership on the site,
three can supply mortar at an adequate rate for • Working conditions (both social and physical),
three five-person masonry construction teams as • Weather conditions,
described above. A team of two labourers can • Access and working space (better access and lots of working space
increase productivity),
attend to cleaning and conveying masonry stones
• Total volume (the greater the volume, generally the higher the productiv-
from the stockpile on site to convenient collection
ity due to the relatively short learning curve in relation to the overall
points for the masonry teams. duration of the project),
• Availability of construction materials (a bottleneck in material deliveries
5.6.3 Productivity
can severely hamper productivity and can cause the work force to
When referring to productivity rates, it becomes become demoralised),
necessary to agree on some definitions. In this • Construction methods and material delivery onto the wall (the more
document, productivity rates will always refer to the mechanised, generally the higher the productivity rates, but the addition-
volume of masonry placed per day per worker. al costs of mechanisation must be weighed up).

33
‘Worker’ means all construction staff directly involved in the production and
placement of masonry. Site management staff, technical staff and laboratory staff
are excluded. Their costs should be included under Preliminary and General items.
All workers employed in the sourcing and delivery of construction materials to
the site of works, are also excluded. Their costs should be reflected in the material
procurement costs, which in turn will later be incorporated in the masonry cost.
Productivity rates vary widely, from as little as 0.3 m3 per person per day to as
much as five cubic metres per person per day. The latter productivity rate can only
be achieved if the manual transportation of masonry rock and mortar onto the
wall is replaced with mechanical delivery systems. The cost of mechanical delivery
systems should then be separately calculated and converted into a cost per cubic
meter of masonry placed. If the entire process from rock stockpile and mortar
batching plant to construction of masonry walls are done with manual labour,
then typical productivity varies between 0.5 m3 per person per day to 1.0 m3 per
person per day.
5.7 Costing of rubble masonry construction

The only element of masonry dams that should be costed differently from say a
comparable concrete dam is the unit cost of placed masonry. The technique for
determining the unit cost of masonry is not significantly different to that of
costing concrete. As with concrete, it should be decided what portion of the
temporary works and plant will be costed under preliminary and general items
and what portion will be costed into the unit volume of material placed. To
simplify calculations and to better illustrate the costing principles, all temporary
works and plant costs will be left out of the masonry unit cost in this document.
The costing and scheduling methodology is illustrated in Tables 5 and 6,

respectively.
Table 5: Typical costing for RMC
Item Description Unit Rate (R-c) Qty./m3 masonry Masonry unit cost
(R/m3)
Loose masonry rock delivered m3
Sand delivered m3
Cement pockets
Sub-Total Materials m3
Labour Wages person-day
Total Nett Cost m3
Waste and Risk %
Mark-up %
Total Masonry Unit Price m3
Clearly, all of the costs illustrated in Table 5 can be further refined, for example
the labour cost can be disaggregated into the various categories of labour rates
and the actual cost of materials delivered to site can be calculated according to
standard methods. It has been found that rates can vary between R200 and R400
per m3 masonry placed. In addition to this rate, must be added the fixed and
time-related costs of head office overheads, insurances, site facilities, plant,
temporary works, site supervision, etc. These prices are adjusted for year 2 000
and are applicable for masonry arch dam projects where masonry quantities
ranged from 1 000 m3 to 5 600 m3. The project locations varied from the Western

Cape, Lesotho, Free State, Limpopo Province and Mpumalanga.
The cost of employment per unit of expenditure typically ranges from about R20
to R100 per hour.
Table 6 : Typical scheduling of RMC
RUBBLE ROCK MASONRY CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION – BILL OF QUANTITIES

ITEM NO SPEC DESCRIPTION UNIT QTY RATE AMOUNT
PSRM SECTION PSRM
ROCK MASONRY (p1)
PSRM 1 ROCK MASONRY CONSTRUCTION

a. External faces of vertical walls (300 mm thick) m3
b. Hearting or core between external faces m3
c. Bulk constructions (sections > 4m minimum dimension) m3
PSRM 2 SURFACE FINISHES

a. Decorative finish with specially selected rock m3
b. Recess pointed finish m3
c. Smooth plastered finish m3
PSRM 3 MORTAR BATCHING (45% of nett structure volume)
PSRM 3.1 Strength Mortar Using …………….. Cement

a. 15 Mpa m3
b. 10 Mpa m3
c. 7 Mpa m3
PSRM 3.2 Extra-over PSRM 3.1 to Blend Sand from different stockpiles m3
PSRM 4 MATERIALS SOURCING AND DELIVERY TO SITE
PSRM 4.1 Masonry Rock (50mm – 300mm size, measured as nett

volume of structure, i.e. allow for bulking & waste)
a. Loose surface rocks collected by hand m3
b. Fragmentation-blasted from designated quarry site m3
c. Purchased from designated commercial source m3
d. Purchased from source located by the contractor m3
PSRM 4.2 Mortar Sand, measured as 45% nett volume of structure

a. Alluvium from designated sources on site m3
b. Alluvium from designated commercial sources m3
c. Crusher material from designated commercial sources m3
d. Sand from sources to be located by the contractor m3
CARRIED FORWARD TO SUMMARY PAGE

35
1. Rankine, RGD, Krige, GJ, Teshome, D and Grobler, LJ. Structural aspects of
labour-intensely constructed, uncut stone masonry arch bridges. Journal of
the South African Institution of Civil Engineers. Volume 37, No. 3, Third
Quarter 1995.
2. Rankine, RGD. Development towards a proposed compressive strength test

for rubble rock masonry. Journal of the South African Institution of Civil
Engineers. Volume 39, No. 1, First Quarter 1997.
3. Rankine, RGD, Gohnert, M and McCutcheon, RT. Proposed Guidelines for the
design and construction of rubble masonry concrete arch bridges. Journal of
Quarter 1998.
4. Fine, B, Rankine, RGD and McCutheon, RT. Deformation mechanics of rubble

masonry concrete. Journal of the South African Institution of Civil Engineers.
Volume 41, No. 1, First Quarter 1999.
5. United States Department of the Interior: Bureau of Reclamation. Design of

Small Dams. Third Edition. US Government Printer. 1987.
6. Jansen, RB. Advanced Dam Engineering. Van Nostrand Reinhold. 1988.
7. Shaw, QHW. Wolwedans Dam. Design Report. DWAF. Pretoria. 1987.
8. Shaw, QHW. A Temperature Study of the Clanwilliam Dam. DWAF. Pretoria.

1984.
9. Shaw, QHW. The Development of Concrete Technologies in Dam Engineering

and Beyond. Proceedings. Concrete Society National Convention. September
1994.
10. Shaw, QHW. “Rubble Masonry Concrete Dam Design and Construction. Part
1: New Generation RMC Dams in RSA, as illustrated through the Bakubung,
Welgevonden and Genadendal Dams.” SAICE Journal – April 1998.
11. Shaw, QHW. “Rubble Masonry Concrete Dam Design and Construction. Part
2: Proposed Design Standards and Related Influences.” SAICE Journal – April
1998.
12. de Beer, A. Maritsane Dam – Third and Final Design Report. SAPEKOE (Pty)
Ltd. South Africa. October 1995.
13. Dimitrov, N; Venkov, S and de Beer, A. Static Analysis of Arch Maritsane Dam.
SAPEKOE (Pty) Ltd . South Africa. October 1995.
14. de Beer, A. Hand-made Arch Dam. South Africa – Maritsane Dam. Water
Power and Dam Construction. January 1997.
15. de Beer, A. Likalaneng Weir – Design Report for Constructing the Weir as a
Rubble Masonry Arch. LDHA South Africa/Lesotho. November 1996.
16. Oosthuizen, C. Behaviour of roller compacted concrete in arch/gravity dams.

Proceedings. International Workshop on Dam Safety. Grindelwald. 1993.
17. Portland Cement Institute. Fulton’s Concrete Technology. Sixth Edition. PCI.
1986.

18. Wild, RM. The Design of Small Arch Dams in Wide U-Shaped Valleys.
Zimbabwe Engineer. November 1980.
19. Shaw, QHW. “Concrete Technologies in Dam Engineering” - WITS SAICE

Lecture Series - May 8th 1996.
20. Shaw, QHW. The Development of Concrete Technologies in Dam Engineering

and Beyond. Proceedings. Concrete Society National Convention. Sun City.
September 1994.
21. Jiazheng, P and Jing, H. Large Dams in China. A Fifty-Year Review. China
WaterPower Press. CHINCOLD. 20th ICOLD Congress. Beijing, China. 2000.
22. Smith, N. A History of DAMS. Citadel Press. Secaucus, New Jersey. USA.
23. Gomez, G et al. Technical Symposium. Maintenance of Older Dams:

Accidents, Safety Assessment, Repairs. Volume 1. Session 2. Maintenance of
Masonry Dams. Chambery, France. 23-25 September 1993.
24. Serafim, JL and Clough, RW. International Workshop on Arch Dams. Coimbra,
Spain. 5-9 April 1987. AA Balkema. Rotterdam/Brookfield. 1990.
25. Kollgaard, EB and Chadwick, WL. The Development of Dam Engineering in

the USA. USCOLD. 16th ICOLD Congress. San Francisco. 1988
26. Varsney, RS. Concrete Dams. Second Edition. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co.
New Delhi / Bombay / Calcutta. 1982.
27. Energoproekt and de Beer, A. Static Analysis of Arch Maritsane Dam. RSA
1995.
28. Shaw, QHW. Bakubung Dam – Design Report. Bophuthatswana National

Parks Board. South Africa. April 1995.
29. Shaw, QHW. Welgevonden Dam – Design Report. ZZ2 PTY Ltd. South Africa.
May 1996.
30. Shaw, QHW. Star Dam – Design Report. Deo Gloria Game Farm. South Africa.
July 1999.
31. Shaw, QHW. Hogsback Dam – Structural Design Report. Hogsback Local
Council. South Africa. August 1999.
32. Shaw, QHW. Aloe Cove Dam – Design Report. Alex Richter Dam Co. South
Africa. July 2000.
33. SANS 10164 – Part 1. The Structural Use of Masonry. Part 1. Unreinforced
Masonry Walling. South African Bureau of Standards. RSA.
34. SANS 10249. Masonry Walling. South African Bureau of Standards. RSA.

37
Notes

Notes

39
Notes

Acknowledgements

Gautrans
Soweto City Council
eThekwini Metro
of guidelines.
Organisation
Rubble masonry concrete arch bridge

construction technology
Part 1
all citizens”
Part 3
manufacture
commenced in 1996.
making
technology
technology
unsealed roads
development.

Edition
of CIDB
document
Rubble masonry concrete arch bridge construction 1028
March 2005
technology
Contents
1. Introduction 3
5. Construction technique, labour and costing 15
Acknowledgements 29


Tel: 27 12-481 9030 Fax: 27 12-343 7153
T
works components.


Part 4-3 – Rubble masonry concrete arch bridge construction technology
1. Introducing RMC arch bridge construction technology
This section introduces the technology in broad principles

Note
and illustrates the related benefits to be gained by its
application with specific reference to research performed
Whilst Rubble Masonry Concrete (RMC) Arch bridges have been con-
and experience gained to date in Southern Africa.
structed for around 3 000 years, the technology has, to a large extent
been replaced by steel and concrete construction technologies.
1.1 Background
In recent times, there has been a resurgence in the construction of
Masonry Arch Bridge construction first appeared in ancient small RMC Arch bridges, in areas of Africa where the technology is
civilisation in Mesopotamia between the Tigris and appropriate.
Euphrates Rivers, some 3 000 years ago. The oldest This guideline has been compiled to present the technology of RMC
surviving masonry arch bridge is at Smyrna, in Turkey. It arch bridge construction, with direction for design, site selection,
was built around 900 BC. Numerous masonry arch bridges materials evaluation and construction against the background of
have subsequently been constructed all around the world experience gained to date in Southern Africa.
(see Figure 1). As the construction technology developed,
bridges started to show evidence of an effort to shape and fit the stones to
minimise the joint thickness between them and to orientate the stones so that
the principal stresses would be at right angles to the joints. This showed an
inherent comprehension of the basics of arch action.
Based on the above principles, numerous masonry arch bridges have survived, indi-
cating considerable durability as a result of the mechanical distribution of loads within
the arch structure that tends to ensure that the loads are transferred internally in
such a manner as to ensure that the integrity of the structure is maintained.
1.2 Recent interest in RMC bridges

In recent times, the construction of RMC arch bridges was Figure 1: Old masonry arch bridge in the Lake
pioneered in Zimbabwe, during the liberation struggle District, England
between 1973 and 1980. As a result of a shortage of
materials that were needed to construct bridges using
modern methods, such as reinforced concrete and steel,
local engineers built numerous RMC arch bridges. Their
methods of design and construction evolved empirically,
often at the expense of structures being washed away or
bypassed. Unfortunately, their experience was not carefully
documented.
In South Africa, during the 1990s, use was made of RMC Arch
technology for the construction of simple stone structures,
such as fords (drifts), culvert, outlets, small bridge abutments
and piers as well as stone arch culverts, with areas from
approximately 0,75 m2 (equivalent to a one metre diameter
pipe) to 2,26 m2 (equivalent to 2 x 1,2 m diameter pipes). Figure 2: RMC arch bridge constructed using
labour-based techniques in South Africa
In 1992, the then Lebowa Government commenced a
programme of bridge construction, intending to use
structural corrugated steel sheet arch formers, as well as
simply supported reinforced concrete decks, as part of its road
management system. It was found that placement of the
corrugated steel arch rings required cranes to handle them.
Subsequently, these formers were backfilled using earth-
moving plant and compaction equipment. As a result the
desire to increase the labour component of the project and
also due to supply problems relating to the corrugated sheets,
the engineers explored alternative construction techniques in
order not to delay the project. A labour-based technique
using rubble masonry was successfully implemented.

3
2.1 Typical mix proportions

Typical RMC composition
2.1.1 General
RMC as used in arch bridge and culvert construction is a matrix comprising RMC used in arch bridges typically uses two mortar
large stones in a mortar binder. To minimise cost, and to optimise structural mix compositions, a 1:4 cement: sand mix for the
properties, it is desirable to maximise the stone content. RMC is similar in critical zones of the structure, such as the arch rings
nature to a dry mix concrete, typically comprising approximately 55% large and spandrel walls, and other areas exposed
aggregate (by mass), 6% cement, 6% water and 33% sand. The greatest dif- alternate wetting and drying or the erosive effects
ference, of course, can be seen in the fact that the large aggregate portion
of flowing water and 1:6 cement: sand for the
of RMC comprises particles generally of 50 to 300 mm in dimension1.
massive infill sections. The mixes are prepared to a
consistency that is just fluid enough to fill the
interstices between the underlying stones.
2.1.2 Mortar composition

1 This is effectively controlled by the mass of the
individual stones to ensure that they can be placed by
Adopting the mortar classification system of SANS 10164 – Part 1, the 1:4 mortar
hand. The mass of a stone with a nominal diameter of mix, using a CEM 1 cement (OPC), is equivalent to a mortar Class I, displaying a
300 mm varies from between 30-40 kg.
2 The designer should specify the minimum cement 28-day preliminary (laboratory) strength of perhaps 14MPa and a works test
content in a cubic metre of mortar. This is more strength of 10MPa. The nominal 1:6 mortar mix is equivalent to a mortar Class II,
important than specifying the compressive strength of
the mortar in accordance with the provisions of SANS
displaying a 28-day preliminary strength of 7MPa and a works test strength of
10164-1 : The Structural use of Masonry : Part 1: 5MPa. In SANS 10249, a Class 1 mortar comprises 50 kg cement and approximately
Unreinforced masonry walling as lean mixes will be
permeable. The compressive strength of RMC is
130 litres sand (measured loose and damp), while a Class II mortar comprises 50 kg
relatively insensitive to the strength of mortar. cement and approximately 200 litres sand.2,3 It is very important to maintain a
Compressive strength requirements can be used as a
control measure to monitor uniformity in mortar.
mortar film thickness limited to 7 to 20mm between the rock particles within the
Changes in compressive strength are indicative of RMC. A mortar film of this thickness should provide significantly greater strength
changes in mix proportions, water content and fine
aggregate.
than indicated in a 100mm test cube.
3 A ‘concrete’ wheelbarrow has a capacity of 65l.
Mortar mixes of 1 : 4 and 1 : 6 compositions are

accordingly proportioned as 50 kg cement and 2, or 3
For the purpose of evaluation, mortar mixes 1:4 and 1:6 by volume are analysed
wheelbarrows of sand, respectively. based on the following data and ignoring air content for simplicity:
4 A bag of common cement having a mass of 50kg has
a volume of approximately 33 litres when packed

Material Loose bulk density (kg/m3) Relative density
under air pressure at a factory. Cement, however, fluffs Cement 1150 (1500 in bags) 2,9
up (bulks) when poured into a container, with a result
that 50 kg of cement cannot readily be contained in a
Sand, dry 1620 2,65
box of 33 litres. The volume of a bag of loose (bulked) Sand, wet 1350
cement, depending upon its compaction, can be upto
20% more than when in a bag. For this reason, it is
preferable to use whole bags of cement when volume The sand is assumed to be an average sand and has a water requirement of 330
batching.
kg/m3 to give adequate workability to the mortar. The water requirement for a
1:4 and 1:6 mix would be similar in practice despite the higher cement content of
the 1:4 mix (see Table 1).
MATERIAL QUANTITIES
Volume (l) Absolute volume (l) Mass (kg) Volume (l) Absolute volume (l) Mass (kg)
Cement 33,3 17,2 50 6,8 bags 117 340
Sand 133 81,4 216 905 353 1465
Water 48,5 48,5 48,5 330 330 330
Total 1000 2135
In the calculation of quantities of materials for the different mortar mixes, no

allowance is made for entrapped air in the mortar (average air content 2 to 4%)
and for loss of bleeding water. It is also assumed that in volume batching a full
bag of cement weighing 50 kg is used, i.e. the cement is not volume batched4.

For dry materials, a mix of 1 cement + 6 sand and a w/c ratio by mass of 1,05 for
9MPa, assuming zero air voids, the component proportions can be determined as
shown in Table 2.
When wet sand is used and volume batched, allowance must be made for the
bulking of the sand otherwise the cement content will be in excess of that shown
in the Tables 1 and 2.
MATERIAL QUANTITIES
Volume (l) Absolute volume (l) Mass (kg) Volume (l) Absolute volume (l) Mass (kg)
Cement 33,3 17,2 50 4,8 bags 82 240
Sand 200 122.1 324 960 588 1560
Water 69 69 69 330 330 330
Total 1000 2130
A realistic mortar amount in RMC is 40 – 45%. Accordingly, the cement content

per cubic metre in RMC for a 1:4 mortar mix will vary between 136 and 153 kg/m3
and for a 1:6 mortar mix between 96 and 108 kg/m3.
2.1.3 Rock particle content

A mass concrete might commonly contain up to 60% coarse aggregate by
volume. Research and practical experience have, however, demonstrated that
while a similar rock particle content is possible in RMC, and indeed of benefit in
promoting economy, a content of around 50% may be more appropriate to
ensure that rock particles and mortar are well and evenly distributed within the
matrix. In areas of the structure where strength and impermeability are less
critical, higher proportions of rock may be applied. For a mass gravity structure,
consideration can be given to the application of more traditional, historical
rubble masonry techniques, where the rock particles are cemented together with
mortar, as opposed to being bedded into a matrix of mortar. In such instances,
the rock proportion can be increased very significantly, although it must also be
understood that the contents of air voids (entrapped air) in such a ‘mix’ is likely
to be extremely high, with concomitant potential permeability problems.
2.2 RMC behaviour as a construction material

2.2.1 General
While it is relatively simple to test, evaluate and analyse the likely strengths and
performance of the mortar component of the RMC mix, the addition of large
scale rock particles complicates the picture significantly. It is not just the
combination of materials that makes such analysis more involved, but the
requirement for an accurate replication of the construction process to ensure
representivity of the samples with the actual circumstances prevalent in
prototype structures. No vibration is used for the compaction of RMC and
compaction is provided in the form of the physical effort of driving large stone
particles into the mortar. A further complication inherent to the strength and
performance analysis of RMC is the scale of the rock particles, which limits the
usefulness of small scale testing and requires specialist equipment to ensure
representivity.

5
In RMC, components of very different size, shape, elasticity, density and strength
are combined to create a behaviour environment quite different to that of
concrete. Test work as described below has illustrated how mechanisms set up
between the large particles within the RMC mix can be seen to dominate
behaviour, if unfavourably orientated. The problem commonly experienced in
RMC relates to the setting of very stiff and strong particles within a matrix of
more de-formable, lower strength mortar. However, in some instances of bridge
construction, low strength rock particles have been used. In such cases, RMC
structural performance has been demonstrated to be significantly compromised.
2.2.2 RMC mortar workability

Testing mortar workability
In order to achieve the composition of RMC, mortar
workability becomes critical. Too wet and flowable
It is suggested that site tests be carried out to establish optimum mortar work-
ability. A test placement in a box of perhaps 1 m2 x 0,5 m deep could be bro-
mortar will give rise to excessive rock particle
ken up a day or so after placement to establish the typical rock particle sepa- contact and will prevent an even and uniform
ration achieved. Repeated testing could be applied to observe and establish separation of rock particles with a thin layer of
optimum mortar workability and the same process could serve to measure the mortar. Too dry and stiff mortar will result in
rock and mortar mix proportion variation with mortar workability. excessive separation of the rock particles and a
higher dependence of the strength and
performance properties of the mortar. Wet mortar will promote a higher rock
content and dry mortar, a lower rock content.
2.2.3 The impact of materials variations on RMC behaviour

Recent research by Fine and Rankine used 500 mm cubes to test, evaluate and
compare the properties of RMC, primarily in terms of crushing strength and
elasticity, or deformation modulus. In this works it was demonstrated that the
deformation modulus of RMC is largely determined by the elastic modulus, shape
and orientation of the rock inclusions. With rock moduli varying from 24 to 120
GPa, a range of RMC deformation modulus of 5 to 71 GPa was demonstrated for
a constant mortar deformation modulus of 18 GPa.
Relating to arch bridges, the important characteristics of RMC identified in the

research include the following:
• The orientation of the rock inclusions in relation to the direction of load
transfer is critical in final materials behaviour,
• Under load, stresses within the RMC are significantly greater and more
variable when a few large particles are applied, with inter-particle contact, as
compared with smaller particles separated evenly with mortar,
• It appears that specific load transfer and structural mechanisms play a
significant role within an RMC cube close to and at failure. This effect is likely
to be of lesser significance at lower loadings in relation to ultimate strength.
The particle size in relation to member size is likely to influence the intensity
of these effects,
• Poisson’s Ratio of RMC can vary from 0,03 to in excess of 1,0,
• The placement method applied for RMC has a fairly significant impact on the
final materials behaviour, as a consequence of the foregoing,
• Particles with surface weathering are not appropriate for use in RMC.
2.3 Materials requirements

2.3.1 General
In terms of materials quality and strength, the same criteria applicable for
concrete are valid for RMC. For the rock particles, shape is of importance for the
reasons discussed above, although workability problems that relate to the
flakiness and/or angularity of coarse aggregate particles in conventional concrete
are obviously not relevant in RMC arch bridge construction (see Figure 7).

2.3.2 Rock particles

Rock particles for use in RMC can be sourced from a quarry, or from surface stone
deposits (usually colluvial). When the scale of construction is small and no
suitable quarry exists within the proximity of the dam site, significant economic
benefit is gained from the ability to collect suitable rock from local surface
deposits which frequently exist close to sites suitable for RMC construction. One
obvious prerequisite in the use of stone from local surface deposits is that any
weathering is insufficient to significantly compromise the mechanical properties
of the parent rock. In terms of quality, rock particles
must meet the related requirements of SANS 1083. Testing rock particle strength
For the reasons discussed above, rock particles with The strength tests applied to coarse aggregate for concrete are impractical
weathering that affects the surface hardness are for the size of rock particles used in RMC, although the aggregate crushing
unsuitable for use in RMC and the maximum value (SANS 5841) and the 10% FACT value (SANS 5842) can be applied to
nominal particle size should not exceed a of the smaller particles of the same source material. With the same sort of materi-
minimum dimension of the structural element being al competence required for RMC rock particles as for concrete coarse aggre-
constructed (distance between the inside faces of gate, visual inspection and handling are usually adequate to confirm density,
the surface skin zones). Elongated rock particles strength, hardness and durability. Should any doubt as to the competence
of a proposed rock particle exist, mechanical testing of samples must be
should be avoided and the maximum dimension of
undertaken to ensure a material of at least 2,65 specific gravity, 30 MPa com-
a rock particle should not exceed half of the depth
pressive strength and 40 GPa modulus of elasticity.
of the lift into which it is cast.
2.3.3 Fine aggregate or sand

The fine aggregate or sand must comply with the requirements of SANS 1083
(fine aggregate for concrete) or SANS 1090 (fine aggregates for mortar) or have
a water requirement not greater than 10 litres with 10 kg of cement (CEM I or
CEM II A) and 50 kg of air dry sand to reach a consistency suitable for the mortar
that is used in RMC.
If judgement of the suitability of a sand is based on its water requirement then it

must also comply with the requirements in the above South African National
Standards for dust content, methylene blue content, clay content, organic
impurities, and soluble deleterious impurities.
In general, the Fineness Modulus (FM) of the sand should lie between 2,1 and 2,8.
Where sand from a single source does not conform to the above requirements,
blending of sand from different sources should be considered.

7
3.1 Goal – to maximise labour usage

Activities that benefit from the application of plant
In the case of any labour-based construction
On the basis that experience has demonstrated the application of plant only technology, the prime objective is obviously to
to be of benefit in aspects related to the constituent materials, the appropri- maximise the overall percentage of the construction
ate use of plant in RMC construction can be addressed under the following cost attributable to labour wages. One of the
categories: primary successes of RMC construction is the
• stone collection, loading and transportation efficient use of labour that arises from a minimum
• sand procurement and delivery number of component activities comprising the
• mortar mixing construction method. The basic construction can,
• mortar delivery to point of placement
however, be split into materials procurement,
• stone delivery to point of placement
delivery and blending as one category and actual
construction as another. While the latter category is
entirely labour-orientated and the use of any mechanical plant would actually be
relatively difficult, significant efficiencies can be gained by the use of equipment
and plant for the former.
3.2 Construction plant

3.2.1 Excavation plant
Blasting and quarrying equipment RMC arch bridges generally require sound foundations. It is often necessary to
expose suitable rock by the removal of overburden, and in some cases to trim and
RMC arch bridges are generally of small shape the rock. Whilst the size of an average RMC arch bridge is not normally
scale. Should it be found necessary to large it may be necessary to use air or rock breaking equipment to trim and shape
quarry for stone, RMC may not neces-
foundation surfaces.
sarily be an economical solution.
3.2.2 Manual collection of stone
The bulk volume of stone, or rock, required for RMC construction of a bridge will
equate approximately to the final total volume of the structure. Accordingly, it
is obvious that the procurement and management of stone for RMC construction
is a significant aspect to be addressed.
When stone or rock for arch bridge construction is collected from surface
deposits, these may obviously be dispersed over a wide area and it may not to be
viable to transport such material to the construction site using wheelbarrows.
Accordingly, the provision of a tractor with a flatbed trailer has proved
appropriate for stone collection and delivery. Stone collectors pile rock at a
specified location. The tractor and trailer are brought to that point and the stone
is loaded manually. Once stockpiled on site, preferably in piles close to the point
of placement by hand, by wheelbarrow or using sledges.
3.2.3 Transportation plant

Stone or rock fragments and sand need to be transported to the bridge site. In
Zimbabwe it is common practice to use tractors and scotch carts for this purpose.
However, in South Africa dumper trucks seem to be the preferred transportation
plant. If large quantities need to be transported within a short period over large
distances, then transportation plant could be an important element in the
production scheduling.
Wheelbarrows are commonly used for transporting stones and mortar from the
stockpiles and batching plants respectively, to the stone masons on the bridge.
Wooden sledges or stretches can also be effectively employed for this purpose.
3.2.4 Mortar mixing and batching plant

For the construction of small arch bridges, mortar may be mixed by hand.
Suitable gauge boxes or other measuring equipment should be provided to
ensure the correct proportioning of the constituent materials.

Hand mixing should always be done on a close-boarded mixing platform, to

prevent contamination of the mix by materials picked up off the surface.
Where the scale of bridge construction justifies it, mechanical mixers can be
employed. Typical plant used is a 300 litre drum-type cement mixer, powered by
a small petrol or diesel engine. Mixing plants should not be too large, so that it
can be moved around to suit construction requirements.
3.2.5 Scaffolds and formwork or centring

Figure 3: Arch centring using tree branches and
Traditionally, timber has been used as arch centring. temporary masonry profiles
Due to the high price of timber and difficulty in
transporting it to remote sites, alternatives may
have to be sought. One alternative is the use of
corrugated steel roof sheeting which has been pre-
cranked to the radius of the inner shell of the arch,
or intrados. Where spans are large, the sheets may
require propping until the arch is self-supporting.
Such centring may however distort asymmetrically
when construction loads are applied. In this case,
arch formers made from boarding, cut to the profile
of the arch may be used under the sheeting to help
maintain the arch shape.
Another alternative is to use 50 mm diameter tree

branches, as shown in Figure 3, that are placed to
span between temporary masonry wall profiles. The
gaps between the saplings are sealed with old cement sacks or similar bags.
Whilst this has worked in the past, the finish of the arch tends to be very rough
and sagging of the saplings can result in considerable distortion of the arch.
In Zimbabwe, proprietary precast concrete shell formers have been developed,

that require no additional support after erection. These are however, subject to
patent, and their use may only be justified if sufficient construction is undertaken.
3.2.6 Compaction equipment

In an RMC arch bridge, the backfill between the spandrel walls interacts with the
arch ring of the structure, providing a degree of composite action. It is therefore
essential that the backfill over the arch is properly placed and compacted.
Generally it will be found that the use of hand compaction equipment such as
tampers will not provide a sufficiently uniform dense compaction. The use of
light-powered compaction equipment such as plate compactors, impact rammers
or walk-behind tandem rollers should be considered.
3.2.7 Materials storage

Cement should be kept dry at all times. Sand and stone should be stored in firm
dry areas, where they are not likely to be flooded.
3.2.8 Sundry builder’s tools

Normal builders tools, such as wheelbarrows, picks, spades and shovels, various
hammers (large sledge bricklayers and carpenter’s types) and trowels for pointing
and trimming of mortar will be required.

9
This section provides guidance for the application of Rubble Masonry Concrete in
small arch bridge construction. These guidelines have been prepared for an
engineer with an appropriate level of knowledge of bridge design and do not
attempt to cover bridge dam design per se, beyond suggesting the particular
analysis methods that have proved most appropriate in the case of small and
medium size RMC structures.
4.1 Factors relating to design of RMC arch bridges

4.1.1 Hydraulic adequacy
Experience in the construction of small RMC arch bridges in Zimbabwe has shown
that the most common cause of failure is as a result of hydraulic inadequacy.
Bridges have either been washed away during severe storms, because of
inadequate waterway area, have had their approaches washed away or have been
bypassed as a result of the stream creating a new channel. Poor placement of arch
bridges has resulted in structures being left high and dry when the stream or river
has changed course during floods. It is this essential that the site for an RMC arch
bridge be chosen carefully, taking the stream characteristics into consideration.
4.1.2 Foundations
Figure 4: Diagramme of inverted concrete arch used to tie
abutments of the iron bridge together in Shropshire, England In order for RMC arch bridges to function as
designed, the foundations must be capable of
resisting the loads due to the self-weight of the
structure as well as the horizontal thrusts generated
by arch action. Not only is the competence of the
neck important, but the orientation of the rock
surfaces and bedding planes in relation to the
thrusts. If the material is sound, the rock can often
be trimmed to the appropriate shape and
orientation.
Where rock is not available but where the founding

material is considered capable of resisting the loads
and unlikely to be subject to scour during storms,
concrete bases may be viable. Consideration should
be given to ensuring that resistance to the
horizontal thrusts can be maintained. A horizontal
reinforced-concrete tie-beam may be used below the scour level of the stream
bed to tie the bases together. A classic example of this is the use of an inverted
concrete arch as a remedial measure, to tie the abutments of the iron-bridge
gorge bride in Shropshire, England, across the river Severn (see Figure 4).
Whilst piled foundations may be used, it is unlikely that the cost associated
therewith would be appropriate for use in small RMC arch bride construction.
4.2 Forces to be resisted

Various loads
4.2.1 Transient loading
Arch bridges and their foundations need Bridges with a small aperture fraction produce an appreciable obstruction to a
to withstand transient water loads dur- river’s flow, frequently aggravated by driftwood blocking the flow through the
ing floods, self-weight, traffic loads, apertures, effectively forming a weir. Overtopping must therefore be considered
internally generated arch thrust and as an important loading condition, since it will cause significant lateral load and
possibly load redistributions caused by possibly overturning of the structure. Flood loading is defined as a transient load
foundation distortions. and must be considered in combination with buoyed-up self-weight, but not with
traffic loads. Data concerning actual values of flood-water pressures may be
sought form other sources or from an assessment of water depth provided by the

Department of Transport guidelines. The required moment, to restore stability

against overturning may be calculated by taking moments about the base of the
downstream face, assuming the buoyed-up weight of masonry to be no more
than 1 400 kg/m2. Tall single-lane bridges are more likely to require anchorage to
resist this.
4.2.2 Traffic loading

An assessment of appropriate standards for rural roads (CSIR Report No. 92/466/1)
has considered the traffic that is likely to use the rural roads for which most RMC
bridges are designed. The recommendation is made that NA and NB24 vehicle
loads, as defined by TMH7 (1981), should be used. The maximum vehicle loads
that the bridges are required to withstand are thus 16 wheel loads of 60 kN each,
consisting of four rows in two pairs. Each row of wheels is separated by a
minimum of two metres, and each row has four wheels paced one metre apart
across the bridge. The wheel contact area may be defined by a square with a
240 mm side. If more ambitious structural designs are attempted, for example
bridges to carry traffic on national roads, then NB36 loading would be
appropriate. Where a structure is to be covered with fill and/or a sub-base, the
compaction equipment used may subject the structure to a more severe point
load, particularly if a steel roller acts directly on the rough rubble finish.
4.3 Methods of structural analysis

4.3.1 General
Although there appear to be no reported incidents of live-load-induced RMC
bridge failures, their reliable analysis is a prerequisite for optimal design solutions
for given locations and the construction of more ambitious structures in future.
Numerous authorities including Tellett, Hendry, Page and de Bruin have reviewed
a variety of methods of structural analysis of arch bridges, both simple and
complex, with which arch bridge designers ought to be acquainted. Traditional
design philosophy assumes that arch masonry possesses good compressive
strength but zero-tensile strength, and aims to prevent the formation of tension
within the masonry by limiting the resultant line of thrust to lie within the middle
third of the arch ring.
This is easily achieved in arches that carry either a pure uniformly distributed load
or a pure point load. In the former case, for example, where the arch is required
only to support its own weight, it would always meet these conditions, provided
it approximated the shape of an inverted catenary. The inverted catenary arch
perfectly traces its line of self-weight-induced thrust, just as a chain sags
reciprocally in perfect tension. In the latter case, where the arch has only to
support a point load, it would qualify for these conditions if it had a triangular
shape whose apex coincided with the load.
However, upon the application of point loads to catenary arch, tensions quickly
develop. Where the point load is static, such tensions can easily be alleviated by
distorting the catenary arch shape towards that of a triangle. However, when the
point load may be dynamic, as is always the case in bridges, the solution is rather
more complex since the arch ring must be capable of accommodating each
unique shape of line thrust as the load moves across its deck. This is achieved in
practice by thickening the arch ring, by increasing the dead weight of the
structure itself, and/or by tolerating a small amount of tension within the arch. It
is generally assumed that the material is infinitely strong in compression and that,
provided the reaction to thrust is maintained, a failure condition is reached when
the line of thrust reaches the outer faces of the masonry at no fewer than four
points, converting the structure into a kinematic mechanism by the formation of

11
hinge points where the line of thrust alternately

Figure 5: Formation of 3 possible kinematic mechanisms
coincides with the intrados and extrados of the arch.
under elementary point loads
Three possible kinematic mechanisms are illustrated
in Figure 5 for elementary point loads, from which it
can be seen that hinge points are always formed on
alternate sides of the arch. The diagrammes show
the lines of thrust originating from the point loads
as straight lines. This is not only conservative, but
unrealistic, since the line can be straight only if the
structure itself is weightless. The true line of thrust
FOUR-HINGE ECCENTRIC LOAD FOUR-HINGE ECCENTRIC LOAD FIVE-HINGE DOUBLE LOAD
is defined by the path followed by the resultant of
Position of hinge Point load position all the forces acting on the arch across its span,
formation
including self-weight and external actions. Hence,
the true lines of thrust will be bent favourably away
from the intrados. However, the greater the point
load in relation to the weight of the structure, the
straighter the line of thrust will become. Determi-
nation of the position of this true line of thrust may
be obtained by calculation or by graphical method of analysis.
4.3.2 Calculation of the position of the line of thrust

The arch is divided into equal segments with point loads emanating from their
centres representing the self-weight of the structure, including the road and fill.
Reactions are determined by taking moments about assumed hinges, and the
position of the line of thrust relative to the intrados (measured vertically) is
determined accordingly. A value that falls outside of the arch ring indicates an
incorrect assumption of hinge position.
4.3.3 Graphical determination of the position of the line of thrust

Ideally, this method of analysis is best performed with a CAD programme to
ensure graphical accuracy. The practice of performing the analysis provides the
arch designer with an ‘intuitive feel’ with which to anticipate the consequences
of future modifications to various arch design parameters, particularly regarding
the contribution of self-weight in maintaining equilibrium. A worked example is
contained in Fine and Rankine’s proposed guidelines for the design and
construction of rubble masonry concrete arch bridges.
Model limitations 4.3.4 Finite element analysis and the evaluation of

a simple model
Model limitations include a restriction to assumed linear homogeneous mate- Until recently, finite element computer models for
the analysis of arch bridges were too sophisticated
rial response and its inability to model independent behaviour in compression
and tension, thus precluding automatically allowing cracks to develop. for most designers. They typically required
Furthermore, the assumption are made that the foundations are infinitely expensive computer hardware and software and the
stiff, which perhaps realistic when founding upon rock, but questionable in finite mesh had to be generated manually, a process
soils. Required input includes estimation of material properties, namely den-
that took much longer than graphical arch design
sity stiffness and Poisson’s ratio, as well as imposed point loads and UDLs.methods. Reasonably priced two-dimensional plane
Normally they assume the materials to be homogeneous and allow the user
strain programs such as Prokon, are now available
to manipulate the mesh size to achieve an acceptable compromise between
for the analysis of RMC arches. Given a grid spacing
detail and processing time. The output data can include quantified maxi-
mum compressive and tensile stresses, together with their co-ordinates and
within the limitations of its capacity, the model are
stress vectors, as well as deflections and co-ordinates. able to quickly generate their own mesh and
therefore easily accommodate design changes.
Moreover they are able to model structures comprising more than one type of
material and can therefore accommodate additional overburden layers such as
fill, sub-grade and base-course and, in so doing, distribute concentrated wheel
loads over the masonry. However, additional overburden layers do not normally

form part of an RMC bridge structure and there may be better ways of modelling
the resistance of fill.
4.4 Geometrical considerations and failure mechanisms

Every effort should be made to minimize the bridge’s obstruction to the flowing
river, particularly when it is in flood. Large apertures are less likely to become
blocked and require maintenance. The arch designer should therefore always
aim to make apertures as big as possible.
Zimbabwean experience indicates that inclining the Figure 6: Protection of erosion of approaches by
upstream elevation of the bridge, with a wedge of providing a catenary-shaped bridge deck
additional masonry, assists in lifting debris over the
top of the structure and clear of its openings and a Discontinuous kerb guide to
catenary bridge deck (with the lowest point at the facilitate overtopping during
floods Catenary-Shaped deck with lowest
centre of the river) to encourage overtopping of the point at centre of river to encourage
structure at midstream and to prevent scour form mid stream overtoppinng
eroding the approaches and abutments. Kerbs and

guide-blocks should be kept discontinuous to
decrease obstruction to debris and flood water (see
Figure 6).
4.5 Anchorage and resistance to transient

loading
Anchorage against sliding and overturning from
transient flood-loading may best be achieved by
socketing into bedrock and/or grouting pre-cranked
anchor bars into pre-drilled holes. Although
standard jackhammer drill steels may be capable of forming a hole sufficiently
large to accommodate 25 mm nominal diameter reinforcing bars, it may be
preferable to use a lesser diameter bar to ensure a good grout surround. Bar
spacers obviously help to achieve this cover. The projecting bars should be
sufficiently long and amply embedded into the structure to preclude masonry
tensile failure immediately above the proximal end. Furthermore, the projecting
bar should not be embedded directly in RMC; a cavity (of about 20 mm in
diameter) should be left around the bar and subsequently filled with a cement-
rich high slump concrete to increase the bar/aggregate interlock, thereby
affording greater pullout resistance. Anchorage may be further improved by
linking the anchor bars with transverse reinforcing steel cast into the RMC arch
structure.
4.6 Structural behaviour

4.6.1 Research
Structural and materials research into RMC in Southern Africa is currently rather
sparse and has to date largely been pursued by Rankine. The experimentation
undertaken has been relating to the application of RMC in the construction of
small bridges. Furthermore, the scale of the components comprising the RMC mix,
with rock particles as large as 60 kg, makes testing rather difficult and expensive,
requiring specialist, large-scale equipment. Within the scale of the industry
related to RMC and the works constructed in this material, it is difficult to
motivate the necessary, but expensive, research required to develop a compre-
hensive understanding of the material.
The most recent research has focussed specifically on the isolation of the
mechanical properties of RMC. Fine and Rankine have used 500 mm cubes to test,

13
evaluate and compare the properties of RMC, primarily in terms of crushing

strength and deformation modulus. In this work it is demonstrated that the
deformation modulus of RMC is largely determined by the elastic modulus, shape
and orientation of the rock inclusions. With rock moduli varying from 24 to
120GPa, a range of RMC deformation modulus of 5 to 71GPa was demonstrated
for a constant mortar deformation modulus of 18GPa. The particle orientation of
large rock inclusions was demonstrated to be of significant impact on the
modulus for RMC comprising all rock types, with particularly detrimental effects
being observed for low moduli, elongated particles orientated parallel to the
loading direction. A further important aspect that was determined through
testing and modelling was the respective role of particle size and inter-particle
contact within the mix. If the rock inclusions are in intimate contact, the overall
modulus will be higher for a large number of small particles than for a few large
particles, with the latter scenario developing significantly higher local stresses in
transferring stress through the matrix. If, however, all particles are surrounded
by mortar, the stiffness modulus is independent of particle size and transfer
stresses are significantly reduced.
Hard rock particles with soft surface weathering have been used in the past in
RMC bridges. Research has demonstrated this rock type to produce particularly
low strength RMC. This is not only a function of the particle strength, but also the
associated complete lack of surface bond between mortar and rock. (Refer also to
2.3.3.)
4.6.2 Review of the structural Implications of RMC research findings

The findings for the RMC research completed to date have been presented in a
largely factual format, with very little analysis and review of associated causative
mechanisms, or related structural implications. It is, however, possible to draw a
great deal more out of these results and there is significant value to be gained in
reviewing the impact of such inferences against the performance requirements
inherent to arch dam engineering. It must, however, be recognised that test
cubes containing large rock particles, which are pressed using extremely hard, un-
deformable surfaces, will tend to reproduce the extremes of behaviour in RMC.
Key aspects may be summarised as follows:
Particle orientation and mortar separation

The improved performance of RMC when the rock particles are evenly distributed
and evenly separated by mortar tends to reflect the importance of construction
technique on the final structural performance characteristics and this must be
given careful consideration in the compilation of construction specifications.
Structural mechanisms and Poisson’s ratio

The research of Fine and Rankine suggested the possible existence of a number
of structural mechanisms within the 500 mm test cubes. These are illustrated in
Figure 3.7 and each of the mechanisms postulated serve to suggest the possible
modes of cube failure and explain why some cubes might exhibit particularly high
Poisson’s ratios.
The mechanisms suggested are likely to be particularly influenced by scale effects.

When the size of the stone particles is smaller in relation to the member under
stress, it is very likely that the influence of the identified mechanisms will be
significantly reduced. Furthermore, some measure of three-dimensional restraint
will also assist in distributing stresses more evenly through any member that is
relatively massive in relation to its constituent components.

5. Construction technique, labour and costing
5.1 Materials procurement

Figure 7: Possible structural mechanisms within RMC
5.1.1 Stone cube
If suitable surfaces stones are available in sufficient
quantity on or near the site, then the masonry stone
can be collected and stockpiled by hand, from
where it can be hand-loaded and transported to the
bridge usually with a tractor and low-bed trailer.
When no rock is available on site, or if small Wedging Diagonal shear ‘Scissors jack’
quantities are required, it may be best to procure
masonry rock from a commercial source such as a
crusher. Stone of a suitable size for use in RMC is
usually sold commercially as dump rock.
5.1.2 Sand
Sand is the most important ingredient in producing
Cleaving bulders Pyramid of spheres Cracked rock beam
good quality masonry. It is therefore necessary to
locate and test sufficient deposits of mortar sand
sources early in the project phase. The most desirable situation is if suitable
mortar sand can be sourced from the river near the site. When sourcing alluvial
sand adjacent to a river, seasonal flooding should be taken into account as this
may prevent accessing the sand at a crucial time during construction. The removal
of large quantities of sand may also be subject to environmental management
constraints.
Alluvial sand derived from the erosion of many sedimentary rock types, is not
suitable for use in mortar, as a result of a non-continuous single-size grading that can
result in high permeability, bleeding and low mortar strengths. It has been found
that this problem can usually be solved by blending such sand with crusher sand.
In Zimbabwe, and in large parts of South Africa, granites make up the base
geology from which good quality concrete sands are derived. Sand is usually
deposited according to particle sizes, namely coarse sand under fast flowing
conditions and fine sand under slow flowing conditions. This often necessitates
sourcing sand from two locations, one yielding fine sand and the other coarse
sand and then blending the ‘concrete sand’ and the ‘pit sand’ to achieve the
desired grading.
5.1.3 Cement and cement storage

Cement should be stored and kept dry until it is used.
5.2 Preparatory activities

5.2.1 Foundation excavations and treatment
Foundations should be excavated and trimmed to the lines shown on drawing.
When excavating into rock by blasting, care should be taken to avoid
consequential damage. Light blasting or non-explosive excavation methods are
the key to creating a sound foundation excavation.
5.2.2 Material storage

Care should be taken to avoid contamination of materials during storage and
particular care is necessary when sands of different gradings are to be blended.
The typical arrangements and procedures of good concrete practice should be
observed for all aspects related to the materials to be used in RMC bridge
construction.

15
5.2.3 Mortar batching and mixing

Mortar quality is crucial
Normally, batching for RMC arch bridge construction is done by volume. If mass
batching can be achieved without excessive additional cost, the related accuracy
The quality of the mortar will ultimately
determine the quality of the masonry,
and increased control may be advantageous. Batching plants should be accurate
both in terms of strength and durability. and regularly checked. In instances when volume batching is carried out using
It is therefore more crucial to attend to wheelbarrows, etc, great care should be taken to ensure adherence to correct
this aspect of the construction. materials proportioning and regular checking and supervision is necessary.
Cement should not, however, be measured by volume but by mass, typically per
50 kg bag.
Mortar is normally made by mixing sand, cement and water in a drum mixer. On
smaller projects, mixing can be accomplished manually, although better results
and efficiencies are achieved using a mechanical mixer. Mixing should ensure
that the mortar produced is of an even consistency with the correct slump and in
compliance with the prescribed mix design and strength requirements. Care
should be taken to regularly assess the moisture content of the sand prior to
mixing. This is necessary to ensure that the right amount of mixing water will be
added to the mix. A useful indirect check on the water : cement ratio is to
perform regular slump tests on the mortar batches.
If the mixing water is very cold and/or the ambient temperature is too low, the
mixing water should be pre-heated. Mortar should be placed within two hours of
having been batched.
5.3 RMC construction

5.3.1 Stone preparation
Masonry stones should be thoroughly cleaned from all dust, mud and weathered
scale. Stones should be wetted before being transported to the structure for
placement. Jetting down stones with a high-pressure water jet, usually
accomplishes both objectives of cleaning and wetting.
5.3.2 Surface preparation

Before placing mortar and masonry stones on a previous lift, the surface should
be cleaned of all laitance, loose rocks, dust and debris. The surface should then
be watered down. If the surface is very dry, as can be the case when the
construction site closed for a period of time, special treatment of the surface will
be required in order to ensure proper adhesion of subsequent placement of RMC.
5.3.3 Placement and compaction

The monolithic matrix
A number of variations exist with regard to the
placement and compaction of RMC. Whilst the
It is important to understand that RMC for arch bridges must not be per-
Zimbabweans have developed certain methods and
ceived as a series of stones cemented together using mortar, but rather as a
standard practices, various adaptations of these
monolithic matrix, containing large stone within a body of mortar. In essence,
this is similar in concept to the difference between brickwork and concrete. methods have been applied in South Africa.
The former comprises a series of individual entities cemented to each other,
while the latter comprises a body, or matrix of material made up of compo- The optimal structural performance of RMC would
nent constituents, in the form of cement, aggregates and water. When a seem to be achieved when the stone content is
‘rubble’ masonry structure is built in a similar manner to brickwork, placing maximised without compromising the uniform and
mortar as a receiving medium into which the surfaces of stones are even separation of rock particles with 7 to 20 mm of
embedded, the overall structural action of the final body of material is mortar. Typical stone content will accordingly be
compromised. approximately 55% of the masonry body by volume,
with the balance (45%) comprising mortar.
Accordingly, the method adopted successfully for the construction has involved
the initial construction of dry stone walls on either side of a particular structural

member to a height of approximately 200 mm, followed by the filling of the

trough created with a relatively flowable mortar, into which large stone plums
are embedded. The stone plums are forced deep into the mortar by being stood
on and by being pressed in using a customised hammer tool created from a
length of reinforcing steel bar, which actions further served effectively to
compact the receiving mortar. Some stones are left projecting slightly above the
top surface of each lift, to allow keying into the subsequent lift, and the receiving
placement surface is cleaned thoroughly and dampened between lifts, as this
surface tends to be damaged and dirtied by pedestrian movement. The ‘dry’
facing walls are constructed much like conventional brick wall, using stiff mortar
as bedding for the facing stones, which are usually carefully selected for the
purpose.
5.3.4 Surface finishes

Where RMC end-walls retain earth-fill embankments, the surface against which
the fill is to be compacted, should be plastered on completion to reduce soil-wall
friction.
Surfaces in permanent contact with water should be flush jointed by plastering

mortar into the grooves between surface (facing) stones. The reason for this is
that the specific surface area is reduced, resulting in less chemical and physical
erosion. This is of particular importance for all surfaces exposed to freeze-thaw
conditions, where ice can develop in surface grooves and then ‘crack out’ the
surface mortar and rocks.
5.4 Quality control and testing

It is important to address quality in RMC bridge construction and whilst mortar
cube crushing test are a useful reference, the specification and regular
encouragement of correct procedures and methods of construction to be
observed is of greater importance. The labour and the contractor to be employed
on RMC bridge construction will generally not be highly sophisticated and the
repeated reinforcement for quality requirements and related appropriate
procedures and construction methods will not be wasted.
The following tests are nevertheless useful and should be undertaken on a

continuous basis, commensurate with the scale of the works:
• Sand grading analysis
• Slump measurement on mortar
• Manufacture and crushing of mortar cubes (crush at least half at seven days)
• On larger projects, some larger masonry cubes may be manufactured for
crushing as a strength reference
The following quality control procedures should be implemented:

• Double-check all setting-out of formwork. Arch bridges rely on their shape for
strength – thus the overall structural stability and integrity can be severely
compromised if not constructed in accordance with the design dimensions,
• Count cement bags for each mortar batch (to ensure that the right amount of
cement went into the mix),
• Keep a written record of mortar batches for each day and the amount of
cement used,
• Calculate the volume of masonry batched over a period and compare it with
the measured increase in the masonry volume. This is a good indicator of the
relative volume of mortar in a unit of masonry,
• Check that surfaces are properly prepared before placing subsequent masonry,
• Keep placed masonry wet for proper curing.

17
5.5 Dealing with inclement weather

Masonry construction can continue in very light rain, but should be stopped in
heavy rain.
When constructing masonry in conditions of persistent extreme cold, such as

during the winter in the mountains of Lesotho, a variety of measures may have
to be implemented. Firstly, the mixing water drawn from the rivers will have a
maximum temperature of about 6°C. This water will have to be pre-heated to
about 60°C, resulting in a mortar temperature of about 25°C when discharged
from the drum mixer.
With day-time temperatures below 10°C and night-time temperatures below

freezing, it is also necessary to protect the placed masonry mortar against
freezing. The most effective way identified is to use plywood formwork to
protect the side faces of the masonry structure and to cover the top surface with
thermal blankets during the night.
5.6 Labour
5.6.1 Why labour?
Unlike many other ‘plant-replacement’ construction techniques, masonry bridges
require construction by manual labour. This is of course a major spin-off for
employment creation, especially considering that the bulk of the labour force is
usually recruited from the local community.
5.6.2 Labour requirements

The requirements for site management staff and skilled staff on masonry arch
bridge projects are the same as for any other construction project of similar size.
Only the labour requirements peculiar to masonry arch bridge construction will
be listed below.
Skilled masons: Skilled masons are required for building the facing surfaces of the
structure in advance of the core or hearting. Ideally these masons should have
demonstrated their skills on a previous project. They will report directly to the
foreman. Their responsibilities will include the training of new masons and
managing and directing their own support team who deliver material on the wall
and who construct the hearting.
Heavy manual labour: Heavy manual labour can only be done by healthy and
physically strong persons. This work typically includes the pushing of heavily
loaded wheelbarrows up ramps, the handling of large rock particles, etc.
Light manual labour: Light manual labour includes such tasks as pointing or
plastering the facing surfaces of the structures. This work does not place specific
reliance on physical strength.
Mortar batching: Because of its importance, it is essential to place a reliable

person with the appropriate technical knowledge in charge of the mortar
batching operations at each and every batching plant. His support staff must be
able to do heavy manual labour.
Laboratory staff: At least one technically competent and very reliable person
should be in charge of quality control. He should have one or two assistants. His
principal functions will be to screen sand, do slump tests on mortar, make mortar
cubes for testing, report results daily to the Site Agent and immediately raise the
alarm if test indicate that technical specifications are not being met.

Typical construction teams: A masonry construction team would typically com-

prise five workers, as follows:
• One mason
• One assistant (for the mason)
• Two wheelbarrow labourers (one for mortar and the other stone
transportation).
One 300-litre drum mixer manned by a team of three can supply mortar at an
adequate rate for three/four-person masonry construction teams as described
above. A team of two labourers can attend to cleaning and conveying masonry
stones from the stockpile on site to convenient collection points for the masonry
teams.
5.6.3 Productivity
Definitions
When referring to productivity rates, it becomes necessary to agree on some
definitions. In this document, productivity rates will always refer to the volume of
masonry placed per day per worker. ‘Worker’ means all construction staff directly
involved in the production and placement of masonry. Site management staff,
technical staff and laboratory staff are excluded. Their costs should be included
under Preliminary and General items. All workers employed in the sourcing and
delivery of construction materials to the site of works, are also excluded. Their
costs should be reflected in the material procurement costs, which in turn will
later be incorporated in the masonry cost.
Factors influencing productivity

A wide range of site specific, construction methodology and labour-related
factors can affect productivity rates. Specific factors that influence productivity
are:
• The skills, attitude and experience of the work force
• Remuneration incentives
• Leadership on the site
• Working conditions (both social and physical)
• Weather conditions
• Access and working space (better access and lots of working space increase
productivity)
• Total volume (the greater the volume, generally the higher the productivity
due to the relatively short learning curve in relation to the overall duration of
the project)
• Availability of construction materials (a bottleneck in material deliveries can
severely hamper productivity and can cause the work force to become
demoralised)
• Construction methods and material delivery onto the wall (the more
mechanised, generally the higher the productivity rates, but the additional
costs of mechanisation must be weighed up)
Productivity rates
Productivity rates vary widely, from as little as 0.3 m3 per person per day to as
much as 5 m3 per person per day. The latter productivity rate can only be achieved
if the manual transportation of masonry rock and mortar onto the formwork is
replaced with mechanical delivery systems.The cost of mechanical delivery
systems should then be separately calculated and converted into a cost per cubic
meter of masonry placed. If the entire process from rock stockpile and mortar
batching plant to construction of masonry arches are done with manual labour,
then typical productivity varies between 0.5 m3 per person per day to 1.0 m3 per
person per day.
19
5.6.4 Costing of rubble masonry construction (RMC)

The only element of masonry arch bridges that should be costed differently from
say a comparable concrete structure is the unit cost of placed masonry. The
technique for determining the unit cost of masonry is not significantly different
to that of costing concrete. As with concrete, it should be decided what portion
of the temporary works and plant will be costed under preliminary and general
items and what portion will be costed into the unit volume of material placed. To
simplify calculations and to better illustrate the costing principles, all temporary
works and plant costs will be left out of the masonry unit cost in this document.
The costing and scheduling methodology is illustrated in Tables 4 and 5,

respectively.
Table 4: Typical costing for RMC
Item Description Unit Rate (R-c) Qty./m3 masonry Masonry unit cost
(R/m3)
Loose masonry rock delivered m3
Sand delivered m3
Cement pockets
Sub-Total Materials m3
Labour Wages man-day
Total Nett Cost m3
Waste and Risk %
Mark-up %
Total Masonry Unit Price m3
Clearly, all of the costs illustrated in Table 4 can be further refined, for example
the labour cost can be disaggregated into the various categories of labour rates
and the actual cost of materials delivered to site can be calculated according to
standard methods
The cost of employment per unit of expenditure typically ranges from about R20
to R100 per hour.

6.1 General
The scope of literature relating to the application of Rubble Masonry Concrete
(RMC) in arch bridge construction can be divided into two categories: recent
research and technical papers relating to RMC in bridges in South Africa and
publications discussing historical bridges construction. High level technical
information concerning the behaviour and strength characteristics of masonry
and RMC is not easily accessible.
Table 5: Typical scheduling of RMC
RUBBLE ROCK MASONRY CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION – BILL OF QUANTITIES

ITEM NO SPEC DESCRIPTION UNIT QTY RATE AMOUNT
PSRM SECTION PSRM
ROCK MASONRY (p1)
PSRM 1 ROCK MASONRY CONSTRUCTION

a. External faces of vertical walls (300 mm thick) m3
b. Hearting or core between external faces m3
PSRM 2 SURFACE FINISHES

a. Decorative finish with specially selected rock m3
b. Recess pointed finish m3
c. Smooth plastered finish m3
PSRM 3 MORTAR BATCHING (45% of nett structure volume)
PSRM 3.1 Strength Mortar Using …………….. Cement

a. 15 Mpa m3
b. 10 Mpa m3
c. 7 Mpa m3
PSRM 3.2 Extra-over PSRM 3.1 to Blend Sand from different stockpiles m3
PSRM 4 MATERIALS SOURCING AND DELIVERY TO SITE
PSRM 4.1 Masonry Rock (50 mm – 300 mm size, measured as nett

volume of structure, i.e. allow for bulking & waste)
a. Loose surface rocks collected by hand m3
b. Fragmentation-blasted from designated quarry site m3
c. Purchased from designated commercial source m3
d. Purchased from source located by the contractor m3
PSRM 4.2 Mortar Sand, measured as 45% nett volume of structure

a. Alluvium from designated sources on site m3
b. Alluvium from designated commercial sources m3
c. Crusher material from designated commercial sources m3
d. Sand from sources to be located by the contractor m3
CARRIED FORWARD TO SUMMARY PAGE

21
6.2 Recent technical publications on RMC in South Africa and Zimbabwe

The relevant publications addressing ‘new generation’ rubble masonry concrete
include:
1) Fine, B, Rankine, RGD and McCutcheon. Deformation mechanics of rubble

2) Rankine, RGD, Gohnert, M and McCutcheon, RT. Proposed Guidelines for the
the South African Institution of Civil Engineers. Volume 40, No. 3. Third
Quarter 1998.
3) Shaw, QHW. “Rubble Masonry Concrete Dam Design and Construction. Part
2: Proposed Design Standards and Related influences”. SAICE Journal - April
1998
4) Rankine, RGD. Development towards a proposed compressive strength test

5) Rankine, RGD, Krige, GJ. Teshome, D and Grobler, LJ. Structural aspects of
Quarter 1995.
6.3 Publications addressing Masonry in Arch Bridges
Some of the more interesting and more available literature include:
1. Rankine, RGD, Krige, GJ, Teshome, D and Grobler, LJ. Structural aspects of
Quarter 1995.
2. Rankine, RGD. Development towards a proposed compressive strength test

3. Rankine, RGD, Gohnert, M and McCutcheon, RT. Proposed Guidelines for the
the South African Institution of Civil Engineers, Volume 40, No. 3, Third
Quarter 1998.
4. Fine, B, Rankine, RGD and McCutcheon. Deformation mechanics of rubble

5. Page, J: Masonry Arch Bridges. State of the Art Review Transport and Road
Research Laboratory, Department of Transport, HM80, 1993.
6. Aitken, WK. 1974, Masonry Arch Bridges – lateral loading tests on Horn’s
Bridge viaduct, Chesterfield. British Rail. Technical Memorandum TS 29.
British Rail Research, Derby.
7. Aitken, WK. 1982b. Masonry Arch Bridges – stability of spandrel walls –

bridge no 36, Beeston Castle, Crewe to Chester line. British Rail. Technical
Memorandum CES 5. British Rail Research, Derby.

8. Alexander, T and Thomson, AW. 1900. The scientific design of masonry

arches. Dublin: The University Press.
9. Alexander, T and Thomson, AW 1916. The scientific design of masonry arches.

In: Alexander and Thompson. Elementary Applied Mechanics. London:
Macmillan & Co Ltd. Ch 22, 413-498.
10. Ali S, Page AW, and Kleeman PW 1986. Non-linear finite element model for
concrete masonry with particular reference to concentrated loads. Proc. 4th
Canadian Masonry conference, 137-148.
11. Allen RH and Oppenheim IJ 1985. Limit state analysis of arch segments.
Journal of Structural Engineering, 111, No 6 Jun 1406-1409.
12. Baker IO 1920. A treatise on masonry construction. New York: John Wiley &
Sons or London: Chapman & Hall
13. Barlow 1846. On the existence of the line of equal horizontal thrust. Proc
Institution Civil Engineers 5.
14. Bland W 1867. Experimental essays on the principles of construction of

arches, piers, buttresses, etc. Weale’s Rudimentary Series. London: Virtue and
Co.
15. Bridle RJ and Hughes TP 1989. The arch revival: the Cardiff arch analysis
procedure. Highways and Transportation, Oct 21-22.
16. Bridle RJ and Hughes TG 1990. An energy method for arch bridge analysis.
Proc Institution Civil Engineers, Part 2 89, Sep, 375-385.
17. Bron O 1991. An investigation of a soil/masonry arch model using

photoelastic methods. MSc thesis, University of Wales College of Cardiff.
18. Broomhead SF 1990. Masonry structures project, explanation of the interim

arch assessment method. British Rail. Technical Memorandum CES 137. British
Rail Research Derby.
19. Broomhead SF 1991a. Masonry structures project, investigations of arch

analysis methods. British Rail. Technical Memorandum CES 143. British Rail
Research Derby.
20. Broomhead SF 1991b. Masonry structures project, review of arch assessment

methods. British Rail. Technical Memorandum CES 007. British Rail Research
Derby.
21. Carpinteri A and Carpinteri A 1982. Softening and fracture process in

masonry arches. Proc 6th International Brick Masonry Conference, Rome,
May.
22. Castigliano CAP 1879. Elastic stresses in structures. Translation by Andrews, ES

Scott Greenwood & Son London 1919.
23. Castigliano CAP 1966. The theory of equilibrium of elastic systems and its
application. New York: Dover Publications Inc.
24. Chettoe CS and Henderson W 1957. Masonry arch bridges: a study. Proc
Institution of Civil Engineers 7 Aug 723-774.
25. Choo BS, Coutie MG and Gong NG 1990a. Analysis of masonry arch bridges
by a finite element method. Proceedings of Forth Rail Bridge Centenary
International Conference, Edinburg 381-392.
23
26. Choo BS, Coutie MG and Gong NG 1990b. The application of the finite
element method to the study of cracking in masonry arch bridges.
Proceedings of the International Conference on Applied Stress analysis,
Nottingham 476-485.
27. Choo BS, Coutie MG and Gong NG 1991a. The effect of cracks on the
behaviour of masonry arches. Proceedings, 9th International Brick/Block
Masonry Conference, Berlin 948-955.
28. Choo Bs, Coutie MG and Gong NG 1991b. Finite element analysis of masonry
arch bridges using tapered beam elements. Proc Institution of Civil Engineers
Part 2, 91, Dec, 755-770.
29. Cooke N, 1987. Instability of masonry arches. Proc Institution of Civil

Engineers, Part 2, 83, Sep, 497-515.
30. Crisfield MA, 1984. A finite element computer program for the analysis of
masonry arches. Department of Transport. TRRL Laboratory Report 1115,
Transport Research Laboratory, Crowthorn.
31. Crisfield MA, 1985a. Computer methods for the analysis of masonry arches.
Proc 2nd International Conference on Civil and Structural Engineering
Computing , December. Edinburgh: Civil-Comp Press.
32. Crisfield MA, 1985b. Finite element and mechanism methods for the analysis
of masonry and brickwork arches. Department of Transport. TRRL Research
Report 19, Transport Research Laboratory, Crowthorne.
33. Crisfield MA and Wills J, 1986. Non-linear analysis of concrete and masonry
structures. In: Bergan et al (Eds). Finite element methods for non-linear
problems, 639-652. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
34. Crisfield MA and Packham AJ, 1987. A mechanism program for computing
the strength of masonry arch bridges. Department of Transport. TRRL
Research Report 124, Transport Research Laboratory, Crowthorne.
35. Crisfield MA, Packham AJ and Jones CJC 1988. An improved mechanism
program for masonry arches. British Rail. Report ref 231-60-2. British Rail
Research, Derby.
36. Crisfield MA and Wills J 1986. Non-linear analysis of concrete masonry

structures. Finite Element Methods for Non-linear Problems 639-652.
37. Delbeco JM, 1982a. Stability analysis of masonry arches by yield design
method. Journal de Mecanique Theorique et Applique, 1(1), 91-121.
38. Delbeco JM 1982b. Masonry bridges: stability evaluation. Ministry of

Transport Roads Department, Paris.
39. Fairfield CA, 1990. Soil-structure interaction in masonry arch bridges. Final
year project, University of Edinburgh, Department of Civil Engineering and
Building Science.
40. Fordham AA, 1929. Masonry and concrete arches. Proc Institution of
Structural Engineers, 197-214.
41. Franciosi C, 1986. Limit behaviour of masonry arches in the presence of finite
displacements. Inst J Mech Sci, 28, 7, 463-471.
42. Fry R, 1985. An investigation into the effects of soil-structure interaction on

the load carrying capacity of voussoir arches. Final year project, Bolton
Institute of Higher Education, Department of Civil Engineering and Building.
43. Fuller 1874. Curve of equilibrium for a rigid arch under vertical forces. Proc
Institution of Civil Engineers, 40.
44. Gong NG, 1992. Finite element analysis of masonry arch bridges. PhD thesis,
University of Nottingham.
45. Gjelsvik A and Bodner Sr 1962. The energy criterion and snap buckling of
arches. J eng Mech Div, Proc American Soc Civ Eng, Oct, 87-134.
46. Harrison HB, 1982. In-plane stability of parabolic arches. J Structural Div, Proc
American Soc Civ Eng, 108, Jan, 195-205.
47. Harvey WJ, 1985. Assessment and design of masonry arch structures using a
micro-computer. Proc 2nd International Conference on Civil & Structural
Engineering Computing, Dec. Edinburg: Civil-Comp Press.
48. Harvey WJ, 1988. Application of the mechanism analysis to masonry arches.
The Structural Engineer, 66, 5, 1 Mar, 77-84.
49. Harvey WJ and Vardy AE, 1989. Computer aided analysis of masonry arches.
Proceedings SERC Conference on repair, maintenance and operation in civil
engineering, Jun. Engineering Technics Press.
50. Hendry AW 1990a. Masonry properties for assessing arch bridges.

Department of Transport. TRRL Contractor Report 244, Transport Research
Laboratory, Crowthorne.
51. Hendry AW, 1990b. Structural masonry. Basingstoke: Macmillan Education

Ltd.
52. Heyman J, 1969. The safety of masonry arches. International J Mech Sci, 11,
363-385.
53. Heyman J, 1980. The estimation of the strength of masonry arches. Proc
Institution of Civil Engineers, Part 2, 69, Dec, 921-937.
54. Heyman J, 1982. The masonry arch. Chichester: Ellis Horwood Ltd.
55. Howe MA, 1897. A treatise on arches. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
56. Hughes AC, 1924. The design of masonry and concrete arches. The Surveyor,
17 Oct. 315-316.
57. Jennings A, 1985. Use and misuse of Fuller’s construction for the analysis of
masonry arches. The Structural Engineer, 63A, No 11, Nov, 352-355.
58. Jennings A, 1986. Stability fundamentals in relation to masonry arches. The

Structural Engineer, 64B, No. 1 Mar, 10-12.
59. Leontovich K, 1959. Frames and arches. McGraw-Hill.
60. McNary WS and Abrams DB, 1985. Mechanics of masonry in compression.

Journal of Structural Engineering (ASCE), 111, No 4, Apr, 857-870.
61. Melbourne C, 1986. Mass concrete voussoir arches. Concrete, Feb.
62. Melbourne C, 1990a. The behaviour of brick arch bridges. British Masonry
Society Proceedings, 4, 54-57.
25
63. Melbourne C, 1990b. The behaviour of masonry arch bridges – the effect of
defects. Proceedings of the Forth Rail Bridge Centenary Conference,
Edinburgh.
64. Melbourne C and Gilbert M, 1992. The behaviour of multi-ring brickwork

arch bridges containing ring separation. 3rd International Masonry
Conference. London.
65. Melbourne C and Wagstaff M, 1992. The behaviour of multispan masonry

arch bridges. 3rd International Masonry Conference. London.
66. Melbourne C and Gilbert M, 1993. A study of the effects of ring separation
on the load carrying capacity of masonry arch bridges. 2nd International
Conference on Bridge Management. University of Surrey.
67. Page AW and Hendry AW. Design rules for concentrated loads on masonry.
Structural Engineer, 66, 273-281.
68. Page J, 1990b. Masonry arch bridges. 5th North American Masonry Con-
ference, Jun, Urbana-Champaign.
69. Pippard AJS, Tranter E and Chitty L, 1936. The mechanics of the voussoir arch.
J Institution of Civil Engineers, 4, Dec, 281-306.
70. Pippard AJS and Chitty L, 1951. A study of the voussoir arch. National
Building Studies, Research Paper No 11. London: HMSO.
71. Ponniah DA, 1987. Stress dispersal in arch bridges. International Conference
on Structural Faults and Repair London, 2, 311-316.
72. Sabir AB and Lock AC, 1973. Large deflexion, geometrically non-linear finite
element analysis of circular arches. International J Mech Sci, 15, 37-47.
73. Sawko F and Rouf MA, 1984. On the stiffness properties of masonry. Proc
Institution of Civil Engineers, 66, Part 1, Nov, 539-555.
74. Salter GJ, 1988. Masonry arch strength – a comparison of strength assessment
methods using sample arches and an investigation into the parameters
affecting arch strength using the total thrust (Jennings) method. MSc
dissertation, Queens University Belfast.
75. Smith FW, Harvey WJ and Vardy AE, 1990. Three hinge analysis of masonry
arches. The Structural Engineer, 68, No 11, Jun, 201-213.

Notes

27
Notes

Acknowledgements

Gautrans
Soweto City Council
eThekwini Metro
of guidelines.
Organisation
Foamed bitumen gravel

Part 1
all citizens”
Part 3
manufacture
commenced in 1996.
making
technology
technology
unsealed roads
development.

Edition
of CIDB
document
Foamed bitumen gravel 1029

March 2005
Contents
1. Introduction 3
2. Overall considerations and planning 4
3. Structural design 6
4. Construction 8
Acknowledgements 13


Tel: 27 12-481 9030 Fax: 27 12-343 7153
T
works components.


Part 4-4 – Foamed bitumen gravel
1. Introduction
The potential of foamed bitumen for use as a soil

Definition
binder was first realised in 1956 by Dr. Ladis H.
Csanyi, at the Engineering Experiment Station in
The term ‘foamed asphalt’, as used in this document, refers to a mixture of
Iowa State University. Since then, foamed asphalt
pavement construction aggregates and foamed bitumen. The foamed bitu-
technology has been used successfully in many
men, or expanded bitumen, is produced by a process in which water is inject-
countries, with corresponding evolution of the
ed into the hot bitumen, resulting in spontaneous foaming. The physical
original bitumen foaming process as experience properties of the bitumen are temporarily altered when the injected water,
was gained in its use. The original process consisted on contact with the hot bitumen, is turned into vapour which is trapped in
of injecting steam into hot bitumen. The steam thousands of tiny bitumen bubbles. However, the foam dissipates in less than
foaming system was very convenient for asphalt a minute and the bitumen resumes its original properties. In order to produce
plants where steam was readily available but it foamed asphalt, the bitumen has to be incorporated into the aggregates
proved to be impractical for in situ foaming while still in its foamed state.
operations, because of the need for special
equipment such as steam boilers. In 1968, Mobil Oil
Australia, which had acquired the patent rights for Csanyi’s invention, modified
the original process by adding cold water rather than steam into the hot bitumen.
The bitumen foaming process thus became much more practical and economical
for general use.
Foaming increases the surface area of the bitumen and considerably reduces its
viscosity, making it well suited for mixing with cold and moist aggregates.
Foamed bitumen can be used with a variety of materials, ranging from
conventional high-quality graded materials and recycled pavement materials to
marginal materials such as those having a high plasticity index. Foamed asphalt
can be manufactured in situ or in a central plant. Binder contents are based on
the mix design, and are determined as percentage (by weight) required for the
mix to have optimum properties.
The use of foamed asphalt, an alternative cold-mix

procedure, has had limited application in the Advantages of foamed asphalt
construction of road pavements in South Africa
especially for the rehabilitation of low volume roads The following advantages of foamed asphalt have been noted in previous
research:
in rural areas of KwaZulu-Natal. Recent interest in
• The foamed binder increases the shear strength and reduces the mois-
the material has resulted in several research projects
ture susceptibility of granular materials,
that have generated mix design procedures and
• The strength characteristics of foamed asphalt approach those of
general guidelines on the use of foamed asphalt. cemented materials, but foamed asphalt is flexible and fatigue resistant,
The common usage of the material in the last few • Foam treatment can be used with a wider range of aggregate types than
years has been in the in situ recycling method of other cold mix processes,
construction using specialised deep-milling • Reduced binder and transportation costs, as foamed asphalt requires less
machinery whereby the old pavement is ripped, binder and water than other types of cold mixing,
pulverised, treated with foamed bitumen and • Saving in time, because foamed asphalt can be compacted immediately
repaved in one continuous process. Foamed asphalt and can carry traffic almost immediately after compaction is completed,
can be produced successfully in an asphalt plant, • Energy conservation, because only the bitumen needs to be heated while
the aggregates are mixed in while cold and damp (no need for drying),
with suitable modifications, as well as on-site using
• Environmental side effects resulting from the evaporation of volatiles
a mobile batch plant as described by Hefer (1995).
from the mix are avoided since curing does not result in the release of
volatiles,
The properties of foamed asphalt that make it very • Foamed asphalt can be stockpiled with no risk of binder runoff or leach-
suitable for employment-intensive type of road ing. Since foamed asphalt remains workable for extended periods, the
construction are: usual time constraints for achieving compaction, shaping and finishing of
• Foamed asphalt can be manufactured from a the layer are avoided,
variety of aggregates including possibly marginal • Foamed asphalt layers can be constructed even in some adverse weather
materials, conditions, such as in cold weather or light rain, without significantly
• Foamed asphalt remains workable for long affecting the workability or the quality of the finished layer.
periods (months) and hence can be stockpiled.

3
2. Overall considerations and planning
2.1 Mix design

The laboratory design of foamed asphalt materials is required to select the proper
proportions and quality of the materials in order to optimise the properties of the
mix. The binder content selected for foamed asphalt mixes is based on the
Indirect Tensile Strength test.
2.2 Binder characterisation and preparation

The foaming characteristics of a particular bitumen type need to be optimised for
producing foamed asphalt mixes. The foamed bitumen is characterised in terms
of expansion ratio and half life. The expansion ratio of the foam is defined as the
ratio between the maximum volume achieved in the foam state and the final
volume of the binder once the foam has dissipated. The half life is the time, in
seconds, between the moment the foam achieves maximum volume and the time
it dissipates to half of the maximum volume. This is achieved by measuring the
half-life and the expansion ratio of foamed bitumen produced using various
percentages of water. Usually five tests are conducted with the foaming water
content varying from 1% to 3% at 0,5% increments. The temperature of the
bitumen before foaming should be in the range
Figure 1: Aggregate grading requirements for foam 180°C to 200°C. It is recommended that the half-life
treatment of the foamed bitumen be at least 12 seconds and
the expansion ratio be at least 10:1. Additives may
100
be used to catalyse the foaming. However, the use
90
of these has a significant cost implication.
80
70 2.3 Aggregate characterisation and
60 preparation
50 Foamed bitumen is compatible with a variety of
40 material types and is usually limited only by the
30 grading of the material. The following guidelines
20 should be followed. The grading and the PI of the
10 aggregates should be determined. The grading is
adjusted, if required, by adding fine or coarse
0
material so that the final grading conforms to the
0.075
0.15
0.3
0.6
1.18
2.36
4.75
6.7
9.5
13.2
19
26.5
grading envelope shown Figure 1. For low volume

Sieve Size (mm) (log scale)
roads, aggregate gradings which lie above the
target grading (finer), on sieves larger than 0,06 mm, may be acceptable.
Materials which have a PI greater than 12 should be treated with lime to reduce
the PI. In addition, it is common practice to add 1% to 2% cement to the mix to
aid in bitumen adhesion. The Modified AASHTO optimum moisture content of
the aggregates is determined.
Table 1: Guidelines in appropriate foamed binder The aggregates should be oven dried to a constant
contents by mass of dry aggregate mass. The dried aggregates are riffled into five
batches of 10 kg each. These will be used to
% passing 4,75 mm % passing % Foamed
sieve 0,075 mm sieve bitumen produce five batches of foamed asphalt samples at
various binder contents.
< 50 (gravels) 3-5 3
5 - 7,5 3,5 2.4 Binder content (BC) for trial mixes
7,5 - 10 4
An appropriate range of foamed bitumen contents,
> 10 4,5
using Tables 1 and 2 as a guide, is selected for the
> 50 (sands) 3-5 3,5 trial mixes. Five batches of trial mixes are normally
5 - 7,5 4 prepared at binder contents differing by one
7,5 - 10 4,5 percent.
> 10 5

2.5 Moisture content

Table 2: Appropriate foamed binder contents by mass
The moisture content for mixing and compaction is of dry aggregate
a crucial mix design parameter, which has
Soil type Optimum
traditionally been selected at the ‘fluff’ point of the
range of Additional
aggregates (70% to 80% modified AASHTO OMC).
binder requirements
However, it is recommended that the moisture contents (%)
content for mixing and compaction be selected at
Well graded clean gravel 2 - 2,5
the greater of ‘OMC minus the BC’ and the ‘fluff
Well graded marginally clayey /
point’.
silty gravel 2 - 4,5
Poorly graded marginally clayey
2.6 Mixing and compaction
gravel 2,5 - 3
Each 10kg sample of aggregate and the required Clayey gravel 4-6 lime modification
mass of foamed bitumen (and lime or cement if
Well graded clean sand 4-5 filler
required) are mixed in a mechanical mixer at the
Well graded marginally silty sand 2,5 - 4
moisture content prescribed above. The foamed
asphalt is stored in sealed containers to prevent Poorly graded marginally silty sand 3 - 4,5 low pen bitumen; filler
moisture loss, until all five batches have been Poorly graded clean sand 2,5 - 5 filler
mixed. Duplicate samples are removed from each Silty sand 2,5 - 4,5
foamed asphalt batch for the determination of Silty clayey sand 4 possibly lime
moisture content and bitumen content. The
Clayey sand 3-4 lime modification
remaining foamed asphalt will be used to prepare
compacted foamed asphalt specimens for further testing.
For further foamed asphalt testing, it is suggested that eight samples be prepared
from each batch: six samples for indirect tensile tests and two samples for
volumetric evaluation. Specimens are compacted, using the Marshall hammer, to
a 100 mm nominal diameter and 65 mm nominal height. Specimens of this size
normally require about 1,15 kg of material. A compactive effort of 75 blows on
each face is recommended.
2.7 Curing, testing and design binder content determination

The foamed asphalt samples should be subjected to an accelerated curing
procedure before undergoing any tests. The widely used procedure of three days’
oven curing at 60°C is recommended. Indirect tensile strength testing (ITS) is
conducted to determine the ultimate strengths of both dry and soaked samples.
The design binder content should be selected as the binder content at which the
soaked indirect tensile strength is at a maximum.
Resilient modulus testing at the design binder content is recommended for dry
and soaked samples, to determine adequate structural capacity of the material.
The specifications in Table 3 should be used as minimum acceptance criteria.
Dynamic Creep testing at the design binder content is suggested in order to

evaluate the permanent deformation characteristics of the foamed asphalt mixes.
The mix produced should generally conform to the

specifications in Table 3 in order to provide Table 3: Mix design criteria for foam-treated aggregate
acceptable structural performance.
Property E0 - E2 Traffic E3 - E4 Traffic
Retained (wet) ITS (25°C) 60% of dry ITS 70% of dry ITS
Min. Indirect Tensile Strength (dry) 100 kPa 150 kPa
Resilient Modulus (25°C) 900 MPa 1500 MPa
Dynamic Creep 10 MPa 15 MPa
Voids in mix 5 - 15 % 5 - 15 %

5
3. Structural design
Foamed bitumen is relatively new to South Africa

Figure 2: Estimated structural bearing capacities for pave-
and as such, proper structural design procedures
ments with foamed bitumen treated gravel base layers
are still lacking for this material. Figure 3 provides
Estimated Design Bearing Pavement Structure guidelines on the Structural Number (SN) of
Capacity (Standard axles) foamed asphalt to be used in the AASHTO
100 000 to 300 000 100 mm weathered sandstone or Structural Number Design Method (ASNDM). This
granite with 3% binder chart was developed using mechanistic pavement
design procedures but it should be kept in mind
In-situ weathered granite or that the ASNDM is an empirical design method
sandstone, CBR 26% relating the SN to the bearing capacity of the
300 000 to 1 million 175 mm weathered granite with pavement.
1% road lime and 4,5 to 5%
binder. Transportek (Theyse, 1997) was also involved in a
100 mm weathered granite at field study of the performance of foamed bitumen
95% mod AASHTO compaction, gravel mixes in South Africa. The output from this
CBR 27% study in terms of the structural bearing capacity of
In-situ weathered granite at 93% low-volume roads constructed by using foamed
mod AASHTO compaction, bitumen treatment is given in Figure 2. The
CBR 23 % bearing capacities indicated in Figure 2 may be
1 to 3 million 175 mm of 80% recycled used as a reference for new designs.
asphalt, 20% crusher dust and
5,5 to 6% residual binder. Foam-treated gravel is essentially a brittle, bonded
100 mm weathered granite at material. The retention of the cohesive bond
95% mod AASHTO compaction, depends largely on the flexibility of the material
CBR 27 % and the amount of support provided by the
In situ weathered granite at 93% pavement structure below the base layer. It is
mod AASHTO compaction, therefore recommended that the pavement
CBR 23 % foundation should be well prepared even for the
labour-intensive construction of access roads.
Relatively good performance has been achieved on such roads in KwaZulu-Natal
where the in situ material when properly compacted provided a sub-base layer of
G6 (CBR>25 at 95 % mod AASHTO) quality that should typically have a resilient
modulus of 250 MPa.
Although a foam-treated base layer may successfully be opened to traffic

temporarily, the base layer must be surfaced with a bituminous surfacing in order
to ensure long-term functional and structural performance.

Figure 3: Interim structural number (SN) input values for foam-treated gravel
STRUCTURAL LAYER COEFFICIENT GUIDELINES FOR FOAMED BITUMEN STABILISED MATERIAL
0,05 0,08 0,09 0,12 0,14

per cm
0,13 0,16 0,23 0,30 0,35
per inch
STRUCTURAL LAYER COEFFICIENTS AFTER STABILISATION
Resilient
modulus 750 100 1500 2000 2500
(MPa)
Indirect 150 200 300 400 500

Strength (kPa)
ANTICIPATED MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS AFTER STABILISATION
EXPECTED APPLICATION 3 21/2

RATE2 OF FOAMED BITUMEN FOR
1/2
31/2 3
STABILISATION (% by mass)
4 31/2
4 1/2 4
A-1-a
ASSHTO CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL MATERIAL
BEFORE STABILISATION A-1-b
A- 2 - 4 A-2-5
A- 2 - 6 A-2-7
A-3
A-4
A-5
A-6
A-7-5 A-7-6
1 10 100
CBR value (soaked)
Notes 1. All materials classified as A - 4 or lower to be pretreated with hydrated lime.

2. Cement at nominal 1% to be added to all materials with P < 10 and CBR < 45.
3. Where required, non-plastic fine material to be added to increase the percentage passing the
0,75 mm sieve to achieve a minimum of 5%.
4. Where the mean annual rainfall is less than 100 mm and the risk of the pavement layers becoming
saturated is negligible, the soaked ITS test may be omitted and the design foamed bitumen
content determined using only dry ITS values.

7
4. Construction
4.1 Plant and equipment

Figure 4: Roadbed preparation
An asphalt plant with bitumen foaming capability is
required to produce the foamed asphalt mix, as this
cannot be produced on site, unless the deep in situ
recycling method is selected. However the deep
in situ recycling method is not suited to labour-
intensive work.
Suitable provision must be made on site for the

stockpiling of foam bitumen treated materials, i.e.
protection from sunlight, rain, etc., by covering with a
plastic sheeting. The height of the stockpile should not
exceed three metres in order to prevent self compaction.
Compaction equipment: Pedestrian roller; Bomag 65.
(a) An existing access road

Steel shuttering: Steel shuttering should be used for
edge restraint and thickness control during
construction. 3 m, 2 m and 1 m lengths should be
supplied.
Steel squeegees, rakes, shovels and wheelbarrows:

Steel squeegees are preferred to rakes for levelling
the mix. Rakes tend to segregate the mix, whereas
the steel squeegees distribute the material
uniformly without segregation.
Screeds: Steel screeds are used between the top of

the steel shuttering and the top of the side drain or
the top of the inside edge of the concrete gutter to
(b) Bladed and compacted access road foundation for the
foam-treated base layer obtain the pre-compaction level of the foamed
asphalt.
Steel gauges: Steel gauges are placed on top of the steel shuttering and edge of
concrete curbs to obtain the uniform loose level before compaction and to ensure
that the correct final compacted level is obtained. The first layer of mix is placed
level with the shuttering and top of drain and compacted. The second layer of mix
is placed level with the tops of gauges when placed on top of the shuttering and
on top of the drain and then compacted. This ensures a uniform constructed level
of the final base.
Plastic sheeting: Rolls of standard construction sheeting for protection of

uncompacted layers and stockpiled materials.
Spirit level and straight edge and measuring tape
Water tank and hoses
4.2 Construction process

4.2.1 Roadbed preparation
As mentioned under the structural design section, a foam-treated base layer
requires proper support from the sub-base layer. The in situ material should be
bladed with a grader to create an even surface free of vegetation and
compacted. If the in situ material is of insufficient quality, material should be
imported and compacted for the sub-base layer.

4.2.2 Placing of steel shuttering

Figure 5: Placement and spreading of the foam-treated
It is advisable to use steel shuttering as temporary material
edge-restraints for the construction of the foam-
treated base layer. The steel shuttering that is
available has one leg 150 mm in height and the
other 100 mm. The required thickness of the base
layer will dictate which leg to use as the edge-
restraint when placing the steel shuttering, i.e.
where a 150 mm thick layer is needed use the
150 mm leg as the height. Short 1m lengths of
shuttering should be used for small curves. Make
sure that the quantity of shuttering matches the
amount of asphalt to be placed in one day.
The shuttering that is to be placed at the outside

edge of the street/road must be securely fixed onto
the prepared sub-base. If the foamed asphalt is (a) Delivery of foam-treated material from a central plant
placed in half-widths, place the shuttering on the
centre line of the street/road. The levels of the top
of the base can be checked using a reference line
from the top of the drain to the outside edge of the
street/road.
4.2.3 Placing of material and compaction

Remove material from the stockpile and mix with a
shovel. The material must be sufficiently moist to
achieve the desired compaction. Water can be
added to the mix if it is suspected that there is
insufficient moisture for compaction. In this case the
exact moisture content of the mix and the water to
be added must be determined carefully as follows:
• The optimum moisture content (OMC) and
binder content (BC) must be obtained from the
materials laboratory, e.g. OMC of 7% and BC
of 2%,
• For the best workability the amount of fluid (i.e.
bitumen + water) to be added is OMC + BC = LL,
• The amount of moisture in the mix must be
determined by weighing the gravel in four 25
(b) Moving the material from the stock-pile and spreading the
litre containers (fill mix level with top of material
container) in its wet condition = LW,
• Then dry this material in the sun (spread the
aggregate out of container) and reweigh it = LD,
• The weight of the moisture in the mix (LM) = LD
– LW,
• The weight of the aggregate in the mix (LA) = LD
÷ (1+BC/100),
• Then the amount of water to be added = (OMC
– BC) x LA /100 – LW i.e. added water = Total
fluid – bitumen – moisture in the mix.
Experience will tell how much water should be

added to make the mixture suitable for compaction
without it being too dry or too wet. It is better to be
on the wet side than the dry side.
(c) Spreading of the foam-treated material
labour-based methods and tech-

nologies
9
To prevent the material from drying out

Figure 6: Placement and spreading of the foam-treated
prematurely, the newly spread foamed asphalt
material
should be covered systematically with a plastic cover
as work progresses, until a sufficiently long (eight to
ten metres) section is completed for the compaction
to commence.
During the compaction process, there will always be

a certain amount of spillage of loose material on the
top of the steel gauges, which must be systema-
tically removed with a flat shovel in order not to
inhibit the roller from eventually compacting the
material to the required level above the sub-base.
In order to obtain a smooth level of the base, i.e. to

ensure that the surface of the foamed asphalt does
(a) Compaction of the foam-treated base layer not undulate, the method of hand rolling should be
carefully controlled. This problem is induced by the
roller initially moving onto the newly placed mix in
a straight line parallel to the line of the steel
shutters, causing surging and ‘pushing’ of the
material. The roller should approach the strip at an
angle with the roller drum over the edge of the
shutter and existing surface, which automatically
controls the level. This process should be repeated
for each shutter, thus forming a triangle of
uncompacted material, which could then be
compacted at an angle with quarter wheel rolling.
The rolling of the strip is then done by commencing
the rolling with part of the roller over the shuttering
which controls the uniformity of the surface levels.
This process is repeated on the alternate shutter and
alternatively moved in half-rolls to the centre.
4.3 Quality control

In order to ensure that the foamed asphalt designed
in the laboratory is constructed to specification and
that its structural performance is to the employer's
satisfaction, the quality of the layer both during and
(b) The finished foam-treated gravel base layer after construction should be evaluated.
During the execution of the work, the contractor should ascertain that the
composition of the mix is always close to the composition which was decided
jointly by the contractor, the employer and his representative, within
predetermined tolerances. In addition, he should ensure that the laying
operations result in a finished layer of adequate density.
The degree of compaction can be controlled directly by means of conventional

methods (such as a nuclear density gauge) or, indirectly, through the use of the
Rapid Compaction Control Device (RCCD).
The RCCD could be used to calibrate the results obtained in the laboratory with
those obtained in the field in order for the RCCD to be used for the following
purposes during and after construction:
• to monitor the degree of compaction of the ETB during construction,

• to monitor the gain in strength during curing,

• as a decision tool, to establish when the layer can be opened to traffic.
The following procedure is proposed for calibration of the RCCD:
• Determine the optimum binder content in the laboratory,

• Compact four samples at optimum fluid content and optimum binder content,
using a vibratory table,
• Determine the three-blow RCCD penetration (mm) on two unsoaked samples
immediately after compaction in their moulds (three blows on four points per
sample),
• Cure the remaining two samples in their moulds for one day at ambient
temperature, followed by two days’ curing at 40°C if the optimum moisture
content is less than 8%, or for 45 hours at 60°C if the optimum moisture
content is greater than 8%,
• Determine the three-blow RCCD penetration (mm) on the two remaining
unsoaked samples after curing in their moulds (three blows on four points
per sample),
• Calculate the average three-blow RCCD penetrations (mm) immediately after
compaction and after curing.
The average RCCD penetration measured immediately after compaction can be

used to evaluate the degree of compaction on the road. The average RCCD
penetration measured after curing can be used to determine when the road can
be opened to traffic. Generally, the road can be opened to traffic when the RCCD
penetration (mm per three blows) is less than 18 mm. Generally, a section can be
opened to traffic within 24 hours of construction.
1. Muthen KM, Contract Report CR-98/077: Foamed Asphalt Mixes, Mix Design
Procedure, CSIR Transportek for SABITA Ltd. Pretoria, 1998.
2. Theyse HL, Contract Report CR-97/087:Preliminary Assessment of the

Structural Properties of Pavements with Foamed Bitumen Base Layers, CSIR
Transportek for KZN DOT, Pretoria, 1997.
3. Lewis AJN and DC Collings, Cold In Place Recycling: A Relevant Process For
Road Rehabilitation And Upgrading: In: Proceedings Of The 7th Conference
On Asphalt Pavements For Southern Africa, Victoria Falls, 1999
4. De Beer, M., Kalombo, D.K. & Horak, E. 1993. Rapid compaction control for
trench re instatements and pavement layers. In: Proceedings of the 13th
Annual Transportation Convention. Pretoria: University of Pretoria, Vol. 2B,
paper 7, pp 1-19.

11
Notes

Acknowledgements

Gautrans
Soweto City Council
eThekwini Metro
of guidelines.
Organisation
Cast in situ block pavement

Part 1
all citizens”
Part 3
manufacture
commenced in 1996.
making
technology
technology
unsealed roads
development.

Edition
of CIDB
document
Cast in-situ block pavement 1030

March 2005
Contents
1. Background 3
2. Materials 4
3. Equipment 5
Acknowledgements 9


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T
works components.


Part 4-5 – Cast in-situ block pavement
1. Background
The use of the cast in-situ block pavement resulted

Figure 1: Core of Hyson-cells block showing self-keyed
from a need to develop a road construction method
joint
that would provide an all-weather road without the
disruptions associated with traditional construction,
while at the same time was labour intensive.
Cast in-situ block paving refers to the locally

developed technology of welded plastic geocells,
commonly known by the proprietary name Hyson-
cells. The cells, when filled with concrete, form an
interlocking ‘cell slab’ (see Figure 1). The hollow cell
matrix acts as vast sacrificial formwork, which is left
embedded in the concrete to serve as jointing.
While there has been some experience with this
technology, it is still relatively unknown. However,
the supplier offers labour training and site
supervision services in the use of the product and
the concept has won acclaim at international
conferences. Figure 2 : Hyson-cells road with integral side drains
The benefits of cast in-situ block pavements include:

• By first placing the course aggregate, only 40%
of the slab volume has to be mixed and handled,
• The cells reduce the amount of shrinkage
cracking and provide a jointing as well as a self-
keying (see Figure 1) mechanism for load
transfer,
• Very low maintenance is required for the
pavement over the design period,
• The construction is an integral process in which
the road can be cast in any desired profile, and
side drains or drains down the centre of the road
can be constructed with the cells (see Figure 2).

3
2. Materials
2.1. Material components

Figure 3: Hyson-Cells
2.1.1. Hyson-Cells
Hyson-Cells (see Figure 3) are packaged in one cubic
metre bags which contain 200 m3 of expanded cells.
One cell of extra material along each side of the
road, which is not butted to a kerb or drain, should
be allowed for tuck-in of cells into an anchor trench.
2.1.2. Anchoring pegs

Y10 Steel reinforcing bars, of variable length
depending on nature of the in-situ material, but
typically 250 mm at a rate of one peg per square
metre, and 1 peg in every second cell in the anchor
trenches. (Note: smooth R10 bars are not suitable).
Do not pre-cut the Y10 bars, as the required length
may vary.
2.1.3. Stone fill

The stone fill for the cells should be sieved stone between 27-37 mm with no
fines. The aggregate does not have to be crushed, but should be essentially single
sized, as a graded aggregate could inhibit the penetration of the grout. For
75 mm slabs and smaller, the aggregate should pass the 26,5 mm sieve and be
retained on the 19 mm sieve. A maximum flakiness index of 30% is required.
2.1.4. Sand
It is essential to use good quality plaster sand for the grout as coarser sands may
prevent effective grout penetration. The typical requirements for concrete with
respect to cleanliness and absence of organic materials should be followed.
2.1.5. Cement
Common Cement CEM II B-V complying with SANS 50197-1 gives a good
workability. In built-up areas the use of quick setting cements may be
advantageous.
2.2 Grout mix guidelines

0.4 Cubic metres of grout is required per cubic metre of cells (i.e. to fill 40% voids
in the stone). Increase this to 0.5 cubic metres per cubic metre of cells if the stone
is uncompacted. The following table shows mix ratios for different strength
requirements. The amount of water added depends on the aggregate, but
controls the consistency of the grout which should be a thick paste. If the grout
is too thin, then its strength could be severely impaired, but if it is too thick then
insufficient penetration will occur.
Typical grout mix proportions are presented in

Table 1: Grout mix proportions Table 1.
Strength required 10 MPa 20 MPa 40 MPa

Sand : cement ratio 3:1 2:1 1:1
Pockets of cement 2.78 4.1 6.15
Volume of sand 0.29 m3 0.266 m3 0.2 m3
Volume of grout 0.4 m3 0.4 m3 0.4 m3
Total volume 1 m3 1 m3 1 m3

3. Equipment
The equipment required for the construction of the cast in-situ block paving
includes:
• Wheelbarrows
• Concrete mixer
• Hand vibratory roller and/or plate vibratory compactor
• Brooms
• Water supply for mixing concrete grout
• Shovels
• Straight edges and spirit levels
The design procedure for cast in situ block paving should be based on the
industry-accepted practice as given in TRH4 and UTG3. The catalogue given in
Figure 4, after Visser (1994), can be used to select an appropriate structure for the
block paving for low-volume streets. The 10th percentile of the four-day soaked
CBR of the in-situ material is used as the design criteria. If the soaked CBR of the
in-situ material is less than 3% then special treatment of these sections will be
required. Expert advice must be consulted in this case, as well as in the case of
problem soils such as active clays, dispersive and collapsing soils etc.
Figure 4: Catalogue of structural designs (after Visser, 1994)
Pavement Pavement Design traffic during structural life (EBO)

Code Structure Route and environment <0,2x106 0,2-0,8x106 0,8-3,0x106
Classification
75/1: 1 Cell Slab
A 150 G5 or 150 C4 Minor arterial, wet A A
Climate, 3 - 7 CBR*
In-Situ*
Minor arterial, wet A A
75/1: 1 Cell Slab Climate, CBR > 7
B 150 G5 or 125 C4
Minor arterial, dry B B
In-Situ* Climate, 3 - 7 CBR
75/1: 1 Cell Slab Minor arterial, dry C A
C 125 G5 or 100 C4 Climate, CBR > 7
In-Situ* Access street, wet D C B
Climate, 3 - 7 CBR
75/2: 1 Cell Slab
D Access street, wet E C B
Climate, CBR > 7
In-Situ*
Access street, dry D C B
50/2: 1 Cell Slab Climate, 3 - 7 CBR
E Access street, dry E C B
In-Situ* Climate, CBR > 7
* Note requirements for in-situ preperation * Special precautions have to be taken if the design CBR < 3

5
5.1. Construction specification

Figure 5: A placed cell mat showing the edge anchor
trenches and transverse key trenches Prepare earthworks to required levels, shape and
densities, according to the required specifications.
The prepared surface must be very smooth as any
irregularities will show up in the final surface. Apply
a thin blinding layer of sand over the prepared
surface. Excavate anchorage trenches (200 mm wide
x 200 mm deep) at the position specified (see
Figure 5). The trenches should be positioned at the
sides and parallel to the road and across the road as
required. An anchorage trench is recommended at
all edges that do not butt against a kerb to serve as
anchorage and to prevent potential edge damage
to the cast slab. The edge trenches also prevent
undermining by water and provide extra load
bearing along the edge. On steep slopes it is
recommended that key trenches be cut across the
width of the road, to prevent slab slippage and to
Figure 6: Expanded cells in a road side-drain application cut off water from flowing under the slab.
Expand the cells and rig them taut to the securing

Y10 steel bars using the anchoring strings that are
an integral part of the Hyson-Cells mat. The cells
must be stretched in the direction of the road and
not across the road. The cells must be extended
extremely tautly into a square shape. Packs of cells
may be joined as required by using galvanized pins
or by threading a string through alternate cells. The
anchoring pegs must be driven to at least 50 mm
below the surface level of the cell. After tying the
rigging strings to the pegs, drive the peg a further
10 mm to distort the cells. The ends of the cells must
be tucked into the anchor trenches and anchored
with pegs. The cells must not be tucked into the key-
trenches cut across the road, as these will be cast
integrally with the slab. Figure 5 shows an example of a placed mat with the
anchorage and key trenches.
Place the stone fill in the cells using wheelbarrows. Brush the stones flush with
the top of the cells using a stiff broom. Compact the stone, if required, with 2-3
passes of the vibrating drum roller. The finish on the street is highly dependent
on the evenness of the compacted coarse aggregate, and it is recommended that
a straight edge be used to ensure evenness. The grout is ineffective in removing
unevenness.
Mix the grout using the concrete mixer and place in the cells using wheelbarrows.
Dampen the stone before placing the grout, but do not leave any standing water.
Start grouting from the highest point on the road and proceed downhill. Place
the grout in an even layer about 50% above the height of the cell depth.
Use the vibratory roller to vibrate the grout into the stone voids. Use a plastic
sheet over the surface to prevent the grout from adhering to the roller.
Compaction should continue until the tops of the cell walls are visible on the
surface.

Brush the surface to form a rough texture. Keep the paving damp for the curing
period as specified by the engineer. Protect the paving by covering in a thin sheet
of plastic.
As a quality control measure, take cubes of stone and grout mix and determine
the strength in the laboratory. Also, inspect cells to determine if the grout has
penetrated over the full depth of the cell. Cells that are sampled in this way must
be refilled immediately.
The cast in-situ block system may also be used in surface drainage applications as
illustrated by Figure 6.
5.2. Labour
It is possible to construct cast in situ block pavements as illustrated in Table 2
using a number of construction techniques which range from being plant-based
to fully employment-intensive techniques. In Option 1, plant is used to place the
stones and mix the concrete, whereas in Option 3, the grout is mixed in a hippo
drum, i.e. a drum which contains internal vanes which is rolled along the ground
for a mixing period of 90 seconds. In Option 4, the stone is crushed on site by
means of a small mechanical crusher. The labour component can increase by a
factor of nearly 5, between Option 1 and Option 4.
Table 2: Person-hours required to provide and construct an in-situ paved block pavement (Watermeyer
and Band, 1994)
PRIVATE OPERATION PERSON-HOURS/m2
OPTION NUMBER
1 2 3 4
Concrete pump Concrete pump mixer Hippo drums With crushing own
mixer and front- and wheelbarrows and wheelbarrows stone and sieving
end loader to place grout sand
Laying of cells 0,06 0,06 0,06 0,06
Place stones and compact 0,10 0,37 0,37 0,99
Mix and place grout 0,10 0,19 0,37 0,72
Finishing 0,03 0,03 0,03 0,03
TOTAL 0,38 0,65 0,83 1,80

7
1. Committee of Urban Transport Authorities, Structural Design of Urban

Roads, Draft UTG3, Pretoria, 1988.
2. Hyson-cells Technical Literature and Product Guides
3. Visser AT, A Cast In-Situ Block Pavement For Labour Enhanced Construction,
Technical Paper in Concrete Beton No 71, February 1994
4. Watermeyer RB and Band NG. The Development of Small Scale Enterprises,

Skills, Entrepreneurship and Employment Opportunities through the
Provision of Housing. Working Group 3, National Housing Forum, November
1994.

Acknowledgements

Gautrans
Soweto City Council
eThekwini Metro
of guidelines.
Organisation
Emulsion-treated gravel
Confronting joblessness employment intensive construction works
Part 1
growing economy is increasingly accessible to methods in employment intensive works
all citizens”
Part 3
manufacture
commenced in 1996.
making
technology
technology
unsealed roads
development.

Edition
of CIDB
document
Emulsion-treated gravel 1031

March 2005
Contents
1. Introduction 3
2. Materials and specifications 5
4. Construction 12
Acknowledgements 21


Tel: 27 12-481 9030 Fax: 27 12-343 7153
T
works components.


Part 4-6 – Emulsion treated gravel
1. Introduction
1.1 Background
Note
Heavy Vehicle Simulator (HVS) tests and other
research activities on the relative performance of Bitumen emulsion is a widely used product in the road construction industry.
ETB compared to untreated gravels showed the Over the past 30 years, great success has been achieved by South African
following: road engineers with the technique of adding small quantities of bitumen
• deflection reduction of up to 30% in the ETB, emulsion to gravels of fair to good quality, even for the rehabilitation of
• lower permanent deformation(rutting), greater national roads. The application of using bitumen emulsion treated gravels for
bearing capacity and greater resistance to shear labour-based construction is fairly recent development, but has quickly been
forces were measured, refined into a technically sound method. In low volume roads, the emulsion
treated gravel is usually used to form the road-base layer, and hence the term
• considerable reduction in the moisture
Emulsion Treated Base (ETB) is commonly used.
sensitivity as a result of lower permeabilities and
the binding of the fines, The SABITA Manual 21: The Design and use of Emulsion Treated Bases pub-
• improved resistance to reflective cracking, lished by the Southern African Bitumen Association has informed much of
• compared to a crushed stone base, G1, (although the content of this section.
not necessarily in the same bearing capacity
category), construction time and costs would be reduced by reducing the
compactive effort and by eliminating the slushing process and the need for
priming,
• prior to being sealed, the ETB layer could withstand heavy traffic for
extended periods.
Between 1988 and 1992, the Southern African Bitumen Association (Sabita)
sponsored a research programme, the objective of which was the development of
nationally acceptable mixing, testing and evaluation methodologies for Granular
Emulsion Mixes (GEMs). Whereas the emphasis of this project was on the
upgrading of sub-standard materials (for the particular pavement category) to
base standards by the addition of relatively high percentages of emulsion
(residual bitumen contents in excess of two percent), the project nevertheless
attempted to formalize the design procedures of ETBs. In October 1993, Sabita
(Sabita, 1993) launched a design manual for GEMs with recommended design
procedures for both stabilised GEMs (high emulsion contents) and modified GEMs
(low emulsion contents; similar in concept to ETBs).
The publication of the GEMs design manual, however, did not address all the
needs identified by the road building industry. Although the ETB technology had
proved itself in the field, there were still a number of unknown factors which
made it difficult for road agencies or their representatives to specify ETBs as part
of their works.
Because of this, Sabita launched a project in 1996 with the objective of

broadening the range of application of ETBs as a competitive base course
material in both rural and urban applications by extending the design scope of
the current technology and entrenching it in practice. The aim of the above
project was, based on best practice, to provide:
• guidelines on structural design
• economic guidelines
• guidelines on material design
• guidelines on constructability Unknowns hampering adoption of ETB technology
At the same time, the technology was refined. This • the shift between properties at the design stage and those in the field,
project culminated in the publication of Sabita • the lack of reliable performance indicators,
Manual 21 on the Design and Use of Emulsion • constructability issues and acceptance criteria were not well developed/
Treated Bases. documented,
• potential advantages of the use of emulsions relative to other materials
and their advantages were not adequately addressed.

3
1.2 Definition of ETBs

ETBs are defined as new or reclaimed gravels (often of a quality not suitable for
use as a base course for the particular application) treated with a small
percentage of bitumen emulsion (usually less than 2,5% depending on the
quality of the parent material) so as to produce the required base course quality
type of material.
Bitumen emulsion is made up of minute droplets of bitumen suspended in water.

The bitumen, in emulsified form, can be easily mixed with aggregates after which
the bitumen adheres to the aggregates, and the water evaporates.
1.3 Advantages of ETBs

The addition of bitumen emulsion to new or reclaimed gravels offers the
following advantages:
• it reduces the internal friction of the gravel, crusher run or crushed stone
during construction, thus improving its compacted density and its workability
(without having to resort to slushing in the case of crushed stone),
• it reduces water susceptibility and improves cohesion by binding the fine
aggregate,
• the addition of a fairly small amount of emulsion can significantly increase
the CBR and UCS of the material,
• its strength and stiffness are similar to those of lightly cemented materials,
• rutting of a gravel type base course can be reduced significantly,
• if the ETB base does crack at the end of its life cycle, the transportation of
fines is considerably reduced, which reduces the possibility of ‘pumping’
problems and the resultant secondary cracking,
• it reduces the development of potholes in the base when the surfacing is
damaged,
• by enrichment of the upper ETB layer during construction, it usually
eliminates the need for priming,
• when using crushed stone aggregate (as for G1 base), the risk of segregation
of the aggregate matrix is reduced during construction.
• it allows the layer to be trafficked sooner than most other base layers - as
soon as the emulsion has broken and no pick-up is evident under traffic,
• its use results in savings in fuel consumption required for heating, as
emulsions are used at ambient temperatures (cold mix),
• gravels do not need to be dried, as emulsions adhere readily to damp
aggregate,
• it is usually possible to core ETBs and to recover complete cores, which
facilitates easy and speedy testing for quality control purposes.
The above benefits, together with the ability to use local or in-situ materials, thus
obviating the need to haul in suitable base course material over long distances,
make the addition of small percentages of emulsion attractive from the point of
view of costs, as well as highly suitable for use as an employment-intensive
construction material.

2. Materials and specifications
2.1 Material components

2.1.1 Cement
The cement is added to the mix as a catalyst to induce the emulsion to break after
compaction of the layer. Normally only one percent cement is added.
2.1.2 Lime
If the material has a PI > 6, it is advisable to add lime to the material to reduce
the PI. The effect of the lime on the material must be established, with emulsion
added.
2.1.3 Emulsion
The emulsion to be used must be an anionic stable grade 60% emulsion. Normally
for labour-enhanced work the emulsion will be supplied in 210 litre drums
2.1.4 Aggregate
The following natural gravels may be considered for construction of ETBs:
• decomposed granites
• decomposed dolerites
• decomposed basalts
• quartzitic gravels
• laterite/ferricrete gravels
• chert gravels
• sandstone gravels
• calcretes
2.2 Material design in four steps The design procedure
STEP 1: Characterisation of the parent material

The material design process for gravels treated with small percentages of
A sieve analysis should be carried out and the emulsion (less than 3%) is based on the following procedure:
Atterberg limits determined on the parent material. • characterisation of materials to be used in ETBs;
If the re-use of cement-treated (CTB) or lime-treated • determination of the optimum fluid content;
(LTB) materials is considered for the manufacture of • preparation of samples, in which the amount of residual bitumen varies
ETBs, such materials should be crushed in the from 0-2% in increments of 0,5%, but where the optimum fluid content
laboratory prior to the determination of grading (hydroscopic water, emulsion and compaction water) remains
and Atterberg limits to produce a grading similar to unchanged;
• compaction in accordance with the standard modified AASHTO method
that obtained from field processes.
at room temperature;
• curing of samples (24 hours at ambient temperature followed by 48
The parent material should be classified in
hours’ oven curing at 40°C if the optimum moisture content is less than
accordance with the classification given in Draft 8%, or 45 hours at 60°C if the optimum moisture content is greater
TRH14 (COLTO, 1989). Preference should be given to than 8%);
G1 to G3 or CTB type materials, as these would • determination of CBR and UCS after 4 days and 6 hours soaking,
seldom require more than one percent residual respectively; and
bitumen. This, however, should not be interpreted • determination of optimum residual bitumen content.
to indicate that relatively expensive crushed stone
(G1 or G2) material should necessarily be acquired if it is not already available on
site (such as in an existing pavement). It also does not exclude materials of a lower
class. G4 or G5 type materials may be used successfully in ETBs, provided that the Adding lime to swelling clays
required amount of residual bitumen does not exceed two percent. (If it is greater
than two percent, the stabilisation approach – Sabita 1993 – should be considered For some materials such as dolerites (G1
for the design of the ETB.) Also, the grading properties of sub-grade quality or G2 quality) with a PI of, say, 3 to 4,
materials could be improved by mixing in coarse gravels or crusher run/crushed but which may contain montmorillonite
clays, it is recommended that lime be
stone. This would allow the use of lower emulsion contents.
added to the material. In order to quan-
tify the presence of such clays (smectite),
Both the grading of the parent material and the material properties obtained
the PI test should be conducted on
after addition of the emulsion will determine whether the ETB would be suitable material passing the 0,075mm sieve.

5
for the intended pavement structure and design traffic. A high traffic category
Using the grading modulus
would require sound material with a good continuous grading (such as that
obtained from crusher run/crushed stone) to achieve proper aggregate interlock.
The grading modulus (together with PI;
(Note that crusher run and crushed stone materials are normally delivered with
see above) could be used as an alterna-
an excess of fines, which are slushed out in the final aggregate interlocking
tive to the shrinkage product. For high
phase). Certain natural gravels could be used on medium to high traffic category
volume roads, it is recommended that
the grading modulus be greater than roads (bearing capacity > 300 000 Standard Axle Loads), but usually their
2,1. If the grading modulus is less than application would be limited to Category C and Category D roads (bearing
2,1 and the soaked CBRs of the untreat- capacity <300 000 Standard Axle Loads), unless larger amounts of emulsion are
ed material exceed 50 at 95 to 97% used.
mod. AASHTO compaction, the grading
of the material could be improved by the Both the PI and the shrinkage product (product of the linear shrinkage and the
addition of between 15 and 20% percentage of material passing the 0,425 mm sieve) may be used to verify
crushed -19 mm +6,7 mm aggregate. whether or not natural gravels would be suitable for use in ETBs. Material with a
PI greater than 6 should not be considered for use in its natural state. Lime should
be added to reduce the PI to below 6. Similarly, for high-volume roads, the
shrinkage product should not exceed 50. If it exceeds 50, lime should be added
and/or the grading modified (for instance, by mixing in coarse aggregate) in
order to reduce the shrinkage product to below 50.
The quantity of stable grade emulsion to be used in ETBs is governed by the type
of gravel used and its grading modulus (e.g. certain decomposed granites react
well with emulsion; coarse-graded materials would require less emulsion than
fine-graded materials).
It is recommended that one percent of cement be added to the parent material

to assist the breaking process and adhesion of the emulsion and to increase the
early strength which is required to allow the layer to be trafficked soon after
completion of construction.
STEP 2: Determination of the optimum fluid

Key definitions content
The maximum dry density and optimum fluid
The following definitions are given for fluid content, maximum density and
content are determined by establishing the fluid-
optimum fluid content:
density relationship of the material when prepared
• Fluid content is the total quantity of fluid in the mix, including hygro-
and compacted at the Modified AASHTO com-
scopic moisture, the bitumen and water within the emulsion and mois-
ture added for compaction. paction effort at different fluid contents.
• The maximum density of a material at a specific compactive effort is the
highest density obtainable when compaction is carried out on the mate- The optimum fluid content is approximately equal
rial at a various fluid contents. to the optimum moisture content of the untreated
• The optimum fluid content for a specific compactive effort is the fluid material (as determined according to Method A7 of
content at which the maximum density is obtained. TMH1 (COLTO, 1986) plus the residual bitumen
within the quantity of emulsion to be added
(expressed as a percentage of the mass of the dry material). Although it is not
essential, it is advisable to determine the optimum moisture content before the
optimum fluid content is determined, especially if several different emulsion
contents are to be investigated.
Apparatus and preparation prior Mixing

to mixing The sample in each basin should be weighed accurately to the nearest five grams
and transferred to the mixing basin. The quantity of emulsion to be added (as a
These are identical to those described in percentage of the mass of dry material) should be known, and hence the residual
Method A7 of TMH1 (COLTO, 1986). bitumen content (e.g. 60% for a 60% anionic emulsion) can be determined. The
Any material larger than 19 mm should
approximate optimum fluid content can be derived by adding the percentage
be crushed until it passes this size prior
residual bitumen to the optimum moisture content of the untreated material if
to treatment and compaction.
this is known.

The percentage of compaction water required can be determined by subtracting

the percentage emulsion (and the approximate hygroscopic moisture content if
this is known) from the required fluid content. The volume of water required
should then be determined and measured into a suitable container. The required
mass of emulsion should also be determined and measured into another suitable
container.
If cement or any other stabilising agent is to be added, it should be thoroughly

mixed with the dry material at this stage.
A portion of the compaction water (equivalent to the moisture absorption)

should then be added to the dry sample until, in the opinion of the operator, the
material is damp. While the water is being added, the material should be mixed
continuously with a trowel. This should normally continue until dust is no longer
generated by the mixing.
The remaining compaction water should then be thoroughly mixed with the
emulsion and added to the damp material. Under no circumstances should
diluted emulsion be added to dry porous material. The mixing of the moist
material should be continued for another few minutes. The moist material should
now be covered with a damp sack to prevent evaporation and should be allowed
to stand for half an hour so that the fluid may become evenly distributed
throughout. (In the meantime another basin of material may be treated by
mixing at a fluid content of one percent lower or higher than the first fluid
content.) If the material has been moistened beforehand, it is not necessary to
wait for half an hour and compaction may therefore commence immediately
after the fluid has been mixed in.
Recommended procedures con-
Determination of fluid content tained in TMH1
After the second layer has been compacted, a representative sample should be
taken from the material in the basin and placed in a suitable container for The recommended procedures are iden-
determination of the moisture content. tical to those described in Method A7 of
TMH1 (COLTO, 1986) for:
The sample should be between 500 and 1 000 g. The more coarsely graded the • Preparation of the mould and com-
material, the larger the sample should be. The moist sample should be weighed paction,
• Removal of excess material, mass of
immediately to the nearest 0,1 g and dried to constant mass in an oven at 105 to
mould and establishing additional
110 °C. The moisture content should be determined to the nearest 0,1%.
points for the fluid-density relation-
ship curve.
The fluid content should then be determined by adding the percentage residual
bitumen (determined earlier) to this value.
Calculations
The moisture content of the material at each point should be calculated to the
nearest 0,1% as follows:
d= (a – b) / (b – c) x 100
Where:
d = moisture content expressed as a percentage of the dry soil
a = mass of container and wet material (g)
b = mass of container and dry material (g)
c = mass of container only (g)
The fluid content (f) should be calculated by adding the percentage residual
bitumen (e) as follows:
f=d+e

7
The dry density at each point should be calculated to the nearest one kg/m3 as
follows:
D = W / (d + 100) x (100 / V) x 1000.
Where:
D = dry density (kg/m3)
W = mass of wet material (g)
V = volume of mould (ml)
Fluid-density relationship
After the calculations have been completed, the fluid contents should be plotted
graphically against the respective dry densities (see Figure A7/2 of TMH1; COLTO,
1986). The peak of the curve indicates the optimum fluid content and the
maximum density of the material when compacted under this particular effort.
Reporting of results
The maximum density should be reported to the nearest whole number on forms
such as Form A10(a)/1 (TMH1; COLTO, 1986) if the results are required to be used
as a reference for field densities, or on Form A8/1 (TMH1; COLTO, 1986) or a similar
form if required for CBR determinations (see Method A8 of TMH1; COLTO, 1986).
Note
The optimum fluid content should be reported to the first decimal figure.
• The material should be compacted
within one hour of mixing, since the STEP 3: Manufacturing and curing of specimens
emulsion must not have broken at
Sample manufacturing
the time of compaction.
• Once material has been compacted, The sample manufacturing procedure is described in the procedure for the
it cannot be used for another com- determination of optimum fluid content (Step 2). It is recommended that
paction. samples be prepared over a range of emulsion contents, where the amount of
residual bitumen varies from 0% to 2% in increments of 0,5%, but where the
optimum fluid content (hygroscopic water, emulsion and compaction water)
remains unchanged. Samples prepared at various residual binder contents
should be compacted at room temperature according to the standard modified
AASHTO method. Any material larger than 19 mm should be crushed prior to
treatment and compacted until it passes this size.
It is recommended that samples prepared for UCS testing be manufactured at a

moisture content of 0,5 to 1,0% above optimum moisture content. If samples are
compacted at optimum moisture content, the UCS results often underestimate
the strength of the material because of their dryness.
Curing and soaking of specimens

Replacing oversized material
After compaction, the specimens are cured in their
moulds for 24 hours at ambient temperature,
If over-size material is encountered in the field, such over-size material should
followed by 48 hours’ curing in an oven set to a
be removed and replaced with -19 mm +13 mm fractions of coated (treated)
material obtained from field samples prior to compaction. The crushing of temperature of 40 °C, if the optimum moisture
over-size material after emulsion treatment and the use of such material for content is less than eight percent. If the optimum
compaction would detract from the strength of the ETB, as some faces of the moisture content is greater than eight percent, the
aggregate would be uncoated. specimens are cured for 45 hours at 60 °C.
Alternatively, specimens can be cured for seven days
at ambient temperature (when cement has been added) or 28 days at ambient
temperature (when no cement has been added). The purpose of curing is to
induce breaking of the emulsion. This limiting moisture content of eight percent
is only a guide and should be used with discretion.
Before CBR and UCS testing, the cured specimens should be cooled, weighed and
submerged in water at ambient temperature for four days and six hours

respectively. After removal from the soaking baths, it is recommended that the
samples be surface-dried with a towel and weighed again to establish the
amount of water, if any, which has been absorbed.
STEP 4: Testing of specimens

California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
With due attention to the requirements for pavement balance and depth,
applicable to the situation, the CBR values obtained are used for the
determination of:
• the optimum residual bitumen content,
• whether the material is suitable for the traffic class envisaged,
• whether the material is suitable for use in the base layer,
• cover requirements (i.e. type and thickness of the overlay).
After curing and four days’ soaking, the CBR values of the various specimens, each
prepared at a given residual bitumen content, are determined to a penetration
depth of 2,54 mm. The optimum residual bitumen content is defined as the
residual bitumen content at which the CBR requirements defined in Table 1 are
met.
E1 type materials would typically consist of parent Table 1: Mix design criteria for ETBs in terms of CBR
materials of G1 to G3 or CTB quality with a residual
bitumen content of less than 1,0% (CTB, G1 or G2) Material Code Minimum CBR
or less than 1,5% (G3). E1 type materials would be
E1 150% at 100% Mod. AASHTO compaction
suitable for use on Category A and Category B
E2 100% at 100% Mod. AASHTO compaction
roads (in excess of 300,000 E80s).
E2 type materials would typically consist of parent materials of G4 to G5 quality

with a residual bitumen content of less than 1,8%. E2 type materials would be
suitable for use on Category C and Category D roads (up to 300,000 E80s).
Unconfined compressive strength

After curing and six hours’ soaking, the UCS values of the various specimens, each
prepared at a given residual bitumen content, are determined in order to
establish whether or not the material complies with base standards. The optimum
residual bitumen content is defined as the residual bitumen content at which the
minimum UCS requirements defined in Table 2 are met.
Table 2: Mix design criteria for ETBs in terms of UCS
Material Code Minimum UCS

E1 1 200 kPa
E2 700 kPa

9
The principles of structural pavement design as described in Draft TRH4 (COLTO,

1996) and Draft TRH12 (COLTO, 1983) should be used in conjunction with this
document during the pavement design process. There are, however, a few
pavement design principles of particular importance to the design (initial as well
as rehabilitation) of a pavement structure with an emulsion-treated base layer.
The concept and importance of designing a deep, well balanced pavement

structure is well established. Emulsion-treated material is essentially a fairly stiff
and brittle material if compared with granular materials. This, on the one hand,
improves the deformation resistance of the material but increases the load
sensitivity of the material if not well supported. The designer should therefore
guard against using a thin emulsion-treated base layer on a granular support as
this may lead to a shallow and/or unbalanced pavement structure sensitive to
overloading. Although these designs are included in the catalogue, they are only
intended for applications with a low load-bearing capacity demand where few
heavy and overloaded vehicles are expected in the traffic spectrum such as for
residential access streets. In general it is suggested that a lightly cemented sub-
base be used for pavements with emulsion-treated base layers - of course,
depending on the required total bearing capacity.
Although, in terms of initial strength, stiffness and behaviour under repeated

loading, the behaviour of emulsion-treated material closely resembles that of
lightly cemented material, this does not imply that the performance of these two
material types will be the same under similar conditions and/or pavement
structures. Both materials start off at more or less the same level of strength and
with a similar deterioration pattern, but the time scale during which this
deterioration takes place, will differ. Experience has shown that an emulsion-
treated material will not pump fines to the road surface under traffic when wet.
On the other hand, experience has shown that this may well happen once a
cement-treated base has cracked.
The relatively high stiffness of an emulsion-treated material compared to that of

a natural gravel or a crusher run (G2 to G3) should improve the fatigue resistance
of bituminous surfacings since the fatigue of the latter layers is highly dependent
on the stiffness of the immediate support layer (a well balanced and relatively
deep structure is necessary).
Due to the nature of emulsion-treated materials, a base layer constructed of ETB

must be surfaced with a bituminous surfacing in order to ensure long-term
structural performance.
The design catalogue (after SABITA Manual 21) presented in Figure 1 can be used
to determine the structure of the pavement required for a certain traffic level.

Figure 1: Design catalogue for determining a range of pavement structures
ROAD PAVEMENT CLASS AND DESIGN BEARING CAPACITY (80 KN AXLES/LANE)

CATEGORY ESO.003 ESO.01 ESO.003 ESO.01 ESO.003 ES1 ES3 ES10 ES30 ES100
0.1-0.3x104 0.3-1.0x104 1.0-3.0x104 3.0-10x104 0.1-0.3x106 0.3-1.0x106 1.0-3.0x106 3.0-10x106 10-130x106 30-100x106 Foundation
A: Major interurban 40A 40A
125E1 150E1
freeways and roads.
(95% approximate 250C4 150C3
design reliability) 150C4
B: Interurban S S*/30A 40A 150G7

100E1 125E1 125E1
collectors and major
150C4 150C4 200C4 150G9
rural roads.
S S*/30A 40A
(90% approximate G10
125E1 150E1 150E1
Design reliability)
150G5 150G5 150C4
C: Lightly trafficked S S S
100E2 100E2 100E2
rural roads and
strategic roads. 150G6 150G6 125C4
Design reliability)
D: Light pavement S1 S1 150G9
structures, rural 100E2 100E2
access roads. 100G6 125G6 G10
(50% approximate
design reliability)
Symbol A denotes AG. AC. or AS.
AO, AP may be recommended as a surfacing measure for improved skid resistance when wet or to reduce water spray
S denotes Double Surface Treatment (seal or combinations of seal and slurry)
Most likely combinations of road
S1 denotes Single Surface Treatment category and design bearing capacity.
* If seal is used, increase C4 and G5 subbase thickness to 200 mm.

11
4. Construction
4.1 Plant and equipment

Concrete mixer
Concrete mixer 200/250 litre (or bigger if readily available). It is advisable to use
a concrete mixer equipped with a diesel engine as the stoppages are minimal and
labour-friendly.
Pedestrian roller
The Bomag 65 is efficient and economical and can compact layers up to 75 mm
thick to the specified densities.
Steel shuttering
Steel shuttering should be used for edge restraint and thickness control during
construction. It will be noted that the one leg of the shuttering is 150 mm and the
other 100 mm, so that where required a 150 mm layer of ETB can be placed. It is
advisable to have different lengths of shuttering, i.e. three, two and one metre
shuttering, the latter being particularly useful for small radius curves. The
quantity of shuttering will depend on the volume of ETB that can be placed in
one day.
Steel squeegees, rakes, shovels and wheelbarrows

Steel squeegees are preferred to rakes for levelling the mixed ETB. Rakes tend to
segregate the mix, whereas the steel squeegees distribute the material uniformly
without segregation. However, rakes can be used with the finer materials.
Screeds
Steel screeds are used between the top of the steel shuttering and the top of the
side drain or the top of the inside edge of the concrete gutter to obtain the pre-
compaction level of the ETB. The length of the screed will depend on the width
of the ETB being laid, but two metres is about the maximum width that can be
efficiently handled with two labour units working the screed.
Steel gauges
Steel gauges are placed on top of the steel shuttering and edge of concrete to
obtain the uniform loose level of the ETB before compaction and to ensure that
the correct final compacted level is obtained.
The first layer of ETB is placed level with the shuttering and top of drain and
compacted. The second layer of ETB is placed level with the tops of gauges when
placed on top of the shuttering and on top of the drain and then compacted.
This ensures a uniform constructed level of the final base.
Heavy duty hose and fittings

100 m of heavy duty hose of 13 mm diameter, with fittings, makes the handling
of the water supply easy and efficient, with minimum wastage of the water.
Watering cans
20 litre watering cans with a modified shower ‘rose’ attached. The diameter of
the holes in the ‘rose’ must be increased to three millimetres so that diluted
emulsion can be applied before the ETB is laid.
Plastic sheeting
Rolls of standard construction sheeting are required.
Spirit levels, straight edge and measuring tape

Spirit levels, straight edge and measuring tape are required.

4.2 Construction techniques

4.2.1 Handling of emulsion
The following precautions must be observed when handling bitumen emulsion:

• When unloading the drums from the delivery
truck it must be ensured that the drums are not
Figure 2: Batching of chemicals
dropped from the truck but rolled off the truck
using steel or timber ramps. This process will
ensure that the drums do not break and prevent
premature breaking of the emulsion in the drum.
• Before the drums of emulsion are used, they
must be rolled backwards and forwards to
ensure that the emulsion is properly mixed, as
when they are stockpiled for any length of time
the bitumen in the emulsion tends to settle to
the bottom of the drum. (Note: Full drums must
be stored flat and empty drums vertically.)
• It is essential for accurate and neat workmanship
that the drums be placed on a steel frame and a
hand operated ball valve be fitted to the drum.
(a) Measuring off the required volume of emulsion

Measuring containers, with calibrated steel dip
sticks, must be available for measuring accurately
the required amount of emulsion for each mix.
4.2.2 Batching and mixing

The mixing of the materials can either be done by
hand labour or with a concrete mixer (see Figure 2).
The latter is quicker and more effective for larger
quantities while the former is quite practical for
smaller quantities and most effective for road repair
work.
Before mixing make sure that the specification of

the mix is correct, i.e. the percentage of emulsion, b) Weighing the required mass of cement
cement and/or lime that must be added to the
gravel or aggregate.
Calculate the weight of the loose material as follows:

• Using 4 x 25 litre measuring cans, weigh the cans empty.
W01 = -------kg weight of can 1 empty
• Paint a number on each of the cans, viz. 1, 2, 3, 4.

• Fill the cans with the gravel to be used. Strike off the can so that the gravel is
level with the top of the can and weigh the can and gravel. Repeat the
exercise with all 4 cans.
W1 = -------kg weight of can 1 plus gravel

13
• Calculate the weight of the gravel in each can.

Note
W1 - W01 = Wg1 kg weight of gravel for can 1
1 litre of cement weighs 1,5 kg
1 litre of lime weighs 1,065 kg
Therefore to measure the lime or
cement in litres: • Calculate the weight of 100 litres of gravel by adding Wg1, Wg2, Wg3 and Wg4.
• Calculate the amount of emulsion in kg to add to 100 litres of gravel. If the
Kg of lime
specification calls for 1,67% of emulsion, then the amount of emulsion to be
1,065 = litres lime
added to 100 litres of gravel is:
Kg of cement
1,67 x (Wg1 + Wg2 + Wg3 + Wg4) kg
1,5 = litres cement
100
• Calculate the amount of lime and/or cement in kg to add to 100 litres of

gravel in the same way. If one percent of lime and/or cement is required,
exactly the same calculation is done, i.e.
1 x (Wg1 + Wg2 + Wg3 + Wg4) kg
100
The optimum moisture content must be obtained
from the materials laboratory, e.g. seven percent.
Figure 3: Temporary shutters placed on the sub-base
For the best workability the amount of liquid (i.e.
emulsion + water) to be added is 7% + 1,5% = LL.
The amount of emulsion to be added is 1,67% of the
weight of the gravel = LE. The amount of water to
be added is = LL – LE. If the gravel is moist or wet the
amount of liquid in the gravel must be determined
by weighing the gravel in four 25 litre containers in
its wet condition = Lw. Then dry this material in the
sun and reweigh it = LD. The weight of the moisture
in the gravel is:
LM = LD – LW
Then the amount of water to be added is LL-LE-LM.

Added water = Total liquid – emulsion – moisture in
the gravel.
4.2.3 Placing of steel shuttering

The steel shuttering that is available has one leg
Figure 4: Mixing of emulsion-treated gravel
(a) Any cement must be mixed to the (b) Mechanical mixers can be used to good effect
dry aggregate on labour-intensive projects

150 mm in height and the other 100 mm. The angle

Figure 5: Placing and compaction of emulsion-treated
that you will use as your height when placing the
material
steel shuttering depends on the thickness of the
ETB, i.e. where a 150 mm thick ETB is needed use the
150 mm leg as the height. The shorter 1 metre
lengths of shuttering should be used for small curves
(see Figure 3).
4.2.4 Mixing
If the material for road construction can only be
mixed by hand then the work must be planned and
organised to reduce the physical work involved to a
minimum (see Figure 4).
It is advisable to start with 1 part of emulsion to 3 or
4 parts of water. It will be observed after the first
mix whether the water should be increased or
(a) The surface of the subbase is sprayed with diluted emulsion
decreased. The amount of water in the gravel will
and the loose emulsion-treated material is tipped between the
also affect the degree of dilution. The amount of
edge-restraints
liquid to be added must be approximately 1 to 11/2%
above the optimum moisture content required for
the Mod. AASHTO density. (This must be checked
with the laboratory tests.)
4.2.5 Placing and compaction

Because hand work progresses slowly, the problem
of evaporation and premature breaking of the
emulsion will affect the efficiency of compaction. To
prevent the material from drying out prematurely,
the newly spread ETB should be covered
systematically with a plastic cover as work
progresses, until a sufficiently long (8 to 10 m) (b) The loose emulsion-treated material is levelled off at the
required height using the temporary edge-restraints, steel
section is completed for the compaction to screeds and spacers
commence (see Figure 5).
During the compaction process, there will always be

a certain amount of spillage of loose material on the
top of the steel gauges, which must be systemati-
cally removed with a flat shovel in order not to
inhibit the roller from eventually compacting the
material to the required level above the sub-base.
In the case of 150 mm ETBs, the surface of the first

layer of compacted material should be ‘watered’
with diluted emulsion (1:6 - emulsion : water), using
(c) Emulsion-treated natural gravel compacts well using only
the watering can. The diluted emulsion can be
light compaction equipment
spread with brooms to even out the application.
In order to obtain a smooth level of the base, i.e. to ensure that the surface of the
ETB does not undulate, the method of hand rolling should be carefully
controlled. This problem is induced by the roller initially moving onto the newly
placed ETB in a straight line parallel to the line of the steel shutters, causing
surging and ‘pushing’ of the material. The roller should approach the strip at an
angle with the roller drum over the edge of the shutter and existing surface,
which automatically controls the level. This process should be repeated for each
shutter, thus forming a triangle of uncompacted material, which could then be
compacted at an angle with quarter wheel rolling. The rolling of the strip is then
15
done by commencing the rolling with part of the

The methodology in brief
roller over the shuttering which controls the
uniformity of the surface levels. This process is
• The optimum moisture content (OMC) must be obtained from the
repeated on the alternate shutter and alternatively
materials laboratory, e.g. OMC of 7%.
moved in half-rolls to the centre.
• For the best workability the amount of liquid (i.e. emulsion + water) to
be added is 7% + 1,0% = LL (1,0 to 1,5% above OMC).
• The amount of emulsion to be added is 1,67% of the weight of the The problem of poor workmanship causing the
gravel = LE. construction of slacks, bumps, over-coarse sections,
• The amount of water to be added is = LL – LE. etc. will always be present. These can be rectified by
• If the gravel is moist or wet, the amount of liquid in the gravel must be chipping out the bumps to level, filling in the slacks
determined by weighing the gravel in four 25 litre containers in its wet by roughening and tacking the surface with diluted
condition = LW. emulsion, applying the ETB and compacting it. Over-
• Then dry this material in the sun and reweigh it = LD. coarse sections can be tacked with diluted emulsion,
• The weight of the moisture in the gravel (LM) = LD – LW. raking selected ETB (coarse gravel removed) over
• Then the amount of water to be added is LL – LE – LM (i.e. Added water
the area and compacting it. The sooner this
= Total liquid – emulsion – moisture in the gravel. Experience will tell
rectification work is done after placement of the
how much water should be added to make the mixture suitable for
ETB, the easier and more effective it is.
compaction without it being too dry or too wet. It is better to be on the
wet side than the dry side.)
If there is going to be a delay between application
of the surfacing and the time the road is to be
opened to traffic, a light application of emulsion must be applied to the surface
with the watering can once the compaction has been completed.

In order to ensure that the ETB designed in the laboratory is constructed to
specification and that its structural performance is to the employer's satisfaction,
the quality of the ETB both during and after construction should be evaluated.
During the execution of the work, the contractor should ascertain that the
composition of the ETB is always close to the composition which was decided
jointly by the contractor, the employer and his representative, within
predetermined tolerances. In addition, he should ensure that the laying
operations result in a finished layer of adequate density.
The degree of compaction can be controlled directly by means of conventional

methods (such as a nuclear density gauge) or, indirectly, through the use of the
Rapid Compaction Control Device (RCCD).
The RCCD could be used to calibrate the results obtained in the laboratory with
those obtained in the field in order for the RCCD to be used for the following
purposes during and after construction:
• to monitor the degree of compaction of the ETB during construction,
• to monitor the gain in strength during curing,
• as a decision tool, to establish when the layer can be opened to traffic
(i.e. if the parent material is finely graded. If the material is coarsely graded,
the layer, once the emulsion has broken, can be opened to traffic within
24 hours).
The following procedure is proposed for calibration of the RCCD:

• Determine the optimum emulsion content based on CBR and UCS results,
• Compact four samples at optimum fluid content and optimum emulsion
content, using a vibratory table,
• Determine the three-blow RCCD penetration (mm) on two unsoaked samples
immediately after compaction in their moulds (three blows on four points per
sample),
• Cure the remaining two samples in their moulds for one day at ambient

temperature, followed by two days’ curing at 40 °C if the optimum moisture

content is less than 8%, or for 45 hours at 60 °C if the optimum moisture
content is greater than 8%,
• Determine the three-blow RCCD penetration (mm) on the two remaining
unsoaked samples after curing in their moulds (three blows on four points
per sample),
• Calculate the average three-blow RCCD penetrations (mm) immediately after
compaction and after curing.
The average RCCD penetration measured immediately after compaction can be

used to evaluate the degree of compaction on the road. The average RCCD
penetration measured after curing can be used to determine when the road can
be opened to traffic. Generally, the road can be opened to traffic when the RCCD
penetration (mm per three blows) is less than 18 mm.
Generally, a section can be opened to traffic within 24 hours of construction. This,

however, would depend on the climate, the rate of breaking of the emulsion in
the top layer of the ETB and the grading of the parent material (i.e. whether it is
coarse or fine).
1. Department of Transport, Maintaining And Upgrading Streets Using Labour-

Based Methods Manual Series: Manual 7, Pretoria, 1996.
2. A.O. Bergh, K. Coetser, S van Huyssteen, Labour enhanced construction

guidelines for emulsion-treated bases, Contract Report CR-97/032, CSIR
Transportek, 1996.
3. SABITA Ltd, ETB: The Design and Use of Emulsion Treated Bases, Manual 21,
Roggebaai, 1999.
4. De Beer, M., Kalombo, D.K. & Horak, E. 1993. Rapid compaction control for
trench re instatements and pavement layers. In: Proceedings of the 13th
Annual Transportation Convention. Pretoria: University of Pretoria, Vol. 2B,
paper 7, pp 1-19.
5. McCutcheon, RT and Taylor Parkins, FLM (Editors). Employment and High-


17
Notes

Notes

19
Notes

Acknowledgements

without the contribution of all sectors of SA Construction Major Contributing Organisations
Gautrans
Soweto City Council
eThekwini Metro
of guidelines.
Organisation
Water-bound Macadam
Part 1
all citizens”
Part 3
manufacture
commenced in 1996.
making
technology
technology
President Thabo Mbeki, 18 May 2004 – 4.7 Water-bound Macadam
unsealed roads
development.

Edition
of CIDB
document
Water-bound Macadam 1032

March 2005
Contents
1. Introduction 3
2. Materials and specifications 6
3. Practical aspects 9
5. Plant and equipment 13
6. Construction 14
7. Quality control 19
Acknowledgements 25


Tel: 27 12-481 9030 Fax: 27 12-343 7153
T
works components.


Part 4-7 – Waterbound macadam
1. Introduction
1.1 Background
Note
Macadam-type pavement layers have been used successfully in South Africa for
many decades. Macadam-type pavement layers traditionally refer to a layer of This document is mainly compiled from:
almost single-sized stone (usually 53mm nominal size for recent projects) in which Guidelines for the Selection, Design and
the voids are filled with a dry, cohesionless fine aggregate filler. With the growing Construction of Water-bound Macadam
need for superior performance, a variety of modifications have been introduced, Base Layers, Guideline Document DP-
which include filling the voids with bitumen, slurry, etc. 2000/5, published by Transportek CSIR.
The development of this guideline docu-
A macadam layer essentially consists of a stone skeleton of which the voids are ment was sponsored by the Gauteng
Department of Transport and Public
filled with another material. The stone skeleton, because of its single size, has
Works, Directorate Design and the
large amounts of voids but has a high shear strength. If confined properly, a
South African National Road Agency
crucial requirement for macadam base courses, the stone skeleton forms the
Limited.
‘backbone’ of the macadam and is largely responsible for the strength of the
constructed layer. The material used to fill the voids provides lateral stability to
the stone skeleton but adds little bearing capacity. This structure also gives water-
bound macadam its good resistance to water as it drains well and the stone
skeleton is less susceptible to the water present in the layer.
A water-bound macadam (WM) refers to a method of construction whereby

water is used to force fine material into the voids during compaction. With
proper construction control, and a phased construction procedure, the water-
bound macadam offers a suitable labour intensive method for road construction.
1.2 Origins of macadam construction (Hefer, 1997)

The origins of macadam-type pavement construction can be traced back to a
period between 1750 and 1830 during which two Scottish engineers, Thomas
Telford and John Louden McAdam were active in developing and promoting their
respective road-building techniques in England. Telford used fairly large stones
(75 mm long, 125 mm wide and 325 mm high) to build a foundation layer on a
level roadbed. The heights of these large stones decreased from the centre-line
to the edge of the roadway to create a slight camber. Smaller stones were driven
into the open voids on the surface of this layer and any projecting points were
broken off. A 100 – 200 mm thick layer of small broken stone was then placed on
top of the foundation layer. McAdam simply used layers of broken stones, none
of whose dimensions exceeded 25 mm and these layers were placed directly on
the roadbed. The broken stone was angular and
consolidated under traffic. McAdam recommended Figure 1: Telford and McAdam pavements
that the road be raised above the surrounding
ground to improve drainage. A layer of small
broken stones, spread on the surface of the road,
was used by both road-builders. These stones were
broken down further and compacted by traffic to
produce a solid, smooth riding surface. Figure 1
illustrates the difference between the approaches
used by Telford and McAdam.
Neither Telford nor McAdam used any fine filler in

the voids of the stone layer and it is not clear when
this practice originated. Macadam construction was
boosted by the invention of the stone crusher and
steamroller in the 1860s but, in essence, the process
remained labour-intensive.
Increased motorised-vehicle traffic at the turn of the century created dust and
surface disintegration problems because of higher vehicle speeds and increased

3
friction between tyre and pavement. This led to the development of tar
penetration macadams.
1.3 The history of macadam pavements in South Africa

Macadam pavement construction went through various phases in South Africa.
Several provincial road authorities and major municipalities constructed
macadam pavements until the 1960s and even as late as the 1970s. Thereafter the
use of water-bound macadam declined in favour of materials which were more
easily placed by machine.
However, the use of water-bound macadam did not

Why mechanisation gained favour only decline in South Africa, but did so all over the
world. In the developed world where wages
Mechanised construction of pavement layers using continuously graded increased dramatically, the use of water-bound
crushed stone gained favour for a number of reasons listed by Horak (1983), macadam has practically disappeared. But even in
and influenced by the following: other developing countries, the mechanisation
• a trend to emulate the mechanisation of the industry in Europe and the
trend has also lead to much reduced use of this
USA where labour was scarce. In part this was prompted by the belief that
technique.
progress resulted from mechanisation. This in turn led to policies and reg-
ulations designed to foster mechanisation;
• the large tax incentives that were allowed in respect of the purchase of The good in-service record of macadam pavements
new plant (Cohen, 1989; Lansdown, 1988); in the former Transvaal (Burrow, 1975) and in the
• the introduction of a wage determination for the construction industry, wet climate of Natal caused the interest in this type
which caused a substantial increase in the cost of labour; of construction to be retained and gave rise to
• the difficulty which was experienced in mechanisation of the water-bound several attempts during the 1980s to mechanise the
macadam process (Horak, 1983:10s); and construction of macadam layers. These attempts
• government policy which actively discouraged the use of labour in urban varied from using motorised graders to spread and
South Africa. level the coarse aggregate and sand spreaders and
mechanical brooms to spread and cause the fine
aggregate filler to penetrate (Horak, 1983), to laying the coarse aggregate with
modified pavers (Roux and Otte, 1993, McCall et al, 1990).
A new generation of macadam-type materials evolved in South Africa during the

late 1980s and 1990s. The process started with the development of partially
penetrated macadams (Roux and Otte, 1993) in Natal. The need for job creation
and empowerment through labour-intensive road construction projects and
contractor development led to the development of slurry-bound and composite
macadams that were used on several pilot projects by the Greater Johannesburg
Metropolitan Council (Horak et al, 1995). A distinction is therefore made between
the macadam material types outlined in 1.4 and 1.5.
1.4 Conventional types of macadam

Dry-bound macadam (DM): The voids in a layer of almost single-sized stone
(usually 53 mm nominal size for recent projects) are
Figure 2: Dry and water-bound macadam filled with a dry, cohesionless fine aggregate filler.
The voids are filled with filler through the use of
compaction equipment only, and no water is used
(see Figure 2).
Water-bound macadam (WM): Two water-bound

processes have been identified in literature. It seems
that the term ‘water-bound’ is generally used to
describe a dry-bound macadam which has been
‘slushed’ after all the voids have been filled with dry
filler. The slushing process consists of saturating the
macadam layer (coarse and fine aggregate) by

spraying it with water, after which a number of

passes are made with a steel drum roller, forcing the
Figure 3: Penetration macadam
excess fines to the surface of the layer, from which
they are then swept away (see Figure 2).
A completely wet process has been used in KwaZulu-

Natal in cases where the climate did not allow the
fine filler to dry out sufficiently to flow into the
voids of the macadam layer (Roux and Otte, 1993;
McCall et al, 1990). The fines were spread using a
chip spreader and washed into the coarse aggregate
layer with water-jets from a spray-bar.
Penetration macadam (PM): Fine aggregate is not

used to fill the voids between the coarse aggregate
of a penetration macadam layer. Hot tar is poured Figure 4: Partially penetrated macadam
over the coarse aggregate layer and flows into the
voids, coating the large aggregate in the process.
The voids are, however, not filled completely by the
tar (see Figure 3).
1.5 New generation macadam

Partially penetrated macadam (PPM): A dry- or
water-bound macadam layer is constructed in the
usual way but, instead of the excess fines being
swept off the surface of the layer, some of the filler
in the open voids at the top of the layer is also swept
away. A very rough surface, with the coarse
aggregate projecting from the layer, is obtained.
Slurry is then applied with a slurry-box to fill these Figure 5: Slurry-bound macadam
open voids on the surface of the layer. Slurry
penetration is normally relatively shallow for this
type of macadam (see Figure 4).
Slurry-bound macadam (SM): As in the case of

penetration macadam, no fines are used to fill the
voids of slurry-bound macadam. A slurry, produced
from crusher sand (or a mixture of crusher sand and
natural sand) and emulsion, is forced into the voids
between the coarse aggregate of this type of
macadam layer. (see Figure 5).
The slurry therefore performs the function of the tar

in a penetration macadam. All the voids are filled Figure 6: Composite macadam
with slurry in the case of a slurry-bound macadam,
in contrast to the partial filling of the voids in a
penetration macadam layer.
Composite macadam (CM): Composite macadam

consists of a lower portion of dry- or water-bound
macadam (usually of a nominal 53 mm stone size)
and of a top portion consisting of a slurry-bound
macadam (usually of a nominal 26 or 37 mm stone
size) (see Figure 6).

nologies
5
2. Materials and specifications
Table 1: Grading requirements for the coarse and fine 2.1 Aggregate specification
fractions of a water-bound macadam material (CSRA, 1985) The material specifications for the coarse aggregate
used for water-bound macadam construction consist
Sieve size (mm) Cumulative percentage passing by mass of grading and durability requirements. Table 1 and
Coarse aggregate Figures 7 and 8 provide specifications for the
75,0 100 100 grading of the coarse and fine aggregate used for
53,0 85 – 100 85 – 100 water-bound macadam construction. Table 2
37,5 35 – 70 0 – 30 provides the specification for the durability and
shape of the coarse aggregate and for the Atterberg
26,5 0 – 15 0–5
limits of the fine aggregate according to TRH14.
19,0 0–5 –
Fine aggregate The grading envelopes in Figures 7(a) and 8(a) are
9,5 100 from TRH14. The grading envelopes in Figures 7(b)
4,75 85 – 100 and 8(b) are additional to the TRH14 criteria and
0,075 10 – 25 allow for the use of a wider selection of material in
water-bound macadam construction.
Table 2: Durability, shape and Atterberg limits specification

The grading envelopes for the coarse aggregate
for water-bound macadam base layers (CSRA, 1985)
have the common characteristic of an almost single
Parameter Value particle size distribution. The Cape Town munici-
Crushing strength: Minimum dry 10 % FACT (kN)* 110** pality grading envelope for the fine aggregate also
Maximum ACV (%) 29 shows a tendency towards a more single-sized parti-
cle size distribution. The TRH14 grading envelope
Maximum weighted average Flakiness Index (%) determined on
the -26,5 mm; +19,0 mm and -19,0 mm; +13,2 mm fractions 35 for the fine aggregate clearly requires a conti-
nuously graded material. The Cape Town municipa-
Atterberg limits: maximum Liquid Limit (LL) 25
lity criteria are incorporated in this document to
maximum Plasticity Index (PI) 6
maximum Linear Shrinkage, % (LS) 3 allow for the use of natural sand as a fine aggregate
for water-bound macadam. A crusher sand grading
Notes: * The wet 10% FACT should be 75% of the dry value.
would be more typical of the TRH14 grading
** Minimum dry 10% FACT for tillite should be 200 kN and the wet
value 70% of the dry value. requirement.
2.2 Rock types suitable for producing coarse

Figure 7: Grading requirement for the coarse aggregate aggregate
100 The coarse aggregate for a water-bound macadam

(a) TRH14
material should be obtained from the crushing of
Percentage passing by mass
grading 80 unweathered, hard rock. There are, however,

specification
60
certain rock types that are likely to be more suitable
(CSRA, 1985)
for use in a water-bound macadam material.
for 53 mm 40
nominal size Basic crystalline rocks
coarse 20
Some basic crystalline rocks may be prone to
aggregate
0 decomposition in wet climates. These include:
10 100 • Andesite
Sieve Size (mm)
• Basalt
(b) Indian 100 • Diabase/dolerite
grading • Diorite
80
specification • Gabbro/norite
(Horak, 60
Acid crystalline rocks
1983) for
40
63,5 mm • Granite
nominal size 20 • Rhyolite
coarse
0 High silica rocks
aggregate 10 100
Sieve Size (mm) • Quartzite

Arenaceous rocks
• Quartzitic sandstone Figure 8: Grading requirement for the fine aggregate
Argillaceous rocks 100

(a) TRH14

Only sufficiently ‘baked’ argillaceous rocks, such as grading 80
Malmesbury shale, will probably be suitable specification
(‘Malmesbury Shale’ is in fact a misnomer, as this (CSRA, 1985)
60
rock is actually hornfels and neither shale nor for the fine 40
mudstone). In general, rocks from this group are not aggregate
strong enough for use in base layers and are seldom 20
crushed commercially. 0
0.01 0.1 1 10
Carbonate rocks Sieve Size (mm)
• Dolomite
(b) Cape 100

Diamictites Town 80
• Tillite municipality
60
grading
Granite and quartzite, especially if they come from specification 40
mine dump-rock, could contain excessive quantities (Horak, 1983)
20
of sulphide minerals. These minerals have a for the fine
distinctive shiny appearance and colour, such as iron aggregate 0
pyrite, which is gold-coloured; marcasite, which is 0.01 0.1 1 10
Sieve Size (mm)
silver-coloured and copper pyrite, which has an
iridescent gold, red and green colour. These
minerals decompose easily in the presence of water and air to form mainly
sulphuric acid. The acid products are not stable and change into sulphate salts
which may cause blistering of the surfacing. If a relatively pervious water-bound
macadam is built with clearly visible quantities of these minerals present in the
coarse aggregate, it is recommended that expert opinion be obtained, should the
use of this material be contemplated.
Although tillites have performed well in water-bound macadam base layers

under Heavy Vehicle Simulator (HVS) testing in KwaZulu-Natal (Roux and Otte,
1993; Wright and Hess, 1988), the strength requirement for the use of this
material in base layers is increased to a minimum dry 10 per cent FACT of 200 kN,
the wet 10% FACT being 70% of the dry value (CSRA, 1985).
2.3 Material suitable for use as fine aggregate

Permeability of waterbound macadam
There are basically two sources of the fine aggregate for water-bound macadam.
The first option, which seems to be recommended in most of the literature, is to Although no confirmation could be
obtain the fines from the crushing of the same parent material used for found in the literature, it is anticipated
producing the coarse aggregate. In this case, a continuous particle size that the use of continuously graded
distribution is obtained and the TRH14 grading curve envelope for the fine crusher dust will reduce the permeabili-
aggregate shown in Figure 8 (a) will apply. ty of water-bound macadam and the
use of an almost single-size natural sand
There are, however, also a number of sources of natural fine sands which may be will increase its permeability. Water-
bound macadam with crusher dust and
used for water-bound macadam construction. These sands should be screened for
natural sand fine aggregate have shown
PI and salt content before they are used in water-bound macadam construction.
similar behaviour under the HVS and in
The particle size distribution of these and other natural sands will tend towards
laboratory testing (Theyse, 1999) and
an almost single-size distribution and the Cape Town municipality grading the effect on the performance of the
envelope (Horak, 1983) for fine aggregate shown in Figure 8(b) will apply. material of the type of fine aggregate
that is used seems to be overshadowed
A blend of crusher dust and natural sand may also be used to achieve the by other parameters, such as the field
required particle size distribution for the fine aggregate. density that is achieved.

7
2.4 Relaxation of the TRH14 material specifications

The relaxation of the TRH14 material specifications may be viewed in terms of
deviations from the grading requirements for the coarse and fine aggregates
and/or deviations from the strength and plasticity requirements for the coarse
and fine aggregates respectively. Such relaxations should only be considered for
low volume roads. Expert opinion should be consulted whenever the use of
marginal materials is considered.
In terms of deviations from the grading requirements for the coarse aggregate,
the grading envelopes specified by most institutions seem to agree to a great
extent. The impetus for deviating from this basic grading specification seems to
be small, as the coarse aggregate is basically a manufactured material whose
particle size distribution can be controlled. The grading specifications for the fine
aggregate seem to have been adapted by local road authorities to suit the
natural sands available in specific areas. In view of the previous comment on the
relatively small effect that the grading of the fine aggregate has on the
behaviour of the water-bound macadam under repeated loading, a deviation
from the grading requirement for the fine aggregate does not seem critical.
Adjustment of the grading envelope for the fine aggregate, such as the example
shown in Figure 8, to suit locally available sands may therefore be allowed, with
due consideration being given to the effect that this may have on the
permeability of the composite material.
Although it has been suggested that the strength requirement for the large
aggregate may be too stringent (Roux and Otte, 1993), Horak (1983) reported a
change in the grading of the coarse aggregate under HVS testing and Philips
(1994) reported that fracturing of the coarse aggregate occurred under vibratory
compaction. It is therefore recommended that the TRH14 strength requirements
for the coarse aggregate be adhered to.
Hefer (1997) investigated the performance of seven water-bound macadam

pavements in the Johannesburg area, all of which performed well. Of these, the
fine aggregate in five of the water-bound macadam base layers had PI values in
excess of the specified value of 6, with values as high as 9 and 11 in some cases.
Horak (1983) recommended a range of values for the PI of the fine aggregate
between 4 and 9, the intention being that the higher PI material should be used
to reduce the water permeability of the top portion of the water-bound
macadam base layer.

3. Practical aspects
3.1 The use of water-bound macadam in wet areas

Water-bound macadam is one of the preferred base layer types in the wet climate
of the eastern part of South Africa. HVS test results (Roux and Otte, 1989) and
recent laboratory test results (Theyse, 1999) indicate that water-bound macadam
loses static shear strength and deforms to a significantly greater extent at high
saturation levels than at low saturation levels. It is therefore desirable to keep
the saturation level of even a water-bound macadam base layer as low as possible
in order to ensure best performance.
Although this has not been confirmed by experimental results, the permeability
of water-bound macadam should presumably be a function of the particle size
distribution of the fine aggregate. A water-bound macadam layer with a
continuously graded fine aggregate such as crusher sand should have a lower
permeability than a water-bound macadam layer with an almost single-sized fine
aggregate filler. It is therefore recommended that a continuously graded fine
aggregate should be used as far as possible to prevent water from entering the
base layer. If, on the other hand, it is foreseen that, despite all precautions, the
water-bound macadam layer will have to perform some drainage function, the
permeability of the water-bound macadam should be sufficient to allow the
water to drain away, but not high enough to cause the transportation of the fines
from the layer. A natural sand filler is the appropriate choice in this case.
Complete saturation of the layer with the associated high pore-pressure under
traffic loading should be avoided at all cost. Side-drains provided for draining
away construction water should be able to accommodate the in-service drainage
of the layer but these must be maintained properly.
TRH15 (CSRA, 1984) should be consulted for general subsurface drainage aspects
in addition to the water-bound macadam specific drainage systems discussed in
this document. Figure 9 shows the detail of a side-
drain design (McCall et al,1990) that is incorporated Figure 9: Concrete edge-restraint and side-drain detail
in the concrete edge-restraint of a water-bound
macadam base layer. A 50 mm slotted pipe wrapped
in geotextile is laid on the completed subbase
parallel to the front face of the edge-restraint. The
geotextile is wrapped around the slotted pipe from
the front face of the edge-restraint over and then
under the pipe and the geotextile overlap is laid flat
on the subbase. The shuttering for the concrete
edge-restraint is then placed in position and the
pipe and geotextile are fixed to the shutters. Care
should be taken not to contaminate the geotextile
overlap which is lying on the sub-base outside the
shutters when pouring the concrete edge-restraint.
Figure 10: Transverse, no-fines concrete subbase drain
The drainage of the water-bound macadam layer
will be through this portion of the geotextile. The
geotextile overlap is lifted and glued onto the front
face of the concrete edge-restraint after removal of
the shutters. Extreme care should be exercised in
the construction of the edge-restraint drain, as
McCall reported problems with the contamination
and tearing of the geotextile, the blocking of the
slots in the pipe by concrete fines and the separation
of the pipe from the front face of the edge-
restraint. Modifications to make the system more
robust should be considered.
nologies
9
Figure 11: Modified VKE edge-restraint and side-drain Figure 10 shows a section through a sub-base drain
design for a water-bound macadam base layer consisting of
a transverse no-fines concrete strip, wrapped in
filter fabric. The sub-base drain is easier to construct
and more robust than the edge-restraint drain. This
type of no-fines concrete drain should not be used
in the base layer, as crushing of the concrete will
occur during compaction of the water-bound
macadam base layer.
The side-drain and concrete edge-restraint shown in

Figure 9 has been used successfully in KwaZulu-
Natal (VKE, 1987) with a slight modification. The
drainage pipe was moved to the bottom centre part
Figure 12: Block paving type edge-restraint and side- of the concrete edge-restraint and no-fines concrete
drain design was used for the edge-restraint. As the drainage
pipe and geotextile did not become clogged with
concrete fines, this system performed exceptionally
well, allowing all the construction water to drain
away under saturated conditions. The only problem
with this design was that the no-fines concrete did
not bond well to the cemented sub-base and that
the edge-restraints moved laterally during
placement of the base layer. It is suggested that
metal spikes be driven into the sub-base and that
the no-fines concrete be poured around the
protruding spikes. The suggested modified design is
shown in Figure 11. Although this design performed
reasonably well during construction, there is concern that the no-fines concrete
will be crushed if it is exposed to traffic loading. Figure 12 shows another
alternative for the design of the edge-restraint drain normally used with block
paving (Visser, personal communication).
3.2 Field density specification, compaction and quality control

The purpose of setting a certain minimum level for the density of a pavement
layer is to ensure that an adequate bearing strength is achieved. Although
bearing strength is the desired parameter, density is a convenient parameter to
measure under field conditions and in the laboratory and the relationship
between bearing strength and density can easily be confirmed from laboratory
test results. The field density specifications for water-bound macadam are based
on the apparent density of the coarse and fine aggregate combined. TRH14
(CSRA 1985) makes provision for two water-bound macadam classes whose
density requirements are:
• WM1 88 – 90% of apparent density
• WM2 86 – 88% of apparent density
Potgieter, Hattingh and Schultz (1997) described the four stages of water-bound
macadam compaction summarised in the list below and described how these
levels of densification could be achieved.
Loose: Loose material after placement.
Orientated: The orientation of the large aggregate is adjusted to achieve an

optimum packing pattern of the coarse and fine aggregates. This level may be
achieved with light rollers.

Interlocked: The large aggregate is locked into an optimum packing pattern.

According to Potgieter, Hattingh and Schultz, this is the highest level of
densification that can be achieved during construction by using heavy (12 tonne)
rollers.
Densified: The air voids in the layer are minimised through the optimum packing
pattern of the coarse and fine aggregates. According to Potgieter, Hattingh and
Schultz, this condition will be achieved for water-bound macadam under traffic
loading.
It has often been said that the large aggregate provides the bearing strength of
water-bound macadam and that the fine aggregate provides stability to the
material. The bearing strength is achieved through the normal forces acting at
the contact points between the large aggregate particles. Maximisation of the
number of contact points by achieving an optimal packing pattern of the coarse
aggregate in an interlocked state will therefore result in maximisation of the
bearing strength. This optimal packing pattern with its associated maximum
number of contact points and normal contact forces is, however, only maintained
through the frictional forces at the contact points and the stabilising effect of the
fine aggregate. It is therefore essential to the performance of the water-bound
macadam that an interlocked condition be achieved with a dense filling of the
voids with the fine aggregate. The current general consensus (Visser and
Hattingh, 1999) is that only the use of conventional heavy compaction equipment
(12-tonne flat wheel roller) will ensure the desired interlocked and stable
condition of water-bound macadam.
The use of these heavy rollers also enables the slushing of the water-bound
macadam layer to remove excess fines from the layer. The slushing process is
similar to the slushing process for a G1 crushed stone base layer and will be
discussed under the construction section of this document.
Horak (1982) investigated the effect of slushing on the density of water-bound

macadam at one HVS test site. The maximum density achieved by rolling alone
was 86,5% of apparent density, while the density increased to 88,6% after
Density is crucial
slushing and to 89,5% after trafficking. These results seem to confirm the
hypothesis by Potgieter, Hattingh and Schultz and emphasise the need to achieve
The density of water-bound macadam is
the maximum possible density of the water-bound macadam layer during
the single most important factor gov-
construction before the road is opened to traffic. It is therefore recommended
erning the performance of the material.
that, except in areas with water shortages, water-bound macadam should be
There can therefore be no compromise
slushed to achieve the highest possible density during construction so as to avoid on the density specification for water-
post-construction compaction and deformation of the material. bound macadam and the use of con-
ventional, heavy compaction equipment
The construction quality of nine roads with labour-intensively constructed water- is imperative.
bound macadam base layers was evaluated for the Central Witwatersrand
Regional Services Council in 1994 (van Huyssteen, 1994). Only one of the 10
density samples taken from these roads complied with the density specification
of 88% of apparent density for a WM1 material and one sample met the density
specification of 86% of apparent density for a WM2 material. It is not stated what
compaction equipment was used on these base layers, but the field density of the
water-bound macadam clearly did not meet the specifications and Van Huyssteen
concluded that inadequate inclusion of fines in the large aggregate skeleton was
the cause of the low field density. A localised failure occurred on one of these
roads. The fines settled to the bottom of the water-bound macadam layer under
the vibratory action of traffic. The asphalt surfacing had a cobblestone
appearance (seemingly spanning from one large stone to the next) and a dense
crack pattern. This same type of localised failure has been noted on several
11
recently constructed water-bound macadam base

Achieving uniform density
layers in the Gauteng Province (Sadzik, personal
communication).
Inadequate filling of the voids in the water-bound macadam layer with fine
aggregate and subsequent failure of the layer to meet the density specifica-
3.3 Selection of a surfacing type
tion therefore seem to be a significant problem resulting in the localized fail-
ure of the water-bound macadam base layer. The construction process of The selection of a surfacing type for water-bound
water-bound macadam may itself lead to high spatial variability in density. macadam is largely dictated by the riding quality of
The uneven spreading of the fine aggregate can result in lean patches with water-bound macadam rather than by structural
a lower density than that of the surrounding area and even below the spec- requirements. From previous studies the following
ified density. A density test that can be applied at a large number of points riding qualities are typical:
on the layer is therefore required. The rondavel density test (Horak, 1983) is
• Water-bound and slurry penetration macadam:
regarded as the most appropriate type of density test for water-bound
1,5 - 2,0 PSI
macadam. Unfortunately, this test, which is a type of sand replacement test,
• Asphalt wearing course on a slurry penetration
is cumbersome and not suited to frequent application. Nuclear density read-
ings are quicker and easier to obtain. It is therefore suggested that a nuclear layer: 3,0 - 3,5 PSI
density device be calibrated against the rondavel test for each specific proj- • Asphalt wearing course on an asphalt levelling
ect. The nuclear density readings could then be done at short intervals, with course: 3,5 - 4,0 PSI.
rondavel control tests being carried out at longer intervals. The holes for the
nuclear probe should be drilled through a metal footplate to prevent the According to the constructed riding quality re-
macadam layer from being disturbed. quirement from TRH4, a water-bound and slurry
penetration macadam with a single or double seal
will therefore not even satisfy the riding quality requirement for a Category D
road in a rural environment. Single or double seal surface treatments are
therefore not recommended for water-bound macadam pavements.
Slurry penetration macadam has been applied successfully as a stage construction

option to accommodate construction traffic without disturbing the base layer
(Roux and Otte, 1993). An asphalt wearing course on a slurry penetration
macadam may be applied to category D, C and less important category B roads.
Important category B roads and category A roads require both asphalt levelling
and wearing courses.
Although the riding quality of a water-bound or slurry penetration macadam

with a single or double seal may be sufficient for application on streets in urban
areas, an asphalt surfacing is still recommended. The turning, breaking and
accelerating motion of traffic in the urban environment may damage surface
treatments and expose the water-bound macadam to the scouring effects of
stormwater run-off. The placement of water-bound macadam with a paver does
not have a significantly beneficial effect on the riding quality of the material, an
acceptable riding quality only being achieved when a correction layer (hot-mix
asphalt or penetration slurry) and a wearing course layer are applied.

The purpose of structural pavement design is to make an unbiased estimate of

the bearing capacity of layered pavement systems of different types. If the
bearing capacity of a specific design is under- or overestimated in relation to the
bearing capacity of alternative designs, the particular design will respectively be
unfairly penalised or promoted during the economic analysis. A structural design
method that will assess the bearing capacity of different pavement types
according to the same set of rules is therefore required. A mechanistic-empirical
design method has the potential to do this. SANRA (2000) presents a mechanistic-
empirical design model for water-bound macadam material based on Heavy
Vehicle Simulator (HVS) and laboratory test results. This design model was used
for the design of the structural pavement layers shown in the pavement design
catalogue in Figure 13.
Figure 13: Structural design catalogue for waterbound macadam bases
ROAD PAVEMENT CLASS AND DESIGN BEARING CAPACITY (80 KN AXLES/LANE)

CATEGORY ESO.003 ESO.01 ESO.003 ESO.01 ESO.003 ES1 ES3 ES10 ES30 ES100
0.1-0.3x104 0.3-1.0x104 1.0-3.0x104 3.0-10x104 0.1-0.3x106 0.3-1.0x106 1.0-3.0x106 3.0-10x106 10-130x106 30-100x106 Foundation
A: Major interurban 30A 30A 50A
125 125 150
freeways and roads.
125C3 150C3
(95% approximate 150C3
125C3 150C3
design reliability)
B: Interurban S 30A 30A
125 125 125 150G7
collectors and major
125C4 150C4 125C4 150G9
rural roads.
(90% approximate S S 125C4 G10
100 125
design reliability)
150G6 150G5
C: Lightly S S 30A
100 100 125
trafficked
100C4 125C4 125C4
rural roads
and strategic S S S 30A
100 100 100 125
roads. design
100G6 125G6 150G5 150G5
reliability)
D: Light pavement S S
75WM2* 100 150G9
structures, rural
access roads. 100C4` 100C4
G10
(50% approximate S S S
100 100 100
design reliability)
100G7 100G6 125G6
Symbol A denotes AG. AC. or AS.

AO, AP may be recommended as a surfacing measure for improved skid resistance when wet or to reduce water spray
S denotes Double Surface Treatment (seal or combinations of seal and slurry)
Most likely combinations of road
S1 denotes Single Surface Treatment category and design bearing capacity.
* If seal is used, increase C4 and G5 subbase thickness to 200 mm.
The catalogue indicates the minimum material quality and layer thickness
requirement for each combination of road category and design bearing capacity.
Construction tolerances should be added to these minimum requirements to
ensure that the constructed layers are never thinner than the minimum
requirement given in the catalogue. The catalogue also allows the use of double
and Cape Seals for combinations of low design-bearing capacity and for less
important road categories. This reflects the minimum requirement from a
structural design viewpoint. A hot-mix asphalt surfacing may be required from
functional considerations and the reader is referred to the previous section of this
document for selection of an appropriate surfacing.

13
Designs were developed for two design cases. The first case consists of a WM2
water-bound macadam base layer constructed on a granular sub-base or
relatively thin or weak cement-treated sub-base. The base layer is at 84% of
apparent density because of the relatively weak compaction anvil provided by the
sub-base. The second case consists of a WM1 water-bound macadam base layer
constructed on a sufficiently strong compaction anvil consisting of at least 125mm
of cement-treated material and the base density is 88% of apparent density.
5. Plant and equipment
The following plant and equipment is required:

• 12 ton steel wheel roller compactor: for compacting aggregate and working
fines into voids,
• Steel shuttering:for edge-restraint and thickness control during construction,
• Steel rakes and shovels and wheelbarrows: for transporting, levelling and
placing aggregate,
• Screeds which are used between the top of the steel shuttering and the top
of the side drain or the top of the inside edge of the concrete gutter to
obtain the pre-compaction level,
• Steel gauges which are placed on top of the steel shuttering and edge of
concrete to obtain the uniform loose level before compaction and to ensure
that the correct final compacted level is obtained,
• Water tank and heavy duty hose and fittings for the supply of water and
slushing of fines.
6. Construction
6.1 Loss of previous generation skills

The success of early water-bound macadam construction in South Africa
depended largely on the skills of the road-builders of the time. Meticulous
attention was paid to the detail of each step of the construction process. With
time and as a result of the increasing use of continuously graded crushed stone
for base layer construction, these skills were lost to the road-building industry.
The interest in water-bound macadam construction was revived when job-
creation became a national priority because water-bound macadam construction
is well suited to labour-intensive methods. By this time, however, the earlier skill
of water-bound macadam construction had faded and with new, inexperienced
emerging contractors entering the road-building industry, the risk associated
with water-bound macadam construction increased. It is therefore strongly
recommended that the construction process for water-bound macadam
construction be broken down into as many steps as possible, with the contractor
and consultant paying the greatest attention to every detail of each step. As
many checks as possible should also be built into the
Three processes for filling the voids process to enable the quality of the product to be
monitored continuously. It is not possible to go
Three processes have been identified from the literature for filling the voids through the steps of water-bound macadam
in the large aggregate matrix: construction carelessly and still achieve a high
• dry method (hence the name dry-bound macadam), quality product.
• a dry method, with slushing of the layer to remove excess fines once all
the voids have been filled, The construction of water-bound macadam may be
• a wet method, by which the fines are actually washed into the full depth divided into two components, namely the placement
of the base layer with water. of the large aggregate, and the filling of the voids in

the large aggregate skeleton with a fine filler. Manual labour may be used to
varying extents in each of these components but the principles of construction
should remain the same for labour-intensive or plant-intensive construction. The
following steps in the construction process will be discussed individually:
• Sub-base and edge-restraint preparation,
• Placement of the large aggregate,
• Filling of the voids in the coarse aggregate skeleton with a fine filler.
6.2 Sub-base and edge-restraint preparation

The catalogue of pavement designs in Figure 13 indicates that both unbound
natural gravel or lightly cemented natural gravel sub-base layers may be used for
pavements with water-bound macadam base layers. The use of lightly cemented
sub-base layers is, however, strongly recommended if the wet method of
construction is used and should be considered if the slushing process is to be used.
Permanent and temporary edge-restraints serve a dual purpose during water-

bound macadam construction. Firstly, they act as an edge-restraint to box-in the
large aggregate during the construction process and secondly, they are used
without exception to provide a reference for the control of the levels on the
water-bound macadam base layer. The option to construct a permanent concrete
edge-restraint incorporating a side drain seems to be preferred in the wetter,
eastern coastal areas of South Africa (VKE, 1987, McCall et al, 1990). These edge-
restraints provide confinement of the water-bound macadam layer and the side
drains drain away excess water during construction and the service life of the
pavement. The use of temporary steel shutters in combination with gravel
shoulders seems to be preferred in the dryer parts of the country to provide the
edge-restraint for the water-bound macadam base layer.
If concrete edge-restraints are used, the line and level of the shutters on the front
face of the edge-restraint are surveyed at 20 m intervals on straights and 10 m on
curves (McCall et al, 1990). String lines and dipsticks are then used from the top
of the completed concrete edge-restraints for level control on the water-bound
macadam base. The problem with string lines is that they sag towards the centre-
line of a wide carriageway. Modern laser levels should not suffer from this
problem.
If temporary steel shutters are used on the centre-line and at the edges of a
carriageway, the coarse aggregate for the water-bound macadam may be
levelled against a screed rail placed on spacers on top of the steel shutters. The
problem with this method is that, because of the fixed height of the shutters, any
undulation at the top of the sub-base is reflected to the top of the base layer. It
is therefore recommended that the steel shutters should only be used as an initial
thickness guide and should be removed before any compaction is applied to the
coarse aggregate layer. Final level control should then be done by string line and
dip stick from levelled survey pegs. If temporary steel or wooden edge-restraints
are used during the construction, care should be taken that the shoulders are
constructed and compacted properly so that they can provide the confinement
that is essential to the long term performance of the water-bound macadam
layer.
Edge-restraints, either permanent or temporary, are the first step in the process
of level control of the water-bound macadam base layer and should receive
attention accordingly.

15
6.3 The placement of the coarse aggregate

The placement of the coarse aggregate may be done from stockpiles by hand
labour using coal forks (Horak, 1983) (see Figures 14 and 15), with a heavy grader
(VKE, 1987) if the coarse aggregate is dumped on the sub-base or by mechanical
paver (McCall et al, 1990). The use of a mechanical paver in the case study
reported by McCall resulted in slightly better riding qualities on the surfaced road
than the labour-intensive and plant-intensive methods.
Several authors (Horak, 1983; VKE, 1987; McCall, 1990 and VKE & McCutcheon
and Associates, 1999) agree that about 33% reduction in the thickness of the
loose, coarse aggregate should be allowed for during compaction. Spacers of the
required height are therefore placed on the edge-restraints and the coarse
aggregate is spread to the top of the spacers by the preferred method. Before
any compaction is done on the coarse aggregate layer, a level surface finish
should be obtained. This is done by filling in lean spots by hand labour and by
removing excess material from high spots. An uneven surface of the loose coarse
aggregate layer before compaction will result in an uneven surface after
compaction.
If the coarse aggregate stockpile is dumped directly onto the sub-base, on

delivery, it is desirable to move the entire stockpile during spreading, as otherwise
the partial compaction at the bottom of the stockpile heap will lead to greater
undulations of the final surface. Also there may be some fines within the coarse
material that will fall to the bottom of the heap and interfere with the bedding
of the coarse aggregate onto the sub-base.
One of the aspects of early water-bound macadam construction which was

highlighted by Horak (1983) was that the maximum layer thickness constructed in
one lift should not exceed twice the size of the coarse aggregate. This was done
to assist in the proper penetration of the layer with the fine aggregate.
Once a level surface is achieved on the loose, coarse aggregate layer, the spacers
are removed from the concrete edge-restraints or the temporary shutters are
removed totally. The furrows left by the temporary shutters are then filled with
loose aggregate. The coarse aggregate layer is now ready for compaction. Horak
(1983) often referred to the use of 12 ton, 3-wheel rollers for the compaction of
the coarse aggregate layer. Other sources (VKE, 1987 and McCall et al, 1990)
mention the use of 8 ton tandem rollers and McCall specifically mentioned the
breaking of an unweathered dolerite coarse aggregate with an Aggregate
Figure 14: Spreading of the coarse aggregate between temporary edge restraints

Crushing Value (ACV) of 14,4% under a 12 ton, 3-

Figure 15: Levelling the loose coarse aggregate before
wheel roller. Phillips (1994) also reported the
compaction
crushing of the coarse aggregate under a vibratory
roller. Ideally, trial sections should be constructed to
determine the degradation of the coarse aggregate
under 12 ton or vibratory compaction. If degrada-
tion of the coarse aggregate proves to be a
problem, 8 ton tandem rollers should be used.
Rolling should always be towards the higher side: if

cambered, rolling starts at the sides and progresses
towards the centre; if super-elevated, it starts at the
low side and progresses upwards. If gravel shoulders
are used, the drum of the roller should overlap onto
the shoulder to ensure proper confinement. After
the initial compaction passes the surface of the layer
is again rectified by hand. Rolling is continued until
no movement of the coarse aggregate is visible
under the rollers and the coarse aggregate is keyed in. The stone layer is then
‘locked up’. It should be note that if lock-up is not achieved and the fines are
spread and slushed, the shape and level of the base will be distorted by each
subsequent operation. Lock-up ensures higher stability of the coarse aggregate
and less distortion of the final surface.
6.4 Filling of the voids in the coarse aggregate with fine aggregate
The fine aggregate is spread on the keyed-in coarse aggregate layer by hand
using shovels or by mechanical chip-spreader (see Figure 16). The thickness of the
loose filler placed in one application should not exceed 25mm and should be
evenly distributed. If the material is slightly moist, it should be left to dry before
vibratory compaction is applied to enable the fine aggregate to filter down into
the coarse aggregate layer. The process of successive applications of fine
aggregate and vibratory compaction is continued until the layer is choked with
fine aggregate. If the dry process is selected, the construction process stops at this
point. The dry method is appropriate for arid areas where very little water is
available for construction. In this case, water-bound macadam construction
should compare favourably with the construction of a continuously graded
material which will require compaction water.
If slushing is selected, the choked layer is watered and compaction should then
resume, working from the highest to the lowest
point. Drainage outlets should be inspected to
Figure 16: Spreading of the fine aggregate
ensure that the construction water drains freely
from the layer. The excess fines should be slushed
from the layer and broomed to the side of the layer
(see Figure 17). After completion of the slushing
process, the layer should be left to dry and then
broomed again.
McCall et al (1990) mentioned the use of a 24 ton

pneumatic roller for the slushing process and VKE
(1987) indicated that the use of a 24 ton pneumatic
roller had no significant effect on the slushing
process. Density results (Horak, 1982) from water-
bound macadam base layers seem to indicate that a
density of 84% to 86% of apparent density may be

nologies
17
achieved with vibratory compaction using the dry

Figure 17: Washing-in of the fines during the
method and that a density up to 88% may be
completely wet process
achieved if the layer is slushed and that this will be
further increased by trafficking to between 88%
and 90% of apparent density. This seems to corres-
pond well with Potgieter, Hattingh and Schultz’s
theory of orientation, interlock and densification.
After the fine aggregate is applied to fill the voids,

the layer is then ready to be primed. A blanket of
loose filler may be left on top of the layer to prevent
kick-out of the coarse aggregate under construction
traffic but all loose material must be broomed off
before the prime is applied. In general it is not
recommended that traffic is allowed on the water-
bound macadam layer before the surfacing layer is
applied. This can be costly and difficult under some
A completely wet process – KwaZulu-Natal
circumstances. If it is foreseen that it will be difficult
A completely wet process has been used in KwaZulu-Natal on two to prevent traffic (including construction traffic)
occasions (VKE, 1987 and McCall et al 1990) when the fine aggregate using the road, the possibility of applying a slurry
would not dry sufficiently to flow freely into the coarse aggregate layer across the water-bound macadam should be
layer. A water cart with a modified spray bar was used to blast the considered. This is also costly but will be cheaper
fine aggregate into the voids with water jets. Again, if this technique than having to do major reconstruction of the
is used, the drainage outlets should be inspected to ensure that the water-bound macadam layer. McCall et al (1990)
construction water drains from the base layer. reported on the use of a slurry penetration layer in
the top portion of a water-bound macadam base
layer that was opened to construction traffic within four hours of construction
with no damage to the base layer.
To summarise, the following list of important aspects which should be monitored

closely during the construction process, is provided:
• The edge-restraints, either permanent or temporary, form the first step in the
process of level control of the water-bound macadam base layer and should
receive attention accordingly,
• The maximum layer thickness constructed in one lift should not exceed twice
the size of the coarse aggregate,
• If the surface of the loose coarse aggregate layer is uneven before
compaction, this will result in an uneven surface after compaction,
Figure 18: A completed road, showing the waterbound macadam layer after compaction, priming and
surfaced with a thin asphalt

• After the initial compaction passes, the surface

of the coarse aggregate layer is again rectified Figure 18: continued
by hand,
• Rolling is continued until no movement of the
coarse aggregate is visible under the rollers and
the coarse aggregate is keyed-in.
• The thickness of the loose filler placed in one
application should not exceed 25 mm and should
be evenly distributed,
• If a slushing process is used, compaction should
start from the highest point, working to the
lowest point,
• If a slushing or completely wet process is used,
drainage outlets should be inspected to ensure
that the construction water drains freely from
the base layer,
• The layer must dry out completely before it is
sealed,
• A layer of loose filler material or a slurry
penetration layer may be used if the newly constructed water-bound
macadam layer has to be opened to construction traffic,
• All loose material must be broomed off before a prime is applied.
7. Quality control
The density of the layer can be checked against the following requirements from
TRH 14:
• WM1 88-90% of apparent density
• WM2 86-88% of apparent density
Sand replacement tests or nuclear density measurements can be used to

determine density. However, as these tests can only be performed after the fine
aggregate has been placed and the base slushed, it may be very difficult to
improve the density if the coarse aggregate was not compacted properly. If
additional slushing does not bring the density up to specification, then the layer
will have to be scrapped and new material brought in. It is generally very costly
to separate the coarse and fine materials for re-use. It is therefore important that
measures are in place to ensure that the coarse aggregate is sufficiently
compacted before the fine materials are placed. One important means of doing
this is using levels to ensure that the 33% reduction in thickness of the loose layer
was achieved.
All the geometric requirements of the specification must be checked and met:
level, layer thickness, and eveness (with straight-edge tests). The cleanliness of
the mosaic must also be checked carefully. Poor brooming will leave fines on the
stone surface, which will lead to delamination of the surfacing.

19
1. SANRA: The South African National Road Agency: Guidelines for the
Selection, Design and Construction of Water-bound Macadam Base Layers,
Draft Guideline Document DP-2000/5, Pretoria, 2000.
2. Burrow J C. 1975. Report on the investigation of existing road pavements in

the Transvaal. Pretoria: Transvaal Roads Department, Materials Branch.
(Report L1/75)
3. COLTO (Committee of Land Transport Officials). 1996. Draft TRH4 1996:

Structural design of flexible pavements for inter-urban and rural roads.
Pretoria: Department of Transport.
4. CSRA (Committee of State Road Authorities). 1984. Draft TRH15 1984:

Subsurface drainage for roads. Pretoria: Department of Transport.
5. CSRA (Committee of State Road Authorities), 1985. TRH14 Guidelines for

road construction materials. Pretoria: Department of Transport.
6. De Beer M, Kleyn E G and Savage P F. 1988. Towards A Classification System

for the Strength-balance of Thin Surfaced Flexible Pavements. In:
Proceedings of the 1988 Annual Transportation Convention. Volume 3D,
Paper 3D-4. Pretoria.
7. Hattingh J and Potgieter C J. 1999. Evaluation of the labour-intensive mac-

adam construction technique. Preprint of paper presented at the 7th
Conference on Asphalt Pavements for Southern Africa. Victoria Falls,
Zimbabwe.
8. Hefer A W. 1997. Towards design guidelines for macadam pavements M Eng

Thesis, University of Pretoria.
9. Horak E. 1982. The recompaction of the 250 mm thick experimental water-

bound macadam section at Mariannhill, Pinetown. Pretoria: CSIR NITRR.
(Technical Note: TP/72/82)
10. Horak E. 1983. Watergebindemacadamplaveisels. M Eng Thesis, University of

Pretoria.
11. Horak E, McCutcheon R T and Van Wijk, A J 1995. The philosophical approach
to labour-intensive work in the Greater Johannesburg. In: Proceedings of the
1995 Annual Transportation Convention. Volume 3C. Pretoria.
12. McCall J, Roux P and Currie R. 1990. Water-bound macadam in single

carriageway highway construction in Natal. I n: Proceedings of the 1990
Annual Transportation Convention. Volume 4C. Pretoria.
13. Phillips S D. 1994. Theoretical analysis of labour-intensive construction of

water-bound macadam roads. PhD thesis. University of Witwatersrand.
14. Potgieter, Hattingh and Schultz Inc. 1997. Construction report: Road 2388
labour-intensive test sections (macadam sections). Honeydew: Potgieter,
Hattingh and Schultz Inc. (P H S Inc. document: W9632-1)
15. Roux P L and Otte J R 1993. Coarse aggregate bases. Pretoria: CSIR Trans-
portek. (RDAC report: RR 88/027)
16. Theyse H L. 1995. TRH4 Revision (1995) Phase II: Mechanistic design analysis
of the pavement structures contained in the TRH4 pavement design
catalogue. Pretoria: CSIR Transportek. (Service contract report: NSC 24/2).

17. Theyse H L. 1999. Laboratory design models for materials suited to labour-
intensive construction, Volume I: Report, Pretoria: CSIR Transportek.
(Confidential contract report: CR-99/038)
18. Theyse H L. 1999. First level report for HVS testing on the N1-28 near Louis
Trichardt. Pretoria: CSIR Transportek. (Confidential contract report: CR-
99/065)
19. Van Niekerk, Kleyn & Edwards. 1987. Completion report and photographic
record of the construction of the layerworks for National Route 2 Section 23,
Umgababa to Scottburgh. Durban: VKE Engineers.
20. Visser A T and Hattingh J. 1999. Design Guidelines for Low-Volume Macadam
Pavements in South Africa. In: Proceedings of the 7th International
Conference on Low-Volume Roads. Transportation Research Record No. 1652,
Volume 2.
21. VKE Engineers & McCutcheon and Associates. 1999. Report on labour-
intensive work and contract development programme. Pretoria: VKE
Engineers. (Contract No: SAPR N128005/2)
22. Wright B and Hess R. 1988. Evaluation of a freeway pavement incorporating

a water-bound macadam base. Pretoria: CSIR Division of Roads and Transport
Technology.
23. McCutcheon, RT and Taylor Parkins, FLM (Editors). Employment and High-

21
Notes

Notes

23
Notes

Acknowledgements

Gautrans
Soweto City Council
eThekwini Metro
of guidelines.
Organisation
Slurrybound and composite Macadam

construction
Part 1
all citizens”
Part 3
manufacture
commenced in 1996.
making
technology
technology
unsealed roads
development.

Edition
of CIDB
document
Slurry bound and composite Macadam 1033
March 2005
construction
Contents
1. Introduction 3
2. Materials requirements 4
Acknowledgements 13


Tel: 27 12-481 9030 Fax: 27 12-343 7153
T
works components.


Part 4-8 – Slurry bound and composite macadam construction
1. Introduction
A new generation macadam-type pavements

Note
evolved during the late 1980s and 1990s. The need
for job creation and improvement through
Macadam pavements comprise high quality layers constructed with single-
employment-intensive road construction projects
sized 13mm to 53mm aggregate, which is stabilised by filling the voids with
led to the development of the composite and slurry-
a suitable material. There are a number of macadam pavement types. This
bound macadam construction techniques.
section, however, deals only with slurry-bound macadam and the composite
Although the traditional water-bound macadam macadam construction.
techniques were employment-intensive, they were
constructed to density specifications which could The design procedures for the construction covered in this section is typical
only be achieved through employment of heavy of South African pavement design methods such as that embodied in
rollers. As such they partially satisfied the TRH4:1996 (COLTO, 1996) and UTG3:1988 (CUTA, 1988). As a result, the
empowerment criteria. The new generation design process is merely summarised. Those unfamiliar with pavement design
macadams were designed to have a low procedures are encouraged to review the specialist literature on the subject.
mechanisation level in order to improve the labour /
small scale enterprise-friendliness of the technology. As such, the technology has
low skills-level requirements and with appropriate management, high production
rates can be achieved at attractive profit margins.
Macadam pavements comprise high quality layers constructed with single-sized

13 mm to 53 mm aggregate, which is stabilised by filling the voids with a suitable
material. Terms commonly used to describe different types of macadams are
described in Table 1. Figure 1 gives a schematic representation of the macadam
types.
Table 1: Descriptions of various types of macadam
Type of macadam Description

Dry-bound macadam (DM) The coarse aggregate first needs to be interlocked using appropriate rollers. Cohesionless fine filler is then
vibrated into the voids without the use of water.
Water-bound macadam (WM) The coarse aggregate also needs to be interlocked using the appropriate rollers whereafter water may be used
to slush the filler into the voids. The filler may be slightly plastic.
Penetration macadam (PM) Interlock of the coarse aggregate needs to be achieved using the appropriate rollers whereafter a hot tar or
bitumen is poured over the coarse aggregate layer coating the large aggregates. The voids are not filled
completely by the tar or bitumen.
Slurry-bound macadam (SM) The coarse aggregates are only orientated by means of light pedestrian type rollers or plate compactors.
A slurry, produced from sand and bitumen emulsion, is forced into the voids between the coarse aggregate
until the voids are filled using the same light pedestrian type rollers.
Composite macadam (CM) Consists of a lower portion of dry- or waterbound macadam and a top portion of slurry-bound macadam.
Figure 1: Schematic representation of macadam types
HISTORIC MACADAMS NEW GENERATION MACADAM
Water-bound Macadam/
Dry-bound Macadam Penetration Macadam Composite Macadam Slurry-bound Macadam
labour-based methods and technologies 3

2. Material requirements
The coarse aggregate forms the skeleton that carries

Table 2: Composite macadam: recommended grading for
the whole load through direct stone-to-stone
selected layer thickness
contact to the supporting layers. This structure
Layer thickness of 75 mm provides high load bearing capacity. The fine
Bottom (45 mm) Grading : 53 Sand filler• aggregate or slurry stabilises the layer. This section
Nominal size (mm) sets out the requirements for each important
ALD (mm) 32 element, including: grading, crushing strength,
shape of aggregate, aggregate for slurry, cement
Top (30mm) Grading : 19 or 16 Slurry filler
and lime, and slurry mix design.
Nominal size (mm)
ALD (mm) 12 or 10
2.1 Grading
• Sand may be replaced by slurry. Costs may not be excessive for large areas.
Suitable for smaller areas like bus/taxi ranks. 2.1.1 Coarse aggregate
In general the average least dimension (ALD) of the
coarse aggregate must not exceed one third of the
layer thickness. In addition the grading must be
Table 3: Slurry-bound macadam: recommended grading for
such that the sufficient voids remain to be filled
various layer thicknesses
with filler sand or slurry. The gradings contained in
Layer thickness (mm) 50 40 30 25 Tables 2 and 3 are recommended for the various
Nominal size (mm) 26,5-19 19 16 13,2 layer thicknesses.
ALD (mm) 16-12 12 10 7
Grading envelopes of the respective nominal sizes
are tabulated in Table 4.
Table 4: Recommended gradings 2.1.2 Aggregate for slurry
Sieve size (mm) Percentage by mass passing The specified grading limits for the filler slurry are
53 mm 37 mm 26,5 mm 19,0 mm 13,2 mm also a function of the layer thickness. The gradings
as set out in Table 5 are recommended for the
75 100
various layer thicknesses.
53 85 - 100 100
37,5 35 - 70 85 - 100 100 2.2 Crushing strength
26,5 0 – 15 0 - 50 85 - 100 100
TRH14 (CSRA, 1985) specifies the crushing strength
19,0 0-5 0 - 25 0 - 30 85 - 100 100 of the coarse aggregate in terms of the 10% Fines
13,2 0-5 0-5 0 - 30 85 - 100 Aggregate Crushing Value (FACT) and the
9,5 0-5 0 - 30 Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV). A minimum 10%
4,75 0-5 FACT of 110 kN or maximum ACV of 29% is
0,075 specified. Composite macadam (CM) layers are
ideally suited to accommodate lower quality
aggregate in the lower part of the layer and an ACV
below 33 is recommended. Hand-picked or screened
Table 5: Recommended grading for the slurry filler
natural aggregate nodules such as calcrete can be
Sieve size (mm) Percentage by mass passing used provided it meets the strength requirements.
Fine grade Medium grade
2.3 Shape of aggregate
6,7 100
4,75 100 82 – 100 The shape of the aggregate is expressed as the
Flakiness Index, which should be less than 35 for the
2,36 90 – 100 56 – 95
–26,5 + 19mm and –19 + 13,2mm according to the
1,18 65 – 95 37 – 75
TRH14. Results found in traditional macadam layers
0,6 42 – 72 22 – 50 confirmed the applicability of this criterion and
0,3 23 – 48 15 – 37 values ranged from 8 to 32. The importance of this
0,15 10 – 27 7 – 20 specification should not be overlooked in the light
0,075 4 – 12 4 – 12 of compaction methods used on labour intensive
projects, as flaky aggregate slithers tend to bridge
Appropriate layer 25 30 75 40 50 75
thickness (mm) (top (bottom over voids and intimate stone-to-stone contact is
part) part) not achieved.

2.4 Aggregate for slurry

The aggregate for slurry seals should comprise crusher sand obtained from a parent
rock having an ACV not exceeding 30 or a mixture of such crusher sand and an
approved clean natural sand, where the mixture does not contain more than 25%
of natural sand. The aggregate shall be clean, tough, durable, angular in shape,
and shall comply with the grading requirements given in Table 5 for the slurry.
2.5 Cement and lime

Common cement should comply with the requirements of SANS 50197-1. Road
lime shall comply with the requirements of SANS 824 (Lime for Soil Stabilisation).
Only one of the abovementioned materials should be used throughout the

construction in order to prevent undesirable colour differences in the surface.
2.6 Slurry mix design

The slurry mix design is of utmost importance as the level of compaction specified
on the coarse aggregate is reduced to accommodate the smaller equipment. The
optimum slurry stability must be achieved to embed to the stone framework after
a light compaction effort.
An anionic 60% stable-grade emulsion is recommended. An immersion index of

not less than 75% (Method C5: TMH1, CSRA, 1986) for briquettes made with
slurry aggregate and 80/100 penetration-grade bitumen are recommended.
Gradings for the slurry aggregate are given in Table 5. These gradings should
conform to a sand equivalent of not less than 35 according to TMH1 method B19.
An emulsion content of 250 litre/m3 and cement content of 1% by aggregate
mass are the proportions given as guidance for nominal rates. The Cape Cone
Slump test is used to control workability (Method CPA/C1; CPARD, 1993). A flow
between 30 mm and 40 mm should be adequate for slurry mixes to be placed by
hand. Slight adjustment of slurry material proportions may be needed to suit site
conditions. Trial mixes are recommended.
The slurry-bound and composite macadam layers are constructed at very low
mechanisation levels. A typical construction team of eight to ten workers need
to be equipped with the following:
• 1 Pedestrian roller or plate compactor
• 2 Shovels
• 4 Ballast forks
• 4 Wheelbarrows
• 4 Squeegees
• 2 Rakes
• 1 x 3 m Straight edge (Screed Board)
• 2 Bass brooms
• 3m x 2 m Hessian cloth
• 4 Measuring containers
The material does not require any heating and is used at ambient temperatures.
The following protective clothing also needs to be provided:

• Gloves
• Overalls
• Gumboots

5
4.1 General
Due to the simplicity and flexibility of the new generation macadams, it can be
applied to wide ranging of surfacing applications including:
• Walkways
• Driveways
• Parking areas
• Roads/streets
• Road rehabilitation using slurry-bound macadam as overlay
• Pothole patching
• Assembly areas
• Tennis courts
• Taxi/bus bays
In two particular applications the unique properties of the slurry-bound

macadam will offer the optimum solution in comparison with alternatives,
namely:
• In inaccessible or mountainous terrain where large construction equipment is
costly to operate, whereas the equipment necessary to construct a slurry-
bound macadam layer or overlay is light and easy to manoeuvre in difficult
terrains,
• In a phased construction approach where the problem of mechanical damage
to new asphaltic layers during construction is overcome by using a slurry-
bound macadam as base layer with only a thin slurry seal as initial surfacing.
(This may be sufficient surfacing for a period of eight years. The required
asphalt overlay may then follow once construction activities for the total
development are complete. This may also suit the cashflow requirements of
developers awaiting remuneration from tenants or buyers.)
4.2 Macadam selection charts for roads or streets

Several construction-related factors that need to be considered in the selection of
the appropriate technology are:
• The riding quality required
• The type / class of road
• The experience of the targeted contractors
Table 6: Guidelines on macadam selection
A smooth-riding quality is achieved by maintaining
Road class Specified base Minimum Base type Contractor
surface Surfacing Profile a strict tolerance on surface irregularities and level
irregularities option undulations. However, surface irregularities within a
(mm) strict tolerance of say 6 mm can only be achieved at
a cost premium or through asphalt machine
Class 5 : 15 6mm slurry Slurry-bound Inexperienced/
Access Roads macadam low skills overlays. The designer therefore needs to carefully
select the appropriate specified surface irregularity
Class 4 : 12 6mm slurry Slurry-bound Moderately
and should base his decisions on the contents of
Local macadam / experienced/
distributors Composite skilled Table 6.
macadam
Class 3 : 12 25mm asphalt Slurry-bound Moderately
4.3 The design process
District macadam / experienced / 4.3.1 Design philosophy and process
distributors Composite skilled
The first decision relates to what type of road and
macadam/
service level the design has to satisfy. Macadam
Waterbound
base layers are covered in this manual and other
macadam*
pavement types should be considered if the
Class 2 : 6 25mm SM/CM/WM* Experienced/
requirements cannot be met by macadam pave-
Primary District Asphalt skilled
ments. The guidelines provided in Table 6 provide
distributors Overlay
important information in addressing employment
*Water-bound macadam must not be used with thin surface treatment types.
issues that favour the use of macadam construction.

Typically urban streets are designed to carry the traffic loads anticipated over a 20-
year period, the so-called structural design period. The additional structural
strength required for a 20-year design period compared with a 10 or 15-year period
is usually minimal and cost-effective. Urban street layouts are relatively fixed and
remain the same over periods much longer than the structural design period.
4.3.2 Design traffic

The design traffic is expressed as the equivalent damage caused by the design
axle load of 80kN during the structural design period and is denoted by E80.
Damage caused by any axle load PkN is related to the standard axle load by an
exponential relation as follows:
F = (p/80)n
Where the exponent, n, can vary between 2 and 5 depending on the pavement
structure, but for macadam pavements an exponent of 4 can be used.
The design traffic then consists of the summation of the damage of all the axles
during the structural design period. TRH4:1996 gives guidance about damage
which different vehicles cause.
4.3.3 Material availability

Consider the availability of materials and their unit cost, as well as previous
experience with these materials. Sources of naturally occurring aggregates,
particularly in remote rural areas may enhance the employment-intensiveness of Structural design
aspects of macadam alternatives.
Structural designs for different design
4.3.4 Practical considerations traffic groups should be approached as
It is accepted that proper drainage will be provided both for surface run-off and set out in 4.4.
to guard against wetting up of the pavement layers. In cases where problem sub-
grades, such as swelling clays, collapsing soils or dolomites exist, specialist
engineering input would be essential. Construction considerations also need to
be taken into account.
4.3.5 Economic analysis

Road and street infrastructure are primarily funded Socio-economic analysis
by the public sector. Great care must be taken with
the application of public funds and transparency at The economic analysis includes consideration of the socio-economic benefits
all times, and thorough economic analyses must be to the region or community and a comparison of life-cycle costs of alterna-
performed to justify the recommended actions. tive pavement types over a given analysis period, which would typically be
the same as the structural design period. The socio-economic issues include
A comparison of material costs between various the percentage of the contract value that will be earned by the community,
macadam construction types show that slurry-bound the extent of local job creation and the extent to which the project will serve
macadam is the most costly macadam type. as a vehicle for small, medium and micro-enterprise (SMME) development.
However, it is relatively easy to construct, which
reduces labour costs. The machine component required is the lowest, which makes
the construction technique more accessible to new contractors. The labour
component of a slurry-bound macadam is approximately one-third of the
construction costs. The specified surface smoothness also has a marked influence
on costs. A macadam-base type can be constructed within a 10% range of other
types of equivalent structural value base.
The typical cost structures of some labour-intensive construction techniques are

shown in Table 7. It should be noted that the actual cost structure may be
influenced by several factors, such as:
• Affordability of machinery and equipment
• Labour component

7
• Production rate
• Cost of materials (availability of natural materials)
• Life/cycle costs
4.4 Structural design

A detailed laboratory study indicated that the stiffness, or structural strength, of
all the different macadam layers referred to in Section 1 could be considered the
same. Therefore structurally there is no difference between the macadam layer
materials and the choice is made according to the capabilities of the contractor,
the level of employment intensity that is required and the level of service that
needs to be provided.
Table 7: Cost structure of some labour-intensive construction techniques
Construction Relative rating Cost of plant Labour Material Production Dominant

type of total costs & equipment Component component rate features
(%) (%) (%) (%)
Conventional
(crushed stone
layer) 1 40 – 45 7 - 12 40 – 45 Fast
Water-bound
macadam 1 – 1,10 35 – 45 20 – 30 20 – 30 Medium High plant costs
Slurry-bound Low equipment
macadam 1 – 1,20 25 – 30 25 – 35 30 – 40 Medium costs
Composite Low equipment &
macadam 0,9 – 115 25 – 30 30 – 35 25 – 35 Slow material costs
Foam gravel 0,9 – 1,2 40 – 45 10 – 15 35 – 45 Fast Fast construction
Emulsion treated
bases 0,7 – 1,2 30 – 40 30 – 35 20 – 30 Slow Low materials cost
The catalogue of designs presented in Table 8 was

Note developed by using a mechanistic analysis approach
combined with the performance results of in-
It should be noted that the foundation layers in Table 8 would only be service pavements. The mechanistic analysis
required if the sub-grade conditions are weak. If a G9 material exists in the considered the vertical compressive strain on the
field, the G10 material would be dispensed with. In the wetter region, i.e. soil and granular layers and the horizontal tensile
N-value less than 2, two G9 layers are required compared with the one strains in the stabilised layers, as recommended by
shown on the catalogue for dry and moderate regions.
the SA Mechanistic Design Procedure (Theyse et al,
1996). A terminal rut of 20 mm was used as the
design criterion. This procedure is similar to that used to develop TRH4:1996 and
is therefore complementary to that document for D category pavements. No
design criterion was applied to the macadam layer, as laboratory evaluation has
consistently shown high shear resistance and field performance showed that the
macadam layer disintegrates when the supporting layers are unable to support
the loads and causes significant deformations.
In certain cases designers would wish to carry out a mechanistic structural

analysis. Table 9 gives guidance for the moduli or stiffness values that should be
used for macadam layers in addition to the materials given in the SA Mechanistic
Design Method (Theyse et al, 1996). These stiffness values were determined by
back-calculating Falling Weight Deflectometer results. Stiffnesses determined in
the K-mould in the laboratory were lower than the mean field value and

Table 8: Design catalogue for macadam pavements
DESIGN BEARING CAPACITY (MILLION EQUIVALENT STANDARD 80 KN AXLES/LANE)

<0.003 0.003 – 0.01 0.01 – 0.03 0.03 – 0.1 0.1 – 0.3 0.3 – 1.0 1.0 – 3.0 Foundation
S* S* S* S* S* S*
100M* 125M* 125M* 150M* 150M* 175M*
150G7 150G7 150G7 150G7 150G7 150G7
150G9
S* S* S* S* S*
125M* 150M* 150M* 175M* 175M* G10
150G8 150G8 150G8 150G8 150G8
S* S* S* S* S* S* S*
50M* 50M* 75M* 75M* 100M* 125M* 150M*
125C4 125C4 125C4 125C4 125C4 125C4 125C4
150G8 150G8 150G8 150G8
Material codes are as defined in TRH4 (CSRA, 1985)

M* denotes SM, CM, DM or WM
S* denotes Cape seal or fine or course slurry for Cm and Sm
S* denotes Cape seal for WM and DM
corresponded with the 20th percentile value. This Table 9: Moduli for macadam layers back-calculated from
means that if the laboratory stiffness values were FWD deflection basins
used they would relate to a confidence level of 80%.
Value Over strong Over Weak Over gravel
Description cemented layers cemented (C4) soils
4.5 Density requirements (C1, C2, C3) MPa MPa
Compaction of a macadam layer occurs in three Mean 860 580 490
distinct phases, namely orientation, interlock and
Range 450 – 1500 260 – 950 150 – 900
densification as shown in Figure 2. The energy
Median 720 600 460
required to ‘orientate’ the coarse aggregate in a
layer with limited thickness can be achieved with 20th percentile 550 420 360
light compaction equipment.
To achieve ‘interlock’ requires much more energy and a heavy flat wheel (12 ton)
roller would be required. Densification takes place during normal trafficking. The
coarse aggregate in a composite macadam and the slurry-bound macadam can be
considered as being in the orientation phase and the slurry provides the stiffness
to ensure adequate interlock.
The density measurements will depend largely on the extent to which the voids
are filled with fine material and the number and size of coarse aggregates in the
test hole. If there is less than full penetration of the fine material through the
layer, the density will be low, but provided that the voids in the upper portion of
the layer are well filled, the lower coarse aggregate is fully constrained and
cannot move. TRH14:1958 for example requires a density of 86% to 88% of bulk
density for water-bound macadam. Rather than specifying density, it is
recommended that a method specification be followed. For water-bound
macadam and dry-bound macadam layers compaction of the coarse aggregate
should continue until full interlock, as indicated by no movement under the
heavy (12 ton) roller, and the condition of the layer is acceptable. Thereafter the

9
Figure 2: Level of densification for macadam layers
Loose Interlocked
Orientated Densified
fine material is either washed in (water-bound macadam) or vibrated dry (dry-

bound macadam) until the voids are full. The same technique applies to
composite macadam and the slurry-bound macadam, except that the roller may
be lighter and the bituminous slurry is worked into the voids with squeegees.
If in doubt, then, for water-bound macadam the 86% to 88% of bulk density
should be the norm. In the case of composite macadams, the layer should be
tested against a specified density of 86% of the rice density determined in the
laboratory according to TMH1 Method C4 (CSRA, 1986). The field density should
be determined with the rondavel test (NITRR Technical Note TP 52/83).

5.1 Composite macadam

The composite macadam is constructed in two lifts namely the bottom part and
the top part.
Construction of the bottom part

i) Spread the coarse aggregate to the required thickness (initially the layer is
placed 30% thicker than the final thickness to allow for bulking) and level
using ballast forks and a three metre straight edge. In the case of a
composite macadam the coarser aggregate is spread to give a final thickness
of two-thirds of the layer thickness.
ii) A thin layer (about 20 mm) of dry natural plaster sand is spread evenly over
the coarse aggregate by means of a stiff broom and worked into the voids of
the coarse aggregate. This action is repeated until no more sand penetrates
into the voids.
iii) The surface of the layer is then thoroughly wetted and the roller is used to
compact the layer and additional fine material and water are added to fill
the voids until the sand is about 15 mm below the tops of the stones.
Construction of the top part

i) Spread the smaller size coarse aggregate, typically a 26,5 mm size, to the
required level, and ensure evenness with the 3m straight edge.
ii) Compact the aggregate with the roller to achieve aggregate interlock and
correct unevenness by adding additional coarse aggregate.
iii) The fine slurry is mixed to the specified proportions, spread with squeegees
and worked into the voids. The soft slurry is then vibrated into the voids
with the vibrating roller or plate vibrator until all the voids are filled and no
further penetration will take place. The slurry is then worked even with the
tops of the coarse aggregate to provide the wearing surface.
5.2 Slurry-bound macadam

In the case of the slurry-bound macadam a bituminous slurry seal is used to fill the
voids instead of the fine sand. The steps to construct this type of macadam are
as follows:
i) Spread the coarse aggregate to the required thickness (initially the layer is
placed 30% thicker than the final layer to allow for bulking) and levels using
ballast forks and a three metre straight edge.
ii) Use the roller to achieve aggregate orientation, and correct local depressions
by working with the ballast forks. Pedestrian rollers or plate vibrators can be
successfully used. Rolling normally starts on the outer edge, which is
supported either by the gravel shoulder in a box-type construction or by
wooden forms, until the outer part is stable, and then compaction of the
centre takes place.
iii) The fine slurry is then mixed to the specified proportions, spread with
squeegees and worked into the voids. The liquid slurry is then vibrated into
the voids with the vibrating roller or plate vibrator, until all the voids are
filled and no further penetration can be observed. The slurry is then worked
even with the tops of the coarse aggregate to provide the wearing surface.

11
1 A Design Manual : Labour-intensive construction guidelines for macadam

pavements
University of Pretoria – Potgieter Hattingh & Raspi Inc. – TOSAS
2 Committee of Land Transport Officials (COLTO)
Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge Works for State Road
Authorities
3 Committee of State Road Authorities (CSRA). 1985. TRH14 – Guidelines for

Road Construction Materials. Department of Transport, Pretoria.
4 Committee of Land Transport Officials (COLTO). 1996. DRAFT TRH4 –

Structural Design of Flexible Pavements for Interurban and Rural Roads.
Department of Transport, Pretoria.
5 Committee of Transport Authorities (CUTA). 1988. DRAFT UTG3 – Structural

Design of Urban Roads. Department of Transport, Pretoria.
6 Labour-Intensive Construction Techniques - LICT 7 - Upgrading techniques for

low volume roads/streets. August 1996. CSIR.
7 S A Bitumen and Tar Association – SABITA – Methods and Procedures –

Labour-enhanced construction for

Acknowledgements

Gautrans
Soweto City Council
eThekwini Metro
of guidelines.
Organisation
Labour-based construction
methods for unsealed roads
Part 1
all citizens”
Part 3
manufacture
commenced in 1996.
making
technology
technology
unsealed roads
development.
Labour-based construction
1ST
Edition
of CIDB
document
1034
March 2005
methods for unsealed roads

Contents
1. Introduction 3
2. Material and specifications 4
3. Practical aspects 5
5. Plant and equipment 8
6. Construction 8
7. Quality control 12
8. Maintenance 13
9. Safety 15
Annexure A 16
Annexure B 18
Acknowledgements 21


Tel: 27 12-481 9030 Fax: 27 12-343 7153
T
works components.


Part 4-9 – Methods for sealed roads
1. Introduction
1.1 Background
Note
Unsealed roads were the first roads constructed by
man when the operators of the earliest wagons and Unsealed roads include all roads constructed without the use of bitumen,
carts encountered difficulties traversing poor concrete, blocks or other durable surfaces interfacing with wheels of vehi-
materials. Localised troublesome areas would have cles. They include earth tracks, earth roads, gravel roads and roads treated
been made passable by the addition of local with a dust palliative or chemical stabiliser. The term unsealed roads is gen-
materials that provided improved bearing capacity erally used internationally as a replacement for the older terms, “dirt” or
and trafficability. As the use of wheeled vehicles ‘gravel’ roads. In order to provide the expected level of service, unsealed
increased, it became more important to provide roads must be constructed from suitable materials, must be constructed to
the specified quality and must be maintained to an appropriate standard. As
acceptable passability over the entire length of road
the majority of roads in rural and developing areas are unsealed, are not sta-
and appropriate materials were selected and placed
bilised and carry relatively light traffic, these roads provide excellent oppor-
with some “engineering” input. These roads would
tunities for the use of labour-based construction and maintenance methods.
probably have been constructed using entirely
labour-based methods. As time progressed, more
automation was used until the present, when most unsealed roads are
constructed using predominantly heavy plant.
Unsealed roads are still the principal type of road making up more than 90% of
the road network in many developing countries and over 50% in some of the
world’s most developed countries. These are generally the least expensive roads
to construct, but unlike sealed roads, the surface is not protected from
environmental or traffic stresses and deteriorates rapidly. Ongoing maintenance
is thus an essential and costly necessity for unsealed roads. This of course does
provide an excellent opportunity for sustained local employment using labour-
based construction and maintenance technologies.
1.2 Definition
Unsealed roads include all roads with no waterproof or structural surfacing, i.e.
bitumen, concrete, interlocking blocks, etc. In their simplest form, unsealed roads
usually consist of two tracks resulting from the compaction of the in situ material
and destruction of vegetation following the passage of a few vehicles or carts
along the same alignment. Once the traffic increases to a certain point (this will
vary depending on the in situ material and nature of the traffic), the wheel tracks
become wider and eventually the full width of a road is cleared, usually by grader
or bulldozer. Traffic still rides on the in situ materials and the road is classified as
an earth road. This type of road obviously has shortcomings in that the material
properties are dictated by the local material and may or may not be suitable for
sustained use as a wearing course. In addition, wear of the road results in general
lowering with respect to the surrounding natural ground level, resulting in poor
drainage and an eventual need for importing material to provide some type of
formation and shape to the road.
When a selected material is imported and the road is shaped, it then becomes a
gravel road.

3
2. Materials and specification
2.1 Aggregate specification

The properties of the materials used as gravel road wearing courses have a
significant impact on both the performance and maintenance needs of the road,
far more so than in sealed roads. Gravel wearing course materials require:
• Adequate cohesion to avoid ravelling and corrugation of the surface under

traffic,
• A grading that produces a tightly bound, interlocked layer with sufficient
strength to avoid erosion and shear failure,
• A limited plasticity such that the road does not become excessively slippery
when wet,
• Sufficient gravel to provide a skeleton for the fine material and adequate skid
resistance, but not enough to cause excessive tyre wear or large particles that
will affect riding quality.
Research and experience have shown that materials

Table 1: Recommended material specification for unsealed
complying with the requirements in Table 1 are
roads
generally adequate (TRH 20, 1990).
Property Specification limit
Maximum size (mm) 37.5 The grading and plasticity components of these
Maximum Oversize Index (Io) (%)a 5 specifications can be plotted as shown in Figure 1 as
an aid to predict the likely performance of materials
Shrinkage Product (Sp)b 100 – 365 (max of 240 preferable)
not complying with the requirements of Table 1.
Grading Coefficient (Gc)c 16 – 34
Minimum CBR (%)d 15 at 95 % Mod AASHTO Materials falling into Zone E will provide the best
Treton Impact Value (%) 20 – 65 performance, provided the oversize content and
a – Io = Percent retained on 37.5 mm sieve strength are correct. Materials falling into Zones A,
b – Sp = Linear shrinkage x percent passing 0.425 mm sieve B, C and D can be expected to be erodible, to
c – Gc = (Percent passing 26.5 mm sieve –% passing 2 mm sieve) x % passing
corrugate and ravel, to ravel or to become slippery,
4.75 mm sieve respectively. The degree of the expected defect will
d – Conventional soaked CBR unlike the unsoaked CBR originally specified in
generally increase as the material plots further away
TRH 20
from Zone E.
Materials must be located and tested prior to initiation of construction. Initial

testing and material acceptance needs to be carried out in a conventional soil
testing laboratory, but quality control on site can use simplified techniques
(Paige-Green, 1998).
The use of geological, engineering geological or

Figure 1: Gravel road specification and performance engineering material classification systems is
generally unsuitable for the identification of
500 suitable wearing course materials: only the
450 individual material properties can be effectively
D
400
Slippery used. Dolerites for example could be excessively
stony, highly plastic or very granular with a low
350
plasticity, none of which would perform
300
satisfactorily. Depending, however, on their stages
250 A E C of weathering and the prevailing environmental
Erodible Good Ravels
200 conditions, other dolerites could perform very well.
150 It is thus essential to determine the actual properties
100 of every potential material source.
B
50 Corrugates and ravels
Provided certain conditions are accepted, it is possible
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 to make use of materials not complying fully with the
Grading Coefficient requirements of Table 1. For example, a material with

a very low shrinkage product could perform satisfactorily in a moist area with low
traffic as moisture will provide an effective cohesion for long periods reducing the
tendency for the material to corrugate (which will take longer under low traffic).
Such material may be used provided that the periodic need to provide increased
maintenance (light grading or dragging to remove corrugations) is accepted. In a
dry area with relatively high traffic, the maintenance needs on this type of material
will be very high resulting in high costs and significant disruption of traffic flow,
making the use of the material impractical.
Similar constraints are found when labour-based construction and maintenance

techniques are employed. The degree of compaction attained may not be as high
as that from conventional plant, resulting in poorer performance of low plasticity
material or highly plastic material. These aspects must be considered when using
materials not complying with the requirements of Table 1.
3. Practical aspects
3.1 Impact on performance

The specifications described above were developed over a wide range of
materials, climate and traffic conditions and can be applied generally. It has,
however, been found that they can be fine-tuned for local conditions but this can
only be done with experience in certain areas. It is more important to ensure that
certain aspects such as material homogeneity, stoniness, compaction and
drainage are carefully controlled and supervised, during both construction and
maintenance.
3.2 Material homogeneity

The use of variable or heterogeneous materials on unsealed roads results in
localised problems, particularly in relation to passability and drainage. It is thus
essential that the material is as homogeneous as a natural material can be and
this is best achieved by stockpiling the materials for use on the road. The actions
of excavation, loading, haulage, stockpiling, reloading, haulage and dumping,
although involving double handling, creates a significant degree of mixing and More detail on ELHUS activities
homogenisation of the material.
Further information on excavating, load-
3.3 Stoniness ing, hauling, unloading and spreading
activities (ELHUS) may be found in
One of the major contributors to poor performance of gravel roads is the Section 3 (ELHUS and compaction) of
presence of excessive oversize material. The presence of large stones in the Part 2.1: Labour-based construction
wearing course results in extreme roughness and severe difficulties in methods for earthworks.
maintaining the road.
Material containing significant oversize particles should be processed at source,

especially in labour-based projects, where the haulage of unwanted material can
have a major impact on productivity. Processing of the material through a series
of small grizzlies or mesh screens should form a part of the excavation to stockpile
process.
Removal of oversize material from the road during mixing and compaction is
seldom successful, and results in wastage and unnecessary haulage. Manual
breaking of oversize material can be carried out using large hammers, but this
needs very close supervision, as hammers tend to bury the problem rather than
break the cobbles and boulders, with the result that they are exposed some time

5
later in the service-life of the road. If this is carried out, it is important that the
fractured particles are separated from each other so that they do not behave as an
integral particle. This requires careful mixing in the area of the broken particles.
3.4 Compaction
The act of compacting soils and gravels improves their quality/performance by
improving particle interlock and thus shear strength and reducing permeability.
These aspects are all necessary to ensure a road that fulfils its social and economic
needs.
To achieve any reasonable degree of compaction, the material should be at a

specific moisture content related to the compaction effort available on site.
Material that is too wet will become spongy and will not compact, whereas
material that is too dry requires an excessive effort to overcome the friction
between the particles and achieve any reasonable density. Some sandy materials
can be compacted successfully when dry, but they do not achieve the same
strength as when wet compacted as the suction forces created between the
particles on drying out do not develop.
Traditionally, construction specifications require materials to be compacted to a

specific (although arbitrary) density, which may or may not be achievable with
the available plant or be necessary for that material and the prevailing
conditions. The control of compaction is difficult, relying on either sophisticated
nuclear equipment or time-consuming labour-based methods, which are carried
out at very few points on the road. A method specification, based on proof
rolling trials allows for much better control and the results can be assessed at
many more points on the road using simple equipment as discussed in 4.
3.5 Drainage
3.5.1 General
The uncontrolled passage of water on and adjacent to unsealed roads can cause
significant damage to the road and seriously affect the movement and safety of
traffic using the road. Rain falling on the road must be removed from the road
surface as rapidly as possible whilst that falling adjacent to the road must not be
allowed to accumulate on or close to the road structure.
3.5.2 Road surface drainage

In order to ensure that precipitation does not remain on the road surface, a good
shape needs to be maintained. This requires a central crown and a camber,
preferably of about 4%, towards each side of the road. Cambers greater than 5%
result in erosion and unsafe driving conditions, whilst those less than about 2.5%
allow the water to permeate into the road and usually result in ponding on the
road. This camber must be carefully maintained during routine maintenance
activities. On mono-camber sections of road, the cross-fall or super-elevation
Fix potholes should not exceed 4% to avoid excessive erosion and to facilitate maintenance.
Potholes and depressions in the road will It is important that windrows, which will disrupt the flow of water from the road
hold water and gradually increase in size surface, do not remain along the road after maintenance. Any material retained
and severity under traffic. These should for maintenance activities should be off the road shoulder and must not block the
be repaired manually on a regular basis. entrance to side or mitre-drains.
3.5.3 Side drains

Water drained from the road surface will inevitably be collected in side drains
adjacent to the road shoulder. These must be well-maintained and effective at all
times, and provide unhindered paths for the removal of the water into adjacent

fields (by way of properly designed mitre drains or across the road through
effective culverts). For this to be effective in flat terrain, it is essential that the
road is constructed on an adequate formation. The spacing of mitre-drains
(particularly on steeper grades) should be such that high water velocities are not
achieved and scouring is minimised.
Side drains should be wide and deep enough to handle the expected water
without flooding the road, but also to facilitate maintenance. Maintenance using
labour allows much narrower and deeper drains than that using motor graders.
The pavement structure of sealed roads is designed to carry a finite number of

vehicles over a specific period under the prevailing environmental conditions. This
is achieved by providing a series of pavement layers each distributing applied
stresses so that no part of the pavement is overstressed, but the cumulative
infinitesimal damage that occurs under each vehicle pass reaches a defined
terminal condition at the end of the design life. Any premature damage due to
overstressing or inadequate layers results in localised damage requiring
unscheduled maintenance (e.g. crack filling, pothole patching, rut filling) or
possibly even rehabilitation or reconstruction.
Although similar forces (in addition to environmental stresses) affect unsealed

roads, most damage that occurs is usually corrected during scheduled routine
maintenance, i.e. potholes or ruts are filled during grader blading or spot re-
gravelling. In comparison with equivalent damage to sealed roads, any other
maintenance that may be needed is relatively inexpensive and less disruptive to
traffic. For this reason, the structural design of unsealed roads requires
significantly less input.
Unlike sealed roads, structural design decisions for unsealed roads are generally
more labour-friendly. All unsealed road materials are usually natural, so labour-
unfriendly decisions, e.g. to stabilise the materials, as would be the case for many
sealed roads, do not affect the outcome.
One of the main components of the structural design is to ensure that a

formation with appropriate dimensions is designed with a suitable specified
material and compaction. The sub-grade must be
cleared and grubbed and then rolled to refusal with Figure 2: Pavement structure
the available equipment in preparation for
placement of the formation. At least 300 mm of
material with a minimum soaked CBR of 7% (G9) Selected wearing course
should be placed as formation in order to raise the 150 mm at 93% Mod AASHTO
road prior to placement of the wearing course. This 150
should be compacted to refusal ensuring that a
minimum density of 93% Mod AASHTO is achieved.
Selected formation (G9)
Typically, 150mm of material complying with the
300 mm at 93% Mod AASHTO
specification described in Section 2 and compacted
to refusal for the available equipment or plant (but
not less than 95% Mod AASHTO) should be placed 450
as the wearing course.
Ripped and compacted in situ
90% Mod AASHTO
This pavement structure is illustrated in Figure 2.

nologies
7
This structure has been found to be appropriate for most gravel roads. In drier
areas, the height of the formation can be reduced although the side drains must
be at least 300mm beneath the road crown. The placement of pipe culverts
requires adequate formation and cover and often dictates the formation
thickness. Care must be taken to ensure that culverts and pipes do not result in
‘speed humps’ along the road.
5. Plant and equipment
Typical tools that are needed for labour-based gravel road projects are:
• Axe, panga, machete, etc. for removal of vegetation
• Shovel
• Pick
• Wheelbarrow: typically 50 to 70 litres
• Donkey cart
• Setting out profiles and/or templates
• String, dip sticks, stakes, pegs, etc.
• Water tanks and spraying equipment
• Rake
• Levelling beam
• Hand stampers
Mechanical compaction equipment may also be required to complement manual

activities. Mechanical hauling equipment (tractors and trailers) should be
available where necessary.
Apparatus for carrying out a Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) test and quality
control testing should also be available.
6. Construction
6.1 Earthworks
New unsealed roads will result either from the upgrading of an existing earth
track or less commonly on a totally new alignment. In either case, the centre-line
of the proposed road should be staked out (stakes at 20 to 50 m intervals,
depending on topography and vegetation) and the proposed vertical alignment/
final road levels marked on these stakes. This is most easily done using ranging
roads and an Abney Level, but where steep grades prevail, more sophisticated
levelling surveys may be necessary (see Annexure A).
The crown height, layer thicknesses and cross-falls are then transferred to offset
stakes or pegs adjacent to the edge of the road and side drain, prior to clearing
and grubbing, which will usually result in loss of the centre-line stakes. This
should be done using string, tape measures, calibrated dip sticks and levelling
For more detail beams.
See Part 2.1: Labour-based Clearing and grubbing can then commence. Traditionally this is done with a
construction methods for bulldozer or grader, but labour-based methods can be equally effective.
earthworks Labourers should initially remove all vegetation above ground level using the
appropriate equipment. Trees should be cut down, bushes hacked back and grass

cut as described in Section 2 (clearing and Grubbing) of Part 2.1: Labour-based

construction methods for earthworks . The root and organic rich topsoil must
then be removed and disposed of as instructed. Grubbing should be done using
shovels and picks where necessary, ensuring that the absolute minimum soil
material is removed. Where isolated rock outcrops or large boulders occur, dry
wood removed during the bush and tree clearing should be collected and
retained for use in fires to break the rock as described in Part 2 (Labour-based
Methods for Earthworks).
The cleared and grubbed roadbed must then be levelled and compacted to as
high a density as practically possible using available plant. On small projects, use
can be made of hand tampers but generally, small pedestrian or sit-on rollers are
necessary. The addition of water to the roadbed material will usually be necessary
to assist compaction, unless this is carried out in the wet season. On certain
materials it may be necessary to loosen the roadbed material with forks prior to
compaction in order to break up loosely cemented particles and possible
collapsible soil structures. It is also recommended that, where possible, a camber
towards the side-drains is applied to the top of the sub-grade to assist with
drainage of water that may seep through the pavement structure.
6.2 Formation
The formation should be constructed of selected material that is excavated, For more detail
loaded, hauled, unloaded and spread as described in Part 2 (Labour-based
Methods for Earthworks). Suitable material should be obtained from the relevant See Part 2.1: Labour-based
stockpiles and dumped and spread according to Part 2 (Labour-based Methods constuction methods for
for Earthworks). Dip-sticking of string lines, which allow for the bulking of the earthworks
material, should be carried out during spreading to ensure an even distribution
of material. It is also possible to use pegs or pins marking the top of the layer for
spreading, but these should be removed prior to compaction (see Figure 3).
The top of the formation should be constructed to the same shape as the
proposed wearing course to maintain a constant wearing course thickness and to
assist in internal drainage of the layers. As the formation is typically 300 mm thick
(compacted), it is impracticable to compact this material with light equipment in
one layer. Compaction should thus be carried out in three 100 mm layers.
It is useful to determine the typical bulking factor of the material and to place
marks for both this and the compacted layer on the dip stick. This provides
additional control for spreading and compaction. It is also usual to require stakes
or pegs more frequently than one every 20 m during actual labour-based
construction.
Figure 3: Level control during spreading and compaction
For very light pavement structures, it is possible to
use only very light compaction and not to be too
concerned with the actual compaction. The result
of this will typically be significant rutting during
early trafficking (as a result of traffic compaction), Dip stick
which can be corrected during surface Marks on dip stick for bulked (lower) and
compacted (upper) layer
maintenance. The implication of this is that Peg/stake String lines
additional wearing course material will be
Nails
required earlier in the life of the road. This is not
recommended if heavy trucks are expected to use
the road as early potholing and shear failures in
the uncompacted formation are likely.

9
6.3 Wearing course

The gravel wearing course will be constructed of selected material that is
excavated, stockpiled, loaded, hauled, unloaded and spread as described in Part
2 (Labour-based Methods for Earthworks). The material for the wearing course
should preferably be moistened to just above optimum moisture content at the
stockpile prior to hauling so that segregation is minimised and the loading,
hauling, unloading and spreading process homogenises the material as far as
possible. Traditionally, the gravel is tipped along the side of the road and then
spread by grader (with simultaneous watering and mixing) across the road. On
labour-based projects, however, the material will typically be spread with forks
and/or rakes and should thus be dumped on the road to accelerate the spreading
procedure. During spreading, all oversize material that may have been
‘accidentally’ incorporated into the wearing course gravel must be removed. It is
important that oversize particles are not just buried in the layer, as they will
appear over time as the gravel is worn away by traffic and environmental effects.
As it is very difficult to trim the final levels using only labour, it is important that
the surface is as even and as well shaped as possible prior to compaction. The use
of string lines and dip sticks is the most practical method of ensuring this on
labour-based projects, although it is useful for each
labourer to have a suitable camber board (planks
Never use pins for the wearing course
with a spirit level on the upper surface and a 4%
slope on the lower surface – Figure 4) for checking
The use of pins in the road carriageway to mark the top of the layer should
his individual work. (Levels can also be estimated
never be considered for the wearing course as any that may be inadvertent-
ly left in the layer can cause potentially unsafe conditions as they become
using a calibrated probe as described in Paige-
exposed to vehicle tyres. Green, 1998.) This process should be carried out as
rapidly as possible to avoid excessive loss of moisture
from the material and compaction must commence as soon as possible.
Compaction will normally be done using a small pedestrian or sit-on roller.

Density testing is notoriously difficult and poorly repeatable on this type of
project and other techniques should be used to control the construction. It is
recommended that the use of controlled dip-sticking using the
bulking/compacted relationship determined in a
Figure 4: Four percent camber board laboratory (usually during the initial material
characterisation and evaluation process) should be
the first check on compaction. The use of a method
specification based on proof rolling as discussed in
1200 mm Section 7 should always be considered. This provides
a target DCP penetration rate as well as permitting
152 mm
a much larger number of tests to be carried out and

200 mm
Bubble level enhancing overall quality. The testing must be done

immediately after compaction (i.e. at OMC) and
where the DCP penetration rate is unsatisfactory,
additional compaction must be applied as soon as
practically possible. A calibrated probe can also
indicate whether compaction has been achieved,
provided the layer thickness before compaction is
correct (Paige-Green, 1998).
On small projects, the use of hand stampers for compaction can be considered but
it is difficult to obtain a consistent density and uniform surface. If this technique
is used, the optimum number of blows should be determined by trial and error
and this number used consistently over the layer, ensuring that all parts of the

layer are compacted.

6.4 Drainage Figure 5: Cross-sections of typical drains
Side drains will be excavated manually to a defined

profile. An appropriate cross section should be
Road shoulder Ditch slope Ditch invert Ditch invert
identified during the design phase (side slopes
usually about 1 vertical : 1.5 horizontal with the Slope of 1:1.5 or flatter
Grassed with short grass
ditch bottom at least 0.5 metres below sub-grade
Subgrade level 500 mm
level) and templates manufactured (typically from (min)
wooden planks). These should be used on an

Flat Bottom Ditch
ongoing basis to ensure that the drainage shape is
correct. Cross sections of typical side drains are Road shoulder Ditch side slopes 1:1.5 or flatter Road shoulder 2250 1500
shown in Figure 5. The longitudinal slope of the Grassed with short grass
750
drain should compromise between effective water 500 mm (min)
removal without silting and avoidance of scouring Subgrade level

150 mm
and erosion. Where erosion is likely, check dams masonary
(Figure 6) or other erosion protection measures V-Bottom Ditch Lined Ditch
should be implemented. It is equally important that

the mitre drains are properly graded to ensure that
water carried into them is effectively removed from
the road area (Figure 7). They must also remain Figure 6: Erosion control measures and check dams
effective under the silt that will build up between
maintenance activities. A Depth of Ditch
Check Dam D
The geometry of the drains must be consistent with 170 to 100 Slope of Ditch
labour-based maintenance. Mitre drains and flat A Height of check Dam 0.5 to 0.7D
Distance between Check Dams such that
bottomed side drains are frequently cleaned and Slope is 1:70 to 1: 100
Long Section of Ditch
maintained by grader and are designed for this.
Labour-based drainage maintenance will be
facilitated by a much smaller invert width or a V- 0.5D
drain.
Check Dam Profile
Culverts and pipe drains must fit within the Hand placed store Course Sand or Fine Gravel
up to 300 mm Filter for upstream side
formation to avoid humps in the road. Where this is
not possible, the thickness of the formation must be
increased to accommodate the drainage structures. Intersticies filled Wooden stacks
with sand/gravel Brushwood infill at 100 mm c/c
Care must also be taken to ensure that the pipe Stone Check Dam Brushwood Check Dam
inverts are not below the natural drainage level, so
as to become ineffective.
Figure 7: Typical mitre-drain layout and cross-section
Carriageway
Side Drain
2m
4m
Length of Mitre: 5m steep slope,

10m gentle slope
Sloping Ground Level Ground

1500 1500 1500
1000
Typical Mitre Drain

nologies
11
7. Quality control
7.1 Road shape

Quality is vital
Obtaining the correct shape of the road surface during labour-based construction
It is essential that the quality of con- is imperative, as it is difficult to correct any significant problems after construction
struction is controlled fully (Paige-Green, using manual techniques. The provision and use of an adequate number of
1998). camber boards or carefully set out string lines is essential.
These camber boards should be used regularly and frequently during the
spreading and compaction of the wearing course.
7.2 Material thickness

Figure 8: Probe for
assessing layer thickness Control of the material thickness must start during the unloading phase of the
project. It is imperative that the material is dumped at the required spacing and
frequency, so that it can be evenly spread out at a consistent density. A simple hand
Calibration marks at probe similar to that illustrated in Figure 8 can be used to judge the thickness of
required intervals
both the spread (uncompacted) and compacted layer. By simply pressing the probe
into the layer, the thickness can be observed from the exposed calibration marks.
Typically, the underlying layer will have dried out since compaction and a greater
resistance to penetration will be easily felt as the probe is pressed into the layer.
7.3 Compaction
Compaction of road pavement layers is traditionally controlled by density
measurement. This requires knowledge of the density of the material at a
specified compaction effort (usually 95% of mod AASHTO for a gravel wearing
course). The density is usually controlled using an in situ replacement method
(sand replacement) or a nuclear measuring device. Both of these techniques have
inherent problems and are considered inefficient for labour-based projects.
The simplest method for checking compaction of labour-based projects is by

measuring the height of the material before and after compaction. This can be
done using a number of techniques as discussed (dip stick, string lines, calibrated
probe, etc.). Although not entirely accurate, a good indication of the overall
quality of compaction can be obtained.
It is suggested, however, that a method specification, based on proof rolling, be

implemented and controlled using a DCP or Rapid Compaction Control Device
(RCCD) apparatus. The suggested process for this is as follows:
After the material has been spread and is ready for compaction, a short section
of road should be given one ‘pass’ with the available compaction plant, i.e.,
forwards and backwards. A DCP test (or RCCD) is carried out to a depth of 150
mm (or the layer thickness if less), and further passes are applied with a DCP test
being carried out after each pass. The DCP
Figure 9: Proof rolling example penetration rate is plotted against the number of
passes (Figure 9) and the number of passes after
20 which no beneficial compaction occurs is identified
(point X or 3 passes in Figure 9). The DCP tests
DCP penetration should be carried out in close enough proximity to
rate (mm/blow) allow direct comparison of the results but not so
close that the result is affected by previous tests. The
10
minimum DCP penetration rate obtained (at
Dedensification compaction moisture content) is also the target rate
for quality control of the layer after compaction. A
statistical judgement scheme (example COLTO, 1996
0 or TRH5, 1977) or some simplified version of this
0 2 X 4 6
Number of roller passes (e.g. Annexure B) can be applied for acceptance

8. Maintenance
testing.
8.1 Surface maintenance
Road surface maintenance using conventional plant includes light grading, heavy
grading and occasionally ripping and recompaction. Where only labour is used
for maintenance, only the light grading activity can be effectively simulated.
Heavy grading and ripping and recompaction require a grader at least and the
relevant techniques are described in LICT 4 (1997). The process of light grading
can be substituted by labour-based techniques on small projects but is usually not
cost effective on projects more than between 3 km and 5 km long.
The frequency of maintenance will depend primarily on the traffic and the
precipitation and should be such that the state of the road does not deteriorate
significantly. It is practically impossible without heavy grading to restore a
reasonable riding quality to a badly deteriorated road. Similarly, the presence of
excessive oversize material results in serious maintenance difficulties. Where a
labour-based unit or local contractor is available and a routine maintenance
contract can be awarded, the road surface can be maintained without a grader.
The process will usually involve a combination of pothole patching as described

in section 8.2 and light scarification of surface irregularities, including protruding
stones, corrugations and compacted windrows using rakes or forks. The loosened
material will be spread to fill depressions and even out the surface, ensuring that
the crown and camber of the road are retained. Any large stones must be
removed from the road surface. This can often be combined with surface
dragging using a small tyre or steel drag (LICT 4, 1997). These drags can be drawn
by labourers, animals or small vehicles and assist in retaining the shape of the
road. The shape of the road during dragging should be controlled using camber
boards. The use of bush or tree drags is not recommended as these invariably
result in dishing of the road with a severe effect on the surface drainage of the
road.
It is important that during surface maintenance, windrows of material that will

affect the drainage of water from the road surface are not left adjacent to the
carriageway.
8.2 Patching
Early repair of potholes and depressions is essential as they can cause significant
damage to vehicles and result in unsafe driving conditions. This may be defined
as patching or spot re-gravelling. On materials that form a crust or ‘blad’
(including many calcretes and ferricretes), conventional grading can cause
extensive damage to the hard surface and patching is the most appropriate
maintenance technique.
Potholes can vary in diameter from 100 mm to in excess of 1 500 mm and when
more than 50 or 75 mm deep have the greatest impact on vehicles. They arise
through a number of processes, including poor road shape and drainage, poor
maintenance, corrugations, rutting, excessive stoniness, weak wearing course
materials, formation or sub-grades, poor compaction, etc. Potholes can seldom be
repaired during normal grader maintenance and the following procedure is
suggested:
Remove all unstable or weak material, preferably in a diamond shape as seen

when driving along the road (Figure 10) and clean the hole by brooming. It is not
necessary to produce a hole with smooth vertical sides for unsealed roads: a
rough surface finish in fact results in better bonding of the patch material.

13
The sides and base of the hole should be watered to

Figure 10: Pothole repair using diamond-shaped patch enhance the bond between the hole and the patch
material. It is important, however, to avoid the
addition of too much water, such that the material
becomes soggy.
Road
The patch material should come from the same
source (and have similar properties) as the original
wearing course material. It should be moistened
until it can be squeezed in one hand into a tight
Patch
‘ball’ without excess water being expelled. It must
then be compacted, using a hand stamper or
rammer, into the hole in layers about 60 to 75 mm
thick, ensuring that the material adjacent to the
edge of the hole is well compacted. This should
continue until the material is about 15 mm proud of the road surface.
Never patch with windrow material Compaction in layers thinner than about 40 mm will result in lamination, which
will often disintegrate under traffic on drying out.
Under no circumstances should material
from windrows on the carriageway be A similar process is necessary to repair damage to the road caused by water flow
used for patching as these materials
and erosion, but it is not practical to excavate diamond shaped holes – the erosion
have generally lost the majority of their
channels must just be cleaned out and repaired as described above. It is important
fines and thus lack adequate cohesion.
to identify, and attempt to rectify, the cause of such distress where possible.
8.3 Re-gravelling
Depending on the traffic the full thickness of the gravel wearing course will be
lost over time. This can take from 4 or 5 years for heavily trafficked roads to in
excess of 10 years for roads carrying only light traffic. It is recommended,
however, that the road be re-gravelled before the entire wearing course is lost,
in order to avoid deterioration of the formation. This material is neither designed
nor constructed to support traffic and a minimum cover of 25 to 50 mm of
wearing course gravel should be retained on the road to avoid excessive
deformation of the surface prior to re-gravelling.
Spot improvement
Re-gravelling will generally follow the construction
procedure described earlier for construction of the
Spot improvement can be described as an activity somewhere between pot-
wearing course, including the material location,
hole patching on a large scale and re-gravelling on a small scale. This opera-
tion is usually necessary in the following circumstances:
ELHUS, compaction and quality control require-
• where serious damage has been done by water (erosion on grades or adja- ments outlined.
cent to culverts);
• where deficiencies in gravel or construction quality occur; and A successful spot improvement operation makes use
• on flat sections or in sag curves where drainage is impeded. of those principles described under patching and re-
gravelling or wearing course construction.
8.4 Drainage maintenance

The regular maintenance of side drains and culverts is traditionally a labour-based
activity. This involves the clearing of bush and cutting of grass as well as the de-
silting of culverts and other drainage structures. It is essential that this is carried
out meticulously, all of the debris removed from the drains and structures being
disposed of well away from the drainage systems. Silt from drains should never
be used for filling depressions or potholes on the road surface.

9. Safety
The construction, maintenance and repair of unsealed roads using labour-based

techniques, like any other road, require stringent safety measures. Labour on
these projects often has little experience of conventional safety measures. As
described in Section 4 of Part 2.1: Labour-based construction methods for
earthworks, safety should be an inherent component of any project. It is essential
that adequate warning and control be provided for labour working both on and
adjacent to the road. Extensive use of warning signs, demarcation cones and
barriers and flagman following conventional practice is a prerequisite for a safe
project.
Fortunately, the majority of unsealed road projects on which labour-based

techniques are used have light and often slow-moving traffic.
1 The design, construction and maintenance of unpaved roads. 1990. Pretoria:

Department of Transport. (Technical Recommendations for Highways: Draft
TRH 20).
2 Paige-Green, P. 1998. Material selection and quality assurance for labour-

based unsealed road projects. Nairobi, Kenya: ILO/ASIST (Technical Brief No
9).
3 Maintenance of unsurfaced roads/streets. 1997. Pretoria: South African

National Roads Agency. (Labour-Intensive Construction Techniques: LICT 4).
4 Statistical concepts of quality assurance and their application in road

construction. 1977. Pretoria: Department of Transport. (Technical
Recommendations for Highways: Draft TRH 5).
5 McCutcheon, RT and Marshall J. Labour-intensive construction and

maintenance of rural roads: Guidelines for the training of road builders.
Construction and Development Series, Number 14. Development Bank of
Southern Africa. November, 1996.

15
Annexure A: Setting out the road alignment and cross-section
A1 Equipment
String line
Tape measure (3 and 50 m)
Line level
Ranging rods
Adjustable profile boards
Hammer
Steel spikes
A2 Centre line
On existing roads, the centre line and alignment will usually be followed. On new
alignments it is necessary to set out the centre line and off-set pegs marking the
road edge and drainage.
The centre line is marked by placing ranging rods

Figure A1: Setting out centre line into the ground at 10 to 20 metre intervals (further
apart on flatter more uniform alignments). In order
to ensure straight sections of road, ranging rods are
installed at 100 m frequencies and the intermediate
rods are then installed at the appropriate points
Sight line making sure that they are all directly in line and the
same height to facilitate later setting out of cross
section profiles (Figure A1). Each stake should be
marked with the chainage/kilometre length from
the start.
Straight sections of road are easy to set out but

horizontal curves require significantly more input.
100m
These should be smooth and large radius curves can
be set out by eye with practice. Smaller radius curves
are more difficult to set out by eye and string can be
used to assist in this operation as indicated in Figure
A2. At the point of curvature, the road is divided
into two straight sections based on the approach
Figure A2: Setting out curves and exit angles, meeting at point O. This can be
done by using ranging rods. Points A and B are
located on the basis of the minimum allowable
radius of curvature. These are easiest located by
C
measuring AO and BO as the specified minimum
radius of curvature (Figure A2). AO and BO are then
divided into four or five equal sections and string
lines placed between the points on AO and the
B
A opposite points on BO, i.e. the point on AO closest
Minimum allowable to O is joined to the point on BO furthest from O.
radius of curvature
The outermost inter-sections of these lines provides
the required horizontal curve.
Once the road centre line has been set out, and the
horizontal alignment fixed, the vertical alignment
should be set. This will usually follow that of an existing road with minor
smoothing out or require a full setting out. The aim is to provide a smooth
surface and this can be achieved by ensuring that the ranging rods shown in
Figure A1 are all at the same height along the sight line. They should thus be
placed into the ground (or existing road) to ensure this. Ranging rods can usually
be hammered into soft ground but in harder material or rocky terrain, a steel

spike should be knocked into the ground first to

avoid damage to the ranging rods. Where it is Figure A3: Setting out right angles
difficult to achieve the correct levels at the tops of
the ranging rods, profile boards can be used. These
are flat steel plates attached to a clampable sliding Centre line
device such that they can be adjusted and clamped 4
at the required heights using sight lines.
At this stage of the project, the centre line of the

proposed road should be marked out with ranging 5 3
rods at regular intervals (or appropriately marked
stakes replacing the ranging rods). The
pavement/drain cross sections are then located at
the site of each ranging rod/stake. These must be
perpendicular to the centre line at the respective
points. Ensuring that the profiles are perpendicular
to the centre line can be done using tape measures
or marked strings and the 3-4-5 method as shown in
Figure A3.
Figure A4: Using ranging rods and profile boards to set

On these perpendiculars, the road profile should be
grades for drains
pegged out using a tape measure and the pegs (or
stakes) placed at the edge of the formation, and
marking the drain break points on each side of the
road. In order to ensure adequate drainage,
however, the drains require a small grade and this
Sight line
should be ensured using ranging rods and profile
boards. The grade of the drains can be determined
from the spacing between ranging rods and their
heights (assuming they have been correctly placed
with a horizontal sight line or one with a known
grade). Profile boards on these rods can then be
used to establish stakes marked at the correct
heights for construction control (Figure A4).

17
Annexure B: Simple statistical quality control technique
The testing of construction quality should be carried out at the end of every day
for a lot (i.e. one day’s production). This would usually comprise about 100 metres
of new layer, depending on resources available. The properties to be tested
would be compaction (or a proxy thereof) and layer
Figure B1: Definition of a surface lot thickness.
A minimum sample size of six is considered to be

sufficient although a greater number of samples
would be desirable. Sampling should be carried out
in a random manner and a stratified random system
as follows has been found to be effective:
Left -
Right + Direction of progress of work The section to be evaluated must be defined by an

area of width, W, and length, L, separated by the
centre line as shown in Figure B1. Both the length
and width are reduced by 400 mm compared with
the actual construction.
Random numbers for various sampling plans are

Table B1: Random selection of sampling plan provided in Table B1. A sampling plan is randomly
selected – one way of doing this is by taking the
Minutes past hour Sampling plan
minute reading on a watch at the time of the
0-10 1
assessment:
10-20 2
20-30 3 The coordinates of the sampling points are
30-40 4 determined from Table B2 and transferred to the
40-50 5 road by measurements along the road centre line
(f1L) and offset from the centre line (+ or – f2W) as
50-60 6
shown in the example below.
Table B2: Factors for determining co-ordinates of random sampling positions on a surface lot
Sampling plan 1 Sampling plan 2 Sampling plan 3 Sampling plan 4 Sampling plan 5 Sampling plan 6
n f1 f2 f1 f2 f1 f2 f1 f2 f1 f2 f1 f2
1 0.075 0.225 (-) 0.825 0.125(+) 0.275 0.225(-) 0.675 0.425(+) 0.375 0.125(-) 0.525 0.375(+)
2 0.925 0.275(-) 0.425 0.525(-) 0.925 0.375(+) 0.225 0.075(-) 0.925 0.425(+) 0.225 0.125(-)
3 0.275 0.375(+) 0.925 0.125(-) 0.175 0.425(+) 0.825 0.025(-) 0.275 0.475(+) 0.725 0.475(-)
4 0.575 0.325(-) 0.275 0.425(+) 0.975 0.275(-) 0.125 0.175(+) 0.925 0.225(-) 0.075 0.025(+)
5 0.075 0.475(-) 0.525 0.375(+) 0.175 0.175(-) 0.775 0.075(+) 0.025 0.025(-) 0.825 0.425(+)
6 0.525 0.275(+) 0.075 0.325(-) 0.975 0.275(+) 0.025 0.275(-) 0.575 0.275(+) 0.325 0.375(-)
7 0.325 0.275(+) 0.625 0.125(-) 0.475 0.075(+) 0.975 0.175(-) 0.325 0.375(+) 0.875 0.025(-)
8 0.775 0.025(-) 0.175 0.475(+) 0.625 0.025(-) 0.075 0.075(+) 0.675 0.075(-) 0.375 0.325(+)
9 0.175 0.425(-) 0.675 0.275(+) 0.375 0.475(-) 0.675 0.125(+) 0.425 0.125(-) 0.575 0.475(+)
10 0.975 0.075(+) 0.375 0.275(-) 0.975 0.075(+) 0.325 0.375(-) 0.775 0.275(+) 0.075 0.275(-)
The testing at each point will require a DCP penetration to 150 mm depth and a
determination of the thickness (using the probe or excavating a small hole).
Example:
Sampling
A lot needs to be checked for compaction (DCP penetration rate) and thickness.
Six samples are to be taken. The time is 16:25 (i.e. sampling plan 3 is to be used).

The length of the lot is measured as 98 m and the width is 6.5 m.
The nett length, L of the lot = 98 - 0.4 = 97.6m

The nett width, W of the lot = 6.5 – 0.4 = 6.1m
The zero point for the longitudinal measurements is 200 mm from the start of the
lot in the direction of progress and on the centre line for the transverse
measurements.
Sample f1 f1L (m) f2 f2W (m)

The nett co-ordinates of the sampling positions are
as follows: 1 0.275 26.84 -0.225 -1.37
2 0.925 90.28 +0.375 +2.29
Thus, test 1 will be at 26.84 + 0.2 = 27.04 m from the 3 0.175 17.08 +0.425 +2.59
start of the section and 1.37 m to the left of the 4 0.975 95.16 -0.275 -1.68
centre line, etc.
5 0.175 17.08 -0.175 -1.07
6 0.275 26.84 +0.275 +1.68
The tests will be interpreted as follows:
Compaction (DCP penetration):

Target value Maximum mean Maximum for
The target value will be that obtained from the
(mm/blow) single test
proof rolling usually in the range 6 to 12 mm
6 5.4 8
penetration per blow. A maximum mean value and
8 7.4 10
an absolute maximum value as shown will be
10 9.4 11.5
required. 12 11.4 13
Where the maximum mean value is not achieved, additional rolling should be
applied to the entire section, until the value is achieved. At areas with values
higher than the target value and where the maximum for the single test is
obtained, additional rolling should also be provided. The results should obviously
be assessed in terms of the overall visual impression of the section.
Layer thickness
Typically, a layer thickness of 150 mm will be

specified. The results of the random thickness Target thickness Minimum 90th Minimum
(mm) percentile thickness mean thickness
testing will be assessed in terms of the following:
150 140 134

19

Notes

Acknowledgements

Gautrans
Soweto City Council
labour based construction. Johannesburg City Council
eThekwini Metro
of guidelines.
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Labour-based methods and

technologies for employment-

A cidb guide to best practice

Best Practice Guideline – Part 1

An overview of labour-based technologies

Best Practice Guideline – Part 1 1ST

and methods in employment-intensive works

Overview of best practice labour-based guidelines 2

2. The employment potential of construction projects 4

3. The impact of the choice of technology 9

5. Selected specialist and related literature 15

cidb is a public entity established in terms of the CIDB

ISBN: 0-621-35565-8 Printed March, 2005

Construction Industry Development Board

Overview of the best practice labour-based guidelines

Appropriate specifications and labour-based technologies are required to

These best practice guidelines present current state-of-the-art practices in a wide

There are definite relationships between employment opportunities, available

All of the above presupposes that appropriate labour-based methods and

labour-based methods and technologies

2. The employment potential of construction projects

The Green Paper on an Enabling Environment for Reconstruction, Growth and

Employment-intensive works have been highly visible in the civil engineering

Several employment-intensive works programmes have been implemented in

Employment-intensive methods have been employed in South Africa on

Other employment-intensive construction-related projects have included

2.2 Quantitative information on the potential of labour-based

The authors of a report commissioned in 1994 by the National Housing Forum in

4 a cidb – guide to best practice

maximised. These relate to forms of construction,

CONSTRUCTION NUMBER OF PERSON-HOURS (hours) NUMBER OF PERSON-HOURS (hours)

labour-based methods and technologies

Table 3 : Evaluation of non-masonry house types

CONSTRUCTION TYPE ESTIMATED COSTS (1994) COST/PERSON-HOUR

SERVICE ESTIMATED PERSON-HOURS (%) ESTIMATED TOTAL COST/PERSON-HOUR

Table 5: The employment potential of various roadwork activities

ACTIVITY THICKNESS PERSON-HOURS TO PRODUCE AND CONSTRUCT

6 a cidb – guide to best practice

SERVICE LABOUR PERSON-HOURS/ERF COST/PERSON-HOUR

An analysis of Soweto's Contractor Development Programme, a programme

Table 7: Estimated number of person-hours generated in Soweto's Contractor Development Programme

TYPE OF CONSTRUCTION UNIT ESTIMATED NUMBER OF PERSON-HOURS/UNIT (hours/unit)

TYPE OF CONSTRUCTION UNIT ESTIMATED

DESCRIPTION ROAD CONSTRUCTION SECONDARY WATER MAINS HOUSE CONNECTIONS

labour-based methods and technologies

2.3 The impact of choice of technology and construction methods on

The choice of construction method can, particularly in the case of civil

The choice of manufacturing method of construction components can also

Changes in methods and technologies, which increase the labour content of

8 a cidb – guide to best practice

3. The impact of the choice of technology

The choice of technology not only influences employment parameters, as

In the first example, a church community wished to construct a 600 m2 church

To accommodate the builder, the hall was designed as a reinforced masonry

Sometimes it is more appropriate to look to old technologies rather than to

• Transportation costs are minimised, as cement which accounts for

Figure 1: Mechanisation level of some labour-intensive construction techniques

10 a cidb – guide to best practice

The World Bank in a paper on expanding labour-based methods in road works

labour-based methods and technologies