Chapter 1

Boyle’s Law

1.1 A Brief History

Robert Boyle observed a relation between the pressure and volume in a gas in 1662. Boyle’s Law depicts a
special case of the Ideal Gas Law. There is an inverse proportionality between the pressure and the volume
of a gas when the temperature of that system is kept constant. During today’s experiment you will observe
the relationship Boyle’s Law describes.

1.2 Notes
1. Always read the lab manual before coming to class. Daily quizzes will be given at the beginning of
each class covering material in this manual.

2. It is always a good idea to bring a flash drive to class in case you may want to save images or data
gathered during the experiment. I would recommend that each group member bring their own flash
drive; relying on a single group member to email relevant data is never a good idea. This manual and
your TA will remind you one class in advance if a flash drive is absolutely necessary.
3. By the way, you will need a flash drive for the next Chapter, Specific Heat.

4. Throughout the semester you will find that the necessary theory to solve some of the problems in the
labs will be developed within the procedure. Read ahead!
5. Items outlined in boxes are questions that you may try to answer during class however it is more of
an individual task to answer those questions outside of class time. They should be addressed in the
results section of your lab report.
6. If you are in the Honors section, be sure to review all of the Honors questions before leaving class.
Sometimes steps will be required in the class to answer those questions. It is also a good idea to
work on those problems with your group mates so as to not pull an all-nighter trying to figure out if
something is a 2 or a 3.

7. Expect typos in this manual. This is the first semester it is in use and there are bound to be errors.
Send an email to mws0002@alumni.uah.edu to report any typos. Your TA may or may not give extra
credit for this.

1
1.3 Definitions
1. Boyle’s Law -The principle that at a constant temperature the volume of a confined ideal gas varies
inversely with its pressure1 .
2. Pressure-The force per unit area that one region of a gas, liquid, or solid exerts on another. Pressure
is usually measured in Pascal units, atmospheres, or pounds per square inch1 .
3. Volume-The amount of space occupied by a three-dimensional object or region of space1 .
4. Temperature-A measure of the ability of a substance, or more generally of any physical system, to
transfer heat energy to another physical system. The temperature of a substance is closely related to
the average kinetic energy of its molecules1 .

1
Definitions were provided by The American Heritage Science Dictionary

1.4 Laboratory Objectives

By the end of today’s exercise it is in the hopes of this Author that you will understand how the relationships
of Pressure, Volume, and Temperature behave in a closed system.

1.5 Equipment
Pressure Sensor w/ Syringe Attachment, Datastudio

1.6 In Class Lecture

1. The TA will introduce the concepts that will be covered in this lab as well as go over the syllabus.
2. The TA will go over the ideal gas law and the portions of it that will be held constant.

1.7 Procedure
1. The lab apparatus should be ready-to-go before the lab begins as set up by the instructor. Your in-
structor will give you the temperature of the room in Celsius. It is up to you to convert it to Kelvin
for the purposes of this experiment.

◦
T: C −→ T : K
2. Open Datastudio and allocate the Pressure Sensor (Absolute) to Channel 1. Click on the Pres-
sure Sensor (Absolute) icon and select Sensor Properties, select the Slow option with a 1 second
sample rate. Confirm and then select the Options option to configure Sampling Options. Select the
Keep data only when commanded option. Type Volume as a label and ml for the units. Confirm the
setup and exit.
3. Adjust the Syringe such that the piston located inside of the Syringe is located at the 15 ml line.
4. On Datastudio, click the Start button. Now slowly increase the Volume inside of the Syringe
such that the piston is located at the 20 ml line. On Datastudio, click the Keep button. When
Datastudio prompts you to enter a value, enter the value of 20 ml.
5. Reduce the Volume of the Syringe to 19 ml and on Datastudio press the Keep button. When
Datastudio prompts you to enter a value, enter the value of 19 ml.

2
 6. Reduce the Volume of the Syringe to 18 ml and on Datastudio press the Keep button. When
Datastudio prompts you to enter a value, enter the value of 18 ml.
7. Continue this process of reducing the Volume by 1 ml per interval until the Syringe piston reaches
the 10 ml line. Once the piston has reached the 11 ml line, on Datastudio click the Stop button.
8. Drag the data you gathered to the Graph Display icon. Verify that the graph is Pressure vs Time,
that is to say that Pressure is listed on the y-axis and Time is listed on the x-axis. As it stands this
is incorrect because Time was not a factor in this experiment. Instead, drag the volume data you
gathered to the x-axis of the graph to display Pressure vs Volume.
9. Also drag the data for the Pressure to the Data Table icon to record those values. Record the Pressure
data points for the corresponding volume below.

Vol (ml) Pressure ( N/m2 ) Vol (ml) Pressure ( N/m2 )

20 ml 15 ml
19 ml 14 ml
18 ml 13 ml
17 ml 12 ml
16 ml 11 ml

10. Delving into the Ideal Gas Law we know that

P V = nRT (1.1)
where P is the pressure, V is the volume, n is the number of moles of gas, R is the gas constant
which is always 8.31 J/molK, and T is the temperature. For Boyle’s Law, we know that nRT must be
constant. Thus (11.1) becomes
PV = C (1.2)
where C = nRT and is always constant.

Question 1: What are the units of C? How do these units compare with PV? What are the units
of PV? Discuss this in the results section of your lab report.

11. Find what PV is for all cases that you measured. Careful with your units, I would not recommend
using ml. Perhaps changing it to m3 would be best.

Vol (ml) Pressure x Volume (Nm) Vol (ml) Pressure x Volume (Nm)
20 ml 15 ml
19 ml 14 ml
18 ml 13 ml
17 ml 12 ml
16 ml 11 ml

Question 2: Were all the values of PV approximately the same? What do you think would
happen to this experiment if the Temperature T was not held constant? Could we still use Boyle’s
Law? Discuss this in the results section of your lab report.

3
12. From Boyle’s Law you can easily observe that if we divide both sides by V that P is inversely propor-
tional to some constant divided by V. Go ahead and calculate what 1/V is in each case, this should be
relatively simple considering you used V as your control in this experiment.

Vol (ml) 1/Volume (m−3 ) Vol (ml) 1/Volume (m−3 )

20 ml 15 ml
19 ml 14 ml
18 ml 13 ml
17 ml 12 ml
16 ml 11 ml

13. Make a rough sketch of Pressure vs 1/V below.

Question 3: Using a graphing program of your choice plot a graph of Pressure vs 1/V and include
it in your lab report. Discuss this in the results section of your lab report.

Question 4: Using an arbitrary pair of P and V that you measured above, calculate the number
of moles of gas that are present inside of the Syringe. Discuss this in the results section of your lab
report.

4
?Honors Question A: If a gas at 25.0C occupies 3.60 liters at a pressure of 1.00 atm, what will be its
volume at a pressure of 2.50 atm?

??Honors Question B: Assuming you are wearing scuba gear and swimming under water at a depth
of 15.0 m. You are breathing air at 3.00 atm and your lung volume is 0.011 m3 . Your scuba gauge indicates
that your air supply is low so, to conserve air, you make a terrible and fatal mistake: you hold your breath
while you surface. What happens to your lungs? Why?

..........................................................................................................
QUIZ 11 - Boyles Law

..........................................................................................................

5
Chapter 2

Specific Heat

2.1 A Brief History

The idea that an object has a certain specific heat associated with it carries a lot of weight in determining
useful and interesting aspects of that object. If we know the specific heat of an object we may quantify the
amount of thermal energy that the object can transfer and absorb. In today’s experiment you will explore
and observe the transfer of heat from a piece of metal to its surroundings and quantify the amount of thermal
energy transferred.

2.2 Notes
1. You will need a flash drive for the next chapter, Electric Field.

2.3 Definitions
1. Specific Heat-The ratio of the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a
substance by one unit of temperature to the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a
similar mass of a reference material, usually water, by the same amount.1

2. Calorimeter -An apparatus for measuring the heat generated by a chemical reaction, change of state,
or formation of a solution.1
3. Calorie-Unit of energy with 1 calorie equalling 4.1868 Joules.

1
Definitions were provided by The American Heritage Science Dictionary

2.4 Laboratory Objectives

By the end of today’s exercise it is in the hopes of this Author that you will understand how

1. Thermal Energy is transferred from one medium to another.

2. You may quantify the energy transferred from one medium to another.
3. Thermal Energy always transfers from Hot to Cold with no exceptions.

6
2.5 Equipment
Calorimeter w/ Inner Metal Cup + Stirrer, Thermometer, Balance, Various Weights, Glass Beaker, Glass
Beaker Heater, Gas Burner, Metal Sample, DataStudio, and Temperature Sensor.

2.6 In Class Lecture

1. The TA will introduce the idea and methodology of using a calorimeter to measure the specific heat
of an object and why it is useful.

2.7 Procedure
1. Your instructor will give you the temperature of the room in Celsius. It is up to you to convert it to
Kelvin for the purposes of this experiment.

◦
T: C −→ T : K.
2. Measure the Mass of the Metal Sample.

Metal Sample Mass: kg

3. The lab instructor should have 1 or 2 gallons of water sitting out which should be at room temperature.
First measure the Mass of the Calorimeter’s Inner Metal Cup + Stirrer.

Inner Metal Cup + Stirrer Mass: kg

4. Now fill the Inner Metal Cup approximately 3/4 full of water and measure the Mass of the Calorime-
ter’s Inner Metal Cup + Stirrer + 3/4 Water.

Inner Metal Cup + Stirrer + 3/4 Water: kg Mass of the Water: kg

5. On Datastudio allocate the Temperature Sensor icon to Channel A.
6. Insert the Temperature Sensor into the water filled Inner Metal Cup and on Datastudio click the
Start button to record the temperature of the water. Find the Mean value of the temperature and
record its value, this is the initial temperature of your water.

◦
Tiw : C −→ Tiw : K.

Question 1: What is the initial temperature of your Metal Sample?

◦
Tim : C −→ Tim : K.
7. Fill the glass beaker with water from the tap until it is approximately 1/4 full. Place the 1/4 water
filled glass beaker on the beaker heater. Turn the beaker heater to the maximum setting and allow the
water inside of the Beaker to boil. After the water is boiling insert the Metal Sample such that it is
completely submerged and let it sit for approximately five minutes to bring the metal sample to the
same temperature as the boiling water. Record the temperature of water after five minutes has past.
Do not use the conventional temperature for boiling water as it is incorrect when used in experiments

7
 across the world. The ideal gas law predicts different boiling temperatures for different altitudes on
Earth.

w ◦ w
Tboil : C −→ Tboil : K.
8. On Datastudio, click the Start button. Prepare the calorimeter by lifting the lid and the metal stirrer
out of the water filled inner metal cup. Now use the metal tongs to grab the heated metal sample and
place it into the water filled inner metal cup, immediately close the chamber such that the Temperature
Sensor never comes into contact with your heated metal sample. Using the stirrer, stir the water inside
of the inner metal cup until the Temperature Sensor records a constant temperature.
9. Once the temperature has become constant click the Stop button on Datastudio. Drag the data you
recorded to the Graph Display icon. Using the x-y Smart tool, find the value where the temperature
is constant. Record this as the final temperature of all items in the system.

◦
Tf : C −→ Tf : K.
10. Now you have all the pieces of information you will need to find the specific heat of the Metal Sample.
Let us delve into some theory in order to solve this problems. From your coursework you know that

∆Q = cm∆T (2.1)

where ∆Q is the heat energy, c is the specific heat, m is the mass, and ∆T is the change in temper-
ature. Your goal is to use this equation to find what the Specific Heat of the metal sample is. Let
us use some physics “hand waving arguments” in order to get equations (12.1) into the correct form
for the heat of the entire system. The idea behind a calorimeter is that the energy in a system is not
lost to an outside system. It is completely isolated and the heat energy only transfers from one object
in a system to another object in the same system until and equilibrium is approached. Therefore we
may equate
∆Qsample = ∆Qwater + ∆Qcalorimeter (2.2)
more explicitly written

cs ms (Tf s − Tis ) = cw mw (Tf w − Tiw ) + cc mc (Tf c − Tic ) (2.3)

where the subscript s denotes the metal sample, the subscript w denotes the water, and the subscript
c denotes the calorimeter. Fortunately we know that

(Tf w − Tiw ) = (Tf c − Tic )

therefore
cs ms (Tf s − Tis ) = (cw mw + cc mc )(Tf w − Tiw ) (2.4)
There is only one piece of information needed to solve for cs , and that is cc . Luckily for you, cc is listed
on the outside of the calorimeter. Record that value:

cc J/kg K

Question 2: Find the specific heat of the metal sample using (12.4). Use a search engine of your
desire and find what metal your metal sample is. Calculate the percent difference in the currently
accepted value and what you measured. Discuss this in the results section of your lab report.

8
?Honors Question A: A 5.8 kg sample of a metal with a specific heat of 0.43KJ/KgC is heated to 100.0C
then placed in a 25.0 g sample of water at 30.0C. What is the final temperature of the metal and the water?

??Honors Question B: The element hydrogen has the highest specific heat of all elements. At a tem-
perature of 25C, hydrogens specific heat capacity is 14300J/(kg K). If the temperature of a .34kg sample of
hydrogen is to be raised by 25 K, how much heat will have to be transferred to the hydrogen?

..........................................................................................................
QUIZ 12 - Specific Heat
..........................................................................................................

9
Chapter 3

Electric Fields

3.1 Background
Electric Fields are produced by charges. Charges may one of two signs, positive, negative. Today you will
observe how placing positive and negative charges at specific distances can alter an electric field.

3.2 Definitions
1. Electric Field -A vector quantity from which is determined the magnitude and direction of the force
(electric force) on a charged particle due to the presence of other charged particles, accelerated charged
particles, or time-varying currents 2 .
2. Charge- The attribute of matter by which it responds to electromagnetic forces responsible for all
electrical phenomena, existing in two forms to which the signs negative and positive are arbitrarily
assigned.

3.3 Laboratory Objectives

By the end of today’s exercise you will understand how charges behave in different configurations.

3.4 Equipment
EM Field Program

3.5 Procedure
1. Open the program titled EM Field. Click the Sources button and select 3D Point Charges. Click the
Display button and then select Show Grid.

2. Located at the bottom of the program is an assortment of charges both positive and negative. Drag
a +1 charge to the center of the grid. Click the Field and Potential button and select Field Vectors.
This will show the electric field vectors associated with the +1 charge once you click on some arbitrary
point on the screen. The direction is given by the arrow head and the magnitude is given by the length
of the vector.

10
3. Using a not so arbitrary approach, try clicking at different intervals on the x-axis. Notice how the
magnitude of each vector changes as you approach and distance yourself from the +1 charge.

Question 1: Which direction is the field vector pointing relative to the charge? Does the
magnitude increase or decrease as you approach the charge? Discuss this in the results section of
your lab report.

4. Replace the +1 charge with a -1 charge and place some arbitrary and not so arbitrary vectors around
it.

Question 2: Which direction is the field vector pointing relative to the charge? Does the
magnitude increase or decrease as you approach the charge? Discuss this in the results section of
your lab report.

5. Take a screen shot using the PRTSC button located on your keyboard, using Microsoft Paint, paste
the screen shot and save it to your flashdrive for later use in your lab report.
6. Replace the -1 charge with a +2 charge and place some arbitrary, and not so arbitrary vectors around
it.

Question 3: Which direction is the field vector pointing relative to the charge? Does the
magnitude increase or decrease as you approach the charge? How does the magnitude differ from
the +1 charge? Discuss this in the results section of your lab report.

7. Take a screen shot using the PRTSC button located on your keyboard, using Microsoft Paint, paste
the screen shot and save it to your flashdrive for later use in your lab report.
8. Clear the grid and add a +1 charge in the center. Click the Field and Potential button and select
Field Lines. Now click arbitrarily around the +1 charge a few times. Now click the Field and Potential
button and select Field Vectors. Click on the field lines around the charge.

Question 4: Are the vector field lines tangential to the field lines? Discuss this in the results
section of your lab report.

11
 9. Take a screen shot using the PRTSC button located on your keyboard, using Microsoft Paint, paste
the screen shot and save it to your flashdrive for later use in your lab report.
10. Clear the grid and add a +1 charge and then a -1 charge approximately two box units away. Draw the
field lines around each charge. Now add several field vectors along those lines.

Question 5: What direction does the field point with respect to the -1 charge? Are there any
points in which the field lines overlap? If a positive test charge that was free to move were placed
inside the electric field, along what path would it move? Would it try to approach either of the
charges? Discuss this in the results section of your lab report.

11. Take a screen shot using the PRTSC button located on your keyboard, using Microsoft Paint, paste
the screen shot and save it to your flashdrive for later use in your lab report.
12. Clear the grid and add a +1 charge and then another +1 charge approximately two box units away.
Draw the field lines around each charge. Now add several field vectors along those lines.

Question 6: What direction does the field point with respect to either of the +1 charges? Are
there any points in which the field lines overlap? If a positive test charge that was free to move
were placed inside the electric field, along what path would it move? Would it try to approach
either of the charges? Discuss this in the results section of your lab report.

13. Take a screen shot using the PRTSC button located on your keyboard, using Microsoft Paint, paste
the screen shot and save it to your flashdrive for later use in your lab report.
14. Click on the File button and then select Get charges or currents from file. Select qplates.emf which
should simulate two charged plates. Place several field lines in between the two charged plates. Ar-
bitrarily place field vectors inside and outside of the plates. Take care in noting the structure of the
electric field.

Question 7: Discuss the structure of the electric field found above. If a positive test charge that
was free to move were placed inside the electric field, along what path would it move? Discuss this
in the results section of your lab report.

15. Take a screen shot using the PRTSC button located on your keyboard, using Microsoft Paint, paste
the screen shot and save it to your flashdrive for later use in your lab report.
16. Exit the program completely, just to be safe. Now open the program titled EM Field. Click the Sources
button and select 3D Point Charges. Click the Display button and then select Show Grid. Add a +4
charge to the grid. Add several field lines at arbitrary points.

12
17. Click the Field and Potential button and select Equipotentials with number. Click at known distances
like 1 box unit, 2 box units, 3 box units etc...until about 6 box units. Make note of the numbers
displayed next to each line.
18. Make several field vectors along the equipotential lines.

Question 8: What did you notice about the magnitude and direction of the field vectors that
were placed on the same field line at different locations? Discuss this in the results section of your
lab report.

19. Take a screen shot using the PRTSC button located on your keyboard, using Microsoft Paint, paste
the screen shot and save it to your flashdrive for later use in your lab report.
20. From your coursework you know that work(w) over some distance l done by a charge q is defined as
Z
w = F~ (r) · d~l (3.1)

where
q2
F~ (r) = r̂ (3.2)
4π0 r2
where r̂ is the unit vector that points in the r vector direction. This notation may have jumped your
coursework a bit, but just realize that it just tells us that direction of the Force, and that is all we care
about for this experiment. Plugging (13.2) into (13.1) yields

q2
Z
w= r̂ · d~l (3.3)
4π0 r2

Lets ignore everything in the equation except for the dot product between r̂ and d~l. From the definition
of the dot product we know that if the two vectors are orthogonal then the dot product is 0, if they
are parallel it will be non zero. So lets examine two cases, the first case being if the two vectors are
orthogonal.

If d~l points perpendicular to the radial vector it means that an imaginary test charge is moving
tangent to the electric field lines. Thus the dot product is 0. If d~l points parallel to the radial vector,
it moves in the same direction as the radial vector thus the dot product is not 0. Moreover,

q2
Z
w= r̂ · d~l = 0 (3.4)
4π0 r2

when r̂ is perpendicular to d~l and

q2
Z
w= r̂ · d~l 6= 0 (3.5)
4π0 r2
when r̂ is not perpendicular to d~l

13
Question 9: If an imaginary test charge is placed on an equipotential line, if it moves with the
line will the work be 0? If an imaginary test charge is placed on an equipotential line, if it moves
perpendicular to the line will the work be 0? Discuss this in the results section of your lab report.

14
?Honors Question A: What must the charge of a .05 kg particle be for it to remain balanced against
gravity when placed in a downward-directed electric field of magnitude 500 N/C?. What is the magnitude
of an electric field in which the electric force it exerts on a proton is equal in magnitude to the proton’s weight?

??Honors Question B: A charge q acts as a point charge to create an electric field. Its strength, measured
at a distance of 92 cm away, is 52 N/C. Find the electric field strength.

? ? ? Theory — Honors Question C: A small positive charge is placed in the electric field of a fixed
positive point charge. Is the acceleration of the small positive charge constant? What if the charge was
negative? Explain your answer.

..........................................................................................................
QUIZ 13 - Electric Fields
..........................................................................................................

15
Chapter 4

Power and Work

4.1 A Brief History

The concepts of power and work are useful in many areas of interest such as physics, electrical engineering,
and chemical engineering. When applying an electrical current to a resister it will heat up. You may calculate
the amount of thermal energy the resistor is generating. Using a calorimeter you may measure the amount
of thermal energy the resistor releases into the surroundings similar to the way you did before in chapter 12.

4.2 Definitions
1. Power -The rate at which work is done, expressed as the amount of work per unit time and commonly
measured in units such as the watt and horsepower.1

2. Work -The transfer of energy from one physical system to another, especially the application of a force
to move a body in a certain direction. It is calculated as the product of the force and the distance
over which it is applied and is expressed in joules, ergs, and foot-pounds.1 1 Definitions were provided
by The American Heritage Science Dictionary

4.3 Equipment
Electrical Calorimeter, Ammeter, Voltmeter, Power Supply, Wires, DataStudio, Temperature Sensor, Bal-
ance, and Masses.

4.4 Procedure
1. Measure the mass of the inner calorimeter cup.

mcal :
2. Fill the cup 3/4 full of water and then measure the combined mass.

mw+cal :
3. Determine the mass of the water added.

mw :

16
 Figure 4.1: Equipment Setup

4. At no point should the Power Supply be turned on until the TA has confirmed that your circuit is
connected correctly. Connect an Ammeter and Power Supply in series. Now connect the Calorimeter
to the Voltmeter and Power Supply as shown in the diagram above.
5. On Datastudio, connect the Temperature Sensor. Place the physical temperature inside the closed
Calorimeter cup. On Datastudio click the Start button. After a few seconds click the Stop button.
6. Drag the data to the Table Display icon. Click the Statistics button and select Mean from the menu.
Record the value, which consequently is the Initial Temperature of the water.

Twi :
7. After the Initial Temperature of the water has been recorded delete the Data and Data Table. Open
the Sensor Properties window. Adjust the Sample Rate to be Slow and 30 s. Click OK.
8. On Datastudio, select the Options button. Enter 600 s for the Automatic Stop. Drag the Graph
Display to Channel A and then turn on the Power Supply.
9. Set the Power Supply to 2 Amperes. Record the accompanying Voltage. On Datastudio press the Start
button to begin recording data.
10. Gently stir the water for the next 10 minutes. When Datastudio automatically stops reduce the current
on the Power Supply to 0 and then turn the device off.
11. Display the graph created and click the Scale to Fit button in the event that the graph is too small.
Determine the temperature for every two minutes. Record those values.

T1 : T2 : T3 : T4 : T5 :

Using the same equation from chapter 12,

Q = cm∆T. (4.1)
Expanding this to include all relevant terms we have that
Q = (cw mw + cc mc )∆T. (4.2)

12. Using (14.2) calculate the heat energy.

17
13. Express the answer you got in the previous step in joules. Recall that 4.184 joules = 1 calorie.

14. To find the electrical power and electrical energy in the same time interval we may use

P = IV (4.3)

where P is the power, I is the current, and V is the applied voltage. To find the electrical energy
dissipated we may use
E = Pt (4.4)
where E is the electrical energy, P is the power, and t is the time.

15. Plot the thermal energy as a function of the electrical energy.

18
?Honors Question A: What is the difference between power and energy? Also state the difference between
kw (kilowatt) and kWh (kilowatt-hour).

?Honors Question B: Define kWh. Using the standard relation connecting power and energy, show
the relation between kW, kW and hour.

? Honors Question C: Write down the conversion between kWh and Joules and hence show that 1kWh=3.6MJ.

..........................................................................................................
QUIZ 14 - Power and Work

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19
Chapter 5

Circuit Basics

5.1 Background
Circuitry is such a large field of study that you may even pursue a degree in it, or perhaps you already are
if you are an Electrical Engineer. Circuits are the ushers of the information era and today you will observe
how current flows, the difference between components in series and components in parallel, and the necessary
requirements for a circuit to work.

5.2 Definitions
1. Circuit-A closed path followed or capable of being followed by an electric current1 .
2. Series-A number of components in a circuit arranged one after the other in linear succession.

3. Parallel -An arrangement of components in a circuit that splits the current into two or more paths1 .
4. Resistance-The opposition of a body or substance to current passing through it, resulting in a change
of electrical energy into heat or another form of energy1 .
5. Volts-The SI-derived unit of electric potential and electromotive force, equal to the difference of electric
potential between two points on a conducting wire carrying a constant current of one ampere when
the power dissipated between the points is one watt1 .
6. Amperes-The basic unit of electric current, equal to one coulomb per second and equivalent to the
current, flowing in two straight parallel wires of negligible cross section separated by a distance of one
meter, that produces a force between the wires of 2.0×10−7 newtons per meter of length1 .

7. Ohm-The SI-derived unit of electrical resistance of a conductor through which a current of one ampere
flows when subjected to a one-volt potential across its terminals1 .
8. Rheostat-A continuously variable electrical resistor used to regulate current1 .

1
Definitions were provided by The American Heritage Science Dictionary

5.3 Laboratory Objectives

By the end of today’s exercise it is in the hopes of this Author that you will understand how basic circuits
work.

20
5.4 Equipment
Bulbs, Bulb Socket, Battery, Resistor, Rheostat, Voltmeter, Ammeter, and Connection Wires.

5.5 Procedure
1. Take a look at these poorly drawn diagrams depicting various configurations that you may test. The
white cylinders are batteries. The lines are the connector wires. The bulbs are...well they are the
bulbs.

2. Use 1 bulb, 1 connector wire, and multiple batteries to test each configuration and record below whether
or not it works.

1: 2: 3: 4:

5: 6: 7: 8:

Question 1: Briefly describe your results and discuss these results in the results section of your
lab report.

3. Now set up the following configuration where the ⊗ denotes the light bulb ,1, that has been placed in
a holder and the parallel lines represent the battery.

4. Remember the relative brightness of bulb 1 for comparison with the next apparatus. Now set up the
following configuration.

21
 Question 2: How does the brightness of the two bulb configuration compare to the one bulb
configuration? Are the bulbs in parallel or series? Feel free to make notes about their brightnesses
on the diagrams themselves. Discuss these results in the results section of your lab report.

5. Now set up the following configuration.

Question 3: How does the brightness of this two bulb configuration compare to the other two bulb
configuration? Are the bulbs in parallel or series? Feel free to make notes about their brightnesses
on the diagrams themselves. Discuss these results in the results section of your lab report.

6. Now set up the following configuration.

Question 4: How does the brightness of this configuration compare to the other configurations?
Which bulbs are in parallel and which are in series? Feel free to make notes about their brightnesses
on the diagrams themselves. Discuss these results in the results section of your lab report.

22
 7. Using the same configuration, change the wires such that one of the wires is absurdly long. Note if the
brightness changed. Try moving this wire around and changing the wire’s shape. Note if the brightness
changed.

8. Below is the same configuration you have already set up. You will check the voltages across several
points denoted by the letters.

9. Using your voltmeter, place your reference pick-up at point A. Now measure voltage from A to B,
denoted by VA→B .

VA→B : V
10. Now find the remainder of the voltages from point A to the rest.

VA→C : V VA→D : V VA→E : V

VA→F : V VA→G : V VA→H : V

Question 5: Which connections had 0 voltage? Which connections had the same voltage? Why
do you think this happened? Discuss these results in the results section of your lab report.

11. Now remove bulb 1 from the holder, but do not disconnect the circuit connectors. Note what happens.

12. Place bulb 1 back into the holder. Now remove bulb 2 from the holder, but do not disconnect the
circuit connectors. Note what happens.

13. Find a way to short bulb 2 from the circuit without removing it from the holder. Hint: You should
use another connector wire to do this. Note what happens to each bulb.

23
14. Disconnect your previous configuration such that you may make the following circuit. The jagged lines
are resistors which your instructor will provide. The dots represent different points, A B C, in which
you may measure the voltage.

Recall from your coursework that Ohm’s Law is portrayed as

V = IR (5.1)

where V is the voltage measured in volts, I is the current measured in amperes, and R is the resistance
measured in ohms. In chapter 16 you will spend quite a bit of time observing the consequences of this
law. Your goal today is to discover what the two values of the resistors are, R1 and R2 . Previously
you measured the voltage by placing the prods at two different locations. This method will not work
if you wish to measure the current. To measure the current you need to place the ammeter in series
with the circuit. Here are some useful equations that were developed in your coursework:

Rseries = R1 + R2 (5.2)

and  −1
1 1
Rparallel = + (5.3)
R1 R2

Question 6: Devise a means in your group to find the values of R1 and R2 . Discuss these results
in the results section of your lab report.

R1 : Ω R2 : Ω
15. Disconnect the configuration and set up the following configuration using the rheostat. There is a
sliding connector on the top of the rheostat. This sliding connector should be connected to the light
bulb such that upon varying the distance of the rheostat sliding connector you see an effect with the
light bulb’s intensity.

24
Question 7: Describe what happens to the light bulb when you move the rheostat sliding
connector. Why do you think this is happening? How does the rheostat work. Discuss these
results in the results section of your lab report.

25
?Honors Question A: A series circuit is set up and contains the following: a battery which states ’4V’ on
its side; and two identical lamps. If one lamp breaks, will the other will shine more brightly? If a voltmeter
shows the voltage across the first lamp to be 3 volts, can we assume the voltage across the second lamp will
be 1 volt? Will the voltage across each lamp be 4V, just like the voltage across the battery?

??Honors Question B: Describe how voltmeters and ammeters should be connected to circuits.

? Theory — Honors Question C: Using any source of information you have at your disposal, describe
how you may find which direction electrons flow in a circuit. For fun, ask a physicist which direction electrons
flow. Immediately after, ask an Electrical Engineer which direction electrons flow. Who is right? (Before
anyone answers, “They are both right!” I will let you know that they are not both right.)

..........................................................................................................
QUIZ 15 - Circuit Basics
..........................................................................................................

26
Chapter 6

Ohm’s Law

6.1 A Brief History

In 1827 Georg Ohm published his results on resistance in a notable journal of the time. Many of the intricacies
he discovered were in part brought about because of Fourier work with heat conduction. Specifically stated,
Ohm’s law states that the current passing through a conductor between two measured points is directly
proportional to the potential difference across those two measured points. One more thing that should be
noted is that Ohm’s law is not always linear because components on a circuit board are vulnerable to heat.
Today you will observe the proportionality between the voltage drop and the current passing through a given
component.

6.2 Definitions
1. Equivalent Series Resistance-If resistors are in series, then the sum of those resistors is the equivalent
resistance.
Re = R1 + R2 + R3 (6.1)

2. Equivalent Parallel Resistance-If resistors are in parallel, then the sum of the inverse resistances raised
to the -1 power is the equivalent resistance of the circuit.
 −1
1 1 1
Re = + + (6.2)
R1 R2 R3

27
6.3 Laboratory Objectives
By the end of today’s exercise it is in the hopes of this Author that you will understand how Ohm’s law
applies to circuits and how resistor equivalence works.

6.4 Equipment
Power Amplifier, Resistors including a 33Ω resistor, Light bulbs, Voltage Sensor, Current Sensor, Connector
Wires, and DataStudio.

6.5 Procedure
1. Set up the following apparatus. To make things easier on yourself, just do one wire at a time and have
a group mate check as it is pieced together.

2. Open Datastudio and select the Current Sensor icon and allocate it to Channel 1. Select the Voltage
Sensor icon and allocate it to Channel 2. Select the Power Amplifier icon and allocate it to Channel
3. Note on the diagram above the PASCAL interface has A,B,C listed. A is Channel 1, B is Channel
2, C is Channel 3.
3. The Signal Generator window should appear. Select DC Voltage and set it to 2V.
4. Turn the Power Amplifier on and then on Datastudio click the Start button. After a few seconds
click the Stop button. Drag the current data to the Table Display icon. Verify that the table shows
the Current and the Resistance. Now drag the Voltage data to the same table. Now it should show
both current and voltage. Find the mean of these values using the statistics menu.

V2V : V Imean : A

28
 5. Increase by 2V and repeat this process for the allotted spaces below.

V4V : V Imean : A V6V : V Imean : A

V8V : V Imean : A V10V : V Imean : A

6. Using the mean values recorded, use Datastudio to plot a graph. Click on the Experiment menu and
then select New Empty Data Table. In the x-axis column put the five mean values of current you mea-
sured. In the y-axis column put the five mean values of voltage you measured. Now drag this editable
data to the Graph Display icon. Use the Fit button to display a Linear Fit and find the slope of the line.

Slope: Ω

Question 1: What does the slope represent? How does it relate to Ohm’s Law? Is the relationship
approximately linear? Discuss this result in the results section of your lab report.

7. Compare the slope of the line you created to the resistance value labelled on the resistor. That is to
say, find the percent difference between what you measured and what the “actual” value of the resistor
is.

Percent Difference:

8. Now add a 10Ω resistor in series with the 33Ω resistor. Label them as R1 and R2 respectively. Adjust
the voltage sensor so that it is taking a voltage reading across both resistors.

9. On Datastudio click the Start button. After a few seconds click the Stop button. Drag the run data
from Channel 1 to the Table Display icon. Now drag the run data from Channel 2 to the same table.
Now it should show both current and voltage. Find the Mean of these values using the statistics menu.

V2V : V Imean : A

10. Increase by 2V and repeat this process for the allotted spaces below.

V4V : V Imean : A V6V : V Imean : A

29
 V8V : V Imean : A V10V : V Imean : A

11. Using the Mean values recorded, use Datastudio to plot a graph. Click on the Experiment menu and
then select New Empty Data Table. In the x-axis column put the five mean values of current you mea-
sured. In the y-axis column put the five mean values of voltage you measured. Now drag this editable
data to the Graph Display icon. Use the Fit button to display a Linear Fit and find the slope of the line.

Slope 2: Ω

Question 2: What does the slope represent? How does it relate to Ohm’s Law? Is the relationship
approximately linear? Discuss this result in the results section of your lab report.

12. Compare the slope of the line you created to the resistance value of the two resistors in series. That
is to say, find the percent difference between what you measured and what the “actual” value of the
equivalent resistor is.

Percent Difference:
13. Now design the circuit such that the 10Ω resistor is in parallel with the 33Ω resistor.

14. On Datastudio click the Start button. After a few seconds click the Stop button. Drag the run data
from Channel 1 to the Table Display icon. Now drag the run data from Channel 2 to the same table.
Now it should show both current and voltage. Find the mean of these values using the statistics menu.

V2V : V Imean : A
15. Increase by 2V and repeat this process for the allotted spaces below.

V4V : V Imean : A V6V : V Imean : A

V8V : V Imean : A V10V : V Imean : A

30
16. Using the mean values recorded, use Datastudio to plot a graph. Click on the Experiment menu and
then select New Empty Data Table. In the x-axis column put the five mean values of current you mea-
sured. In the y-axis column put the five mean values of voltage you measured. Now drag this editable
table to the Graph Display icon. Use the Fit button to display a Linear Fit and find the slope of the line.

Slope 3: Ω

Question 3: What does the slope represent? How does it relate to Ohm’s Law? Is the relationship
approximately linear? Discuss this result in the results section of your lab report.

17. Compare the slope of the line you created to the resistance value of the two resistors in parallel. That
is to say, find the percent difference between what you measured and what the “actual” value of the
equivalent resistor is.

Percent Difference:
18. Disconnect the two resistors from the circuit. Place the light bulb into the circuit where the two
resistors used to be located. Repeat the same process as before one last time.

19. On Datastudio click the Start button. After a few seconds click the Stop button. Drag the run data
from Channel 1 to the Table Display icon. Now drag the run data from Channel 2 to the same table.
Now it should show both current and voltage. Find the mean of these values using the statistics menu.

V2V : V Imean : A

20. Increase by 2V and repeat this process for the allotted spaces below.

V4V : V Imean : A V6V : V Imean : A

V8V : V Imean : A V10V : V Imean : A

21. Using the mean values recorded, use Datastudio to plot a graph. Click on the Experiment menu and
then select New Empty Data Table. In the x-axis column put the five mean values of current you
measured. In the y-axis column put the five mean values of voltage you measured. Now drag this
editable table to the Graph Display icon.

Question 4: Is the slope linear? If it is not linear, explain why. Discuss this result in the results
section of your lab report.

31
?Honors Question A: What would the effect be on a person if they stuck their finger into a regular wall
outlet that supplies 120V (dont try this) with completely dry skin (R=100,000 ohms)?

?Honors Question B: What would the effect be on a person if they stuck their finger into a regular
wall outlet (again dont try this) after sitting in a bathtub full of salt water (R=100ohms)? Find the percent
difference between this answer and question A. Which will let you live?

..........................................................................................................
QUIZ 16 - Ohm’s Law

..........................................................................................................

32
Chapter 7

RC Circuits

7.1 A Brief History

Capacitors have the ability to charge and discharge electrical currents and are measured in units of Farads.
If a resistor and capacitor are in series, there is a such a thing called the time constant. Prove to yourself
that if you multiply resistance by capacitance the resulting units are time. So it is not that far of a stretch to
call this product of RC the time constant. Today you will observe the time it takes to charge and discharge
a capacitor.

7.2 Laboratory Objectives

By the end of today’s exercise it is in the hopes of this Author that you will understand how capacitors
charge and discharge in a circuit.

7.3 Equipment
RLC Circuit Board, 500 ohm resistor, 330 microfarad capacitor, Connector Wires, and Datastudio.

7.4 Procedure
1. Open Datastudio and allocate the Voltage Sensor icon to Channel A. On the Voltage Sensor select
Sensor Properties to select Fast with a Sample Rate of 1000 Hz. Confirm and exit. Allocate the
Power Amplifier icon to Channel B. In the Signal Generator window, select a Positive Square Wave
with a frequency of 0.4 Hz and an Amplitude of 4.0 V with Auto selected. Select the Options tab
and set an Automatic Stop at 4.0 s.
2. Using the RLC circuit board, place a 500 Ω resistor in series with a 330 µF capacitor using the
Connector Wires. From the Power Amplifier, place the Black Ground Wire on the capacitor side of
the circuit and the Red Wire to the resistor side of the circuit.

3. Place the Voltage Sensor across the capacitor. The black ground wire of the Voltage Sensor should
be on the same side as the black ground wire for the Power Amplifier. Turn the Power Amplifier
on. On Datastudio, click the Start button.
4. Drag the voltage data to the Graph Display icon. Verify that the graph has voltage on the y-axis
and Time on the x-axis. Verify that the graph shows the voltage rising to a certain point and then
dropping back to almost the zero point. Select the Smart Tool and find where the voltage is maximum

33
 and record that value.

Vmax : V

From your coursework you know that

q(t) = qmax e−t/RC (7.1)
where q(t) is the charge at some time t, qmax is the maximum charge the system reached, t is the time,
and RC is the time constant. You also know that charge is associated with capacitance and voltage by
q(t) = CV (t) (7.2)
which leads to
qmax = CVmax
Substituting these results into (17.1) gives
CV (t) = CVmax e−t/RC
obviously the capacitance may be divided out leaving just
V (t) = Vmax e−t/RC . (7.3)
At the moment we are focused on the charging cycle, so let us find a point on the graph that may
interest us. t = τ seems to be a reasonable point of interest where τ = RC. Note that for many systems
denoting the time constant as τ is not uncommon.
5. To find the point of interest where τ = RC, we may take Vmax - Vmax e−t/τ . After factoring and
substituting τ = RC, this turns out to be Vmax (1 − e−1 ) which is approximately 0.63Vmax . Take your
value of Vmax and multiply it by 0.63 to find where t = τ and record this value as V1 .

V1 : V

Find the corresponding time for V1 and record the value as t1

t1 : s
6. Now record the value of where the Voltage begins to rise and record this value as V2 .

V2 : V

Find the corresponding time for V2 and record the value as t2

t2 : s
7. Take the absolute value of the difference of t2 and t1 , and then compare this value to the value of RC.
More to the point, find the Percent Difference between absolute value of the difference of t2 and t1
and RC .

Percent Difference:

Now isolate e−t/RC in equation (17.3) and then take the natural log of both sides of the same equation.
This gives
V (t) t
ln(1 − )=− (7.4)
Vmax τ
which will provide a convenient way for us to graph the natural log of voltage vs time.

34
 8. Now manually record four sets of voltage on the rising side of the graph corresponding to four equally
spaced sets of time. It is your choice to choose the spacing of the time intervals.

V3 : t3 : V4 : t4 :

V5 : t5 : V6 : t6 :

Question 1: Graph the results in part 8 above using equation (17.4) with the ln on the y-axis
and the time of the x-axis. Is the graph linear or exponential? Include this graph in your report
and discuss the graph in the results section of your lab report.

9. Now allocate your attention to the Discharge section of the data graph you measured. Again the point
of interest will be where τ = t, i.e. RC = t. The only difference from the previous case to this one is
that you will not measure .63Vmax but instead .37Vmax , record this value as V1 and its corresponding
time as t1 .

V1 : V

Find the corresponding time for V1 and record the value as t1

t1 : s
10. Now record the value of where the Voltage begins to decrease and record this value as V2 .

V2 : V

Find the corresponding time for V2 and record the value as t2

t2 : s

Question 2: Why is it that we are interested in .37Vmax point instead of the .67Vmax point?
Discuss this in the results section of your lab report.

11. Take the absolute value of the difference of t2 and t1 , and then compare this value to the value of RC.
More to the point, find the Percent Difference between absolute value of the difference of t2 and t1
and RC .

Percent Difference:

12. Now record four sets of Voltage on the decreasing side of the graph corresponding to four equally
spaced sets of Time. It is your choice to choose the spacing of the time intervals.

35
 V3 : t3 : V4 : t4 :

V5 : t5 : V6 : t6 :

Question 3: Find the time constant for the decreasing side of the graph. Is it the same time
constant discovered on the increasing side of the graph? Discuss this in the results section of your
lab report.

36
?Honors Question A: A 100 mF capacitor is connected in series with a 10.0 W resistor. This combination
is connected in parallel with a 25.0 W resistor. Both branches are then connected in parallel to a 4.50 V
battery that can be switched on and off. The capacitor starts off fully discharged. What is the time constant
in both branches when the switch is closed? What is the maximum charge that the capacitor can attain
after the switch is closed? When will the voltage drop across the 10.0 W resistor be equal to 1.50 V after
the switch is closed? If the switched is opened, what will be the value of the new time constant and in which
direction will the current flow through the 10.0 W resistor? If the switch is opened after the capacitor is fully
charged, how long will it take for there to be only one electron on the capacitor? If the switch is opened after
the capacitor is fully charged, how long will it take for the voltage across the 25.0 W resistor to drop to 1.50 V?

..........................................................................................................

QUIZ 17 - RC Circuits
..........................................................................................................

37
Chapter 8

Tangent Galvanometer

8.1 A Brief History

A charge has an associated electric field. This is something that you have dealt with through this semester.
A slightly new concept is the idea that a moving charge also produces a magnetic field. Incredibly enough,
the electric field and magnetic field are two manifestations of the same phenomenon. Today you will observe
how a moving charge can produce a magnetic field.

8.2 Definitions
1. Magnetic Field -A condition found in the region around a magnet or an electric current, characterized
by the existence of a detectable magnetic force at every point in the region and by the existence of
magnetic poles1 .
2. Electric Field -A region of space characterized by the existence of a force generated by electric charge1 .

1
Definitions were provided by The American Heritage Science Dictionary

8.3 Laboratory Objectives

By the end of today’s exercise it is in the hopes of this Author that you will understand how moving charges
produce a magnetic field and what direction that field flows.

8.4 Equipment
10 Turn Coil, Magnetic Compass, Meter Stick, Milliamp Meter, DC Power Supply, variable resistor

8.5 Procedure
1. Using a compass determine which direction is magnetic north. The coil windings will need to be placed
parallel to magnetic north as seen in the poorly drawn picture below. Just a reminder that your coil
has 10 turns in it exactly. Set up the apparatus as shown:

38
2. Place the meter stick inside of the coil such that it runs East-West and support it with something so
you do not have to hold it for the remainder of the lab. Place the compass on the meter stick such
that it is located directly in the center of the coil. Adjust the compass such that it reads 0. You are
looking to observe the deflection of the compass needle by the induced magnetic field upon successfully
powering the coils.
3. On the milliamp meter use the 400 mA setting when recording the current. Accuracy is incredibly
important in this experiment so be sure to measure the Compass Needle deflection to the best of your
ability. Increase the Power Supply current to 50 mA and record the deflection angle ψ on the
compass needle.

ψ50 :
4. Now increase the current to 100 mA and record the deflection angle.

ψ100 :
5. Repeat this for the remaining currents below.

ψ200 : ψ300 : ψ400 :

6. Decrease the Power Supply to 0 mA. Now disconnect the coil from the circuit and switch the direction
of current flow by reconnecting the wires oppositely the way they were previously connected. Increase
the Power Supply to 50 mA and record the deflection angle ψ 0 .

0
ψ50 :

7. Now increase the current to 100 mA and record the deflection angle.

0
ψ100 :
8. Repeat this for the remaining currents below.

0 0 0
ψ200 : ψ300 : ψ400 :

Question 1: How do the different directions of current affect the direction of the Compass Needle?
Discuss this in the results section of your lab report.

39
9. Record the radius of the Coil.

Rcoil :

Digressing briefly, from your coursework you are aware that the magnetic field at the center of the
coil of wire is given by
nI
B = µ0 (8.1)
2R
where B is the magnetic field, µ0 is the permeability of free space given by 4π × 10−7 T · m/A, n is
the number of turns, and R is the radius of the coil. Find the magnetic field, B, inside the coil for all
of the above currents. Here is some space to work in:

B50 : T B100 : T B200 : T B300 : T B400 : T

40
10. Using your data values for ψ and ψ 0 plot the tan ψ vs the values you calculated for B above. Also do
this for tan ψ 0 . Be sure to include these graphs in your lab report and also discuss the results in the
results section of your lab report. Here is some room to make some rough sketches of the graphs.

11. Now it will be important to calculate the Earth’s Magnetic Field. There is a reason as to why you
aligned the experiment with North. Looking at the figure below shows that you may break the Magnetic
Field into horizontal and vertical components.

Looking at the diagram it can be seen that

Bc
tan(ψ) = (8.2)
Be
where ψ is the angle of the lowest section of the triangle.

Question 2: Devise a means to find the horizontal component of Earth’s Magnetic Field using
(18.2). What is the relationship between B1e and the slope of the line you found in step 14? Discuss
this in the results section of your lab report.

41
12. Increase the current to 400 mA. Move the compass a distance equal to the radius of the coil and
record the deflection of the Compass Needle. Note: Do not move the Compass towards the Coil wall,
instead move it perpendicular to the plane of the coil loop.

ψR :

13. Move the compass a distance equal to twice the radius of the coil and record the deflection of the
compass needle.

ψ2R :

The derivation of this next equation goes a little beyond the scope of this laboratory but I can assure
you that the Magnetic Field it predicts is accurate for a horizontal position perpendicular to a coil.
Note: If you decide to take PH 431-Introduction to Electromagnetism, you will derive this equation
several times. Since you are approaching the end of this course, I will take a moment and say that if
you find this material to be easy to understand, interesting, and useful then perhaps you should look
into becoming a Physics Major.
N IR2
B = µ0 (8.3)
2(R + X 2 )3/2
2

where R is the radius of the coil of wire, X is the position where the compass was placed. In this
example you used X=R and X=2R. Find the magnetic field for X=R and X=2R. Here is some room
to work:

BR : T B2R : T

42
?Honors Question A: Describe a practical use for the tangent galvanometer other than the way it was
used in this laboratory.

..........................................................................................................

QUIZ 18 - Tangent Galvanometer

..........................................................................................................

43
Chapter 9

Induced EMF

9.1 A Brief History

Currents may be induced on conductors by the presence of a moving magnet. It is this idea which lets
rail guns launch their projectiles without many moving parts. In 1831, Michael Faraday suggested that the
Electromotive Force (EMF) produced around a closed circuit is proportional to the rate of change of the
magnetic flux through any surface bounded by that path.

9.2 Definitions
1. EMF -Electromotive Force.
2. Inductance-A measure of the reaction of electrical components (especially coils) to changes in current
flow by creating a magnetic field and inducing a voltage. Its unit is the henry1 .
3. Magnetic Flux -The lines of force associated with a magnetic field. The strength of magnetic flux is
equivalent to its magnetic flux density per unit area. The SI unit of magnetic flux is the weber1 .

1
Definitions were provided by The American Heritage Science Dictionary

9.3 Laboratory Objectives

By the end of today’s exercise it is in the hopes of this Author that you will understand how Magnetic
Inductance induces current changes in conductors.

9.4 Equipment
Magnetic Bar, Induction Coil Apparatus, Power Amplifier, Connector Wires, Datastudio

9.5 Procedure
1. Create the following configuration if your TA has not already:

44
2. In Datastudio, allocate the Voltage Sensor icon to Channel A. Connect the Voltage Sensor con-
nector wires to the Induction Coils. On Datastudio, click the Start button to begin recording
data.

3. Take the bar magnet, regardless of the orientation of N and S, and begin to move it up and down
inside of the apparatus. Do this slowly at first and then increase the speed for a few seconds. On
Datastudio click the Stop button and drag the run data to the Graph Display icon.
4. Take a mental note of what the graph looks like. Now take the bar magnet and reverse the orientation
such that the poles are opposite of the way in the previous step. On Datastudio click the Start button
to begin recording data. Move the bar magnet up and down inside of the apparatus. Do this slowly at
first and then increase the speed for a few seconds. On Datastudio click the Stop button and drag
the run data to the Graph Display icon.

Question 1: What was the difference in the graphs? Discuss this in the results section of your lab
report.

5. On Datastudio click the Start button. Move the bar magnet in and out of the coil such that it
is approximately periodic for about 5 cycles. Now increase the period of oscillation such that it is
approximately double for 5 cycles.

Question 2: Is there a difference in voltage amplitude for the different periods? If so, why is it
larger or smaller? Discuss this in the results section of your lab report.

6. Delete all data. Now set up the following configuration

45
 Allocate the Power Amplifier icon to Channel B. In the Signal Generator window set the signal to
Sine Wave, Amplitude of 1 V, and the Frequency at 20 Hz. Click on the Sensor Properties window
for the Voltage Sensor and set the frequency to Fast 2000 Hz. Click the Option button and set an
Automatic stop at 0.2 s. Connect the coil to the Power Amplifier and insert the soft iron core into
the coil.

7. On Datastudio click the Start button. This will record the output voltage of the secondary coil while
the primary coil is oscillating at 20 Hz. Since Datastudio is already set to stop automatically drag
the data recorded to the Graph Display icon. Record the frequency and maximum voltage. Note: Is
the Frequency you set in Datastudio the same as the frequency recorded?

f20 : Hz Vmax : V

8. Increase the frequency of oscillation to 40 Hz. Record the frequency and maximum voltage. f40 :
Hz Vmax : V

Question 3: How is the primary coil inducing a voltage in the secondary coil? Does it appear
that the voltage is a function of frequency? Discuss this in the results section of your lab report.

9. Delete all data. Remove the primary coil and soft iron core from the apparatus. Now connect the
Secondary Coil in series with a 10k Ω resistor. The output of the Power Amplifier should now be
allocated to this circuit. The Voltage Sensor should be dropped across the Secondary Coil. Note:
Recall that a voltage drop is a measurement across an element in a circuit. If you physically drop the
voltage sensor on the secondary Coil...well that is just silly.

In Datastudio select the Voltage Sensor icon and alter some of the Sensor Properties. Set the
frequency to Fast 10k Hz. In the Options tab, set the Automatic Stop at 0.02 s. In the Signal
Generator window, set the Voltage Amplitude to 10.0 V.
10. Record the voltage drop on the secondary coil with the power amplifier set to 10 V with a Frequency
of 200 Hz.

V200 : V
11. Record the voltage drops on the secondary coil with the Power Amplifier set to 10 V with Frequencies
of 400 Hz, 600 Hz, 800 Hz, and 1k Hz.

V400 : V V600 : V V800 : V V1k : V

12. Plot the Voltage Drops as a function of Frequency.

46
Question 4: What is the slope you recorded? Discuss this in the results section of your lab report.

47
?Honors Question A: When a small magnet is moved toward a solenoid, an emf is induced in the coil.
However, if the magnet is moved around inside a toroid, no measurable emf is induced. Explain. A piece of
aluminium is dropped vertically downward between the poles of an electromagnet. Does the magnetic field
affect the velocity of the aluminium? Explain. What happens to the generated current when the rotational
speed of a generator coil is increased? If you pull a loop through a non-uniform magnetic field that is per-
pendicular to the plane of the loop which way does the induced force on the loop act?

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QUIZ 19 - Induced EMF
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Chapter 10

AC Circuits

10.1 A Brief History

AC circuits provide a way to transport electricity over great distances without a ridiculous drop in power.
AC stands for Alternating Current. A standard DC current sends a constant signal while an AC current
sends a signal that oscillates between “positive” and “negative”. Today you will observe how an AC circuit
behaves.

10.2 Laboratory Objectives

By the end of today’s exercise it is in the hopes of this Author that you will understand how useful a free
body diagram can be in terms of resolving force vectors. Let us begin by stating Newtons Basic Laws of
Motion in a basic form:

10.3 Equipment
RLC Circuit Board, Connector Wires, and DataStudio

10.4 Procedure
1. Allocate the Power Amplifier to Channel A. Set the Signal Generator to 3 V output, Sine Wave, and
a Frequency of 10 Hz. Allocate the Voltage Sensor icon to Channel B. Modify the Sensor Properties
by setting the Sampling Rate to Fast at 1k Hz.

2. Allocate the Output Voltage icon to the (Oscilli)Scope display. This will display an oscillating wave in
real time. Drag the Voltage from Channel B to the same window to display both waves in real time.
3. Create the following circuit:

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 Take the Iron Core that is lodged in the RLC circuit board and place it inside of the Induction Coil.
Drop the Voltage Sensor across the 10 Ω resistor.
4. Once the circuit is completely turn the Power Amplifier on. On Datastudio click the Start button
to begin recording data. Adjust the Volts/Division (V/div) such that both waves are visible. On
Datastudio click the Stop button.
5. Use the Smart Tool to record the maximum voltage from the Channel B recording.

V10 : V
6. Increase the Frequency by 10 Hz and record the maximum voltage from Channel B. Keep incrementing
the Frequency until the Frequency reaches 150 Hz. Note: For each case you may need to adjust the
V/div and the ms/div to see both waves.

V20 : V V30 : V V40 : V V50 : V

V60 : V V70 : V V80 : V V90 : V

V100 : V V110 : V V120 : V V130 : V

V140 : V V150 : V

Analyse your data and find where the voltage reached its peak, this is the resonance frequency of the
circuit. Set the Signal Generator to the associated frequency. Adjust the frequency until both waves
overlap identically.
7. Set the Scope display to X-Y mode. On Datastudio click the Start button. Drag the Output Voltage
to the Vertical Axis of the Scope display and drag the Voltage on Channel B to the Horizontal Axis
of the Scope display. If your data is in phase then only a diagonal line will be seen, if they are not in
phase a circular oval will appear. Record the exact frequency when a diagonal line is present.

Vres : V

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?Honors Question A: What is the resistance of a lightbulb that uses an average power of 75.0 W when
connected to a 60 Hz power source with a peak voltage of 150 V?

?Honors Question B: When a 4.0 µF capacitor is connected to a generator whose output is 30 V, the
curent in the circuit is observed to be 0.3 A. What is the frequency of the source?

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QUIZ 20 - AC Circuits
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