Dissertation Title: Culture Influence on Consumer Behavior

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DECLARATION

I declare that this research thesis has been solely composed by myself and that is has not been

submitted, physically or electronically, in whole or in part, in any previous applications for

master’s degree. Except where states otherwise by reference or acknowledgement, the work

presented is entirely my own.

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ABSTRACT

This research explored and examined culture’s influences on consumer behavior by focusing on
existing literature on theoretical underpinnings such as Hofstede’s cultural dimensions and Hall’s
cultural context. It also examined people’s behaviors when opting to make purchases by focusing
on various markets spread across Africa, Asia, America and Europe. The research employed a
qualitative approach inclining on secondary data as the main data source. Even so, the research
made use of comparative tools, pivotal in assessing the relevance of the research questions in
focus. From findings, it was clear that culture has a significant impact on consumer behavior
particularly one’s purchasing behavior and patterns. However, given the vast amount of available
literature, diverse market segments to be studied coupled with the limited time scope for the
project, it was difficult to completely uncover all factors that overall influence consumer
behavior calling for the need for future studies.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to Professor …..………… for his able
guidance and support throughout this project.

I would also like to extend my gratitude to my family, friends, and colleagues, thesis advisors
and the school for providing me with the support and resources required for completing this
project.

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COMPLIANCE STATEMENT

I honestly declare that this dissertation is entirely my own work and none of its part has been
copied from printed or electronic sources, translated from foreign sources and reproduced from
essays of other researchers or students. Wherever I have been based on ideas or other people
texts I clearly declare it through the good use of references following academic ethics. (In the
case that is proved that part of the essay does not constitute an original work, but a copy of an
already published essay or from another source, the student will be expelled permanently from
the postgraduate program).

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DISSERTATION THESIS

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................. 9

BRIEF ANALYSIS OF THE RESEARCH TOPIC............................................................................9

TRIGGER AND RATIONALE..........................................................................................................9
RESEARCH AIMS AND OBJECTIVES.........................................................................................10
RESEARCH QUESTIONS...............................................................................................................10
METHODOLOGY...........................................................................................................................11

CHAPTER ONE: LITERATURE REVIEW I................................................................................. 13

1.0 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................13
2.0 CONCEPT OF CULTURE.........................................................................................................13
3.0 THEORETICAL UNDERPINNINGS........................................................................................14
3.1. HOFSTEDE’S CULTURAL DIMENSION...............................................................................15
3.1.1 POWER DISTANCE.....................................................................................................................15
3.1.2 UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE..............................................................................................................15
3.1.3 MASCULINITY VERSUS FEMININITY...................................................................................................16
3.1.4 INDIVIDUALISM VERSUS COLLECTIVISM............................................................................................16
3.1.5 NORMATIVE ORIENTATION...............................................................................................................16
3.2 SCHWARTZ'S VALUE THEORY.............................................................................................17
3.2.1 SECURITY..........................................................................................................................................17
3.2.3. TRADITION.......................................................................................................................................18
3.2.4. BENEVOLENCE.................................................................................................................................18
3.2.5. UNIVERSALISM.................................................................................................................................18
3.2.6. SELF-DIRECTION...............................................................................................................................19
3.2.7. SIMULATION.....................................................................................................................................19
3.2.8. HEDONISM........................................................................................................................................19
3.2.9. ACHIEVEMENT AND POWER.............................................................................................................19
3.3 TROMPENAARS AND HAMPDEN-TURNER’S ORIENTATIONS........................................20
3.4 HALL'S CULTURAL CONTEXT..............................................................................................21
3.5 LITERATURE REVIEW GAP...................................................................................................21
3.6 CONCLUSION...........................................................................................................................22

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW II...............................................................................23

2.0 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................23

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2.1 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR: AN OVERVIEW............................................................................23
2.2 CONSUMER BEHAVIORAL TRAITS IN AFRICA.................................................................24
2.3 CONSUMER HABITS ACROSS AMERICA, ASIA, AND EUROPE.......................................26
2.3.1 COLLECTIVISM AND INDIVIDUALISM OVERVIEW..............................................................................26
2.3.2. CONSUMER PERCEPTIONS................................................................................................................27
2.3.2 POWER CULTURAL CONSTRUCT........................................................................................................28
2.4. OTHER FACTORS DRIVING CONSUMER BEHAVIOR......................................................29
2.4.1 SOCIAL FACTORS..............................................................................................................................29
2.4.2 PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS...............................................................................................................30
2.4.3. PERSONAL FACTORS........................................................................................................................30
2.5 LITERATURE REVIEW GAP...........................................................................................................31
2.6. CONCLUSION..........................................................................................................................32

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY......................................................................................... 33

3.0. INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................33
3.1. RESEARCH DESIGN.................................................................................................................33
3.1.2. SECONDARY DATA..........................................................................................................................34
3.1.3. COMPARATIVE APPROACH.............................................................................................................34
3.1.4. TIME FRAME...................................................................................................................................34
3.1.5. DATA COLLECTION PROCESS........................................................................................................35
3.1.6. LIMITATION OF DATA COLLECTION..............................................................................................35
3.2. DATA EXTRACTION AND ANALYSIS.....................................................................................36
3.2.1. DATA CLEANING.............................................................................................................................36
3.2.2. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS...............................................................................................................36
3.3. DATA VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY......................................................................................37
3.4. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS..................................................................................................38
3.5. CONCLUSION...........................................................................................................................38

CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS / ANALYSIS / DISCUSSION.........................................................39

4.0. INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................39
4.1. FINDINGS.................................................................................................................................39
4.2. ANALYSIS.................................................................................................................................41
4.3. DISCUSSION.............................................................................................................................44
4.3.1. CULTURAL DIMENSIONS ON CONSUMER BEHAVIOR........................................................................45
4.3.2. CONSUMER VALUES ACROSS FOCUSED MARKETS...........................................................................46
4.3.3. MARKETING TO MATCH CULTURE...................................................................................................47

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUDING REMARKS.............................................................................. 50

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BIBLIOGRAPHY..................................................................................................................................... 53

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INTRODUCTION

BRIEF ANALYSIS OF THE RESEARCH TOPIC

Consumer behavior is the study of how individuals, and groups, select, acquire, utilize, and
dispose of goods, services, ideas, and experiences to meet their needs and desires. There are a
range of factors such as cultural, personal, political, psychological, social, and environmental
factors that influences how people conduct themselves particularly when making purchases or
are exposed to different brands or services (Solomon, 2010). Culture stands as one of the most
pivotal factors influencing consumer behavior. It comprises of assumed values, beliefs, norms,
customs and rituals, symbols, and artifacts. According to Nicki Lisa Cole, (2019) culture’s
influence on consumer behavior arises through the intricate interweaving of customs, traditions,
and societal norms. These elements are often collectively embraced by society and passed down
from one generation to the next.

The ways in which culture shapes one's perspective, thoughts, connections and self-articulation
significantly affect how people perceive and engage with their surrounding environment. In
business, culture plays a significant role in shaping consumers' preferences, tastes, attitudes, and
motivations towards certain products and services (Krystallis et al., 2012). While people from
different cultures comprise of diverging, desires, beliefs, and perceptions, the interaction
between globalization and culture is complex, particularly in the modern world. Globalization
has not only fastened the integration of nation but also the created the avenue for international
businesses to sell their products and services. Even so, different cultural landscapes continue to
inhibit global homogenisis of consumer wants and preferences (van der Laan et al., 2015). It is
therefore imperative for businesses to acknowledge and appreciate different cultural settings,
values, beliefs, preferences, and norms as well as their influences on consumer behaviors.

TRIGGER AND RATIONALE

Perception plays a significant role in business, particularly on brands, marketing messages, and
advertisements. According to Shavitt & Cho (2016), perception is mostly influenced by cultural
differences among consumers. These cultural differences shape consumer behavior affecting
how businesses market their services and products. As such, it is essential for businesses to

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comprehensively acknowledge culture’s influences on consumer behavior to achieve success.
For businesses operating on a global scale appreciating cultural dimensions that influence
consumer behavior, gives businesses a competitive edge making it easier for them to match rival
companies, thus generating revenue (Trudel, 2018). Additionally, by appreciating cultural traits
such as customs, beliefs, societal norms, taboos and values, businesses can better conceive and
execute more influential and productive marketing tactics thus fulfill and meet necessities and
desires as dictated by consumers from different parts of the globe augmenting their contentment
and allegiance to services and products offered.

RESEARCH AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The dissertation will explore and critically examine how cultural elements can impact consumer
behavior in a globalized commercial aspect. The specific objectives of this dissertation are:

 To review the existing literature on the concept and dimensions of culture and its impact
on consumer behavior.

 To examine consumer traits and variations as influenced by culture across geographical

regions such as Africa, Asia, Europe, and America.

 To evaluate the implications of cultural influences on marketing strategies such as

segmentation, targeting, positioning, product pricing and promotion in African,
American, Asian and European markets.

 To provide recommendations and suggestions for marketers and businesses on adapting

and customizing marketing strategies to suit cultural preferences and expectations of
consumers from different cultures.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS
 How do the cultural dimensions of Hofstede, Schwartz, Trompenaars, Hampden-Turner,
and Hall affect consumer behavior in market segments such as Africa, America, Europe
and Asia?

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  What are the similarities and differences in consumer values, attitudes, motivations,
perceptions, preferences, and decision-making styles across different cultures, such as
Africa, Asia, Europe, and America?

 How can marketers adapt and customize marketing strategies such as segmentation,
targeting, positioning, product, price, place, and promotion, to suit the cultural
preferences and expectations of consumers from different cultures?

METHODOLOGY
In pursuit of the objectives mentioned above, this dissertation shall employ a secondary research
methodology encompassing the aggregation, examination, and amalgamation of data and details
from established sources, including tomes, periodicals, writings, internet pages, and digital
archives. By drawing upon a wide array of preexisting sources, the secondary research approach
is most fitting for this dissertation, as it will facilitate the development of an exhaustive and
nuanced overview of the topic while also permitting the juxtaposition and assessment of diverse
viewpoints and conclusions from multiple sources (Vartanian, 2010). While secondary research
can help uncover valuable information from existing sources, it is not without constraints
stemming from issues regarding the availability of up-to-date sources, the potential biases within
sources due to subjective authors, and complications in broadening any conclusions to diverse
settings and scenarios without primary data collection.

SYNOPSIS

The dissertation will be subdivided into four main chapters plus a conclusion. The structure of
the dissertation will include, a Literature Review I which will provide a theoretical background
and framework for the dissertation by reviewing the literature on the concept and dimensions of
culture and its impact on consumer behavior. This chapter will also discuss the main theories and
models that explain the relationship between culture and consumer behavior, such as Hofstede's
cultural dimensions, Schwartz's values theory, Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner's cultural
orientations, and Hall's cultural context.

The chapter will then be followed by a Literature Review II. This chapter will empirically and
comparatively examine consumers' cultural traits and divergences across various nations and

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locales, such as those from the continents of Africa, Asia, Europe, and the Americas, taking into
account their assorted attributes and variances. Literature Review II will also explore the
likenesses and conflicts in consumer conduct between diverse cultures, covering consumer
principles, mindsets, inspirations, perspectives, inclinations, and decision-making approaches.
The next chapter, which is Methodology will aim to describe and justify the research’s
approach, design, and methods adopted for this dissertation. This chapter will elucidate the
origins, benchmarks, and processes involved in assembling, inspecting, and combining
information while outlining the moral and pragmatic matters and restrictions inherent in the
investigation.

The methodology chapter will then be followed by a Findings, Analysis, and Discussion
Chapter which will explore and examine the fundamental discoveries and conclusions drawn
from scrutinizing and combining the information from reviewing available data. The chapter will
also evaluate the implications of the findings and results for adopting marketing strategies such
as product pricing and segregation in markets across Africa, Europe, Asia and America. The
chapter will also compare and contrast results as uncovered within existing pieces of literature
and theories. Lastly the dissertation will end with a Conclusion which will consolidate the key
themes and insights as arising from the research while also proposing guidance and counsel for
marketers on how best to localize and tailor respective marketing approaches to address the
cultural mindsets and standards of consumers across the selected market regions. The conclusion
will also highlight the limitations and directions for possible future research.

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CHAPTER ONE: LITERATURE REVIEW I

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Culture is a powerful force that shapes how people behave, think, make important decisions, and
interact with the world. As consumers, people are often influenced by their cultural backgrounds,
values, and beliefs, thus influencing their purchasing decisions. For the business sector, it is
difficult to succeed while overlooking the importance of culture as an indicator of a customer's
behavior. For marketers and businesses, it is essential to form a strong understanding of people's
culture, their accompanying beliefs, customs, and values, thus adapting their marketing strategies
to appeal to consumers from different cultures. This may involve acknowledging the cultural
context in which a product being marketed is tailored in a manner in which its marketing
message resonates with the targeted market.

In this regard, this literature review section will provide a theoretical background and framework
for the research study by reviewing existing pieces of literature on the concepts and dimensions
of culture and its impact on consumer behavior. The section will also discuss the main theories
and models that explain the relationship between culture and consumer behavior, such as
Hofstede's cultural dimensions, Schwartz's values theory, Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner's
and Hall's cultural context. The literature review will also perform a comparative analysis of the
discussed theories and concepts, drawing on similar and overarching perspectives that emerge
across the various perceptions identifying gaps or areas of controversy that the research study
aims to address.

2.0 CONCEPT OF CULTURE

Culture is an extremely broad and including term that encompasses what people learn over time,
namely their history, values, customs, habits, art, and morals. According to Chandran (1979),
culture is a complex mix of ideas, values, and attitudes created by society to shape people’s
behavior and facets of those behaviors as transmitted from one generation to another. Similarly,
Kroeber (1948) describes culture as a multifaceted factor that comprises a mass of learned and
transmitted reactions, ideas, techniques, values, behaviors, and habits, all of which transcend
beyond the psychological or biological aspects of a man. From the above definitions, it becomes

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apparent that there are different perspectives on culture, particularly from the sociological,
psychological, and anthropological viewpoints. As such, it is vital to understand and
acknowledge the intricate layers of culture to unravel its profound influence on consumer
behaviors better.

Over the years, anthropological scholars have discussed the subject of culture, bringing out as
many definitions as those attempting to describe it. Kittler et al. (2011) claims that modern
conceptions of culture have become increasingly technical. Culture has frequently been
described broadly as behavior seen through material artifacts and social ties. Moreover, although
this viewpoint may supply some raw material for a cultural construct, it does not, in itself, form
the constituents of a culture. In a broader anthropological sense, culture comprises norms,
patterns, standards and rules, which manifest themselves through social relations, artifacts and
behavior. Traditional concepts, notably associated values, form the basic basis of culture. Thus,
from an anthropological viewpoint, culture is the conditioning element of a behavior and the
product of that behavior.

Culture also influences one's thinking, changing people's decision-making processes, attitudes
and perceptions about a product. These cultural variables pervade the fundamental fabric of
cognitive processes, influencing how people judge products, companies, and advertising
campaigns. Today, many companies employ rituals and symbols, considered integral aspects of
culture, to tap into the deep-seated cultural connection of an individual, thus influencing
purchasing behavior. Culture extends beyond the visible surface, including factors such as
communication patterns, power systems and language. These factors add to the complexities of
cultural influences on one's purchasing habits. Moreover, as customers traverse the marketplace,
they do so in the context of their cultural backgrounds, which greatly influences their motives,
responses and choices toward marketed products.

3.0 THEORETICAL UNDERPINNINGS

This section will discuss theoretical frameworks and models such as Hofstede’s cultural
dimensions, Schwartz’s value theory, Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner’s cultural orientations
and Hall’s cultural context, that attempt to explain the relationship between culture and behavior

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as well as the influences of culture on customer purchasing behavior thus helping form a better
understanding of the topic.

3.1. HOFSTEDE’S CULTURAL DIMENSION

Hofstede (2002) defines culture as a psychological conditioning that begins inside an individual's
everyday life, which is then progressively reflected towards social and environmental factors. As
such, people who have lived or live in a comparable social setup whereby culture is educated
only share a portion of that culture. In fact, Hofstede (2002) asserts that people are not born with
culture in grained into their system but rather culture stems from the aftermath of the
implications directed from current social milieu. Hofstede’s cultural aspects are subdivided into
five primary dimensions, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism versus
collectivism, masculinity versus femininity, as well as normative orientation. These dimensions
aid marketers and businesses across the globe, better compare countries, particularly, in regards
to culture by rating the different scores posed by the nations.

3.1.1 Power Distance

Power distance is Hofstede’s first cultural framework. It explores the degree to which the less
powerful, maybe an individual or group in a community, accepts inequality and considers it as
normal. Hofstede (2002) shows that while inequality exists in almost all cultures, the degree to
which a community tolerates it is what sets a nation apart. Power distance also focuses on the
relationship formed between people in power and normal citizens. In most cases, individuals in
nations with better power distance scores exhibit a particular interpersonal way of things.
According to Rinne et al. (2011) countries with a high power distance include Mexico, China
and India, whereas nations with a lower power distance include the United States, Israel and
Australia. Inequality is more prevalent among nations characterized by a higher power distance
score rating. Moreover, nations that have a high power rating index have a high tolerance for
inequality and more need for wealth, status, prestige and power (Hofstede, 2002).

3.1.2 Uncertainty Avoidance

This dimension measures the tolerance extent of uncertainty. As such, cultures with a higher
uncertainty avoidance scale are less tolerant to unexpected situations and ambiguity. This means
that a community may be structured with stricter regulations, with social behaviors, acting as

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planned, but in a straightforward manner. When certain things do not go as expected, intolerance
or frustrations may become visible. Communities with a low uncertainty avoidance index will be
more inclined to accept risks. This means that their actions may also be inclined towards an
entrepreneurial or innovative spirit.

3.1.3 Masculinity versus Femininity

This dimension measure the degree to which a society’s culture clearly distributes social roles
among members of that community. Masculine communities tend to value male traits such as
competitiveness, status, success and assertiveness. These societies greatly emphasize on values
of material success, achievement, wealth and ambition. On the other hand, feminine communities
tend to more inclined to modesty, solidarity, one’s quality of life and care (de Mooij & Hofstede,
2010). The feminine society will emphasize on equity, conserving the environment, caring for
the sick or weak and benevolence. Even so, these do not imply that male societies play solely on
masculine traits while women on the same but characterizes a society’s culture based on the
traits given by nature.

3.1.4 Individualism versus Collectivism

This dimension measures the extent to which people perceive themselves or make decisions
based on “We” rather than “I” In individualistic nations, a person tends to more concerned about
his personal opinion, valuing the time spent on personal duties, freedom to adjust working
schedules to best suit their personal interests and the challenges faced in achieving personal
goals. Contrary, people from collective societies tend to feel a sense of togetherness, in that they
belong a greater society thus care for the well-being of others. Mooij, (2014), considers the
Japanese and Brazilians cultures to be fairly collective. However this case is different when
focusing on the United States culture; individualistic culture as most youths have no problem
leaving their parent’s houses when they become older or of age.

3.1.5 Normative Orientation

This dimension focuses on a community’s orientation towards perseverance and reward. As
such, societies with relatively long-term orientations tend to prioritize on values such as
adaptability, perseverance and thrift influencing consumers choices’ which may align with the
society’s values. On the flip side, cultures characterized by short-term normative orientations

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tend to exhibit preferences for immediate tradition or gratification. These cultural dimensions
offer a framework for acknowledging the nuances of customer behavior across different cultures.
As one navigates through the dimensions, it becomes apparent that various cultural values are
deeply ingrained in societal norms thus substantially influence consumer preferences, decision-
making and motivations.

3.2 SCHWARTZ'S VALUE THEORY

Schwartz's value is a theoretical framework that explores values as cultural influences on a
person's behaviors, actions, and attitudes across different societal cultures. The theory identifies
ten broad values that serve as guiding principles for people across societies and influence
people's interactions, choices, and preferences. According to Schwartz (2006), values are
standards by which people evaluate things. They encompass factors such as traits, virtues, norms,
and attitudes. Each value is described as a motivational goal. Values are essential not only in
sociology but also in anthropology and psychology. They are used in identifying individuals and
communities, tracking development over time, and explaining the motivations behind the
conduct and attitudes of members of a society. Schwartz (2006), categorizes the ten values into
four distinct sections: self-enhancement, self-transcendence, conservation, and openness to
change.

3.2.1 Security
Security refers to the harmony, safety, and stability of communal relationships and oneself.
According to Schwartz, (2012), security ideals are exempt from collective and individual
survival necessities. The security value is classified into two categories. One solely serves
individual interests for instance, averting danger and personal safety whereas the other serves
broader community interests for example, a nation's social order and national security.

3.2.2. Conformity

Schwartz's (2012) definition of conformity is the restriction of acts, tendencies, and urges likely
to disturb or injure others and breach societal standards. Conformity ideals stem from the need to
suppress movements that may undermine and disrupt smooth interaction among community
members, thus affecting a whole society's functioning. Conformity is included in almost all value
assessment theories.

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3.2.3. Tradition
According to Schwartz, (2012), tradition encompasses acceptance, commitment, and respect of a
society's ideas and customs that an individual's religion or culture provides. A community
develops symbols, ideas, beliefs, and practices that reflect the shared experiences of people of a
particular community. These shared experiences and beliefs build upon a community's tradition,
solidifying the community and enabling community members to fully express their worth and
contribution towards preserving that tradition. This often involves communal beliefs, behavioral
norms, and rites.

According to Dobewall & Rudnev, (2013), conformity and traditional values are motivationally
close. The two values share a similar objective of subordinating oneself, mainly regarding
communally imposed expectations. However, the values primarily differ in the objects
individuals subordinate themselves to. As such, the conformity value entails subordination to
people with whom one is frequently in contact, including teachers or parents. On the other hand,
tradition encompasses subordination but to more abstract objects such as societal customs and
ideas (Dobewall & Rudnev, 2013).

3.2.4. Benevolence
Benevolence entails enhancing and preserving the welfare of people with whom an individual
identifies. According to Schwartz, (2012), the value is derived not only from the requirement for
the smooth functioning of a group but also from the organismic urge for affiliation. The most
vital aspects of the benevolence value are the relations formed between a family and other
societal groups. Moreover, the value emphasizes helpfulness, love, and loyalty, which mandate
one to be utterly concerned about the welfare of other members of that society. Conformity and
benevolence values promote cooperation, particularly in social interactions. Even so,
benevolence promotes an internalized motivational base for caring about other people. On the
contrary, conformity promotes cooperation to avoid the adverse outcomes associated with
oneself.

3.2.5. Universalism
According to Schwartz, (2012), universalism entails tolerance, appreciation, protection, and
understanding of other people's welfare and nature. While this may differ from the benevolence

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value, universalism derives from the survival needs of members of a society and the general
community as a whole. In most cases, acknowledging the needs of the community and its
members ensues after encountering issues that transcend beyond the community, after which
members become aware of the scarcity of a particular resource. As such, people may be
compelled to acknowledge that failure to accept differences exhibited among other people and
treat them justly may lead to life-threatening scenarios. Similarly, failure to conserve the
environment may lead to the destruction of natural resources on which most lives depend.

3.2.6. Self-direction
Self-direction encompasses an individual's individual-generated self-thought that may lead to
taking action in particular situations. According to Schwartz, (2012), it entails choosing,
exploring, and creating alternatives mainly derived from the organismic need for mastery and
control and interactional needs for independence and autonomy.

3.2.7. Simulation
The simulation value is derived from the organismic urge for stimulation and variation to
maintain positive optimal attributes rather than life-threatening activation levels. According to
Krystallis et al. (2012), this urge relates to the desires underlying self-dictated values such as
excitement and the need for adventure.

3.2.8. Hedonism
Hedonism is derived from the organismic urge and pleasure associated with satisfying values
such as gratification.

3.2.9. Achievement and Power

According to Schwartz, (2006) achievement encompasses personal success, which can be
ascribed to portraying competence in performing particular duties—competency, precisely that
which generates resources, is vital for both a community's individuals, so competency may vary
across different cultures as set out by distinct cultural standards, thereby necessitating communal
approval. Power, on the other hand, relates to dominance or control over resources and other
people. For a society to function, there must be an extent of power differentiation among the
hierarchy. According to Krystallis et al. (2012) most empirical analyses on interpersonal

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relationships within and across cultures contain submissive or dominant dimensions. This then
necessitates members of a society to regard power as an integral value of social life, thus pushing
most people to accept this factor.

3.3 TROMPENAARS AND HAMPDEN-TURNER’S ORIENTATIONS

Through cultural orientations, Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner propose a unique method of
interpreting cultural differences. This concept goes beyond standard dichotomies, providing a
nuanced view of how people from many cultures approach fundamental areas of life (Koc,
2020). Their aspects reflect various cultural tastes, illuminating the differences that impact
customer behavior. Universalism and particularism are critical factors in Trompenaars and
Hampden-Turner's theory. Universalism values impartiality and fairness while adhering to
defined standards and uniform methods (Hampden-Turner & Trompenaars, 2006). Individuals
from such societies may favor transparent and standardized products, gravitating toward
businesses that stress equity and ethical corporate methods. Personal relations are prioritized in
particularistic societies, driving consumer decisions that coincide with customized and context-
dependent elements.

The communitarianism versus individualism dimension investigates the relationship between

communal harmony and individual autonomy. As such, individualistic societies place a premium
on personal success and self-expression, which may influence customer preferences for items
that represent one's own identity. Consumer choices for items that promote social relationships
and shared ideals are shaped by communitarian cultures, which stress interdependence and a
society's level of cohesiveness. The neutral and affective communication dimension indicates a
culture's ability to express emotions (Hampden-Turner & Trompenaars, 2006). In societies
characterized by neutral communication, emotions are expressed by prioritizing objective and
regulated statements. Customers may receive marketing communications emphasizing product
benefits and accurate information from such cultures. On the other hand, effective
communication not only values emotional expressiveness but uses it to influence customer
decisions that align with emotionally charged brand narratives and marketing campaigns.

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3.4 HALL'S CULTURAL CONTEXT
According to Kittler et al. (2011), cultures may be roughly classified as either low-context or
high-context, with either orientation having a substantial impact on customer decision-making
and behavior. In implicit communication, high-context cultures rely on contextual elements, non-
verbal cues, and shared experiences to transmit messages. In most societies, a lot needs to be
said, and individuals interpret meanings by drawing on the rich tapestry of their shared past. This
cultural environment is frequently connected with strong social relationships and an affinity for
communication that is indirect. People from high-context backgrounds place a premium on
word-of-mouth recommendations, brand reputation, and the symbolic significance of items in the
consumer sphere.

In cultures characterized by low context, people prefer plain and direct communication, thus
relying on clear language expression to communicate messages. In such cultures, information is
presented plainly, leaving little space for interpretation. However, in low-context societies,
customer behavior may be defined by emphasizing thorough product information, explicit value
propositions, and straightforward marketing messaging. According to Kittler et al. (2011), in
addition to verbal communication techniques, culture extends beyond geographical and temporal
components. Different cultures assign different values to time and space, impacting consumer
expectations and choices. Personal space, for example, is frequently less in high-context
societies, and connections take primacy over timeliness. Low-context societies may place a more
significant premium on privacy and tight deadline adherence.

3.5 LITERATURE REVIEW GAP

While the theoretical underpinnings, Hofstede’s cultural dimension, Schwartz's Value Theory,
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner’s orientations, and Hall's Cultural Context, all provide
framework for better understanding the influence of culture on consumer behavior, most pieces
of literature only focus on a single theoretical framework, for instance, either Schwartz’ or
Hofstede’s cultural framework. As such, there exists a gap in simultaneously integrating multiple
cultural theories to provide a better understanding of the influences of culture on consumer
behavior. Likewise, living in a globalized world, most consumers today simultaneously identify
with numerous cultures. In that respect it is important for the research to investigate the hybridity

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that exists among consumer behavior as well as how businesses can navigate conflicting cultural
values to better market their products and services.

3.6 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, studying culture in the setting of customer behavior is a complex trip through
various values, dimensions, contextual subtleties, and orientations. With this understanding,
businesses can manage the intricacies of the multicultural landscape, thus building genuine
connections with customers and establishing a worldwide market footprint that transcends
beyond simple transactions and connects with the rich fabric of cultural variation.

22
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW II

2.0 INTRODUCTION
In a time packed with unprecedented globalization, acknowledging the complexities of culture
and its impact on consumer behavior is becoming crucial for companies aiming to succeed in
regional and global markets. Literature on culture and consumer behavior is becoming
significant because of its ability to reveal the fundamental dynamics that influence customers'
principles, motivations, viewpoints, inclinations, decision-making techniques, and mindsets. This
chapter aims to empirically and comparatively examine consumers' cultural traits and
divergences across African nations, Asia, Europe, and the Americas, considering their assorted
attributes and variances. It will explore the likenesses and conflicts in consumer conduct between
diverse cultures, covering consumer principles, mindsets, inspirations, perspectives, inclinations,
and decision-making approaches. Moreover, this literature review will navigate through many
empirical studies to demonstrate the complexities of consumer behavior, focusing on the
subtleties inherent in many cultural situations. It will also investigate the contrasts and
similarities in consumer behavior across societies in Asia, Europe, America, and Africa, adding
to the body of knowledge by providing new insights into the consumer and culture sector by
synthesizing current literature with empirical findings on cultural influence on consumer
behavior and identifying linkages between regions. The research will also shed light on the
elements that drive consumer behavior, providing businesses with a more sophisticated view of
the marketplaces in which they operate.

2.1 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR: AN OVERVIEW

In the business sector, understanding consumer behavior has become a fundamental factor for
success. For a business, a customer is more than just an asset. Consumers are parameters through
which business gauge their success across various markets. Therefore, most businesses must
understand consumer behavior and the actors that shape behavior. Even so, until recently, the
impact of culture on consumer behavior was not well understood. According to Aguirre-
Rodriguez et al. (2014), consumer behavior is the psychological process of using and buying
goods and services. Similarly, Trudel (2018) defines consumer behavior as the conditioning,
thought processes, decisions, behavioral inclinations, and focus on targeted audiences or groups
23
that compel or influence people to purchase. In essence, consumer behavior is an umbrella
concept of numerous factors.

Likewise, a multitude of cultural factors influence consumer behavior, particularly purchasing

behavior, decision-making processes, and the brands and companies through which customers
buy products and services. According to Fong Boh et al. (2013), human behavior are acts that
delineate from different cultural processes throughout one's lifetime. Human behavior
encompasses preferences, perceptions, values, and behavioral patterns learned as a consequence
of socialization with friends and one's immediate environment. To a great degree, from culture,
people tend to develop values that drive and determine their behavioral patterns. According to
Codispoti and De Cesarei (2007), values may include success, achievement, efficiency, material
comfort, progress, individualism, practicality, freedom, youthfulness, and humanitarianism.
These values, as influenced by one's culture, may be dictated by the nation, religion, race, or
geographical surroundings, all of which create variations in preferences, taboos, ethnic tastes,
lifestyles, and attitudes.

2.2 CONSUMER BEHAVIORAL TRAITS IN AFRICA

According to White and Yu (2005), consumers' attitudes are a summative construct of most
people's feelings, behavioral intentions, and beliefs towards a service or product. Since these
dispositions serve as a sieve through which customers scrutinize available services and products,
most businesses leverage this acknowledgment of customers' attitudes to predict consumer
behavior. With the recent surge in economic growth in most African Sub-Saharan countries,
numerous studies on African consumers have erupted, focusing on the influences of educational,
non-profit, and financial institutions on consumer purchases. Even so, Kuada & Bujac (2018)
reveal that a majority of the research studies have been fueled by Westernized logic, particularly
on the business framework, thus providing insightful information but only to the degree of
existing marketing models, thereby calling for more studies on cultural influences on consumer
behavior. This section will highlight cultural traits, particularly consumer attitudes, willingness
to pay, and purchasing decisions across African states and their impacts on consumer behavior.

There is a consensus that affirms the understanding that consumer attitudes are enduring and
relatively influence consumer preferences. According to research findings by Quaye et al. (2009)
on consumer preferences and marketability in Ghana, sociocultural factors such as ethnic eating
24
habits and traditions play a major role in influencing consumers' attitudes toward purchasing and
consuming certain dishes. Likewise, Chelariu et al. (2002), while analyzing market orientations
in Ivory Coats and close regions, found that in most cases, normative social norms, practices, and
beliefs influence long-term savings in most Ghanaian households, thus impacting consumer
buying habits. Attitudes in these perspectives may be formed as a consequence of negative and
positive experiences regarding a service or commodity.

According to Bett et al. (2013), most African consumers' decision-making, particularly in

purchasing goods and services, is often guided by perceived quality and commodity prices. On
studying Kenyan customers' responsiveness to increased prices of indigenous chicken products
and their inclination to pay, Bett et al. (2013) found that customers were more inclined to pay
about 20% more for local chicken products than imported counter products due to perceived
superior quality. Whereas the case was similar for most food products in Tanzania, health
concerns and consciousness also played a major role in influencing consumers' purchasing
decisions. Most Kenyans living in urban centers were more compelled to purchase the newly
introduced gravity-driven membrane (GDM) filters despite its hiked prices, partly due to the
perception that the equipment had far more health benefits than the conventional one (Brouwer et
al., 2014).

In a similar case, Yahaya et al. (2015) assessed customers' willingness and motivation to
purchase "safer" vegetables irrigated using treated wastewater as compared to untreated, in semi-
urban and urban centers in Ghana and found out that most customers were more willing to pay
more for vegetables irrigated using advanced farming technology as opposed to the counter.
Moreover, Yahaya et al. (2015) found out that gender and income levels were major
demographic factors influencing customers' willingness to buy comparatively larger amounts of
"safer" vegetable products; females were more willing to pay more for "safer" vegetable
commodities.

Dubihlela and Ngxukumeshe (2016) studied how environmental awareness and green marketing
impact consumers, particularly regarding purchasing behavior. The findings revealed a strong
relationship between consumer preferences and environment-friendly marketing initiatives. Devi
Juwaheer et al. (2012) found a substantial relationship between South African customers'
repurchasing habits and environment-friendly retail products in one research study. Moreover,

25
Pudaruth et al. (2015) showed that most customers in Malawi were more interested in
environmental conservation, which in turn influenced their purchasing decisions, especially
when buying green commodities. Cultural factors such as one's reputation, health, lifestyle, and
ethical delineations influenced most Mauritian women's choices in buying eco-friendly make-up
and beauty products.

2.3 CONSUMER HABITS ACROSS AMERICA, ASIA, AND EUROPE

Culture plays a significant role in influencing consumer behavior in most Asian, European, and
American states. Because culture influences how most people perceive the world around them,
the places where they reside, and their decisions, it significantly determines how and what
products and services people consume. Europe, Asia, and America comprise a hot mix of
different cultures, which greatly influences consumer behaviors. One of the most apparent
factors is how culture influences consumer purchasing habits. For instance, most consumers
place a high product value over general pricing in countries such as the United Kingdom and
Spain. Culture influences consumers' thinking and processing capabilities (Lamour & De La
Robertie, 2016). Such differences in thinking and perception also shape consumers' preferences
and feelings in decision-making. This section will focus more on collectivism and individualism
aspects between counter states to point out the differences in consumer behaviors as influenced
by culture across multiple countries.

2.3.1 Collectivism and Individualism Overview

As seen from the literature review above, culture varies across societies, particularly regarding
power. These differences pattern or shape a person's values, goals, idealization of power, and
normative expectations when a member of society exercises power. According to research by
Triandis and Gelfand (1998) on the issues of the power hierarchy in societies, there is a concrete
distinction between collectivism and individualism, particularly cultural orientations that are
either vertical or horizontal. In vertical societies such as France, the U.S., and Great Britain,
people emphasize gaining personal status mostly through competition, surpassing others, and
achievement. In these societies, winning is often tied to the individualistic self, whereby
members seek out opportunities that set them apart from the rest or impress others (Triandis &
Gelfand, 1998). In vertical societies such as Japan, India, and Korea, people tend to prioritize in-

26
group objectives over self-induced goals, thus promoting compliance with authoritative bodies
and emphasizing fulfilling obligations and duties.

Contrary to horizontal nations, such as Norway, Denmark, Australia, and Sweden, communities
tend to value equity with a focus on expressing uniqueness. According to Triandis & Gelfand
(1998), the emphasis, exacerbated in horizontal societies, is mostly founded on self-expression
and self-reliance rather than hierarchy. Additionally, in countries such as Brazil, members of a
society tend to value sociability, benevolence, and interdependence but within an egalitarian
context.

2.3.2. Consumer Perceptions

In business, vertical and horizontal cultural values are reflected in numerous ways.
Advertisement programs shed light on most cultural values and goals prevalent in a society.
According to research findings of an analysis of over 1000 magazine advertisements across
Korea, Denmark, Poland, the U.S., and Russia, in vertical cultures such as those exhibited in the
U.S. and Korea, to appeal to consumers, advertisement programs put more emphasis on luxury,
prestige, and status as compared to horizontally cultured states such as Denmark and Poland
(Shavitt et al., 2006). Here, advertisements may encompass labeling brands as award-winning or
using product endorsers popularly known as Ivy League graduates. On the contrary, for
individualistic cultures, as seen in Denmark, advertisements emphasize self-expression and
uniqueness, illuminating how a commodity or service can reflect one's personality. Moreover,
although both Denmark and the U.S. exhibit individualistic cultures within their populations,
variations in their vertical and horizontal cultural values afford predictions that stem beyond
what is perceived by the bigger focus on collectivism and individualism (Shavitt et al., 2006).

In line with these disparities in advertising content, people often choose brand conceptions that
align with their prevailing cultural beliefs. As such, businesses must include local cultural
orientations when advertising products and services since aligning with customers' value
objectives will increase the likelihood of achieving brand positioning success. A study on the
country-of-origin effect by Gürhan-Canli & Maheswaran (2000) revealed that Japanese
participants found products produced from their native country to be more favorable when
compared to similar products but of a foreign origin. This was so, even for prices that were
deemed competitively superior. Likewise, American participants favored purchasing home-
27
manufactured products instead of buying products produced in a foreign country. These
tendencies to buy natively produced products over foreign-produced goods were mainly driven
by cultural values that emphasized by cultural values of deference, status, and hierarchy rather
than values that promoted sociability and cooperation.

2.3.2 Power Cultural Construct

According to Lemieux (2009), because power can be leveraged to obtain desirable outcomes,
societies create normative criteria for its use. Both individualist and collectivist cultural
orientations create different perspectives on the purpose and meaning of power. Individualistic
cultures perceive power in terms of prestige and personal advancement. Here, power is a tool for
people to increase their personal status and reputation. For collectivistic cultures, on the other
hand, members of a society see power in socialized regards: power is used to benefit and aid
other members of the community. Product liking reflects such disparities in power conceptions.
According to Lemieux (2009), power values indicate an attraction for commodities representing
individualized status and prestige values. In contrast, benevolence values indicate a preference
for commodities representing socialized power values of concern for others' welfare.

According to Torelli and Shavitt (2011), individualism and collectivist cultural orientations are
often linked with distinct cognitive processes that influence consumer decision-making. These
cognitive processes, such as establishing stereotypes and recognizing individual needs, allow
various purposes associated with power notions. Cultures with a strong sense of power
orientation are more likely to form preconceived notions of information about brands when
exposed to personalized power (Torelli & Shavitt, 2011). This leads to improved identification of
information that matches the stereotype of a commodity or service being harmful or
inconvenient. In most cases, since a stereotyping attitude aids in maintaining people's dominating
position over others when exposed to socialized authority, persons with benevolence cultural
orientations demonstrate a greater inclination to interpret information more individually. This
results in improved retention and awareness of facts contradicting the stereotype.

According to Shavitt et al. (2006), while injunctive norms, as applied by people in power, vary
across cultures, applying such norms plays a role in predicting consumer judgments early in the
business environment. As Torelli and Shavitt (2011) assert, people with higher power values
tend to conceptualize power at a personalized level. Even so, these self-centered individuals pose
28
a higher degree of harming other members of society, as they may opt to maximize personal gain
at other people's expense. Individuals characterized by a high power value tend to misuse power.
According to Kurman and Sriram (2002), most Hispanics conceptualize power in a socialized
way. Per the culture, injunctive norms for exercising authority encompass social and economic
concerns for other people's well-being. Therefore, most Hispanics apply compassionate norms
when judging people in power. When disseminating power, this cultural variation is activated to
a degree to which service providers or business owners elicit a feeling of satisfaction from their
consumers.

2.4. OTHER FACTORS DRIVING CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

According to Ajzen (2002), consumer behavior is a relatively large field, encompassing
consumers of different ages, incomes, tastes, and education. Whereas culture plays a pivotal role
in shaping consumer behavior, it is imperative to acknowledge that social, personal, and
psychological factors also significantly influence consumer behavior, particularly in making
purchases. In this regard, this section will highlight social, personal, and psychological factors
that affect consumer behavior in different geographical settings across the globe.

2.4.1 Social Factors

According to Pudaruth et al. (2015), social roles, reference groups, statuses, and family impact
consumer purchasing behaviors similarly to culture. Family members have a relatively strong
impact on consumer purchasing tendencies. Individuals usually buy commodities that suit their
roles, duties, and statuses. A family member will be more inclined to buy products suitable for
their roles, with each duty signifying a particular status.

Reference groups are those that either indirectly or directly affect how consumers behave. There
are three methods through which members of a reference group are influenced (Pudaruth et al.,
2015). This may entail reference group members being exposed to new lifestyles and activities,
thus shaping members' views and self-concept and subsequently putting pressure on them to
comply, influencing their purchasing patterns. Membership groups are reference groups that
directly impact consumers. According to Lamour & De La Robertie (2016), an individual who is
a member of a secondary group is one in which communication is formal but not always

29
necessary. As such, the groupings may include friends, neighbors, family, and coworkers who
routinely engage with consumers.

2.4.2 Psychological Factors

Psychological factors such as motivation, learning, beliefs, attitudes, and perception interact with
a consumer's inherent qualities to initiate the decision-making process that leads to purchases
whenever environmental and marketing cues come into their consciousness. From this point on,
a business must comprehend the mental response that the exterior cues elicit in the consumer.
According to Kumavat (2012), motivation is the mechanism that causes people to act in certain
ways when a desire arises and they want to satisfy it. Since needs can arise at any moment, and a
consumer may try to lessen or get rid of that particular need by making a purchase, it is thus
crucial for businesses to provide goods and services that satisfy customers' needs, desires, and
ambitions whenever required.

Additionally, attitudes and views acquired through experience and education will inevitably
impact consumer behavior. Said beliefs are descriptive assessments of anything that someone has
based on their knowledge, views, or faith. Businesses must take consumers' beliefs into account.
Companies should be inclined to learn what perceptions customers have of their brands and
goods and whether or not such perceptions influence consumers' purchasing decisions.

Conversely, attitude is the propensity to react favorably or unfavorably to things, concepts, or

circumstances. It is impacted by a person's actions, such as moving toward or away from objects
or choosing to like or dislike certain products (Leng & Botelho, 2010). Customers are difficult to
influence. For instance, if someone has only ever had positive encounters with a brand, they will
probably think about buying more of that brand's goods. As such, rather than attempting to alter
customer perceptions, businesses should aim to fit their products into those sentiments.

2.4.3. Personal Factors

Personal factors such as age, occupation, wealth, and lifestyle influence consumers' purchasing
habits. According to Shavitt et al. (2006), different tastes in fashion, furniture, recreation, and
food are mostly age-related. People's preferences and tastes tend to change throughout their
lifetime. Most cosmetic industries know this age's influence on consumer purchasing
preferences. For instance, Maybelline's Lips Company produces lip gloss products targeted at the

30
younger generation, mostly teenagers and children. In comparison, companies such as Clinique
and L'Oreal produce and sell anti-aging products for the older generation.

Businesses should also define their targeted markets based on consumers' different life-cycle
stages and manufacture products that suit that targeted market. Consumers' behaviors and
attitudes shift through the various stages of their lives, instigated by life-changing events,
maturing, or changes in environmental settings and values. Torelli and Shavitt (2011)
acknowledge that it is unlikely for a consumer's preferences to remain the same throughout their
lifetime. As consumers increasingly become conscious of the products they purchase, ethical
standards, and the environmental implications of those products, companies must produce
company products while considering consumers' values.

Wealth and occupation also impact consumer habits. Businesses frequently look for groups that
show interest in purchasing their goods and services and will almost certainly customize their
offerings to meet their needs. According to Lemieux (2009), consumers' purchasing decisions are
heavily influenced by their financial situation, such as their spending limits, savings levels, and
attitudes toward purchasing. In this instance, consumers with tight budgets are unlikely to
purchase pricey designer goods when a cheaper option is available. For example, most cosmetic
businesses know this and typically provide more reasonably priced items under the same name.

2.5 Literature Review Gap

While there exists a range of studies on the influence of culture on consumer behavior,
specifically in Africa, a number of studies explicitly incline on the westernized logic of
consumer behavior on the business end. This sided underpinning, creates a knowledge gap in
which consumer behavior is only understood on the concept of present business models and
marketing strategies leaving out the crucial cultural determiners of one’s overall behavior. This
literature gap calls for further studies into the matter. Moreover while culture plays a crucial role
in influencing consumer behavior, factors such as environmental, social and political factors also
play a role in one’s overall behavior. As such, there should be further studies that delve more
into other factors, such as those mentioned above, on the manner in which they influence one’s
behavior specifically on the business field.

31
2.6. CONCLUSION
This chapter performed an empirical and comparative analysis of consumer traits as exhibited
across various nations across the globe to demonstrate the complexities of consumer behavior.
The literature review shows that understanding consumer traits and behavior is essential for
business success. Consumer behavior is the psychological process through which people use and
buy goods and services. The review showed that a multitude of cultural factors influence
consumer behavior, particularly purchasing behavior, decision-making processes, and the brands
and companies through which customers buy products and services.

In most sub-Saharan African countries, consumer attitudes serve as a sieve through which
customers scrutinize services and products made available to them. Likewise, sociocultural
factors such as ethnic eating habits and traditions play a major role in influencing consumers'
attitudes toward purchasing and consuming certain dishes. Health concerns and consciousness
also play a major role in influencing consumers' purchasing decisions for food-related products.

Culture plays a significant role in influencing consumer behavior in most Asian, European, and
American nations. Even so, Europe, Asia, and America comprise a hot mix of different cultures,
greatly influencing consumer behaviors. To better understand and compare consumer traits
across multiple states across the globe, the literature review employs an individualist and
collectivist cultural orientation with an inclination toward power value. Vertical and horizontal
values help better explain how modern businesses tailor advertisements to suit societies' cultural
values, thus influencing consumer purchasing habits. For instance, the review shows that for
individualistic cultures such as that in Denmark, advertisements emphasize self-expression and
uniqueness, illuminating how a commodity or service can reflect one's personality. Power
conceptions also help illuminate the disparities reflected in consumer product liking. The review
shows why businesses must acknowledge social, personal, and psychological factors that
influence consumer behavior.

32
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

3.0. INTRODUCTION
This research aims to comprehensively illuminate on the cultural effect on consumer behavior by
conducting a globalized methodological inquiry. Using an all-encompassing qualitative
approach, the study will examine government publications, scholarly reports, journals, and
internet reports on culture’s influence on consumer behavior as recorded across Europe,
America, Asia, and Africa. In an age of global interconnectedness, employing secondary data
will create an avenue for examining different aspects of culture’s influence on consumer
behavior from a comparative perspective (Rafael & Silvia, 2010). Untangling the complexities of
consumer behavior is crucial, and this research acknowledges that sociological, cultural, and
economic factors play a significant role in creating different viewpoints among consumers.
Leveraging secondary data created by scholars, government institutions, and corporate
institutions, the research will perform a collaborative investigation into culture’s influence on
consumers that is neither limited by time nor place. The methodology presented in this chapter
will thus offer a straightforward and scientific way to navigate the complexities of culture and its
influence on consumer behavior. Through a systematic analysis of data from several sources, the
research will also create a coherent story that adds to the body of knowledge already in existence
while demonstrating the universal significance of the cultural impact on consumer behavior.

3.1. RESEARCH DESIGN

A research design refers to the overall approach used in carrying out research. Research designs
define logical and concise plans for tackling established research questions through data
interpretation, collection, discussion, and analysis. Jilcha Sileyew (2020) identifies three distinct
types of research methodologies. Descriptive research entails studies carried out in a single
nation to understand and acknowledge its marketing and behavioral conditions, and comparative
research is carried out in two or more nations to compare the behavior of organizations or
consumers. Theoretical research determines whether ideas, models, and theories created in a
distinct cultural context are applicable, generalizable, and can be included in a particular study
(Dawkins & Ngunjiri, 2008). In this regard, this research will body both theoretical and
comparative research approaches to fit the demands of the study, which aims to uncover the
33
influences culture has on consumer behavior. Nonetheless, the research approaches will act as a
focal point of scholarly research, necessitating analyses that transcend geographical boundaries.

3.1.2. Secondary Data

This research will employ secondary data as its main source of information. Given the limited
timeframe allocated for this research and the hustle of gathering data across the four continents,
adopting secondary data will not only prove economical for the research. Still, it will also save
time taken in collecting and analyzing data. Additionally, secondary data will provide a nuanced
viewpoint of the influences of culture on consumer behavior, particularly purchasing behavior as
recorded in Africa, Europe, America, and Asia (de Mooij, 2017). This will allow the research to
develop and analyze consumer trends over an extended period, thus better acknowledging the
implications of culture on people’s choices. As such, secondary data to be used in the study will
be retrieved from scholarly articles, government publications and reports, reputable online
databases, and credit journals, which will offer a holistic viewpoint of cultural influences across
the globe.

3.1.3. Comparative Approach

The research adopts a comparative approach to examine the differing cultural norms, beliefs,
behaviors, and values that shape consumer behaviors toward purchasing certain products and
services. A comparative approach also enables the research to identify commonalities and
differences in different cultural settings across Africa, Europe, America, and Asia (Dawkins &
Ngunjiri, 2008). Additionally, by examining different cultures, comparative research approaches
enable the research to assess the validity of the factors being analyzed as presented by existing
research through juxtaposition and examination, thus permitting the identification of consistent
trends and patterns across individual cultural domains (Bartlett & Vavrus, 2019). Most
importantly, the comparative research design invokes cultural sensitivity to the different societies
being studied, thus appreciating and recognizing the unique cultural aspects, preventing the
imposition of one culture over another.

3.1.4. Time Frame

Secondary data for the research include journals, articles, publications, and reports published
between 2000 and 2023. This period is deliberately chosen as it gives sufficient evidence to

34
illuminate the influences culture has had on consumer behavior across the four regions of the
globe. The selected timeline also serves as a baseline for evaluating consumer behaviors
impacted by cultural elements since it precedes the widespread introduction of digital technology
(Glenn, 2004). The temporal scope is extended until 2023, including current and pertinent data
reflecting modern customer behavior's subtleties. Additionally, the selected period corresponds
with the accessibility of relevant secondary data sources. This temporal perspective guarantees
that the study remains applicable and relevant by providing a deep knowledge of how cultural
effects on consumer behavior have developed and altered in the constantly shifting environment
of the past two decades.

3.1.5. Data Collection Process

The systematic and thorough strategy used in this research's data-collecting procedure is
designed to extract a variation of data found in secondary sources published between 2000 and
2023. Because culture has a complex impact on consumer behavior, a wide variety of data from
reliable databases, academic journals, publications, and cultural studies will be necessary
(Cleveland & Laroche, 2007). The selection of data to be used in research will be subject to strict
attenuation, as will the databases used to extract information, thus guaranteeing their
comprehensiveness and usefulness. Prominent databases like eHRAF World Cultures and D-
Place will be examined to find datasets that address consumer behavior in African, American,
European, and Asian cultural settings. Even so, pieces of literature to be selected and used in the
study will mostly include key terms such as "culture," behavior," consumer," impact, influence,"
"commodities," "purchasing," and "businesses."

3.1.6. Limitation of Data Collection

While collecting data for the research, it is important to acknowledge some of the biases and
limitations that might be faced, particularly when dealing with secondary data. For starters, the
nature of secondary data dictates that the gathered data was not collected to answer this
research's specific questions or verify its hypothesis; as such, some crucial third variables might
have been omitted in the study, which could have potentially been crucial for this investigation
(Vartanian, 2010). Similarly, not all relevant geographic areas or demographic groupings may
have had their data gathered. Moreover, to preserve respondents' privacy, publicly secondary
datasets may desist from identifying information regarding a particular society, their places of
35
origin, names of the sampled units, and the respondents' ethnicity, age, and race. These variables
may be crucial to the intended analysis, especially when the missing values are important factors
to the research's main objectives.

3.2. DATA EXTRACTION AND ANALYSIS

Data for the research’s analysis was extracted using key variables that focused on motivations,
attitudes, consumer values, preferences, consumer decision-making, and perceptions. The
selected data was mainly retrieved from government publications, online resources, scholarly
journals, statistical data, business reports, and approved journals. The datasets were pertinent to
the selected study regions, including Africa, America, Asia, and Europe. Data extracted for
analysis was also relevant to the influences culture has had on consumer purchasing power
between 2000 and 2023 across the different demographic groups and regions.

3.2.1. Data Cleaning

Before analyzing the extracted data, it was imperative to perform a data-cleaning procedure to
eliminate alien pieces of information. According to Srivastava et al. (2015), data cleaning
removes inconsistent data and duplicates to improve the data quality to be analyzed. As such, in
this stage, data was preprocessed and cleaned. This entailed removing duplicates and handling
missing information to ensure the resulting data was consistent. The remaining variables were
then encoded for analysis.

3.2.2. Comparative Analysis

A cross-cultural comparative analysis will be conducted to illuminate the similarities and
differences exhibited among cultures of different regions. Thematic analyses, qualitative coding,
and pattern analysis comprise the methods to identify consumer behavior trends and patterns
across the various regions (Ember et al., 1991). The comparative analysis section will mostly
adopt a pattern analysis to draw characteristics or traits imposed by culture and its influence on
consumers’ similar and dissimilar behavior and perception towards a commodity as exhibited
across the different geographical regions. The research will also draw on product selling, market
distribution, and marketing approaches to analyze different marketing strategies companies adopt
in selling their products and services to consumers.

36
A segmentation, targeting, and positioning framework (STP) will also be adopted to illuminate
how consumer segments manifest across different geographical settings. According to DeSarbo
et al. (2017), an STP framework is a marketing model used by marketers in prioritizing
propositions and then developing and delivering relevant and personalized adverts to engage
with different consumer markets. The STP is a marketing approach that focuses more on
consumers than the product, thus helping companies deliver messages and adverts to markets
considered high value (Islam, 2020). By extracting data on behavioral patterns, demographics,
and psychographics, the research will be able to evaluate the effectiveness of STP strategies in
different cultural settings.

3.3. DATA VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY

Data validity and reliability are the appropriateness of research processes, data, and tools.
Whether a research question is valid for a particular outcome, the methodology used in the study
should be appropriate in answering the research question and conducting data sourced from
analyses and sampling methods (Ahmed et al., 2022). To ensure data validity in this research,
data will be only sourced from reputable databases, government publications, reports, and
accredited sources. Data selected for analysis will be peer-reviewed to increase the overall
credibility of each dataset. Additionally, the research will cross-verify information by
systematically comparing findings that offer a range of perspectives on the influences of culture
on consumer behavior by examining temporal changes and trends in consumer perception over
the selected time frame. The research will also assess the various methodological approaches
used in each study report. Considerations will also be made on data collection, sampling
techniques, and the studies' research designs.

Even so, it is imperative to illuminate the challenges that may be encountered in ensuring data
reliability, credibility, and validity. According to Noble & Smith (2015), reliability refers to a
replica of processes and results of a particular study. However, in qualitative research filled with
different paradigms, replicability can be a challenging factor, making the research inclined more
toward consistency. Additionally, some pieces of literature may be subject to bias, partially
representing a targeted population. Inconsistent datasets may under-present or over-present a
society's cultural practices, making it difficult for the research to generalize findings. Moreover,

37
inaccurate reporting, misinterpretation, and incomplete datasets may limit the scope of study in a
particular region, impacting the research analysis's comprehensiveness and overall validity.

3.4. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Researching culture and its influences on consumer behavior necessitates a thorough
understanding of ethical implications on society. Consumer behavior plays a significant role in
understanding consumers' preferences, behaviors, and needs. Even so, as with any other type of
research, ethical considerations need to be taken into account to ensure the people being studied
and their cultures are treated with respect and the collected data is unbiased (Broesch et al.,
2020). Informed consent forms a considerable part of ethical research. As such, the research
must inform the groups being studied about the research's aims, objectives, approaches, and
potential risks and benefits. Data collection processes should also be preceded by obtaining
informed and voluntary consent from the societies under study. This encompasses the
community's understanding of the full nature of the research, what is expected of it, and potential
risks, discomfort, and bias that may arise. The research should also protect the studied society's
identity, confidentiality, and anonymity. As Donner et al. (2008) assert, researchers should keep
personal details confidential. That involves additional precautions to safeguard participants'
privacy during analysis, storage, and data collection.

3.5. CONCLUSION
In exploring the influences of culture on consumers, the study bodies various methodological
approaches to unravel the intricate dynamics that shape consumer behavior across different
cultural landscapes. The complexities of culture, as exhibited in different cultural settings, call
for adopting more agile and culturally informed approaches that resonate with product and
service consumers across the globe. Amid success in obtaining data on cultural influences on
consumers, ethical considerations call for the commitment to fairness, unbiasedness, respect, and
transparency of all societies being studied. Even so, anchored on ethical considerations, a
commitment to foster cultural understanding, and methodological rigor, this section greatly
contributes to a shared and collective knowledge that shapes both the future of consumer
engagements and marketing.

38
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS / ANALYSIS / DISCUSSION

4.0. INTRODUCTION
This chapter discusses and analyses research findings from combining and scrutinizing
information from reviewing available data. The chapter will also evaluate the implications of the
findings and results for marketing strategies adopted across the regions’ markets. The chapter
will also compare and contrast the findings and results with the existing literature and theories.

4.1. FINDINGS
Culture is a complex mix of ideas, values, and attitudes created by society to shape people's
behavior and facets of those behaviors as transmitted from one generation to another. It
influences one's thinking, changing people's decision-making processes, attitudes, and
perceptions about a product (Chandran, 1979). Most consumers are influenced by cultural
backgrounds, values, and beliefs, thus influencing their purchasing decisions. This research
sought to analyze models such as Hofstede's cultural dimensions, Schwartz's value theory,
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner's cultural orientations, and Hall's cultural context that attempt
to explain the relationship between culture and behavior and the influences of culture on
customer purchasing behavior.

From Hofstede's cultural dimensions, people are not born with culture grained into their system,
but rather, culture stems from the aftermath of the implications directed by the current social
milieu. Hofstede's cultural dimensions aid businesses across the globe to better compare markets,
particularly in regards to culture, by rating the different scores posed by the nations. The research
reviewed Hofstede's cultural dimension under five main dimensions: normative orientation,
power distance, individualism versus collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, and masculinity versus
femininity. This section will focus on power distance and the individualism versus collectivism
cultural dimensions to reflect on their influences on consumer behavior across Africa, Asia,
America, and Europe.

Power distance better explains the relationships between people in power and those without.
Under the power distance cultural dimension, Hofstede (2002) shows that while inequality exists
in almost all societies, the degree to which a community tolerates it sets a culture apart. In

39
countries with a high power distance index, such as Mexico and China, people's culture tends to
have a higher tolerance for inequality than in countries like Israel, which has a comparatively
lower power index. For the individualism versus collectivism cultural dimension, in
individualistic cultures, people tend to be more concerned about personal opinions and time and
place more value on events that better suit their interests than the community as a whole. The
individualistic culture is more prevalent in cultures across the United States. On the other hand,
people in collectivistic cultures, such as the Japanese and Brazilian cultures, tend to feel a sense
of togetherness, where individuals feel they belong to a greater community.

Schwartz's value theory identifies ten values that serve as guiding principles for individuals
across societies and how they influence people's preferences and choices, particularly among
products and services. Values are integral under this theory as they help explain the motivating
factors behind a society's attitude or conduct toward a brand or service offered by a company.
Under tradition, for instance, people develop ideas, beliefs, practices, and symbols that reflect the
shared experiences of a community. These perceptions and shared experiences solidify a society
dictating how people express their worth and contribute towards conserving their cultural values.
The benevolence value also helps people form and value relationships with other members of
society. It is an internalized value for caring about other people's welfare.

Universalism, which may differ from the benevolence value, emerges from the needs a society
has to meet to ensure its members and the general community acknowledge common needs, after
which members become aware of the scarcity of that resource. Universalism values impartiality
and fairness while adhering to defined standards and uniform methods (Hampden-Turner &
Trompenaars, 2006). Individuals from such societies may favor transparent and standardized
products, gravitating toward businesses that stress equity and ethical corporate methods. Personal
relations are prioritized in particularistic societies, driving consumer decisions that coincide with
customized and context-dependent elements.

Schwartz (2012) considers the power value an integral part of social interactions. Power relates
to dominance or control over resources and other people. For a society to function, there must be
an extent of power differentiation among the hierarchy. It can be leveraged to obtain desirable
outcomes; societies create normative criteria for its use. Individualist and collectivist cultural
dimensions create different perspectives on the purpose and meaning of power. Individualistic

40
cultures perceive power in terms of prestige and personal advancement. Power is regarded as a
tool to increase their reputation and personal status. For collectivistic cultures, members of a
society see power in socialized regards: power is used to benefit and aid other community
members.

Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner's concepts are similar to Schwartz's approach to the

individualist and collectivist dimensions. Trompenaars' and Hampden-Turner's orientations
reflect cultural tastes, illuminating the differences that affect consumer behavior. The concepts
go beyond communitarianism versus individualism to investigate the relationships between
harmony and individual autonomy. In individualistic societies, people place a premium on
personal success and self-expression. As such, most marketing businesses market their products
to influence customer preferences for their items as a representation of one's identity.

Hall's cultural context culture is categorized based on communication and interpretation of their
surroundings. As such, culture is classified as high-context or low-context, with either cultural
orientation having an important effect on consumer behavior, particularly decision-making when
opting for a good or service. People from high-context backgrounds place a premium on word-
of-mouth recommendations, brand reputation, and the symbolic significance of items in the
consumer sphere. In cultures characterized by low context, people prefer plain and direct
communication, thus relying on clear language expression to communicate messages. In such
cultures, information is presented plainly, leaving little space for interpretation. However, in low-
context societies, customer behavior may be defined by emphasizing thorough product
information, explicit value propositions, and straightforward marketing messaging. Moreover,
while theoretical underpinnings all provide a framework for better understanding the influence of
culture on consumer behavior, most pieces of literature only focus on a single theoretical
framework, for instance, Hofstede's or Schwartz's cultural dimensions. As such, a gap exists in
simultaneously integrating multiple cultural theories to provide a better understanding of the
influences of culture on consumer behavior.

4.2. ANALYSIS
As delineated by Hofstede, Schwartz, Trompenaars, and Hampden-Turner's theoretical
underpinnings, culture plays a crucial part in impacting consumer behavior in one way or
another. For a business, a customer is more than just an asset. As such, understanding consumer
41
behavior is a fundamental tool for success. To a great extent, from culture, individuals tend to
develop values that either drive or determine their behavioral patterns. These cultural values
include power, achievement, success, progress, comfort, individualism, practicality, efficiency,
and freedom. Because power can be leveraged to obtain desirable outcomes, societies create
normative criteria for its use.

Power values indicate an attraction for commodities representing individualized status and
prestige values. Individualist and collectivist cultural dimensions create different perspectives on
the purpose and meaning of power. Cultures with a strong sense of power orientation are more
likely to form preconceived notions of information about brands when exposed to personalized
power (Torelli & Shavitt, 2011). ). This leads to improved identification of information that
matches the stereotype of a commodity or service being harmful or inconvenient.

In most cases, since a stereotyping attitude aids in maintaining people's dominating position over
others when exposed to socialized authority, persons with benevolence cultural orientations
demonstrate a greater inclination to interpret information more individually.

In contrast, benevolence values indicate a preference for commodities representing socialized

power values of concern for others' welfare. Most feminine societies emphasize conserving the
environment, benevolence, and equity. These communities tend to be more inclined to modesty,
solidarity, quality of life, and care than masculine cultures, where competitiveness, status,
success, and assertiveness are appraised.

As Schwartz denotes, tradition also plays a major role in influencing consumer behavior,
specifically in purchasing certain products or services. For most African cultural settings, prices
and quality often guide purchases. While analyzing market orientations in Ivory Coats and close
regions, Chelariu et al. (2002) found that, in most cases, social beliefs, practices, and norms
influence long-term savings in most Ghanaian households, thus impacting consumer buying
patterns. This also aligns with the normative orientation of Hofstede's cultural dimensions, which
focuses on a society's orientation, particularly towards rewards and perseverance. Societies with
relatively long-term orientations tend to prioritize values such as adaptability, perseverance, and
thrift, influencing consumers' choices' which may align with the society's values.

42
Conversely, cultures characterized by short-term normative orientations tend to prefer immediate
tradition or gratification. Universalism shares a similar approach to this long-term orientation
regarding the appreciation, tolerance, protection, and understanding of a society's welfare. While
universalism slightly differs from benevolence, it focuses on the survival needs of a community,
thus raising concerns about things deemed scarce and precious to society, thus the need for
conservation. This factor greatly impacts a consumer's tendency to opt for a particular product or
service with a greater assertion of whether the product or service betters one is or the
community's survival chances.

Whereas culture and tradition play a central role in shaping people's perception of a product or
service, individualism is one of the major factors influencing one's purchasing habits. As the
basis of this research is to understand the influences culture has on consumer habits, it is
imperative to focus on the individualistic view better to understand culture's influences at a more
personalized level. Today, many companies employ rituals and symbols, considered integral
aspects of culture, to tap into the deep-seated cultural connection of an individual, thus
influencing purchasing behavior. A range of theoretical underpinnings touch on the
individualistic aspect of culture. Hofstede's individualism versus collectivism cultural dimension
measures the extent to which individuals perceive themselves as either 'we' or 'I'. As shown in
individualistic cultures, people tend to focus more on personal values and goals than societal
values.

Under Schwartz's value theory, security is categorized as individualized or communal. In

individualized interests, people often go for products and services that bring one a feeling of
personal security, thus pushing a person to make purchases suited for survival as opposed to the
community. Similarly, as shown by Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner's cultural orientations,
individualism can be used as a means of self-expression or personal success. This plays a major
role in influencing consumer preferences, particularly when opting to make purchases. In most
European cultures, such as Denmark, there is a high demand for self-expression uniqueness. This
is illuminated by society's individualistic view of power perceptions. As such, media advertising
in these regions is centered on a personalized approach where companies sell luxury products or
brands with which people reflect their statuses. Communication is an integral factor of any
culture. Communication surpasses the fundamental fabric of cognitive processing, influencing

43
how an individual judges a company, advertising program, product, or service. Communication
adds to the complexity of a culture. As a person pervades a marketplace, the choice to purchase a
commodity, in most instances, inclines not only on one's cultural background but also on the
responses, reviews, and perceptions of others about a certain product or service. As exhibited by
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner's cultural orientations, people's choices for products,
particularly those that promote shared ideals and relations, are mostly emphasized by
communitarian communities. Here, there are two dimensions to communication, that is, affective
and neutral communication. Ineffective communication, there is a strong emphasis on emotional
balance whereby societies value one's ability to express themselves, and as such, may opt to
make purchases that match their emotional state or similarly charged brand. On the other hand,
in neutral communication, societies prioritize objectivity over-regulated statements, particularly
regarding a service or brand. As such, people of this culture will opt for a commodity regardless
of one's present emotional state.

In Hall's cultural orientations, communication is considered a crucial factor. Communication

extends beyond geographical boundaries and temporal components. People of high-context
cultures tend to place greater emphasis on word-of-mouth. People often tend to buy things based
on other people's recommendations or a product's symbolic significance to that particular
community. On the contrary, individuals from low-context cultures tend to perceive products
based on value proposition. As such, people are more likely to buy a product based on
information provided during its marketing phase.

4.3. DISCUSSION
This research investigates the influences of culture on consumer behavior. By definition, culture
is a powerful force that shapes how individuals process information, behave, and think. It is a
complex factor built over decades and passed from one generation to the next and transcends
beyond man's psychological and biological aspects. Culture encompasses patterns, norms,
values, and standards that form a society's basis and are shared by people of a particular society.
Culture pervades the fabric of one's thinking capacity. According to Schein (2009), culture
influences one's thinking, altering how an individual views his surroundings and makes
decisions. Even so, due to globalization, modern culture has become extremely complex, thus
necessitating a deeper analysis of culture's impacts on consumer behavior. To ascertain this

44
claim, this research delved into theoretical underpinnings such as Hofstede's cultural dimensions,
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner's, Schwartz's value theory, and Hall's cultural context.

4.3.1. Cultural Dimensions on Consumer Behavior

This research study sought to analyze several cultural dimensions delineated by Hall's,
Hofstede's, Schwartz's, and Trompenaars' and Hampden-Turner's theories and relate their
impacts to market segments across Asian, African, European, and American markets. Research
findings show a shared power dimension across Hofstede's, Schwartz's, and consumer habits
across European, Asian, and American markets. As Hofstede's cultural dimension describes,
power distance explores the degree to which inequality exists between societies. Power distance
focuses on differences exhibited between people in power and those without. In cultural settings
across Asia, Europe, and American societies, these power differences significantly influence
consumer perceptions—the differences in power shape people's expectations, goals, values, and
idealization of power. Triandis and Gelfand (1998) show the distinct variation between
collectivism and individualism, as denoted by power hierarchies, in cultures across Great Britain.
In the U.S. and France, most people in power emphasize bettering themselves through
competition and achievement. As such, individuals with power will purchase commodities or
products that set them apart from the rest.

Vertical and horizontal cultural attributes help marketers evaluate whether or not to put luxurious
aspects in advertisements. In business, this cultural difference is leveraged by marketing
businesses to ensure advertisements reflect cultural norms and attributes prevalent in society and
not portray images or information that the general society will revoke. As shown from the
analysis of over a thousand advertising magazines across the United States and Denmark,
vertical cultures, those cultures are defined by achievement and success. Marketing strategies
adopted by businesses mostly emphasize prestige, status, and luxury. Advertising companies also
use influencers and endorsers to push their brands and services. This advertisement fosters
individualism whereby high-end brands sold to consumers help illuminate one's uniqueness and
self-expression. On the contrary, individuals from horizontal cultures, such as Australia and
Norway, tend to value equality rather than uniqueness. As such, people from these cultures will
not be tempted to make purchases that segregate them from the rest but are more inclined to buy
products to meet their needs.

45
Tradition was also found to be an integral cultural dimension affecting consumer behavior across
Asia, Europe, America, and African markets. Traditional values form the concept of a society's
culture. As denoted by Schwartz (2012), a civilization's tradition may encompass a commitment
to the society's ideas, beliefs, and customs, as provided by the culture. These values are usually a
culmination of attributes built over years and slowly passed from generation to generation,
solidifying a society and enabling its members to express their full contribution and worth
towards preserving that tradition. As Dobewall & Rudnev (2013) denote, tradition emphasizes
abstract objects such as societal norms, idealization, and customs. Analyzing consumer habits in
Africa made it apparent that tradition plays a major role in societies such as Ghana. According to
findings by Quaye et al. (2009) in a research study focused on Ghana, tradition and eating habits
played a major role in influencing people's perceptions, attitudes, and preferences, especially
towards purchasing certain foods.

Similarly, while analyzing marketing orientations in Ivorian contexts, Chelariu et al. (2002)
uncovered that traditional idealizations, beliefs, and norms influence saving in the long term,
thus impacting people's frequency of buying commodities. Tradition also plays a significant role
in shaping a community's perception of a product or service. These factors pushed most
advertising companies to first focus on appreciating and understanding sociocultural norms and
traditions of people within the targeted markets before pushing for their products and services.

4.3.2. Consumer Values across Focused Markets

This research study aimed to compare and contrast similarities and differences in consumer
values, attitudes, motivations, perceptions, preferences, and decision-making styles as seen by
consumers across American, African, European, and Asian markets. The research findings
identified decision-making as the most common factor across the different market segments.
According to Pantano (2011), culture significantly influences consumer behavior, specifically
decision-making processes regarding a commodity. In individualistic or collectivistic cultures,
one’s decision-making is mostly influenced by societal norms, practices, and values. As Mooij
(2004) suggests, in most events, consumer decision-making is based on a ‘we’ rather than an ‘I’
perception. For instance, in individualistic communities, such as the United States and Denmark,
people tend to be more concerned about personal opinions, thus making decisions that are more
inclined to personal satisfaction. On the other hand, people from collectivistic societies such as

46
Japan and Brazil tend to factor in other people’s welfare when buying, thus making purchases
keeping in mind other people’s perception of that commodity.

Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner’s cultural orientations attempt to illuminate best the

influences of culture on decision-making, particularly regarding products and services. As per
the theory, for universalistic cultures, people tend to make purchases from businesses that
gravitate toward transparency and equity and seek to maintain or conserve a community’s ethical
standards. In the Kenyan context, most consumers tend to be inclined to purchase commodities
perceived to be of quality and affordable pricing. For most Kenyan households, choosing a
brand, product, or service is mostly based on a company’s perceived image. Bett et al. (2013)
found that customers were more inclined to pay about 20% more for local chicken products than
imported counter products due to perceived superior quality and transparency in poultry
breeding. This explains why most Kenyans when deciding on what chicken products to buy, will
opt for locally produced food compared to indigenous ones. Likewise, most Kenyan households
were more compelled to purchase the newly introduced gravity-driven membrane (GDM) filters
despite costing more than counter products due to the perceived awareness that the products had
better health benefits than conventional ones.

Similarly, assessing consumers’ willingness to make food purchases, Yahaya et al. (2015) found
that most Ghanaian consumers were willing to buy ‘safer’ vegetables, those irrigated using
treated wastewater instead of those irrigated with untreated water. In South Africa, most
consumers were compelled to buy products from factories that were active in conserving the
environment or were undertaking environmentally friendly initiatives. Companies’ reputation or
awareness of a firm’s information plays a significant role in different settings.

4.3.3. Marketing to Match Culture

To best advertise brands and products across the American, African, European, and Asian
markets, businesses must set up proper international marketing strategies. Effective marketing
helps a company seamlessly integrate with a community's culture, allowing them to push their
brand, product, or service. To meet market demands, particularly those influenced by culture, it
is essential that businesses formulate competitive marketing strategies that meet that
demographics’ external conditions and internal conditions. For companies already situated in

47
these markets, adaptation is an integral component of the businesses' marketing success.
Adaptation entails adjusting a business's marketing strategies, operations, goods, and services to
respond to certain cultural demands, needs, or preferences of society.

STP Marketing

STP is a marketing strategy that segregates, targets, and positions market segments to boost
messaging and product sales within a particular region. Effective marketing often entails getting
the right message to the right person (Matušínská & Stoklasa, 2022). Instead of generating
generic messages to appeal to a large market, STP marketing helps businesses formulate
advertisement messages that appeal to a targeted market, promoting consumer engagement and,
consequently, more sales.

Even so, a business must identify its targeted audience. Segmenting a targeted audience into
smaller groups based on certain cultural values, beliefs, and attributes gives a business better
clarity about which community will benefit the most when offered the product or service. With
this in place, the business can generate advertisement messages that better suit the targeted
group's culture, increasing sales potential. While numerous segregation criteria are available to a
business entity, such as customer and audience segmentation and segmentation based on
behavior, demography, and psychographics, a business should identify which segregation criteria
best suits its targeted market (Lynn, 2012). Moreover, using tools such as artificial intelligence, a
marketer can better build a comprehensive overview of the business's targeted audiences, review
their cultural norms, values, and preferences, and disseminate promotional messages that push
consumers to purchase.

Once the segmented markets have been defined, the business must assess those segmented
markets. Targeting helps a business narrow down which segmented markets are worth pursuing.
To select a targeted market, however, Salesforce (2023) recommends that a business consider the
market size to which the products and messages will be sold and the differences between
selected markets. The segmented markets should also be profitable and reachable. Defining
which segmented market to target makes comparing the targeted audiences easier, enabling the
business to weigh the cons and pros of targeting some markets over others. After segregating and
defining the targeted market, the firm must use the information from the preceding steps to
decide how and what to communicate to the focused market.
48
Positioning is what connects the market to the product or service. At this phase, the marketing
enterprise must perform a competitor analysis to determine its value proposition and
communicate that information to consumers. The business may position its products or services
based on the community's cultural values. For instance, if the business is located in an
individualistic cultural environment, its marketing adverts and messages may portray a sense of
luxury as a way of self-expression or status among customers. Likewise, suppose the business is
situated in a collectivistic society. In that case, its marketing approach can be designed to
differentiate it from other products, making its product seem to bear more benefits but at far
cheaper prices than rival businesses. The enterprise may best integrate this strategy by drawing a
product positioning map. A product positioning map is a tool used by businesses to visualize
how their products and services will be perceived by a targeted market (Salesforce, 2023).
Adopting this strategy will offer the business a clearer depiction of ways to compete against rival
businesses and market segments to place their products or services, thus maximizing profits.

49
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUDING REMARKS

Consumer behavior is the study of how individuals, and groups, select, acquire, utilize, and
dispose of goods, services, ideas, and experiences to meet their needs and desires. Culture stands
as one of the most pivotal factors influencing consumer behavior. It comprises of assumed
values, beliefs, norms, customs and rituals, symbols, and artifacts. According to Nicki Lisa Cole,
(2019) culture’s influence on consumer behavior arises through the intricate interweaving of
customs, traditions, and societal norms. In business, culture plays a significant role in shaping
consumers' preferences, tastes, attitudes, and motivations towards certain products and services
(Krystallis et al., 2012). These cultural differences shape consumer behavior affecting how
businesses market their services and products.

This research sort to explore and critically examine how cultural elements can impact consumer
behavior in a globalized commercial aspect by reviewing existing literature on the concept and
dimensions of culture and its impact on consumer behavior. From research findings, cultural
variables pervade the fundamental fabric of cognitive processes, influencing how people judge
products, companies, and advertising campaigns. Culture extends beyond the visible surface,
including factors such as communication patterns, power systems and language. These factors
add to the complexities of cultural influences on one's purchasing habits.

Hofstede (2002) defines culture as a psychological conditioning that begins inside an individual's
everyday life, which is then progressively reflected towards social and environmental factors. As
such, people who have lived or live in a comparable social setup whereby culture is educated
only share a portion of that culture. Hofstede’s cultural aspects are subdivided into five primary
dimensions, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism versus collectivism,
masculinity versus femininity, as well as normative orientation. These dimensions aid marketers
and businesses across the globe, better compare countries, particularly, in regards to culture by
rating the different scores posed by the nations.

Schwartz's value explores cultural values as influences on a person's behaviors, actions, and
attitudes across different societal cultures. According to Schwartz (2006), values are standards by
which people evaluate things and as such should be categorized into ten values namely, security,
conformity, tradition, benevolence, universalism, self-direction, simulation, hedonism, as well as
50
achievement and power. Values are essential not only in sociology but also in anthropology and
psychology. They are used in identifying individuals and communities, tracking development
over time, and explaining the motivations behind the conduct and attitudes of members of a
society.

Trompenaars and Hampden-turner’s orientations, provide a nuanced view of how people from
many cultures approach fundamental areas of life (Koc, 2020). Their aspects reflect various
cultural tastes, illuminating the differences that impact customer behavior. Hampden-Turner &
Trompenaars, (2006) identify universalism and particularism as critical factors of the theory.
Individuals from universalistic societies may favor transparent and standardized products,
gravitating toward businesses that stress equity and ethical corporate methods. Moreover,
Hampden-Turner & Trompenaars, (2006) identify communitarianism versus individualism
cultural dimensions whereby individualistic societies place a premium on personal success and
self-expression, which may influence customer preferences for items that represent one's own
identity. On the other hand, communitarian cultures stress interdependence and a society's level
of cohesiveness and as such, consumer choices for items mostly incline on those that promote
social relationships and shared ideals among members of a society.

As per Hall's cultural context cultures may be categorized into either low-context or high-
context, with both orientations having a substantial impact on customer decision-making and
behavior. Different cultures assign different values to time and space, impacting consumer
expectations and choices. In cultures characterized by low context, people prefer plain and direct
communication, thus relying on clear language expression to communicate messages. And
whereas the theoretical underpinnings all provide framework for better understanding the
influence of culture on consumer behavior, most pieces of literature only focus on a single
theoretical framework creating a gap in simultaneously integrating multiple cultural theories to
provide a better understanding of the influences of culture on consumer behavior.

This research also sort to focus on the influences culture has on consumer behavior across Asia,
America, Europe and Africa. From the research, it becomes apparent that a customer is more
than just an asset for a business. Thus, most businesses must understand consumer behavior and
the actors that shape behavior. According to Fong Boh et al. (2013) a multitude of cultural
factors influence consumer behavior, particularly purchasing behavior, decision-making

51
processes, and the brands and companies through which customers buy products and services.
According to research findings by Quaye et al. (2009) on consumer preferences and
marketability in Ghana, sociocultural factors such as ethnic eating habits and traditions play a
major role in influencing consumers' attitudes toward purchasing and consuming certain dishes.
Likewise, Chelariu et al. (2002), while analyzing market orientations in Ivory Coats and close
regions, found that in most cases, normative social norms, practices, and beliefs influence long-
term savings in most Ghanaian households, thus impacting consumer buying habits. Yahaya et
al. (2015) found out that gender and income levels were major demographic factors influencing
customers' willingness to buy comparatively larger amounts of "safer" vegetable products;
females were more willing to pay more for "safer" vegetable commodities.

In focusing on markets across Asia, Americana and Europe, in vertical societies such as France,
the U.S., and Great Britain, people emphasize gaining personal status mostly through
competition, surpassing others, and achievement. In these societies, winning is often tied to the
individualistic self, whereby members seek out opportunities that set them apart from the rest or
impress others (Triandis & Gelfand, 1998). In business advertising, vertical and horizontal
cultural values are reflected in numerous ways. For instance, advertisement programs put more
emphasis on luxury, prestige, and status as compared to horizontally cultured states such as
Denmark and Poland. In line with these disparities in advertising content, people often choose
brand conceptions that align with their prevailing cultural beliefs. Even so, while there exists a
range of studies on the influence of culture on consumer behavior, specifically in Africa, a
number of studies explicitly incline on the westernized logic of consumer behavior on the
business end. This sided underpinning, creates a knowledge gap in which consumer behavior is
only understood on the concept of present business models and marketing strategies leaving out
the crucial cultural determiners of one’s overall behavior.

52
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